Timelines of History_ The Ultimate Visual Guide To The Events That Shaped The World

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CONTRIBUTORS TRADE AND INVENTION TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS
Joel Levy R.G. Grant
HUMAN ORIGINS
Dr. Fiona Coward Writer specializing in history and scientific History writer who has published more than
history; books include Lost Cities and Lost 20 books, including Battle, Soldier, Flight,
Research Fellow at Royal Holloway University Histories. and History for DK.
of London; contributed to DK’s Prehistoric.
Additional text by Dr. Jane McIntosh REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION Sally Regan
Thomas Cussans
EARLY CIVILIZATIONS Contributor to several books for DK including
Dr. Jen Green Author and contributor to The Times History, World War II, and Science; award-
newspaper; previous titles for DK include winning documentary maker whose films
Author of over 250 books on a range Timelines of World History and History. include Shell Shock and Bomber Command
of subjects from history to nature. Additional text by Frank Ritter for the UK’s Channel 4.
Additional text by Dr. Jane McIntosh
THE AGE OF REVOLUTION GLOSSARY
THE CLASSICAL AGE Dr. Carrie Gibson Richard Beatty
Philip Parker
Writer who has contributed to The Guardian SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
Historian and writer; books include The and Observer newspapers; gained a doctorate
Empire Stops Here and DK Eyewitness in 18th- and 19th-century history from the Smithsonian contributors include historians
Companion to World History. University of Cambridge, UK. and museum specialists from:

CONSULTANTS Dr. David Parrott National Air and Space Museum

Dr. Jane McIntosh 1450–1749 The Smithsonian’s National Air and Space
Fellow in History and University Lecturer, Museum is one of the world’s most popular
8MYA–700BCE New College, University of Oxford, UK museums. Its mission is to educate and
Senior Research Associate, Faculty of Asian and inspire visitors by preserving and displaying
Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cambridge, UK Dr. Michael Broers aeronautical and space flight artifacts.

Professor Neville Morley 1750–1913 National Museum of American History
Fellow and Tutor, Lady Margaret Hall,
700BCE–599CE University of Oxford, UK The Smithsonian’s National Museum of
Professor of Ancient History, School of American History dedicates its collections and
Humanities, University of Bristol, UK Professor Richard Overy scholarship to inspiring a broader understanding
of the American nation and its many peoples.
Dr. Roger Collins 1914–present
Professor of History, University of Exeter, UK National Museum of Natural History
600–1449
Honorary Fellow, School of History, Classics, The Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural
and Archaeology, University of Edinburgh, UK History is the most visited natural history
museum in the world and the most visited
museum in the Smithsonian complex.

1 2 3 4

8MYA–3000BCE 3000–700BCE 700BCE–599CE 600–1449

010 HUMAN 022 EARLY 042 THE 106 TRADE &
ORIGINS CIVILIZATIONS CLASSICAL AGE INVENTION

Features Features Features Features
014 Colonizing the Planet 028 The Story of Writing 048 Ancient Greece 122 The Vikings
020 Prehistoric Peoples 032 Ancient Empires 054 The Story of 134 The Islamic World
038 Ancient Egypt 144 The Aztecs, Incas,
Metalworking
064 The Story of Money and Maya
074 The Rise of the 154 The Story of Printing

Roman Empire
084 Ancient Rome
096 Classical Trade

CONTENTS

5678

164 REFORMATION 254 THE AGE 338 TECHNOLOGY 468 DIRECTORY
& EXPLORATION OF REVOLUTION & SUPERPOWERS
Categories
Features Features Features 476 Rulers and Leaders
172 Voyages of Exploration 262 European Nation States 344 The Great War 478 History in Figures
182 The Story of Astronomy 274 The Story of Steam Power 350 Soviet Propaganda 480 Wars
190 Edo Period 282 The Story of Medicine 354 World War I 480 Explorers
198 Mughal Empire 290 American Indians 364 The Story of Flight 482 Inventions and
204 The Renaissance 298 The Story of Electricity 374 The Story of
216 The Story of Arms 310 American Civil War Discoveries
316 The Qing Dynasty Communication 483 Philosophy and Religion
and Armor 324 The Imperial World 388 War in Europe 485 Culture and Learning
230 The Rise and Fall of 332 The Story of the Car 394 War in the Pacific 488 Disasters
402 World War II
the Ottoman Empire 412 The Space Race 490 Glossary
238 The Story of Navigation 422 End of Empire 494 Index
250 The Story of Agriculture 428 The Story of Genetics 510 Acknowledgments
442 Collapse of the USSR
452 The European Union
466 Global Economy



Foreword

Like many people, my early exploration, and commerce. This is
enthusiasm for history focused an exhilarating and comprehensive
on particular dates and events: account of human creativity as
1588 and the defeat of the Spanish much as its destructiveness, of
Armada; the battle of Waterloo in discovery and understanding as
1815; the fall of Constantinople well as natural disasters and
in 1453. Some had personal human folly. Spectacularly
connections: July 1, 1916, when illustrated and succinctly explained,
my grandfather, serving as an key events in history from the first
artilleryman, lost several of his beginnings of agriculture to the
closest friends on the first day most recent astrophysical
of the Somme offensive. discoveries are laid out along what is
probably the most comprehensive
From the earliest times, history timeline ever assembled.
was cast as a grand chronicle
of events and actions, the work of No less exciting for me in helping
often larger-than-life protagonists, to compose this book and to choose
and was intended to enthrall and from all facets of human history
capture the imagination in the to build up the timeline, is the
same way as a great novel. But contribution that History Year by Year
during the 20th century, academic makes to an understanding of global
historians grew skeptical about the history. Throughout the book, events,
“history of the event.” Most often discoveries, and achievements
the events were battles, treaties, occurring in Europe and North
and political struggles, a narrative America are set against the equally
that excluded the lives of the momentous and significant events
great majority of men, women, in the Mideast and East Asia, India,
and children. In reaction to this, Africa, or South America and the
historians focused on cultural, Pacific Rim. This is a history that
social, and economic continuities, stimulates awareness of a wider
looking for their evidence in world by placing events from
everyday objects, trading records, across that world side by side
accounts of childhood and old age. and reminding us that progress
The result was certainly a richer and discovery, feats of social
and more diverse account of human organization, and challenges to a
experience, but one that often left political status quo are no monopoly
little sense of change over time. of the Western world, but as likely to
originate in India or Egypt as in
As the present book shows, history France and Spain.
constructed on a timeline does not
have to be a narrow account of war The design of this book offers a
and conquest, treaties and treason. unique opportunity to appreciate a
All of these feature here, but so global history of mankind in all its
do the dates of intellectual and facets. I hope that you enjoy reading
technological innovations, the History Year by Year and using it as a
creation of key works of art, crucial reference as much as we enjoyed
shifts in patterns of agriculture, planning and writing it.

DAVID PARROTT
University of Oxford

Lost city of the Incas
Perched 7,970ft (2,430m) above sea level,
in the Peruvian Andes, the Inca citadel of
Machu Picchu was probably constructed in
the 15th century, and abandoned in the 16th.

1

HUMAN
ORIGINS

8MYA–3000BCE

Our earliest ancestors lived in Africa almost eight million
years ago. Over seven million years later, we appeared and
developed the skills—including sophisticated toolmaking
and agriculture—that allowed us to colonize the world.

8–4.5 MYA 4.5–2 MYA 2 –1.8 MYA 1.8–1.6 MYA

Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania is a site of great archaeological significance and is sometimes referred
to as the “Cradle of Mankind.” At least two species of early hominins are associated with this area.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SEVERAL DIFFERENT and still lived partially in trees. ULTIMATELY, THE Boxgrove Swanscombe
HUMANS AND OTHER APES DNA AUSTRALOPITHECINE species Their brains were about the size PARANTHROPINES’ WAY OF LIFE
and blood proteins suggest that lived in Africa between 4.2 and of those of modern chimpanzees, was unsuccessful and they became 0.95 MYA Mauer
our lineage separated from that 2 MYA. Although they walked on but some australopithecines seem extinct after about 1.2 MYA, while
of the chimpanzees between two legs most of the time, they to have used tools. The earliest their cousins Homo habilis and Atapuerca Steinheim
8 and 6 million years ago (MYA). were rather small and apelike stone tools come from Ethiopia H. rudolfensis survived. These
Only a few fossil specimens date and date to 2.6 MYA, but bones early Homo species were not very Tautavel 1.2 MYA EUROPE
to this time: Sahelanthropus with cut marks made by stone different from australopithecines.
tchadensis (7–6 MYA), Orrorin tools have been found associated Ceprano Petralona Dmanisi
with Australopithecus afarensis It was with Homo ergaster (1.8 Isernia
nearby, and date to 3.4 MYA. The MYA) that our ancestors started
australopithecines’ descendants to look much more familiar. la Pineta
followed two distinct modes of H. ergaster was tall and slender,
life: members of the genus and may have been the first Kocabas
Paranthropus had huge jaws hominin (a term used to describe
and big teeth for eating tough humans and their ancestors) Ubeidiya 1.7 MYA
vegetable foods; meanwhile, Homo without much body hair. Their
7 MYA rudolfensis and H. habilis seem to brains were larger than those of PROBABLY
have eaten more protein, using their ancestors, and they lost the MORE THAN
THE TIME tools to get at the protein-rich last of their adaptations to
marrow inside long-bones by tree-climbing to become fully 1.8 MYA
WHEN scavenging from carnivore kills. adapted to walking and running.
THE FIRST AFRICA Bodo
HUMAN Konso-Gardula
ANCESTOR Lake Turkana
APPEARS Koobi Fora

Olduvai Gorge Olorgesailie

tugenensis (6.1–5 MYA), and OLDOWAN TOOL NOT LONG AFTER THE
two species of Ardipithecus, APPEARANCE of Homo ergaster,
kadabba (5.8–5.2 MYA) and ACHEULEAN TOOL hominins expanded their range
ramidus (4.4 MYA). While all beyond Africa for the first time.
of these species seem to TOOLS A species called H. georgicus
have walked on two legs appeared in Dmanisi, Georgia, by
like us, it is not certain Lucy Many animal species use natural objects as tools, but the 1.7 MYA. Another close relative of
whether any were actual This unusually complete skeleton manufacture of stone tools is unique to hominins. The earliest are Homo ergaster, Homo erectus,
ancestors of humans. of Australopithecus afarensis, simply sharp flakes broken off stone cobbles by striking them with lived in China and Indonesia
Because species are discovered in Kenya in 1974, was a “hammerstone.” These are known as “Oldowan” tools, after perhaps not long afterward.
constantly evolving, and named after the Beatles’ song Olduvai Gorge, where they were first found. Later tools, such as Some archaeologists believe that
individuals of those species “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.” Acheulean handaxes, required more skill. Our manufacture of tools earlier groups of hominins may
can vary, it is difficult to tell might be one explanation for the evolution of the human brain. also have left Africa, as some of
from isolated and often poorly the skulls from Dmanisi and from
preserved fossils which species the much later site of Liang Bua
they should be assigned to, or how in Flores, Indonesia, (currently
these are related to one another. known as Homo floresiensis)
However, these fossils do tell us resemble those of Homo habilis
a great deal about what the last and Homo rudolfensis.
common ancestor we shared
with chimpanzees was like. Living farther north would have
required a different way of life

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pHreosmeirnviaensdhfo3inao.6ttvpLoMralYicnATeaattsnonilzciainnia vm3aAa.rfau1yals8iernteMsrgnaYaAslanoi“AgsfpdLea.,i utsfmaaehcflfmeaiiyolv,cryr”eaeu”m;lnseg1ss“r3ifiosourffsoptsosfils Pparaorraba2nunb–tsteh1htrudMrosoiYps,pAucfiionsrvseettroed erg1at.a8ssltMlleeeYrrAniHadsneomrdmautmohncacohenresittosrs
12

1.6–0.35 MYA 350,000–160,000 YA

,, ,,ALL LIVING HUMANS DESCENDED

FROM COMMON ANCESTORS WHO LIVED
IN AFRICA LESS THAN 200,000 YEARS AGO.

Stephen Jay Gould, American paleontologist, from I Have Landed: The End of
a Beginning in Natural History, 2002

1.6–1.3 MYA Zhoukoudian ACHEULEAN HANDAXES made by While Homo Erectus continued
Homo ergaster and H. erectus were to thrive in Asia, Homo antecessor
ASIA Hexian produced across most of Africa had appeared as far west as
Nanjing and Eurasia, and demonstrate the northern Spain and Italy by 1.2MYA.
ability to learn complex skills Marks on their bones at the site of
Lantian Yunxian from one another and pass them Atapuerca in Spain suggest they
down over generations. To make practiced cannibalism. However,
Narmada these tools, knappers had to think these early colonists may not
several steps ahead in order to have thrived in these unfamiliar
1.5–1 MYA select a suitable stone and to landscapes, as very few sites are
prepare and place each strike. known. By 600,000 years ago,
Handaxes were used for a wide a new hominin species, Homo Burying the dead
range of activities, including heidelbergensis, had spread Neanderthals often disposed
butchery, but they might also have much more widely across Europe. of their dead with care. Some
been important for personal or H. heidelbergensis seems to have were buried in graves, as here
group identity, demonstrating been a good hunter, or at least a at Kebara Cave in Israel, which
their makers’ strength and skill. proficient scavenger. dates to 60,000BCE.

KEY Trinil Australopithecines Homo heidelbergensis BY AROUND 350,000 YEARS AGO, their throat and voice-box anatomy
Sangiran Mojokerto 28 cubic inches 73 cubic inches while Homo erectus continued to suggests that a Neanderthal
Ngandong (461 cubic cm) (1,204 cubic cm) hold sway over eastern Asia, language may have been limited
Homo heidelbergensis in Europe compared to that of humans, they
Site of fossil finds Paranthropines Homo neanderthalensis and Western Asia had evolved into must have communicated in some
32 cubic inches 87 cubic inches Homo neanderthalensis. fashion, perhaps by combining a
More likely route (517 cubic cm) (1,426 cubic cm) less complex form of vocalization
Neanderthals were stockier and with expressive miming.
Less likely route Homo habilis Homo sapiens stronger than modern humans,
Homo rudolfensis 90 cubic inches and their brains were as large 200,000
Hominins beyond Africa 40 cubic inches (1,478 cubic cm) or even larger, although shaped
Our earliest ancestors evolved in (648 cubic cm) slightly differently. Neanderthals THE NUMBER
Africa. Possible dispersal routes were almost certainly very OF YEARS THE
from Africa are shown on this map, Homo erectus accomplished hunters. They were NEANDERTHAL
with dates referring to the earliest Homo ergaster also highly skilled at making DOMINATED
fossils known from each region. 59 cubic inches stone tools and heavy thrusting EUROPE AND
(969 cubic cm) spears with which they tackled WESTERN ASIA
to life in the African savanna. even large and dangerous animal
The climate was cooler and HOMININ BRAIN SIZES prey, such as horses and bison.
environments were more
seasonal, with significant Humans have a disproportionately large brain for a primate of However, despite burying their
variation in food resources their size, but archaeologists disagree about how and why this dead—which may have indicated
over the course of a year. expansion happened. Switching to fatty and calorific foods such ceremonial practices or belief in
Fewer edible plants meant as bone marrow and meat may have “powered” brain growth, and an afterlife—Neanderthals do not
that hominins would have had also demanded more complex tools and effective hunting and seem to have created more than
to rely more on harder-to-find foraging skills. Social skills were also a part of this process, as the most limited art or used any
and fiercely competed-for increasing group cooperation and pair-bonding were necessary symbols, as all modern humans
animal protein for food. They to sustain the longer periods of childhood that infants needed do. Whether or not they spoke in a
needed to move over greater for their larger brains to develop. similar way to modern humans is
distances and work together to also difficult to establish. Although
share resources and information
to survive in these regions.

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1.6 MYtmAhEaaoraduatregillfthriabheetcyosgttutHosiogkohinhnnmacofCvoouwtehosrenisbrnroeieelannsecltnytflury0osd.m8amteya 1.5S–1o.uo4tfhMfiYAArferEiavcitad,sfie1bbirnt.eues2ctstneMmaEiYntuAaurAyroapplpeeaanrsaann–cteHecooemfssoor h0en.i6odweMlYbwANeiHdreagoe0apems.npn4pedosrMaeeisYrraAstdhDaacislrtoai0nsns.ca4ttEwiMovuoemYrAooydFpeeirnes-pheaarrdseinneudse 1 30.h3uMtmrYaAaihtMnAsefosiraddkipceeepallrbeenneatHa0rrlgo.i2enm8nuosMsieYsAoFfinrsattuervaidlepnigcemfeonrts E0v.a2enMicsYeAtshMteoitrloaocsfhtaoclnoldmhrumiamloan0n.1sid6apMlrtYiuAm;Histocsikvmhhueaalolfrreahseamcaasttpsuodeirdseiresoienstsmrsit,nnibecchsutiutvwmeitahns

8 MYA—3 0 0 0 BCE HUMAN ORIGINS

COLONIZING THE ICA
R
PLANET E
M
THE SPREAD OF MODERN HUMANS ACROSS THE WORLD A

Skeletal and DNA evidence suggests that our species, Homo sapiens, evolved HN 22,000
in Africa and then spread across the globe. The first traces of modern TO YEARS AGO
humans beyond Africa come from fossils in Israel and possibly from stone R Clovis
tools found in Arabia. They date to before 100,000 years ago. Meadowcroft
12,000
Homo sapiens’ colonization of the globe involved many stops, starts, and sometimes retreats, as well YEARS AGO
as waves of different groups of people in some areas. Homo sapiens may have moved into Eurasia
via the Mediterranean coast of western Asia, spreading into Western Europe by 35,000 years ago Buttermilk Creek
(YA). Archaeological evidence suggests that people may also have taken a “southern route” Cactus Hill
across Arabia into southern Asia. There may also have been movement eastward, perhaps
much earlier, as stone tools have been found in India from 77,000YA and Malaysia from SOUTH AT L A N T I C
70,000YA. Some possible Homo sapiens finds from southern China are dated to 68,000YA OCEAN
(Liujiang), and even 100,000YA (Zhirendong). However, these finds remain controversial, and
most scholars favor later dates here. In Australia, widespread colonization probably did Pedra
not occur until 45,000YA, though some sites have been dated to as early as 60,000YA. Furada

Farther north, Homo sapiens first spread across northern Eurasia around 35,000YA.
However, they may have retreated during the last Ice Age, and not recolonized the
region until after 14,000–13,000YA. Genetically, the North American colonists are likely
to have originated in East Asia. They probably traveled across the plain of “Beringia”—
now beneath the Bering Straits between Siberia and Alaska, but exposed by low sea
levels at the height of the last Ice Age. Distinctive “Clovis” spear points (flaked on both
sides) are found across North America around 12,000 YA, so modern humans were
widespread at that point, but earlier sites are also known, including South American
sites such as Monte Verde (15,500–15,000 YA).

NORTH AMERICA

ASIA PACIFIC
OCEAN
3000 BCE
RICA
Philippine Hawaiian E
Islands Islands M
A
2500 BCE 400–1200 CE

500 BCE –1 CE

500 BCE New
Borneo Guinea

1500 BCE

1400–750 BCE Samoan
Fiji Islands

AUSTRALIA

1250 CE

NEW PACIFIC
ZEALAND OCEAN

LATE ARRIVALS Tracking language Monte Verde
The islands of Oceania were some of the last parts of the The spread of languages can
globe to be colonized, via the Philippines, by often be tracked to reflect the 15,000–11,000
Austronesian-speaking early farmers from Taiwan. The movement of people. This map YEARS AGO
more remote northern and eastern islands of Micronesia shows the spread of Austronesian
and Polynesia remained uninhabited until after 700 CE, speakers across Oceania. Earlier
and New Zealand was populated as late as 1250 CE. settlers were already present in
some western areas.

14

13,000 YEARS AGO Bering Straits COLONIZING THE PLANET
Swan Point
14,000 YEARS AGO KEY
General direction
Bluefish Caves Ushki Lake of Homo sapiens
around the world
Tuluaq Hill Site of early
(Sluiceway- Homo sapiens
Tuluaq complex)

Berelekh
Yana

Ust-Mil Diuktai

35,000
YEARS AGO

Kara-Bom Tianyuan

31,000 YEARS AGO EUROPE 42,000 32,000
YEARS AGO YEARS AGO

Paviland Cave Trou Magrite Kostienki ASIA Yamashita-Cho
Kent's Cavern Höhlenstein-Stadel
Matenkupkum, Balof 2,
Vindija Cave 45,000 YEARS AGO and Panakiwuk

Arcy-sur-Cure Korolevo I Niah Caves Huon Peninsula PACIFIC OCEAN

Saint Césaire Le Piage Istállöskö
El Castillo Riparo Mochi Pestera cu Oase

Cueva Morín

Gato Preto 40,000 Bacho Uçagizli Magara 77,000–45,000 YEARS AGO Liujiang
Gorham's Cave El Pendo YEARS AGO Kiro Zhirendong
Abríc Romaní
Temnata

Jebel Irhoud Cova Beneito Cave Ksar Akil
Skhul Qafzeh

100,000 Jebel Faya
YEARS AGO
INDIAN
AFRICA OCEAN Jwalapuram
Kota Tampan
160,000 YEARS AGO
Omo Kibish Herto

1.7 MYA Temperate grassland, Malakunanja
mediterranean shrubland Nawalabila I

TIME Riwi and
Carpenter's Gap

Ngarrabulgan

Puritjarra
A
40,000 YA 45,000U
Temperate forest, YEARS AGOS
boreal forest, tundra T
Blombos Cave RALIA
Klasies
River Mouth 7 MYA Tropical and subtropical Upper Swan
dry broadleaf forest, savanna
Devil's Allen's Cave Cuddie
Changing environments Lair Springs
The ancient ancestors of modern humans
Going global evolved in the African tropics. Over time, as Lake Mungo
Skeletal and genetic evidence suggests that modern humans human species evolved larger brains and
originated in Africa and spread across the globe from there, developed more advanced skills and behavior, Kow Swamp
as reflected on this map. This is called the “Out of Africa” they became better equipped to deal with the Willandra Lakes
theory. An alternative “multiregional” theory suggests that challenges of new environments.
Homo sapiens evolved simultaneously in many different parts
of the world, from ancestors who had left Africa much earlier.

15

160,000–45,000 YA 45,000–35,000 YA 35,000–28,000 YA

These cave paintings from Lascaux, France, date to around 17,000 years ago. Most cave paintings are from a similar
period, though some were created by the earliest Homo sapiens to arrive in western Europe, around 32,000 years ago.

IN AFRICA, HOMININ FOSSILS HUMANS SPREAD RAPIDLY Flores date to less than 38,000 ,, THE
gradually began to reveal the across Europe and Asia. In years ago, and seem to represent NEANDERTHALS
characteristic skeletal traits of Prepared core and flake Europe, modern humans specialized, extremely small WERE NOT
Homo sapiens from around Neanderthals and other hominins appeared in Turkey from 40,000YA, forms of Homo erectus, or APE-MEN…
400,000YA: smaller brow ridges, prepared a stone core before and in western Europe shortly perhaps even the descendants THEY WERE
higher and rounder skulls, and striking off a sharp flake to use. afterward. In Asia, fossils of Homo of earlier hominins. More AS HUMAN AS
chins. DNA analysis of living In Europe this technology is sapiens in Indonesia and China evidence comes from Denisova US, BUT THEY
humans suggests that the known as the “Mousterian.” date to at least 42,000YA, and the Cave in Russia—DNA analysis REPRESENTED
common ancestor of all living sea crossing to Australia of bones found here reveals
humans (known as Mitochondrial occurred before 45,000YA. These genetic material distinct from ,,A DIFFERENT
Eve) lived in Africa around dates suggest that the earliest that of both modern humans and
200,000YA. An Ethiopian fossil modern humans in Asia may Neanderthals, dated to around BRAND OF
have encountered groups of 40,000YA. It seems increasingly HUMANITY.
250,000 Homo erectus, who survived in likely that several groups
China until at least 40,000 years descended from hominins who Chris Stringer and Clive Gamble, from
YEARS AGO ago. In Indonesia the picture left Africa before Homo sapiens In Search of the Neanderthals, 1993
was even more complicated. may have coexisted in Eurasia
WHEN HOMO Fossils found on the island of at this time. IN EUROPE, MODERN HUMANS
SAPIENS FIRST overlapped with Neanderthals,
APPEARED time and, in such harsh conditions, HOMO SAPIENS NEANDERTHAL who survived until at least 30,000
complex modern language and years ago. How and why
skull from 160,000YA is almost symbolism would have allowed MODERN HUMANS AND NEANDERTHALS Neanderthals died out is one of
modern in shape; this has been groups to exchange resources the most intensely debated topics
identified as a subspecies of and information with one Neanderthal skulls (right) were about the same size as in archaeology. There is little
modern humans, Homo sapiens another, which could have made anatomically modern human skulls (left), but they had lower, evidence of violent interactions
idaltu. Humans moved north into the difference between survival more sloping foreheads and a double arch of bone over their between the species, and
Western Asia some time before and extinction. However, others eyes that created heavy brow ridges. Their lower faces jutted comparison of DNA increasingly
100,000YA, but they do not seem argue that the impact of the out and they did not have chins. Overall, Neanderthal skeletons suggests that there may have
to have stayed there for long. eruption of Mount Toba has been reveal that they were much more muscular than modern humans, been some exchange of mating
exaggerated, and that archaeology as well as being extremely physically active and well-adapted partners between the groups.
It is debated whether uniquely in Africa suggests complex hunting to cold climates.
human behaviors such as practices and the development of Early humans may have
language and the ability to use symbolism even before this. outcompeted their relatives for
symbols evolved before or after food and raw materials in the
modern human anatomy. One It is not clear when modern rapidly changing environmental
theory is that such behaviors humans first spread into Eurasia. conditions. Environments at the
became vital only after 74,000YA, Some researchers argue they left time were highly unstable, so
when the massive eruption of Arabia before 74,000YA. Others even a slight increase in
Mount Toba in Indonesia triggered say the major migration occurred competition could have been
a global “volcanic winter.” DNA later, 50,000 YA, and via western significant. However, populations
analysis suggests that many Asia, after developing a new form were small and spread out, and
human groups died out at this of stone-tool technology that coexisted for up to 10,000 years
involved producing long, thin flint in Europe, and more than 30,000
“blades,” which probably formed
part of composite tools.

13I0n,cm0reia0nar0isS–nio1neu1gmt5hu,a0sAme0fr0moicfYaaAfilsshatasnidtes 11H0o,0m0o0s–a9p0i,e0n0s0i7nY5A“L,Eb0eblav0aeraB0dalnyledYotAs”m,AtaebdncovhdsannCinocaclevoidsege,iedSsoo,ucsthhheeArllfa4rt6icM,a0oh0dui0enmrYsnaAonfuostshaspeilrpsneoaAfrsia 40o,f0N0e0wYAGCuoilnoenaization 40s,u0er0rv0eivcYitnAugLsaHintoemChoina 37e,0rau0cp0rtoYiosAsnCmianmuIctpahalyno;ifaaEnsuhrofaplels 35A,0utre0iec0ghsYnEtnAaauocbcrlhiolotaiaopsgnroheiael,ecssidtnaewacnrlceidusrldltoa-iiscrnstgstone
Hom32o,s0a0p0ieYnAsEianrlJieasptan
possible12N0e,a0n0d0eYrAthEaalrlbieusrtial M73tg.,lT5oo0bb0aaYlAidnTrSohupemienrautterpamticopaneurosafetusre co4l5o,n0i0z0atYiAonWoidfeAsupsrteraad4li5saa,0pe0iae0sntYseArrHneoaEmcuhoreospe 40sa,0p0ie0nYsAiHnoCmhiona Euros3pu6eg,,g0se0os0mt –Neh2eut8aem,nc0ahd0nne0oriYntlAhoteagInrlieaascntdion

16

28,000–21,000 YA 21,000–18,000 YA 18,000–12,000 YA

AT L A N T I C
OCEAN

in Indonesia. Alternatively, the PACIFIC IN EUROPE, SOPHISTICATED BONE and art objects may have helped
exchange of resources and OCEAN and antler points, needles, and establish group identities and
information allowed by modern harpoons characterize the territories, as the number of
humans’ language and symbol INDIAN “Magdalenian” technologies that archaeological sites in this period
use, and their planned and OCEAN were used to hunt a wide range of suggests that populations were
flexible technologies made species, especially reindeer. growing, and competition for rich
Homo sapiens better able to THE MAXIMUM EXTENT OF THE LAST ICE AGE and localized resources may have
withstand climatic downturns The Magdalenian (18,000– been intensifying.
than Neanderthals. European climates after 23,000BCE grew steadily cooler, and 12,000YA) is famous for its
during the “Last Glacial Maximum” (21,000–18,000YA), ice caps beautiful art objects, engravings, A rise in temperature led to the
Others believe that these covered most of northern Europe. Farther south, huge areas of and cave paintings. There are many retreat of the ice sheets that had
behaviors were not unique to grassland with few trees offered good hunting for groups of theories about what these mean covered northern Europe, and
modern humans. Hominins humans able to survive the cold. and why they were produced. As these areas were rapidly
would have needed to use rafts most depict animals that were recolonized, with groups
or boats to reach the island of THE “GRAVETTIAN” CULTURE OF AT THE HEIGHT OF THE GLACIAL hunted, the paintings may expanding as far north as Siberia
Flores in Indonesia by 800,000 YA . Europe and Russia (28,000– Maximum, when the ice caps represent a magical means of by around 14,000–13,000YA. Some
Some late Neanderthal sites 21,000YA) is known for its were at their maximum extent, ensuring hunting success, or groups later moved on into Alaska
also contain elements of elaborate sites, which often have people living in more northerly show information about the best and the Americas. Farther east, in
technologies normally associated complex structures and burials, and mountainous areas retreated ways to hunt different species. China and in the Jomon culture of
with Homo sapiens, although it is as well as large amounts of shell to “refuge” areas such as—in Paintings of imaginary half-human, Japan, some of the first pots
possible that Neanderthals may jewelry, and sculpted bone and Europe—northern Spain and half-animal creatures and the manufactured from clay appeared
have copied, traded with, or even antler. Also found at Gravettian southwest France, where this inaccessibility of some cave art between 18,000 and 15,000YA.
stolen from modern humans. sites are some of the earliest period is known as the “Solutrean.” suggest that painting may have
known clay objects, including some Globally, many groups probably been a magical or ritual activity, Altamira cave paintings
A combination of environmental of the famous “Venus” figurines. died out, but some held on in perhaps practiced by shamans This Paleolithic cave painting
unrest and increased competition These may have been fertility or more sheltered regions. To survive or during initiation or religious of bison was discovered at the
is currently considered to be the religious charms, or part of a the harsh conditions, much time ceremonies. Alternatively, paintings Altamira cave site in Spain.
most likely explanation for system of exchange between and effort was invested in hunting.
Neanderthal extinction. social networks across the region Weapons include beautifully
as the Ice Age intensified. worked points known as “leaf-
EUROPE points.” Although little evidence
“Venus” statuette survives beyond finely worked
ATLANTIC This figurine bone needles, people probably
OCEAN from Willendorf, developed sophisticated clothing
Austria depicts to keep them warm. Perhaps
KEY Mediterranean Sea a stylized pregnant
or obese female more importantly, hunters
Neanderthal sites figure. would have worked hard to
Modern human sites predict and intercept the
exaggerated movements of herds of large
Neanderthal and human ranges belly
Modern humans and Neanderthals animals, ensuring the
coexisted for several thousand hunting success that was
years. Sites appear to show evidence the difference between life
of interaction between the groups. and death.

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atl1at7l,,0Co0ro0msYpAbeeEaarS-ratlhuiernsoitewkreenr,o, Fwfrrnoamnce 15,00a0ScYoAounMtthrooAnvtmeeresVrieaicrladlynee,saCitrhelyilwedi,athtes
know2n8N,0e0a0nYdAeYrotuhnagl essitteGsra2v8e–tt2ia1n,0c0u0ltYuAre 2te1Sc,o0hl0un0torlYeoaAagpnipeesar 21g–l1a8c,i0a0l 0mYaAxLimasutm

17

10,000–3000 BCE

Megalithic (large stone) architecture was used for monumental tombs in Neolithic Europe. Developments around
3300 CE included the construction of stone circles, such as this example at Castlerigg in northern England.

6700- Settled communities lived here productivity. Farming was were domesticated in the Yellow Lepinski Vir "fish god"
6400 BCE by 7000BCE, including the therefore a choice that people River valley and rice in the Yangzi Abundant fish supported a settled
Chinchorro, who created made, increasing local valley in China, from where they hunter-gatherer village on the
7500- the world’s first mummies productivity, often at the cost of spread through East and Southeast Danube in Serbia. Its inhabitants
6700 BCE (see panel, opposite). increasing work and risk. Their Asia. In Africa, other millets and carved fish-human sculptures,
Another area with reasons for farming may have African rice were domesticated probably representing gods.
8500- favorable conditions included extending their period of after 3000BCE. In the Americas, only the Andes had animals
7500 BCE was West Asia. Here, residence in a settled village, corn was the principal cereal. suitable for domestication:
vegetation included wild providing extra food for feasting or However, although it was cultivated guineapigs, llamas, and alpacas.
9600- cereals that could be to support a growing population, by 6000BCE, it was not until Birds, particularly chickens,
8500 BCE stored, sustaining and boosting the supply of 2000BCE that corn was sufficiently ducks, and turkeys, were also kept
preferred or declining foodstuffs. productive to support permanently
13,000- communities throughout the settled villages. Legumes and bone and antler
9600 BCE year when Cereals were common staples of vegetables were grown alongside lightened by
supplemented early agriculture. Wheat and barley cereals in many parts of the world. scraping
Population density by other wild were domesticated in West Asia, Star Carr deer cap
The population in western Asia grew foods such as spreading into North Africa, Tubers, such as manioc and This skull cap from a hunter-
rapidly from 13,000 to 6400BCE. gazelle. A period Europe, and Central and South yams, and treecrops were gatherer site in England may have
of cold, arid Asia. Broomcorn and foxtail millet cultivated in moist tropical been used in hunting rituals.
AS STEEPLY RISING TEMPERATURES conditions from regions, beginning at an early date
between 12,700 and 10,800BCE 10,800 to 9600BCE holes bored in the New Guinea highlands and
melted the northern ice sheets, led to a steep into skull the rainforests of Central America
global sea levels rose, lakes and northern South America.
formed, and rainfall increased, decline in the availability of wild
promoting the cereals. This prompted some Domestic sheep, goats, pigs,
spread of forests West Asian villagers to turn to and cattle were raised across
and grasslands cultivation, planting cereals. Eurasia and Africa, initially just for
and providing new meat. However, in the Americas
opportunities for Agriculture began in many
hunter-gatherer parts of the world at different
communities. times, using local resources.
Coastal areas Domesticated plants and animals
drowned by rising sea levels were spread by trade between
rich sources of aquatic foods, as neighboring groups and when
were lakes and rivers. Grasslands farming communities colonized
sustained large herds of animals, new areas. Agriculture was not a
while forest margins provided discovery: hunter-gatherers had a
abundant plant foods and game. deep knowledge of the plants and
Most hunter-gatherers moved animals on which they depended,
seasonally to exploit the and often took actions to increase
resources of different areas, but
particularly favored places such
as river estuaries could support
people year round. One such
region was coastal Peru and Chile,
where the cold Humboldt current
provides especially rich fisheries.

11c,o5Al0om0Cn–leioz9rvai0icts0iaos0sntBoboCnyEfeptRhetaoeopopilldse using 10d,o5rm0yeb0eaBisnrCtlEieScyEayratbeiryadl:i8ewc0se0htr0eeaBatClsaE:nd 90d0oW0mBeeCsEsttEAicasariatleiedstanimals in 90In0c0“r–Ger3iravae0sece0errnsd0o,SsBrmsCaaEihaNnrafosarrhlatle”hp:srA,loafadrkniuecdscae,gsrasslands 80a0gY0reiBgclCluroEolwtEwuaRirnrailgvlieevmrsiltivllaaleglletesy,inChina, 70d0ow0mBeweCshEsteetZiracentab,tPubeaadckraailstetttylaM,enae,nhtdor7gl0ceba0ugyrol0huthfi,BmvutCahneEtetseCeGra-rtfietlseehndeSoramchoeamsrtamicuatneitdies

1D0r,y8a0ste0csm–och9lpaed6uee0prsta0see;trdBuivCorbeEedyrYs,ymoparureafnotplegbtiirdeanrb9gr6liyis0ce0eiBnCE 9b5y0h0u–n8t0ear0t-0gGBaöCtbEheeCkroelnirsTsteorpufecs,thiToruninrkeey c9o0lo0an0ibnni–zyd7aCbtt0yhioo0pean0rttuBorosCaffEnstschSushaeipgtettogeielsrseeplts,a,atangtndioodantpsi,gs 8vw5ila0lal0lg–be7upa3irltao0tgbJ0aeaarBirboCniluEcsynhtSfdooflto,rolanIodsredergaifeneewgnl,,sanerfoatre 80M00esBoCEamSqeurdiacosamh; esdsqotumicaeastshetidacnaindteEbdceuianandsor 7000 BCyEaBmancuaGlntuaivi,natetaeardohi,ingahnNldaenwds6500 BCaEgSrMiicmeusplotlueproiertarimingaciaetinbotenrgailns

18

by Old and New World farmers. By ,, THE NEOLITHIC WAS… A POINT CHINCHORRO MUMMIES

5000BCE cattle, sheep, and goats IN A CONTINUOUS STORY OF The earliest mummies come
were raised for milk as well as not from Egypt, but from
coastal northern Chile, an
meat, while cattle were used to ,,GREATER ECONOMIC CONTROL arid region where natural
pull plows, enabling people to mummies occur from
cultivate much larger areas. OVER RESOURCES... FROM 7000 BCE. After 5000 BCE the
Wool-bearing sheep were bred in SCAVENGING TO... FARMING. Chinchorro began artificial
West Asia in the 4th millennium mummification. They removed
the flesh, reassembled and
BCE, and rapidly spread into Clive Gamble, from Origins and revolutions: human identity in earliest reinforced the skeleton, stuffed
Europe and Central Asia. The use prehistory, 2007 the skin with plant material,
coated it in clay, and painted
of pack animals such as llamas it with black manganese or
red ocher. Only some
and donkeys allowed long- modeled animal heads. Native (naturally occurring pure) individuals, particularly
children, were mummified.
distance transport. After 7000BCE farmers spread copper and gold were being

Agriculture was more productive from Turkey into southeast shaped into small objects by cold

than foraging and could support and central Europe, while hammering before 8000BCE in

larger communities. Settled life Mediterranean hunter-gatherers West Asia. Around 7000BCE, ores

also encouraged population gradually turned to agriculture, were smelted here to extract

growth. Many early farming using imported West Asian crops metal and by 6000BCE copper and

villages in West Asia grew to and animals. By 3500BCE most of lead were also cast. Metals were

a considerable size. Most Europe had adopted farming. initially made into small personal

remarkable was Çatalhöyük in Megaliths—stone chambered objects that could enhance

Turkey, occupied around 7400– tombs of which a wide variety were prestige and status. Later, network developed that emerging in Elam (southwest
stretched from Egypt through Iran) and Egypt. Before 3000 BCE
6200BCE, which housed as many built, often with earthen mounds— however, copper began to be used West Asia to the mountainous all three regions developed
borderlands of South Asia, with writing systems, used to
as 8,000 people. Its tightly packed were constructed in western and for tools, and by 4200BCE copper towns controlling sources of record and manage economic
materials and strategic points transactions and the ownership
houses were entered from the northern Europe from the early 5th ores containing arsenic were along the routes. Sumer of property. The earliest known
(southern Mesopotamia) was at pictographic writing, around
roof by ladders, and were millennium BCE. Most housed the deliberately selected to produce a the forefront of this development, 3300 BCE, comes from Uruk in
but social, religious, economic, Sumer, a huge and complex
decorated with paintings and bones of a number of individuals. harder metal. The addition of tin and political complexity was also settlement that is deservedly
known as the world’s first city.
created a stronger alloy, bronze, Copper ax heads
Gold and copper were the
which was in use in West Asia first metals to be worked.
They became widespread
by 3200BCE. in Europe around
2500 BCE.
ASIA The development of water-
control techniques enabled West
NORTH EUROPE 4000 BCE Asian farmers to colonize the
AMERICA southern Mesopotamian plains,
7000 BCE 8000 BCE where agriculture depended
2500 BCE 9000 BCE 9000 BCE 6000 BCE

4500 BCE 8000 BCE 7000 BCE 6500 BCE
6500 BCE

6000 BCE 2500 BCE entirely on irrigation but was

7000 BCE SOUTH AFRICA 7000 BCE highly productive. By the mid 4th
6000 BCE AMERICA millennium BCE, this region was
5000 BCE AUSTRALASIA densely populated, and villages
were developing into towns, with
KEY Other craft specialists. There was a
Livestock Areas with agriculture growing demand for raw
Cereals

The spread of agriculture materials, including metal
Humans began to cultivate plants and manage animals independently, ores, which often came from

in different areas at different times, across the world. distant sources. A trading

62c0oE0muBMmpCEehuFsrnaoiritptseiotestsfavamearlsmiltaea6iynb0vgol0aifsa0lshlneBoedCyudEr(tChiaVniheislrilenanagp)eigfisssinha,nYgadrnocghwziicrkiceen,s 55d0em0veBelCtoEaplImlnuderegnpyteionnfdtcehoneptpBea5rl1ka0at0nAsBibCEunCaorp,pBeurlgmairniaing 50a0np0imuBfloCalErNilnsDmogkoretpemhaplotetA,wsfifnotrsiirc,cWamaes,isalwtkneAdalsnlEiadaus,rope 40c0ufl0ltoBCiovChaEditeWnidoaenpbt-aienrdgidcpineylosfiweeldds, in 35b0eA0gsBianiCanEtdfoSoetbraceaomdunpmsoemsindeiiacisnltpsrWuarteipvsoetses 32e0mfi0erBsrCtgEecUistryausk 31P0r0(oe–taso2ry-9IlsEry0taleBa0nmmriBaoC)innEtaezpceslraocAtsrgeispeattuwheriting

6c0o0r0nBdCwEeviDledolomtepeosssftirniocMtmeexinico Old CopperlaoCncuadlltltyurnaramdetiie,vn5aene0mdec0t,o0awcp–jGoopo1lrrerd0keri-0,naobhfl0tdfaaouLNBsmuCsaeoErtkmdrriestyeohshrneAresedmgineiornicDapormobesaratbinclygaetgeuoAdifnnlcldeareaomappnalsiog,cgwaoirn5llaoap0swtnaht0dcn,e0asaiSBA,nnoCaondfEAnudntndterohdosrep;Atshimc,eaealsritca Domo4lei0ovMsef0teiv0icdniaBnitCteeeiEaorasnrnateednmrene3aEr5nug0rea0ss,BisCaEp—rWeuashedaedsnedlfreoamrdplitiodlriclatyaanlrtshtyrprapoonurusrtgpphoors3te3s00 BCsEoWutrhietirnngMinevseonptoetdaimnia 32o0f0EBgCyE3p2Bti0ea0gniBnwCnEriinFmtgiinrasgntinubfWraocentsuztreeAdsia r3e0ac0h0eBsCEwMesettearlnluCrghyina

19

8 MYA–3 0 0 0 BCE HUMAN ORIGINS

colorful minerals define hole for
geometric facial features cord

design reed geometric,
framework abstract
pattern
coated in
thick plaster

Pottery shard Human figurine Schist plaque finely detailed
4000BCE • ROMANIA 6750–6500BCE • JORDAN 4000BCE • PORTUGAL engraving
Different cultures can be identified This large statue from Ain Ghazal It is unclear what Neolithic engraved
by their unique ways of decorating is one of several from sites in plaques, like this one from Alentejo, Engraved bone
objects—this shard is typical of the the Near East that may have symbolized, but they seem to have 13,000–8000BCE • FRANCE
Cucuteni-Tripolye culture. represented ancestors or gods. been made for burial with the dead. Paleolithic artists often carved as well
as painted their depictions of animals,
as with this scene of a bison being
chased, from Laugerie-Basse.

PREHISTORIC PEOPLES

EARLY HUMANS ARE DEFINED BY THE RAW MATERIALS THEY USED TO FASHION TOOLS, WEAPONS, AND ORNAMENTS

Prehistory is traditionally divided into the Stone, Bronze, carefully carved antler
and Iron ages, but many other kinds of raw materials sharpened tip setting
such as wood, hide, and plant fibers were also used in
early technologies. Little evidence of these survives. leather or
sinew binding
In addition to being functional aids to survival and subsistence, the objects
made by prehistoric peoples would also have been important in their social
lives. Different groups develop their own ways of manufacturing and
decorating objects, and distinctive designs may become badges of identity
or status symbols. The trade and exchange of objects is another vital way in
which individuals and groups establish social relationships and hierarchies.

scars where long, thin flint head
blades chipped blade set into
wooden
from core sleeve

remains of
flaked cobble

Oldowan tool Blades and core reproduced
2.6–1.7 MYA • AFRICA 100,000 BCE ONWARDS • WIDESPREAD wooden handle
The earliest stone tools were Early modern humans produced uniform,
simple, sharp-edged flakes of narrow blades that would have been fitted Digging tools with adze heads
stone, made by striking a stone to wooden and antler handles or held in the 11,660–4000 BCE • EUROPE
cobble with a hard “hammerstone.” hand, as tools for many different purposes. These Mesolithic adzes were used
for digging up edible roots or cutting
Antler harpoon barbed head made thick base is wood in the forests that spread across
8000BCE • UK from antler easy to hold Europe after the last Ice Age ended.
This harpoon head is attached to a long
handle for spearing fish—a key source of food Flint hand-ax
when sea levels rose as the last Ice Age ended. 200,000BCE • UK
Hand-axes, such as this one from
20 Swanscombe, were skillfully made
and used for a wide range of activities,
including woodworking and butchery.

PREHISTORIC PEOPLES

excavation Clay burial chest
damage 4000BCE • NEAR EAST
One Chalcolithic (“copper age”)
burial practice involved leaving
the dead out to decay, then
collecting the bones and placing
them in clay chests like this one.

Carved spear-thrower exaggerated
10,500 BCE • FRANCE features
Spear-throwers, such as this one from
Montastruc, were often carved into animal
shapes—here, a woolly mammoth made
from antler. They enabled hunters to throw
spears farther and with greater force.

Neolithic flint blade Lespugue Venus Mummified head
set in reproduction 24,000–22,000 BCE • FRANCE 7000–3000BCE • PERU
handle This ivory figurine from Lespugue in In very dry climates, bodies can
the Pyrenees is one of many “Venus” become mummified. Some of
figurines—depicting women who are the earliest mummies have
pregnant or obese, or whose female been found in Peruvian deserts.
features are greatly exaggerated.

Bronze Age
sickle

Gold jewelry gold easily worked
4700–4200 BCE • BULGARIA into decorative
At the cemetery of Varna in animal shapes
Bulgaria, more than 3,000
pieces of some of the earliest loom
gold jewelry have been found, weight
mainly buried with elite males.

bone
shuttle

soft clay was baked
to preserve design

iron sickle blade

Agricultural tools Neolithic seal Cloth-making tools
9500 BCE–1834 CE • WIDESPREAD 7500–5700BCE • ANATOLIA 6500BCE • ORIGIN UNKNOWN
First wild and later domesticated Seals such as this one From the mid-Neolithic, weaving
cereals were harvested using from the settlement of became common. Loom weights
sickles like these, until they were Çatal Höyük were used held vertical threads taut; bone
superseded in most places by the during the Neolithic to shuttles were used to weave
invention of the combine harvester. stamp decorative designs horizontal threads in and out.
on to skin or cloth.
21

2

EARLY
CIVILIZATIONS

3000–700BCE

This period saw the emergence of complex civilizations.
Communities flourished and trade developed in the fertile
valleys of Egypt, India, western Asia, and China. Europe and
Central and South America also flourished during this time.

3000–2700 BCE

Stonehenge in western Britain was a ceremonial site from around 3100BCE. An early earth enclosure
and a circle of wooden posts were later replaced by the outer circle of stones seen here.

DURING THE LAST HALF OF THE The Early Dynastic Period made the land fertile. As early
(c. 3100–2686 BCE) was already as 8000 BCE, millet had been
THOUSANDFOURTH MILLENNIUM BCE, the characterized by many of the cultivated in the area around
celebrated aspects of Egyptian Yangshao in Henan Province.
world’s first civilizations arose, culture: hieroglyphic writing, a Around c. 2400 BCE, the
first in Western Asia, then North sophisticated religion (including neighboring Dawenkou culture
Africa and South Asia. Civilization belief in an afterlife), and developed into the Longshan
also appeared in China in the preserving the dead using culture of Shangdong Province.
mummification. A complex Longshan farmers grew rice
50early second millennium BCE. By hierarchical society developed, after developing irrigation
3000 BCE, the world’s first urban THE POPULATION with the king at the apex systems. As in other early
OF THE CITY OF accorded semi-divine status. civilizations, agricultural success
URUK c. 2800 BCE Egyptian kings—later known as allowed the development of an
pharaohs—ruled with the help of elaborate society. Chinese
culture had begun to develop in a chief minister, or vizier, regional craftsmen were making bronze
governors (nomarchs), and a tools c. 3000 BCE, jade vessels
southern Mesopotamia, in what smiths began manufacturing river’s annual flood (known as the huge staff of lesser officials c. 2700 BCE, and silk weaving had
including priests, tax collectors, begun by 3500 BCE.
is now Iraq. The lower Euphrates bronze. The plow had been in inundation) spread black silt along and scribes.
The Bronze Age was underway
river plains had been farmed use since about 5000 BCE, wheeled its banks. The Egyptian farming In China, civilization originated in western Asia by 3000 BCE, and
in the valleys of eastern rivers possibly considerably earlier. The
from c. 6200 BCE, after the carts from around 3500 BCE, and year began in the fall when the such as the Huang He (Yellow Bronze Age in Europe seems to
River), where the rich loess soil have developed separately from
development of irrigation such advances made farming inundation subsided, and farmers around 2500 BCE, using ore

systems—the Greek word more productive. The resulting cultivated wheat, barley, beans, sources from the Carpathian
Mountains in Central Europe.
mesopotamia means “land food surplus freed some people and lentils in the fertile soil. This era also saw the
beginnings of the Minoan
between the rivers.” By 3500 BCE, from the farming life, allowing By the end of the 4th civilization on the Greek
island of Crete around
farming communities were specialization into professions millennium BCE, farming 2000 BCE, with trading links
to the nearby Cyclades
growing into towns and then such as priesthood, crafts, trade, communities had evolved into Islands and the wider
Mediterranean. In Western
cities such as Ur, Uruk, and and administration. The world’s two kingdoms: Upper Egypt in Europe, the earlier tradition of
megalithic tomb building and a
Eridu. Over the next 300 years, first tiered society developed, the south and Lower Egypt in growing interest in astronomical
observation gave rise to a new
each city came to dominate its headed by kings sometimes the north. King Narmer united megalithic tradition of erecting
stone circles, stone rows,
surrounding area, forming a known as lugals. the two kingdoms c. 3100 BCE. standing stones, and tombs
including astronomical features.
group of city-states in the land In Egypt, one of the world’s most After Narmer came Menes, These include Newgrange in
Ireland, Stonehenge in England,
called Sumer in southeast complex ancient civilizations although historians are and Carnac in France.

Mesopotamia. was forming along the banks of unsure whether Menes

Metalworking had begun in the Nile River by 3100BCE. The was Narmer’s successor

Mesopotamia around 6000 BCE. Nile formed a narrow strip of or a different name for

Around 3200 BCE, Sumerian cultivatable land, floodplain, as the Narmer himself. Menes

is credited with founding

aurus Mountains Tigris the Egyptian capital at
Medit Memphis and Egypt’s
Euphrates Mesop otam ia Nippur Zagros Mountains first dynasty.
Elam
T As in Mesopotamia,
Seearr a n e a n Kish Umma efficient agriculture
produced prosperity and
Syrian Shuruppak Lagash specialism, allowing arts,
Desert crafts, engineering, and
early medicine to develop.
Arabian Peninsula Uruk Ur Persian
Eridu Gulf

Ancient cities of Mesopotamia KEY Narmer Palette
Sumer in southern Mesopotamia was the This carved piece of green siltstone
location of the world’s first urban civilization Extent of Early Dynastic records the triumph of the legendary
fromc.2900 BCE as agricultural success city-states King Narmer of Upper Egypt over
led to a complex society. his enemies.
Ancient coastline

c.E3a2tro0lwc0yun–Ilns2tud6aru0nes0dspBrineCeErgIiniooddnu—asl Valley c. F3i1ro0sfEt0Eda–gPyr2yenl(p8ytraot9iDs.o0ctydy.Bn 2bCaE6es8gt6iincBsCE) c. o3f0icn0o0spoBpuCeEtrhE-ewvrindoerFknricanengce c. L3o0dn0eg(0vcse.B hl3CoaE2pn0in0cg–uclit.n u3Cr0eh0i0nBaCE) c. r3u0mle0aas0ndoBdeCvEeuLrKpoawioneufgrnUMi(ptneeponderertEsh(gseyorpnut)thEegrynp)t c. s2c9Sr0iup0mtBdeCerE,vCMeuleonspeosipfioonrtammia c. F2i8dr0seat0vlec–oel2norg7pe0mcin0ooaBSnsCoiEtauoltfhcPeAenmrteuerrsica,

cB. 3ruo0wnn0dez0esertBewACrc(Eagcn.y e.1 A3i2ns20i00a0B–CE) MEaersloycp.D so3yut0nac0amh0siat–aisc2; UC3P3Eiret,4ryrUii-dBorsCudutEakfliint,noeausSnrudismher Ancdp.e o3at0ant0oaf0aen–rsdm2ar5ena0ridss0eqaBgunCarEiodlnpwolalaac,masas c. 3M0i0n0oaBnCEcDivailwioznnatoCifornete c. 290s0t–rau2tc4tSW0ut0rooecBnoesCderEbeheunemcinolotgmneipallex c. 28S9e0co–n2d68d6yonBfaCEEsgtyypt c.b 2r7o5nf0ozueBnCaEdrFtiniifrasCcthtsina

24

2700–2500 BCE

MILLION

THE NUMBER OF

BLOCKS USED TO

2.3BUILD THE GREAT
PYRAMID OF GIZA

The three pyramids at Giza were built for the pharaohs Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura between 2575 and 2465BCE.
They are guarded by the statue of the Sphinx, which may bear the features of King Khafra.

Standard of Ur mound—provided the focus for side panels is still a mystery; they resources. This led to conflicts The Indus Valley civilization
This boxlike object has two side religious ceremonies, and grain may have formed the soundbox over land and water, and alliances began to emerge in South Asia in
panels—one depicting war, the other was kept in storerooms within the of a lyre. between cities were forged the fourth millennium BCE, as flood
(shown here) times of peace. temple precincts. From around and broken. control technology developed. By
2500BCE, some citizens of Ur were Arising from the need to keep 2600BCE, the Indus Plain contained
SOUTHERN MESOPOTAMIA was buried in tombs along with economic and administrative The first signs of civilization in dozens of towns and cities. Of
a patchwork of over 40 city-states, treasures such as the Standard records, the first pictographic the Americas appeared along the these, Mohenjo-daro on the
among which Ur, Uruk, Nippur, of Ur. The purpose of its intricate writing developed in Sumer coast of Peru and in the Andes Indus River, and Harappa, to the
and Kish were the most important. (c. 3300BCE). Pictographs (pictorial c. 2800BCE. Andean farmers grew northeast, were preeminent, with
Trade flourished using a network writing representing a word or potatoes and the cereal quinoa, populations of around 100,000 and
of rivers and canals, and trade phrase) evolved into a script called and raised alpacas and llamas. 60,000, respectively.
links extended to Anatolia cuneiform c. 2900BCE, in which There were fishing communities
(modern-day Turkey), Iran, scribes pressed sharpened on the coast, while inland towns In Egypt, King Sanakht acceded
and Afghanistan, with grain, became ceremonial centers, to the throne in the year 2686BCE,
minerals, lumber, tools, and reeds into soft clay to leave built around mud-brick temple marking the beginning of the Third
vessels traded. The Sumerian wedge-shaped impressions. platforms. An exceptional example dynasty and the Old Kingdom
population was unique in being is Caral, about 125 miles (200km) era—a time of strong, centralized
predominantly urban. In Ur, Southern Mesopotamia from Lima and dating from rule and pyramid-building.
Uruk, and other centers, people became densely populated, c. 2600BCE. Another, Aspero, had These magnificent monuments
lived in clustered mud-brick putting pressure on natural six platform mounds topped by were built as royal tombs. In
houses. At the heart of the city, the temples. Cotton was grown in the Early Dynastic times, kings had
ziggurat—a terraced temple Cuneiform tablet region, and corn was cultivated been buried beneath rectangular
Over time, the inventory of signs from around 2700BCE. mud-brick platforms called
regularly used in cuneiform script mastabas. Around 2650BCE, the
was greatly reduced. first pyramid, the Step Pyramid of
Saqqara, was completed for King
Djoser. Designed by the architect
Imhotep, it resembled six stone
mastabas on top of one another.

Straight-sided pyramids
appeared soon after, the greatest
of which were the three pyramids
at Giza. These incredible feats of
engineering were constructed not
by slaves as was once thought, but
by a staff of full-time craftsmen
and masons supplemented by
farmers performing a type of
national service during the Nile
floods. Enormous blocks of stone
(lower stones of 6–10 tons; higher
ones of 1–2 tons) were cut from
local quarries, hauled on site using
sleds, and then heaved up ramps,
which grew ever higher as
construction progressed.

c. K2i6an8ngk6deinB(orlCgamaEsso,Otpfsblepdeurogniwoitndiels,rcfi.nu 2lE1g8y1pBtCE) c. F2o6iun1rcb3tlu–huKi2dldhd4eyai9snnf4ratgahsB,petCayhEpnaoydrfraEMaogmehynsipdktK-;ahuurafu, c. R2u6inl0ea0rrcosBrcyeCooaoEifrglfdUngUirnroragbfuvuKketorsiinin;leegdSgGueimnlgdea,rmesh c. i2n6Iun0sd0euBsiCnEVtPahlleloewy c. o2f5Ss0tto0onnBeCehEseOenurgeteec,rteBcdririatcatlien
Pcy.r a2m6E6igd7y–bp2ut6,il(f5tro.0ar 2tBK6CS6iEna7Sgq–tq2Dea6pjro4as8,eBrCE) c. 2589bB(oecCfogEtmiChnrospenlaeestttepGrdyuirzccaat. mi,2oE5nidg0s4ypBtCE)
c. 2T6Eh8gi6ryd–p2tdK6ysin1tna3agrsBtStsCyaEwonfiatkhht c. 2600 BcCeEnCteeCrreasmr,caosolua,nscbithaualialltsPienru c. 2be5ea0gr0ilnieBsdCsiEitsncbBEorrovuoenrnrzozeepedeaAi,rngwtiePfiatohcltasnd

25

2500–2350 BCE 2350–2200 BCE

The ruined citadel of Mohenjo-daro was made up of various buildings. It was Silbury Hill in Wiltshire, England, is one of the tallest man-made chalk mounds
built on a platform to guard against flooding of the Indus River. in Europe. These mounds probably had a social or cultural function.

IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 3RD Shortughai Himalayas A NEW POWER AROSE IN BRONZE AGE EUROPE
MILLENNIUM BCE, civilizations MESOPOTAMIA c. 2334BCE, King
continued to develop in western Indus Sargon (c. 2334–2215BCE) from Bronze-working had begun
Asia, Egypt, and and southern the northern region of Akkad in West Asia c. 3200BCE (see
Asia, and complex societies were Iranian Ropar defeated Lugalzagesi of Umma to 10,000–3000BCE). It was
emerging in China, Europe, and Plateau become the ruler of Sumer. developed by the Únětice
South America. Harappa Banawali Through subsequent campaigns culture of Bohemia and
to the Levant, Syria, and Anatolia,
In southern Asia, the Indus Kalibangan Rakhighari Sargon carved out the world’s first Poland c. 2500BCE, and
civilization (see 2700–2500BCE) empire—the Akkadian Empire— 200 years later had
emerged in its mature form Nausharo Indus Valley stretching from the eastern spread to Italy and the
around 2500BCE, stretching Mediterranean to the Gulf. Balkans. Bronze
1,060 miles (1,700km) from east M o uZnatgarionss Mohenjo-daro provided a hard metal
to west and 800 miles (1,300km) Sargon’s exploits were recorded for forging armor,
from north to south. The region’s Chanhu-daro in several documents, such as the weapons, and tools
prosperity was based on farming, Dholavira Sumerian King List. His name such as this hand ax.
mining, crafts, and trade. More Indus means “legitimate king,” which The bronze industry
than 100 sites have been led some scholars to believe that also increased trade,
excavated, including the cities Persian Gulf Sutkagen-dor Lothal he took power through force.
of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Kuntasi Sargon spoke Akkadian, a making Europe more
and Dholovira. Arabian Semitic language that replaced interconnected than
Sea KEY Sumerian as the official
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa Zone of urban civilization language of the empire. ever before.
were well-planned cities laid Indus civilization Urban centers
out on a grid system. Each city Excavations suggest that the Indus Modern coastline
was protected by brick walls civilization covered an area far larger than
and dominated by a citadel Mesopotamia and Egypt combined.
overlooking a “lower town” of
public buildings and residential such as pottery, bead-making, the surrounding regions in return ,, UNDER HIM grandson, Naram-Sin, extended
town houses of one or two stories. and metalworking. for metal ores, precious stones, ALL COUNTRIES the empire, but it lasted for only
and timber. Long-distance trade LAY [CONTENTED] four generations before falling
The residential areas Indus cities and towns had the routes reached as far as IN THEIR to attacks. Sargon’s rule
were seemingly most advanced plumbing system Mesopotamia and Afghanistan. established a practice of
divided by industry, in the ancient world, with enclosed ,,MEADOWS, AND statewide bureaucratic controls
wells and covered drains. Latrines By around 2500 BCE, an Indus and standardization in many
one-piece emptied waste into drains, which script of hundreds of signs THE LAND aspects of economic life.
cart wheel ran below the streets. appeared on seals and pottery. REJOICED.
Attempts to decipher the script In Egypt, this period saw a
These urban centers were also have failed; hence, many aspects Lugalzagesi, king of Sumer, weakening of the power of the
connected by extensive trade of this culture remain a mystery. defeated by Sargon c. 2316 BCE Old Kingdom rulers (see
2700–2500BCE), in favor of
links. Merchants In western Asia, Mesopotamia Akkadian rule was enforced regional governors called
supplied craft (see 2700–2500BCE) remained a through regional governors who nomarchs, who administered
products from patchwork of small but powerful collected tributes and taxes. The different parts of the Nile valley
the valleys to city-states, each controlling the empire’s weakness lay in its lack and delta. To the south of the first
surrounding farmlands where of defensible borders, and it cataract on the Nile, the kingdom
Agrarian lives barley, legumes, and date palms came under regular attacks from of Nubia also grew more
A clay model of were grown. To the west, city- neighboring hill tribes. Sargon’s powerful. Nubia was centered
a bullock cart states were developing in Syria around the city of Kerma at the
found at Mohenjo- and the Levant. A trade network third cataract. By the end of
daro, dating back to linking Mesopotamian towns the Sixth dynasty (c. 2184BCE),
c. 2500–1900 BCE, gives suggests cooperation between
an insight into farming states, but there was frequent
life in the Indus warfare as well.
civilization.

c.c2u5pl0tou0ttreBerCiyEn, bLCrohoninngzcase.hpc,2aera5onnn0dtd0eusrcBieoClksfEmUarnaumfaacjtourrincg.M25ac0irtti0i,heaBesnCLidEneoEvSatbyhnlreatira,emanedrge c.B2r5ion0n0CzeBenCAtErgael bEce.upg2rhio5ncap0isvse0ielBiozCafEtIinModnautesumrce.es2rcg5re0isp0tBeCmEeInrgdeuss c.c2e5Kn0otb0etuoraBissnlCh,tdEA,inCctshopecenoerteraAiomnsntuadoaenenldstiPoaelbreu c.L2u3og5faa0UllzlBmaSCmgEuemasuienr ites c.S2i3ox4fth5E–dg2yypn1ta8fs1otBuyCnEded

cc.Ko2inn5tg0ind0uoBemCsEPinOerlEdigodypt cuc.lt2u5r0e0sBpaCrneEdaBdCeselnilntBrWeaalekEsetuerrronpe c. 2r5ou0lt0oenBsgCi-EndEiSsvotiaudntehcnecAetmroaefdreicac. 2400 BoCfEaLrEaeaganasnsoahfturSumulemser c.e2rec4ce0tre0edmBCaosEtnoSAiuatltollhncswoetomehnsepetnlsBegxreiitnain c. 2334A–k2k3a1d6cBotCnoEqcuSreeararsgfiteorSsnwutmooefrmelrdp’sire

26

2200–2000 BCE

Relief sculptures in Egyptian tombs represented everyday life and religious rituals. This carving from
the Sixth dynasty shows boys with sticks, on the left, and youths wrestling, on the right.

the authority of the Egyptian and along the Pacific coast and THE MOUNTAIN PEOPLE OF brought fertility to the Nile Longshan pottery
rulers had steadily eroded. inland valleys. Andean cultures This elegant pottery tripod
were based on farming and GUTIUM ATTACKED the Akkadian valley. The rule of pitcher has tapering legs
In Western Europe, the Bell herding. Coastal settlements
Beaker culture flourished. such as Aspero (Peru) were Empire c. 2150BCE. Sumerian Memphis, the capital city and swirling patterns,
Named after the distinctive shape unique in their dependence on characteristic of
of pottery vessels found in fishing rather than on agriculture. states such as Kish, Ur, and of the Old Kingdom, was the Longshan
graves, this culture emerged by The coastal people grew cotton for culture.
c. 2600BCE in France, Spain, and textiles, and gourds, which were Lagash took the opportunity to overthrown as nomarchs and
the Netherlands. Over the next used as fishing floats. been found to confirm the
three centuries, it spread to reassert their independence. nobles seized control of the existence of a centralized state
Germany and Britain. Around in China at this time.
2300BCE, bronze technology For the next 80 years, the provinces. This ushered in a
from Mediterranean regions and By the end of the 3rd millennium,
from Central Europe started city-states vied for control in time of unrest called the First Europe’s first civilization was
to spread northward emerging on the Mediterranean
along the Rhine and Mesopotamia. In 2112BCE, Ur Intermediate Period, the first island of Crete, which lay at the
Danube. The heart of Mediterranean trade
increasingly under Ur-Nammu (r. 2112– of the three eras of uncertainty routes. Known as the Minoan
militaristic societies civilization, it grew prosperous
used bronze to create 2095 BCE) gained ascendancy. The in Egyptian history. For 140 through trade and farming.
weapons, triggering Cretan farmlands produced wheat,
the appearance of armies of Ur overran eastern years, kingdoms such as olives, wine, and wool, which could
small chiefdoms be easily transported by sea. The
across Europe. Mesopotamia and Elam, and Herakleopolis in central Egypt Minoans also made bronzework,
pottery, and dyes for export. By
As populations grew, regained much of vied for control with Thebes 2000BCE, Crete was home to
competition over land several small kingdoms.
and resources Sargon’s empire. in the south. In c. 2040BCE,
intensified. Fields were
enclosed, farming Ur-Nammu founded the the Theban ruler Nebhepetre
expanded, and boundary
walls built. Imposing Third dynasty of Ur, Mentuhotep defeated his
structures such as chalk
mounds were constructed which witnessed a rivals and united Egypt once
in many areas.
revival of Sumerian more, beginning the start of
In South America,
societies continued to power, as well as an what came to be known as the
develop in two distinct
regions: the upland valleys artistic and cultural Middle Kingdom.
and high plains of the Andes,
renaissance. Sumerian In China, the Neolithic
Akkadian warrior king
This bronze cast of an Akkadian scholars devised a method of Longshan culture (see 3200 BCE)
ruler may depict Sargon I or his
grandson, Naram-Sin, who counting, based on units of continued to develop along the
extended Sargon’s empire.
60. This system is reflected Yellow River in Shandong

in our modern division of province. According to Chinese

hours into 60 minutes, historical tradition, the first

minutes into 60 seconds, dynasty, Xia (Hsia), was founded

and a circle into 360 by Yu the Great. However, no

degrees. archaeological evidence has

Ur-Nammu also

100commissioned the first

ziggurat in Ur—an imposing
stepped platform topped
with a temple. The ziggurats
later became a characteristic
of ancient western Asian
architecture.
THOUSANDIn c. 2181BCE, Egypt’s Old

Kingdom collapsed following
a series of natural disasters,
including famine. This THE LIKELY

undermined the authority of POPULATION
the king, who was believed to OF UR c.2100
secure the annual floods that

c.b2e3ign0i0IntsaBlCiynEasBnodruottnhhzeeerBnAaEglkeuaronpse, c. a2n1ed8n1dOdiBlssodCafinKsErtuiESenlrgiegxsyrdtpwhotmedaayfpknteeearrnsinotayaduttuhroarlity c.I2n1bte8e2r1gm0Bi4nCe0sEdBiiFnaCitEEres)gPtyeprt i(otod c.k2i1no5fgo0EdnoBgTmyCphEteiN,rmdbuaeCbsraieagtdnaersaatscoKtueotrfhmNaile 21o1f2UUBrr-C,NEfoaTumhnimdrdeudD(tbyony2a0s0ty4BCcE.)N2e0ob4fth0ToehBupeCnebEitetrese EdMegefyenpattutshoritveapls

227o8f P–2e1p8yd4IyInBoaCfsEtthRyeeiniSgEinxgthypt c. 2205BiCGnEreeXaaistat,edaryctnrcnaoCadrshdittiiyninoafgnorb;utuosylneaYCddiudheuidttnhnoeethislae1v7e66 c. 2A1k5k0aBMdCeiaEsnGospu;otcLitaiaatnygms-asiisdanthe,ad,fsteeerupaescetahonsfasdseerntce 2 72U1r1-2N–ma2mu0mc9hr5ueoBbofCufMEiUldeRrsseroUieagpursno’nstaoaittfmzeeimsgiagp;uleract. 205t0heEcMmiviienlirozgaaetnniocpnea,loCafcreetec. 2040BCaEnMenewenactruaMphioettaKmelipnpatghfoIdistuoj;-nmTMdosibwdedy2gle0in0s4BCtoEECliatymoidtfeyUnsr,aesfantyldlsionfgUr

3 0 0 0 –7 0 0 BCE E A R LY C I V I L I Z AT I O N S

hieroglyphs
are picture

symbols

hieratic script reads papyrus, made illustration shows a Egyptian hieroglyphic and hieratic script
from right to left by pressing priest making an offering This ancient Egyptian papyrus manuscript shows two forms of
together layers Egyptian writing: hieratic script (left) and hieroglyphic script
of strips of reed to the god Osiris (right) above the two figures. Hieroglyphic is an elaborate script
in which signs take a highly pictorial form, while hieratic is a
simplified version of hieroglyphic for ease of speed and writing.

Prehistory c. 3200 BCE 8th century BCE Greek wax tablet 100
Pictograms Egyptian hieroglyphs The Greek alphabet The Roman alphabet
Pictures painted on walls Egyptian writing develops The first alphabets, using The Romans adapt the
of caves up to 25,000 100 years after cuneiform. only consonants, develop Greek script to write Latin.
years ago are considered This script begins as a form in the Levant by c. 1150 BCE. Through the Roman Empire,
a precursor to writing, of picture writing, and They include the Phoenician this alphabet spreads across
recording information includes signs for words and alphabet, which spreads to Europe and is used for
that could then be also sounds. It remains in the Greeks through trade, personal as well as official
understood by others. Cave images by Anasazi Indians use until the 4th century CE. who add vowels. correspondence.

3300 BCE Mesopotamian tablet c. 1900 BCE Chinese paper scroll c. 6th century BCE Chinese
Cuneiform Chinese writing Parchment parchment scroll
The first true written The first surviving Chinese Made from dried and
script is developed by the writing appears on oracle processed animal skins,
Sumerians of Mesopotamia. bones, used in divination. parchment becomes a
Writing with a reed stylus This ancient script is still popular medium for writing
creates a wedge-shaped in use today. Chinese script around the 6th century BCE,
impression on tablets of wet involves 50,000 characters taking over from papyrus, a
clay, which then dry hard. that stand for words. paper made from reeds.

28

THE STORY OF WRITING

THE STORY OF

WRITING

FROM CAVE PAINTINGS TO THE DIGITAL AGE, WRITING IN ITS VARIOUS FORMS HAS ALWAYS BEEN AN IMPORTANT PART OF OUR CIVILIZATION

The development of writing was an amazing breakthrough, as it allowed
people to communicate over distance and record information for posterity.
Writing evolved separately in different cultures: in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and
the Indus Valley before 2500 BCE and later in Crete, China, and Mesoamerica.

Some scholars think that prehistoric cave paintings Writing systems can be divided into three types, Roman mosaic Modern sign
featuring images and symbols constitute a form of according to the function of the signs used:
writing. The first true script was developed by the logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic. However, PICTOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS
Sumerians of Mesopotamia (now Iraq) around some scripts make use of two types of signs. In
3300 BCE. Soon, a number of different ancient logographic scripts, each sign stands for a whole
cultures had developed writing, usually to keep word; Chinese writing is an example, although it
economic records or keep track of time. As writing also uses syllabic signs. The drawback is that a very
developed, it was commonly used to reinforce the large number of symbols are needed (Chinese has
authority of rulers. Many early texts, including 50,000 characters). In syllabic scripts, signs stand
monumental ones in stone, glorify the deeds of for syllables. A smaller but still large number of
kings and attribute their success to divine approval. signs are needed—700 in Babylonian cuneiform.
In alphabetic scripts, each sign stands for a sound.
Far fewer symbols are needed—usually around 26. Pictograms, or picture signs, are an ancient form
The first alphabets developed in the Levant between of communication. Some scholars do not consider
1450 and 1150 BCE. For years, the spread of writing pictograms to be “true” writing, since the symbols
was limited by the labor involved in hand-copying do not convey the sounds of words in any language.
texts, but this changed with the invention of For example, the pictures above—from a house
printing. In the late 20th century, writing became in Roman Pompeii dating to 79CE, and a modern
electronic with the invention of word processors. sign—convey the same warning. The symbol
In the 1990s, the spread of information was again can be read in any language—for instance, as
revolutionized by the arrival of the Internet. canis, chien, Hund, or dog. Those words convey
the same idea but reproduce the sounds of different
Ancient texts in the digital world languages—Latin, French, German, and English.
Nowadays, ancient texts can be viewed digitally. Pictograms have limited use but remain
Here, a student examines a digitized page of the Codex widespread, appearing, for example, on street
Sinaiticus, handwritten in Greek over 1,600 years ago. signs, maps, and clothes labels.

7th century c. 1450 1884 1990–present
Arabic script Invention of printing
The Arabic alphabet is In medieval times, the laboriousness The fountain pen Text messaging
used to write down the of copying by hand limits the
Qur’an, the holy book spread of writing. The invention The first practical fountain In the 1990s, the first text
of Islam. Its use spreads of printing using movable type
with the Islamic faith to makes writing far more accessible. pen is produced by American messages are sent via mobile
become one of the world’s In 1500, an estimated 35,000 texts
most widely used scripts. are in print. inventor L. E. Waterman, phones. Texting becomes very

and quickly replaces the popular in the 2000s. In 2009,

quill pen. Ballpoints, more than 1.5 trillion

Medieval invented by László Bíró, Waterman text messages
Qur’an
are in use by the 1940s. fountain pen are sent. Smartphone

4th century 7th–9th centuries 1867–1868 1965
The codex Illuminated manuscripts Writing enters the digital age
The codex, or manuscript In early medieval times, the The typewriter In the mid-1960s, the first
in book form, gradually use of writing spreads through electronic messages (emails)
supersedes the roll of the copying of Christian texts. American inventor Christopher are sent from one computer to
parchment. Originally Illuminated manuscripts are another. Emails become popular
developed by the Romans, highly decorative, with ornate Latham Sholes helps to build with the spread of personal
the use of codices spreads capital letters and marginal computers in the 1980s.
with the Christian religion. illustrations. the first practical typewriter.

The patent is sold to

Remington, which puts

the first typewriters The Remington

Book of Durrow on sale in 1874. Model I

29

2000–1850 BCE 1850–1790BCE

Egyptian hieroglyphics involved the use of pictorial signs. This example
is from a coffin from the Middle Kingdom period.

THE MINOAN CIVILIZATION, named the administration, religious worshipped in Minoan shrines 40
after the legendary King Minos, facilities, and state storerooms. seem to have been female, with THE NUMBER
flourished on the Aegean island Those at Knossos, Phaestos, a goddess of nature being the
of Crete in the early 2nd Mallia, and Zakros were most popular. However, details of OF DAYS IT
millennium, reaching its peak particularly impressive, judging by Minoan culture remain obscure, TOOK TO
between 2000 and 1600BCE. It is their remains. Around 1700BCE, since the Minoan scripts, known as MUMMIFY
thought that Crete’s prosperity these palaces were burned down, Cretan hieroglyphic and Linear A, A BODY
was based on the export of and only Knossos was rebuilt, on have yet to be deciphered.
pottery, gold, and bronze, as well a more magnificent scale than extending Egypt’s borders as far Shang bronze
as possibly grain, wine, and oil, before, suggesting its dominance In Egypt, King Mentuhotep as the second cataract of the Nile. This bronze plate was found at
to Egypt, Cyprus, and Palestine. over the entire island. The palace had reunited the country at the Nubia yielded gold, copper, and Erlitou, and is of the Xia period. It is
The Minoans established colonies was five stories high, with rooms end of the 3rd millennium (see slaves to swell the ranks of inlaid with turquoise mosaic, believed
in many parts of the Aegean, opening onto inner courtyards. 2350–2000BCE). Yet the second of Egypt’s army. Around a century to represent a dragon’s scales.
including the islands of Kythera, This mazelike complex is thought Egypt’s eras of strong, centralized later, Senwosret III also made
Thera, Melos, and Rhodes, and at to have given rise to the labyrinth rule only began with the reign of Levant a vassal state of Egypt. IN CHINA, THE SHANG
Miletos on the Turkish mainland. in the legend of the Minotaur, a Amenemhet I, from about CIVILIZATION developed along
bull-headed monster. 1985BCE, during the Middle Middle-Kingdom Egypt was the Yellow River by 1850BCE.
The farmlands of Crete were Kingdom. In 1965BCE, his more democratic than it was According to legend, China’s first
ruled from cities with central Bulls certainly featured in successor Senwosret I conquered during the Old Kingdom period. dynasty was the Xia, but current
palaces that housed workshops, Minoan ceremonies. The deities the land of Nubia to the south, Rulers presented themselves as archaeological evidence points
shepherds of the state rather than to Shang as the first dynasty.
absolute monarchs. The process At Erlitou in Henan province,
of mummification, once confined archaeologists have uncovered
to kings, was now permitted for a palace complex built on a
ordinary citizens. In order to
preserve it as a permanent home 20,000
for the spirit, the body was dried
in natron salt, its vital organs were THE NUMBER
removed, and it was stuffed with OF CLAY
linen and wrapped in bandages. TABLETS SO
FAR FOUND
Charging bull AT MARI
Minoan rituals included a bull-leaping
ceremony, in which athletes grasped
the bull’s horns and vaulted over
its back.This Knossos fresco dates
back to c. 1500BCE.

c. o2f0dA0oMs0mheBuinsCroaEbpnCeotictitnaoymmnoiearsthern c. 1270A50r0pc0oBt–oipCcfuAEtSlhlasmaeetsiaItkontlalnlue,TaitGaoc,nrrosoeclpsseersnsetlaCoadanrsndfraodma to c. K1i9sn8tgaM5bA–iidml1idt9eyl5ent5eoKBmiECnhgEgeydptotImdburpirneingrgsiod c. R1e9oi6fg5En–go1yf9pSt2e0nBwCoEsret I c. o1f9aE0rrRo0luiiBvtneCodrEu,YCCceoihltnliyonswatructed 18S1h3na–omK1rt7iswhn8hegi1itr-dhnBAoiCdtMmsEaedcRos;aefocpiUpogitonpnatqplaouaemfetrirSaMshteuosbeoasptt-oaEbtnalilmsilhia,

c. 20a0ni0nAdBsmsCoqEeuurtCtraihcoaswardh;neel,csorutboneleutgraint-vnedaNssits,eoitndratnphclaece MciC.n 2roe0at0ne0cr–eiv1ai6lcihz0ae0tsBioChnEeoigfhtc. fi1r9s8t4dBynCaEsFtoyuonfdBinagbyolfon eoxtfeE1ng9dy6sp0stheBidscCeokEfeninSadgetcsdnaowNtmauorsbaaricasettfaoaInnrdaNsile c. 19d0e0veBslComEpaiTnlolgwkiinnnsgAadnnoadmtoslia c. 1Ign9rd0aud0dsu–eac1cli7lvliy0nil0aeizbsBaa;CtnciEoidtnoiensed

30

1790–1650 BCE

KEY ASIA ,, ,,IF A MAN PUTS OUT THE EYE

Area of Shang influence Yellow River Bo Hai OF AN EQUAL, HIS EYE SHALL
Taixicun BE PUT OUT.
Shang city
Xi’ang Xingtai Shandon ngtze River g Law Code of Hammurabi, king of Babylon
Shang China Shang capital East China Sea
The middle course of the Yellow River 1400–1300 BCE Anyang Yellow
was the heartland of the Shang Shang capital Sea
civilization c. 1800–1100BCE. From Huixian 1300–1027 BCE
here, Shang influence, such as
bronze-working, spread elsewhere. Luoyang Zhengzhou WHEN THE ASSYRIAN KING measure as the crime committed
Shang capital SHAMSHI-ADAD died in 1781BCE, (“an eye for an eye”). However, it is
platform of compressed earth. Erlitou 1600–1400 BCE he was succeeded by his son thought that the law code was
They have also unearthed bronze Ishme-Dagan. During his reign, more of a moral statement of
vessels. Evidence suggests that Huai River Assyria declined, allowing the principle than an enforced judicial
many features that were to state of Babylon to come to the system. As such, the code bound
characterize Chinese society later, Henan fore. During the reign of Shamshi- the powerful and wealthy as well
such as a strong bureaucracy Adad, Babylon was probably a as ordinary people; the strong
and the worship of ancestors, Panlongcheng vassal state of Assyria, but as were exhorted to refrain from
date back to this time. Ya Assyria declined, King Hammurabi oppressing the weak.
of Babylon saw his chance to seize
In southern Asia, the Indus Wucheng a wider kingdom. From 1760BCE,
civilization, which had thrived Hammurabi embarked on a series
during the 3rd millennium (see Long-distance trade routes linked in c. 1894BCE. In the north, the city of conquests, which made
2500–2350BCE), went into a coastal towns with communities of Ashur became an important Babylon the region’s foremost
decline by around 1800BCE. in Andean valleys to the east and trading center in the 20th century state. Between 1763–1762BCE,
Scholars believe that this was beyond. This allowed for the BCE. In 1813BCE, it was taken over he defeated Elam to the east and
partly caused by the changes in spread of pottery from Colombia by the Amorite king Shamshi- Larsa, which controlled Sumer, to
the regimes of the rivers that to Peru by 1800BCE. Meanwhile, Adad, who carved out a kingdom the south. In 1757–1755BCE, King
provided water for irrigation. in North America, crops such in northern Mesopotamia. This Hammurabi conquered much of
Cities seem to have been ravaged as sunflowers and gourds began kingdom was a forerunner of the northern Mesopotamia and took
by diseases such as cholera and to be cultivated in the east. Greater Assyrian Empire of the the city of Eshnunna after
malaria. Trade with Mesopotamia 9th century BCE (see 900–800BCE). diverting its water supply.
also declined. Meanwhile, new In Western Asia, the fall of the
crops such as millet and rice were Ur III Empire led to the rise of two Clay tablets recovered from Hammurabi introduced the
introduced. All these factors seem states—Assyria in the north and Mari in central Mesopotamia hold Babylonian law code in the region
to have led to a decline in urban Babylon in the southeast—which records of trade and tributes under his control. Its 282 laws
culture, characterized by writing were to dominate Mesopotamia levied by Assyria from vassal- covered property, family, trade,
and a centralized bureaucracy, in for the next 1,500 years. The first states. Writing from this period and business practices. The Law
favor of a rural-based culture. dynasty of Babylon was established included copies of the earliest Code of Hammurabi is famous
for punitive laws that meted out
In South America, large-scale surviving work of literature, punishments in the same
cultivation was taking place along The Epic of Gilgamesh.
the Pacific coast by about
1800BCE. Substantial settlements Sumerian hero Set in stone
such as El Paraíso and Sechin Tablets and stone carvings Hammurabi’s code was inscribed on
Alto in Peru were dominated by from the Old Babylonian stone pillars called stele. This stele
massive temple complexes. period provide a record of shows the god of justice Shamash
the Epic of Gilgamesh, (left) dictating laws to the king.
previously passed down
in the oral tradition.

c. c1i8vini0li0CzBhaiCtniEoanShbaenggins 17R9e2oi–fgB1Bna7aMob5bfeyp0yHlsrlBoouooaCnnmspmEi;eoaumetntalshgumEtraaromtaibuaeblpgsiaisihrnahoedeluesintghailsceomdepfiroer 17d6a6StehBTaCfaonECnrghgTfir,donaayuedcnnsicatdeoisoirhntndyigsainbtloogyfrtKyoing c. s1c7ur5sip0etBicnCoECmLreeintseeinarto A

c. 180c0eBnCteErCoefrbLeuamilFotlnioniraiPldearu cce.r 1e7cmo5on0nsoBitfaCrSluEcceLotceamhdrigpnienlAexPlteoru 3 1c. 172s5taBrCtEoEfMgSiydePpdcetolertnoiKdordinInn(gbttodyeorucmm.n 1reie5nds4ita0;tBeCE)

3000–700 BCE EARLY CIVILIZATIONS to Central and
Sardinia Northern Europe

AFRICA MYCENAEAN
GREECE

Sicily Ionian Gla WILUSA
Sea Thebes Troy

Orchomenos Athens SEHA
RIVER MASA
Mycenae LAND

Pylos Apasa MIRA
Menelaion
ARZAWA

Miletus

LUKKA

Tiryns

Knossos

Crete

Mediterranean Sea

The importance of trade TRADE COMMODITIES timber glass
Trade was essential to supply societies with the raw gold grain faience objects
materials and manufactured goods needed for daily life silver ivory turquoise
(such as metals and lumber), for displaying status (such as tin ivory objects murex dye
fine weaponry), or for embellishing religious monuments copper perfumed oils seashells
and royal palaces (such as lapis lazuli). Trade also promoted fine metalwork olive oil horses
the spread of knowledge, technology, and ideas. fine pottery wine weapons
textiles
KEY Elam A R
Mycenaean Greece New Kingdom Egypt H A
Hittite Empire Arzawa A
Mitanni Trade routes c.1350BCE S to sub-Saharan Africa
Assyria
Kassite Babylonia

ANCIENT EMPIRES

THE BIRTH OF ADVANCED SOCIETIES

In the 3rd millennium BCE, states emerged in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the THE WORLD PICTURE
Indus. Urban society was consolidated in Western Asia in the 2nd millennium,
and powerful states vied for control of lands; in contrast, in South Asia, towns Urbanism and complex societies became more
disappeared. Complex societies emerged in China and the Americas. widespread during the 2nd millennium BCE.
While they shared many features such as
The exceptional agricultural productivity of the increasingly focused on urban centers, and came trade, high agricultural productivity, dense
Nile, Euphrates, Indus (see p.26), and Yellow (see into competition for resources and markets. populations, and their managerial needs, urban
p.31) river valleys undoubtedly played a part in the High-level diplomacy was essential to the smooth societies took many different forms. In the
precocious emergence of civilizations in these operation of international trading networks and Americas, large ceremonial complexes with
regions. So did international trade, which was also to success in inter-state power struggles. Royal residential suburbs provided the focus for the
important in the development of the first New letters found in the Egyptian capital, Akhetaten communities of the wider region, strongly
World civilizations. Trade also enabled many (Amarna), provide a fascinating picture of relations connected by shared religion and trade.
neighboring societies to achieve prosperity: between the 14th-century BCE rulers of the rival
through time they developed complex cultures great states of the eastern Mediterranean. Advanced centers KEY
This map shows Chavín
,, ,,FOR A LONG TIME WE HAVE established and Olmec Assyria
emerging civilizations Shang Hittites
HAD GOOD RELATIONS BETWEEN in the later 2nd Mycenaeans Mitanni
US KINGS… millennium BCE. Egypt Elam
Societies of farmers Babylonia
Babylonian king Burnaburiash II to Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten, and hunter-gatherers
from the Amarna letters, 14th century BCE occupied other
regions.

32

Black Sea KINGDOMS OF ANCIENT EGYPT
The Nile Valley's exceptional agricultural
TUMMANNA fertility promoted the early development
of urbanism in Egypt. Settlements clung
PALA KASKAS to the Nile delta and riverbanks, beyond Cyprus
which lay arid desert. The great mineral Mediterranean Sea
Hattusas UPPERLAND resources of the flanking desert regions
and Nubia, which included gold, were
HITTITE URUADRI important both for domestic use and to Nile Delta
EMPIRE (URARTU) support international trade.
HAPALLA LOWER Memphis
Giza
Saqqara Sinai
ISUWA
EGYPT

TA R H U N TA S SKAIZZUWACTNaArchemish Eastern
Desert

Nile R

DWEESSETRE Abydos e
UPPER
Washshukanni R N EGYPT d Sea
T MEDJA
MUKISH Harran Elephantine
Nineveh KEY
Alalah Arbil Trade routes NUBIA
Aleppo Emar
Ugarit MITANNI ASSYRIA Capital cities SATJU
Cyprus Arwad YAM NDUEBSIEARNT
(Alashiya) NIYA Eup Ashur SAHARA
Tunip
Tigris
Qatna hrates
Qadesh

Simurru Labwe to Afghanistan

Byblos Kumida Dur-Kurigalzu Old Kingdom c. 2686–2181BCE
Rulers exercised centralized control
Sidon Hazor BABYLONIA and commanded impressive resources,
Tyre as shown by the pyramids at Giza.
Gaza Shechem Babylon SEALAND Susa ELAM

Jerusalem Nippur
Lachish
Sharuhen Uruk
Ur
Anshan
Memphis Cyprus

Persian Gulf Liyan Mediterranean Sea

Avaris
(Tell el-Dab’a)

capital

Akhetaten LOWER c.1650–1550 BCE
Memphis Sinai
EGYPT
EGYPT
Itjtawy

capital Eastern
c.1985–1650 BCE Desert

Red Sea
Nile
Red Sea DWEESSETRE R N Waset (Thebes)
T Karnak
Nile
UPPER

DILMUN capital EGYPT

Thebes c.2055–1985 BCE

and c.1650–1550 BCE NUBIA

Arabian SAHARA WAWAT
Peninsula NDUEBSIEARNT

KUSH

to Punt Middle Kingdom c. 2040–1640 BCE
Decorated tombs record prosperous life
under the stable 12th dynasty, but the
state disintegrated under later rulers.

Siberia Cyprus
Mediterranean Sea
Hattusas Per-Ramesse (Qantir)

Mycenae Anyang
Xi’ang
Babylon Ashur LOWER Sinai
Memphis Susa Zhengzhou EGYPT
PACIFIC Memphis
SAHARA OCEAN
ATLANTIC Eastern
OCEAN Akhetaten (Amarna) Desert

San DWEESSETRE Red Sea
Lorenzo Nile
R N Waset (Thebes)
T
UPPER
EGYPT

Chavín de ATLANTIC INDIAN SAHARA NUBIA
Huántar OCEAN OCEAN NDUEBSIEARNT

PACIFIC KUSH
OCEAN

New Kingdom c. 1550–1069 BCE
Egypt reached its greatest power and
prosperity, conquering Nubia and the
Levant, and building several temples.

33

1650–1550 BCE 1550–1400 BCE

Hattusas, the Hittite capital, was founded by Hattusalis I Built over 300 years, the temple complex at Karnak, Egypt, includes the world’s
in 1650BCE and destroyed in 1180BCE. largest temple, dedicated to Amun-Re, the patron deity of the pharaohs.

AFTER HAMMURABI’S DEATH in IN c. 1550BCE, THE THEBAN KING Egyptian religion was very on the Greek mainland. Its
1750BCE, the Babylonian Empire Ahmose I (r. 1550–1525BCE) complex. Every village, town, and people are now known as the
(see 1850–1790BCE) declined. drove the Hyksos from Lower district had its own patron deity. In Mycenaeans, after the fortress-
At the same time, other powers Egypt, ushering in the third paintings and sculptures, many palace of Mycenae, believed to be
were on the rise, such as the period of settled rule in Egypt, deities were shown with animal the home of the mythical king
Hurrians of Mitanni in Syria, and known as the New Kingdom heads, representing their most Agamemnon from Homer’s Iliad.
the Hittites of Anatolia in Turkey. (c. 1550–1070BCE). During this important attributes. For example, However, the Mycenaeans
By 1650BCE, the Hittites had time, Egyptian rulers assumed the falcon god Horus protected
built an extensive kingdom in IRON-WORKING the king, while the ibis-
central Anatolia, with its capital 2000 headed Thoth was the
at Hattusas. The Hittites had The Hittites developed iron patron god of scribes.
developed advanced bronze- and smelting by c. 1500BCE. At THE NUMBER
ironworking skills, and they were first, iron was used only in OF NAMES FOR By 1600BCE, a
also known to be fierce fighters. luxury objects, such as in the GODS AND new civilization
In 1595BCE, the Hittite king decoration of this box from GODDESSES emerged
Mursilis (r. 1620–1590BCE) raided Acemhoyek. Later, as IN ANCIENT
Babylon and expanded his technology developed, iron EGYPT
empire. However, he was killed was used to create superior
soon after, and the empire shrank weapons. Though the Hittites
back for about a century. traded iron goods, they kept
this technology secret for
In Egypt, the Middle Kingdom about 300 years. Around
(see 2000–1850BCE) was waning 1200BCE, ironworking spread
to Greece, and then to
Central Europe by c. 750BCE— the title “pharaoh,” meaning
the dawn of the Iron Age. “great house.” A succession of
warrior kings campaigned to
Man and beast by 1670BCE, partly due to erratic expand Egypt’s boundaries Mask
The Hittite Empire was known for its floods in the Nile. As regional once more. Tuthmosis I of gold
bronze craftsmanship. Bronze governors became more (r. 1504–1492BCE) drove the German
weapons and artifacts fetched a high powerful, civil war broke out. Nubians back in the south and archaeologist
price. This statuette of a man and a Outsiders soon took advantage recaptured Sinai and parts of Heinrich
horse was probably a commission. Syria and Palestine. Under Schliemann found this
of the unrest. The Nubians Tuthmosis III (r. 1479–1425 BCE), funerary mask at a grave
won back lands that the Egypt controlled a strip along the in Mycenae, and claimed it
Egyptians had taken earlier Mediterranean coast and north of belonged to King Agamemnon.
(see 2000–1850BCE). In 1650BCE, the Euphrates (see p.33).
the Hyksos from the Levant
seized Lower Egypt, but The conquered states paid huge
Upper Egypt remained under the annual tributes to Egypt, a part of
control of Egyptian kings. which was spent building one of
the world’s largest religious sites
at Karnak and the impressive
mortuary temple of Queen
Hatshepsut (r. 1473–1458BCE).

c. e1s6itn5aH0bcelaBintsCtEhturHsOaailltsdAtianKtesaisntitogsldicaoa,mpwititahl c. o1n6T2thhb8eeuBrorCGanyEreitAenhreguvekpoMislitscsilnalaavonninoadodlnewonsiftethltyt,alesmh entsc. M15ue9rnfs5doiiBulniCnsgEdrtHeahdiietdtbsietymeBHapkabiirnmyeglmonu,rabi c. A1h5frm5oE0omgssyBeLpCoItE;wdTNrehiervewebEsagKnyHipnkytgkintdsogoormseupneitrceio. Hd1i5bitr5teoi0tgneiB-nsCssEdmeevletlionpg technology c. w15oSr0ak0heaBdCrEianCrteohgpeipoenr c. E1g5Ny0eps0wttrBioaiCKfvnEetishnf,egoMdrLoiectmaovnnaHntnrtiiot,tlaitneds c. A1r5Ry0uan0snosssr–itafh9rmeo0rm0ingBrsCInaoEtdueitahtoern
c. 1e5mK00ienndrBogygCrndeEtaohnHsmectiretyntdoioetMffecHMelOisuniltordeaprsnio;antnai imnia
3 4Hyck. sE1o6gs5yIncp0oottf–endt1rqhmu5uer5eeiL0ndregBiLavCSoatEeenwctPeoernrdiod c.c 1iv6i0li0ztaBhtCeiEoGnMreeymceekenrmageaeaisnnpolchan.an 1rda5o7oh0fssthaBeCreEKFbiniurgrssiteEndegianyprVtTiaahlnleecby.ne 1esI5wra7ne0mBbCepEgiurKiennaiictsnirsneBigtaaettbsihoyeonlofronefigai,on c. 150o0f BmCEetEavliwdeonrinkciePnegru c. c1o5Km0a0pr–lne1ax2kac0tot0enTmBshCtpeErlbueectsed

1400–1300 BCE

Tutankhamun was buried with fabulous treasure. This detail from the
pharaoh’s throne shows him being anointed by his wife Ankhesenamun.

probably called themselves MACEDONIA THRACE Black Sea IN c. 1352 BCE, AMENHOTEP IV, Since the 1570s BCE, Egypt’s
Ahhiyawa. They had migrated a religious reformer, became pharaohs had been buried in
from the Balkans or Anatolia Sea of Egypt’s pharaoh. He broke with rock-cut tombs in the Valley
about 500 years earlier. Their Marmara the traditional religion, with its of the Kings, on the west bank
lands were a patchwork of small pantheon of gods, and initiated of the Nile. Rulers hoped their
kingdoms, each later dominated THESSALY Lemnos the worship of a single god, Aten, tombs would be safe from
by a palace-citadel such as the Iolcus Lesbos or sun-disk. He changed his name robbers, but almost all the
ones at Mycenae, Tiryns, and to Akhenaten, meaning “living tombs were robbed of their
Pylos. They spread their influence Ionian Orchomenus Sporades Aegean Anatolia spirit of Aten,” and founded a new rich goods. However, in 1922,
through trade. After the collapse Islands Gla Euboea Sea capital between Thebes and British archaeologist Howard
of the Minoan Empire c. 1450BCE, Miletus Memphis. He named it Akhetaten, Carter found Tutankhamun’s
the Mycenaeans took over several Ionian Gulf of Corinth Thebes Chios anese meaning “horizon of Aten.” tomb virtually intact. The
sites formerly occupied by the Sea shrine room had four gilded
Minoans, including Knossos. Mycenae Dendra Athens Akhenaten’s religious reforms shrines, holding the king’s
After c. 1400BCE, they also took were believed to have been coffin and mummy with a solid
over Minoan trade networks Argos Tiryns Aegina unpopular, especially with the gold mask. The other rooms
and established settlements influential priestly elite. After his contained jewelry, furniture,
Peloponnese Cyclades Dodec death in c. 1336 BCE, his son golden statues, and musical
on Rhodes, Kos, and the Menelaion Tutankhamun ascended the instruments.
Anatolian mainland. Pylos Vapheio Melos Phylakopi throne at the age of nine. He
The Mycenaeans restored the old gods
inherited Minoan arts Thera and abandoned the new
and crafts, adapting capital. Tutankhamun is
the Linear A script Sea of Crete Rhodes believed to have died
to write an early under mysterious
form of Greek Mediterranean Chania Knossos circumstances at 18,
known as the Sea Crete and was hastily buried
Linear B script. in a minor tomb. It was
They were great Phaistos thought for years that
traders, and Tutankhamun died of a
ventured out to Sicily Aegean civilizations KEY blow to the head, but
and Italy. A ship Around 1450BCE Mycenaean Mycenaean site the latest evidence
believed to be of influence spread throughout the Mycenaean major palace suggests he died of
Canaanite origin, Aegean, including to several sites that blood poisoning after
wrecked off Uluburun on had been part of the Minoan Empire. breaking his leg in a
the coast of Turkey, was chariot crash while out
the Hurrians, Hittites, Elamites, by defensive walls. Kings and hunting in the desert.
found to contain tin from Iran Egyptians, and Kassites. In the nobles were buried in tombs,
or Afghanistan, copper and 1570sBCE, the Kassites had which held fabulous grave goods. Sun worship
pottery from Cyprus, ivory and gained control of Babylon. The Shang capital moved several Akhenaten instituted the
jewelry from Egypt, and However, by 1450BCE, the Hittite times during this period. Shang worship of the sun-disk
Mycenaean swords. New Kingdom was growing society was believed to be well Aten. In this relief carving
The late Bronze Age was a in influence, partly due to an organized and extremely found at Akhetaten
time of unrest in Western Asia. alliance with Egypt. Around this hierarchical. Writing began (modern el-Amarna), he
From 1550–1400BCE, there was time, the Mitanni dominated Syria, around 1900BCE. Most examples is seen worshipping the
a struggle between various but by the 1400s, the Hittites were of early writing took the form of sun with his wife Nefertiti.
powers in the region, including fighting for control of the region. oracle bones, attesting to the
Shang rulers’ practice of
In China, the Shang civilization consulting their ancestors on
(see 1850–1790BCE) flourished important decisions. Questions
around 1500BCE, with its rulers concerning the future were
dominating a large area of inscribed on the bone of an ox or
central China. However, the on a turtle shell, which was then
Shang had to regularly fend off struck with a hot metal tool.
threats to their kingdom from The way the bone cracked was
nomadic tribes to the north. believed to provide the answer.
Shang capitals were surrounded

c. w14oV0riek0tisnnaBgCmsEpBarnreodandTzsheat-oiland c. t1r4afr5do0imnBgCSEniceMitlywycoteornktahseetarLenetcvhaenst c. c1a4Zp0hiit0neanBlCCgmhEziohSnvohaeuasntfogroXmi’ang c. S1u31p03Sp03iy4slruBBilaCCiEu,ErmH)ibviatartsliieitnIefl(gyrk.Ei cn1go3gyn8pq0tu–ienrssize mAidsM-h1uiA3tras0nsb0nyrseriaBiaanCknEsrCupflorietewy;eeorfrifrsoemof
mid-140m0isgMBraCeEtleaLneaeapssiittaPawatapocreidcfioopcflrloioesnmliazneds dctea. sk1te4pro5acyol0eanBdctCe;rEosMMloyocninfetConharaeenetiasenlasnd ReignwoowfriAsthhmtiaEpcekg.nte yh1hspe3ott5’sthse2uepo–nnl1-IdaVd3mir;3seb6kelriBgAeACiatkoEekhnnsetanonadten
BTruietafnrekcih.g a1rnmeA3olk3uifgh6ntieho–;tne1oa3ltbrde2eonEs7yt-gBaokyCbripEeantdngiadanonnded

35

1300–1200 BCE 1200–1100 BCE

The facade of the temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel features four colossal seated The boulders used to make these walls, now in ruins, at Mycenae on the Greek
statues of the pharaoh, but the statue second from left has crumbled. mainland were so huge, later civilizations believed they were built by giants.

,,TOWARD THE END OF THE 2ND Ancient propaganda The late 2nd millennium BCE BETWEEN 1250 AND ABOUT 1050 could not prevent them from
MILLENNIUM BCE, the eastern A detail from the temple saw the resurgence of Ashur, BCE, many of the powers that colonizing the Levant.
,,Mediterranean and Western Asia of Ramesses II at Abu in what is now called the Middle had dominated Western Asia for
were a mosaic of empires, which Simbel shows the king Assyrian Empire (1350– centuries went into decline, and Around 1200BCE, the
comprised Egypt, Babylonia, Elam, firing an arrow, taking 1000BCE). Following the death of some disappeared altogether. The Mycenaean kingdoms entered a
Assyria, and the Hittites in Anatolia. on the Hittite army Shamshi-Adad in 1781 BCE (see eastern Mediterranean entered time of upheaval, a result of both
Borders fluctuated as each kingdom single-handed at the 1850BCE), Ashur had become a time of turmoil, and many internal disintegration and
strove to gain ascendancy over its Battle of Qadesh. a vassal first of Babylon, then coastal cities were laid waste by external threats. The defenses of
neighbors through conquest or of Mitanni. A revival of Ashur’s unknown invaders—written many Mycenean palaces were
diplomacy. In war and peace, vital the most famous was fortunes began under Ashur- records of the period give few strengthened. Records at Pylos
trade routes, through which tin and the Battle of Qadesh uballit I (r. 1363–1328BCE), who clues as to their identity. First to show the inhabitants feared attack
copper for bronze reached the (c. 1274BCE). Although broke free of Mitannian rule and succumb were the Hittites, whose from the sea. By 1100BCE, most of
region, remained intact. Ramesses claimed carved out a kingdom in northern capital Hattusas was sacked the Mycenaean palaces had been
victory at Qadesh, the Iraq. His later successors, and abandoned c. 1200BCE. sacked and abandoned. This
A frequent flashpoint for conflict battle is believed to Shalmaneser I and Tukulti- By c. 1180BCE, Hittite possessions triggered the so-called Dark Age
was the Levant (modern Syria and have been inconclusive, Ninurta I, continued to gain in the Levant were lost and the of Greece, when writing fell out of
Lebanon), which Egypt had lost to and the Hittites held on territory, expanding the kingdom’s empire fragmented. use, not to be reintroduced until
the Hittites following the reign to the region. borders west to conquer eastern the Homeric age (see 800BCE).
of Akhenaten (see 1350BCE). In the Mitanni and briefly, from 1225– These conflicts were most likely
13th century BCE, Pharaoh Seti I and In 1259BCE, after 1216BCE, southeast to Babylonia. instigated by the waves of migrants In the late Bronze Age, parts of
his son Ramesses II campaigned further campaigns in known collectively as the Sea Europe came to be dominated by
to win it back. Ramesses’ 67-year Syria, Ramesses tried In the Aegean, the Mycenaean Peoples. These warlike peoples the Urnfield Culture—named
reign (r. 1279–1213BCE) was a different tactic, and palace-kingdoms of the Greek came from many different areas, after the practice of cremating the
negotiated a pioneering peace mainland continued to thrive. including Sicily, Sardinia, Greece, dead and burying the remains in
YOU ARE A treaty with the new Hittite king, Libya, and Anatolia. Whatever funerary urns, sometimes
GREAT WARRIOR Hattusilis III. Ramesses also took their origins, their movements accompanied by rich grave goods.
WITHOUT EQUAL, two Hittite princesses in marriage through the eastern Mediterranean This culture originated in the
VICTORIOUS IN (he had about seven wives in total). in c. 1200–1100BCE led to attacks Danube region in 1300BCE, and
SIGHT OF THE Following the treaty, Ramesses on Cyprus, Egypt, Anatolia, and spread to Italy and central and
kept up a friendly correspondence Canaan and Syria in the Levant. eastern Europe in the following
,,WHOLE WORLD. with the Hittite ruler, which was In 1178BCE, the Egyptian pharaoh centuries.
recorded on clay tablets in Ramesses III drove the Sea
Inscription commemorating the Akkadian cuneiform script. Peoples from Lower Egypt, but Between 1200 and 700BCE iron
victory of Ramesses II at Qadesh technology spread northward
Ramesses also embarked from Greece to Central Europe.
a time of stability and prosperity on an extensive program of
for Egypt. Through a combination monument-building. On Egypt’s THEY CAME BOLDLY
of war, diplomacy, and strategic southern border with Nubia, he SAILING IN THEIR WARSHIPS
marriage, Ramesses sought constructed the magnificent
to extend Egyptian influence to temple of Abu Simbel. He founded ,,FROM THE MIDST OF THE
Western Asia. In the 1270sBCE, he a new capital at Per-Ramesses in
fought a series of wars with the Lower Egypt, although Thebes in SEA, NONE BEING ABLE TO
Hittite king, Muwattalis II, of which Upper Egypt remained an WITHSTAND THEM…
important center. West of Thebes
he built a vast mortuary temple, An inscription by Ramesses II (r. 1279–1213), referring to the Sea Peoples
which doubled as a palace, court,
and center of learning.

c. F1a3sr0pmG0reae–nanr1odsg0ret0tahhsn0erdBBorCnuapEsgaIinhsndttoiihnarealists 12o7f9(RtoBaC1mE2Se1ts3asBreCtsEo)IfIrienigEngypt c. c1u2Pl0teu0rruBeCvEieaCmnheAarnvgdíenessin the c. e1m20e0rgBeCsE OinlmMeecxiccuolture c. R11al8amss4ettBasgCrsrEteesRsa(ettIioIpgI,hn1Ea1ogr5fay3opBhtC’,sE) c. E1m18p0irBeCEcHoliltatiptsees

c. c1u3l0tu0rBmeCEeidUmdrlenerfigDeealsdnriuenbgeion c.H 1i2tt7it4eBsCfiEgEhgtyapttitahnoesfBaQanatddtleesh c. 12o0f0HBaCtEtuHsitatsitedecsatpriotayled c. 1200inBrCtaEhiSedSeetLaadetPevbaseynotthpeles stMreyncgetnhaeenca.en 1df1de, 5ieanfr0deoBincCfsaEaettisntagck

36

,,1100–1000 BCE

,,WHEN ALL LONGINGS THAT ARE

IN THE HEART VANISH, THEN A
MORTAL BECOMES IMMORTAL…

Krishna Yajur Veda

Iron rapidly replaced bronze in heads clad in helmets. They also THE CLOSE OF THE 2ND MILLENNIUM In China, a new dynasty replaced sacred writings. Sanskrit, an Indo-
tools and weapons, signaling the established long-distance trade SAW MAJOR CHANGES in the the Shang in 1027BCE, when King European language related to
end of the Bronze Age. routes. Meanwhile, other cultures power politics of West Asia. Wu of the Zhou defeated the last Iranian and almost all European
were emerging, such as at Cerro In 1070BCE, the Egyptian New Shang ruler, Di-Xin. The Zhou languages, is also the ancestor
In Mesoamerica, the region’s Sechin, in what is now Peru. Kingdom ended and Egypt dynasty was to rule China for of modern languages such as
first great civilization, the Olmec, entered a time of unrest called 700 years. This long era is usually Hindi and Urdu.
was emerging in the lowlands of Stone warrior the Third Intermediate Period, divided into two periods: the
Mexico’s southern Gulf coast. The Monumental carvings from temples which lasted until 747BCE (see Western and Eastern Zhou. Sacred writings called the
Olmecs built ceremonial centers, at Cerro Sechin on the Peruvian 800–700BCE). Historians believe During the first era, the Zhou capital Vedas were transmitted orally
including San Lorenzo, constructed coast show warriors, torture victims, that the power of the pharaohs was Zongzhou. This was a time in Sanskrit for many centuries.
temples and houses on earthen and human sacrifices. had been eroded by a priestly elite of prosperity and strong central Although the Vedas are largely
mounds, and carved huge stone who had gained control of many control. Zhou territory was divided religious writings and hymns,
areas. By 1000BCE, all of the into fiefs held by trusted noblemen, the geographical information that
territories won by New Kingdom in return for military allegiance. they contain not only describes
pharaohs had been lost. But many aspects of Chinese the gradual spread of farmers
tradition already present in the and pastoralists from the Punjab
In Mesopotamia, there were Shang period continued in the Zhou, to the Ganges basin, but also
frequent wars between the including ancestor worship and the gives some information about
Babylonians, Assyrians, and use of oracle bones for divination. conflicts with other groups, and
Elamites; the region was also local life at the time. For example,
subjected to devastating raids by Meanwhile, in Japan, the Jomon the division of society into
Aramaean nomads from the west. culture, named after the cord varnas or castes is described
patterns (jomon) that decorate its in the Vedas, first appearing in
Meanwhile, other powers were pottery, continued. The Jomon Book X of Rigveda, although there
rising in the region. A Semitic- people were still hunter-gatherers, is nothing in the text to suggest
speaking people, who called albeit prosperous and sedentary. that the system was hereditary
themselves Canaanites, had at the time.
inhabited the Levant for centuries, In northern India, small groups
living in city-states that controlled of nomadic pastoralists had been
the surrounding territory. They migrating into the Ganges basin
were skilled seafarers and played from Central
a major role in international trade. Asia since
By 1100BCE, Canaanite port cities the 1500sBCE.
such as Arwad, Byblos, Tyre, and By the
Sidon were expanding their 1100sBCE, most
operations, establishing trading had begun to
posts and colonies throughout the settle and cultivate
eastern Mediterranean. They crops. They spoke
traded cedarwood from Lebanon, Sanskrit, which became
glass- and ivory-ware, metal ores, the language of early Indian
and, most important, an expensive
purple dye made from murex Mark of a culture
shellfish. It was this luxury In this example of late-Jomon
commodity that caused them to pottery, the bowl and stand bear
be known by their more familiar the distinctive rope patterns that
Greek name, the Phoenicians, give the Jomon period its name.
after phoinix, Greek for “purple.”

c. p1e1Ar0gi0oedBoCeEfnMGdrysecaeencnedaebDaeagnrikns 10T6h9PireBdCrEiIonSdtteainrrtmEoegfdypiatte 10S0aH6uBelCbaErsDekwaivnsigd(Iossrfuatcehcleeiteedss)

clai1mf0os2rf7SehBitCaeEndHKgMeiknaaigvnnegWdnahuttaoesroufle coPlohnoieensiactnhiadecn. pMs1o0eersd0ttsi0ateaBbrCrlroiEsauhnnedan

37

3 0 0 0 –7 0 0 BCE E A R LY C I V I L I Z AT I O N S knob is part of
locking device
neck is circled
by a collar

Perpauty and children bringing Decorated box of Perpauty
his wife offerings c. 1370BCE
This sycamore box belonging
to a man called Perpauty may
have held linen. All four sides
are painted with scenes. This
side shows Perpauty and his
wife being offered gifts by their
son and three daughters.

Cat figurine Statue with stele Duck-shaped flask
c. 600BCE c. 1360 BCE c. 1700 BCE
This copper alloy figurine sits on a A carved figure representing a high priest This jar is carved in the shape of a
wooden base. Cats were linked with of Amun holds a stele, or carved slab. These duck, which appears to be trussed
the goddess Bastet, who protected slabs were used as grave or commemorative and plucked. It probably held cosmetic
the pharaoh. A hole through the markers. The inscription is a hymn to the Sun paste, such as eye-paint, which was
nose originally held a ring. god and lists local dignitaries. likely removed and applied using a
stopper/applicator, now lost.
ANCIENT EGYPT
material is the rare
A REMARKABLE CIVILIZATION REVEALED THROUGH EVERYDAY ITEMS AND TREASURES blue stone anhydrite

Artifacts manufactured over some 2,000 years bear Mummiform shabti
witness to the skills of Egyptian craft workers. They also c. 1300BCE
reflect Egypt’s wealth and its trade network, through This large shabti figure
which ebony, lapis lazuli, and turquoise were imported. was carved from wood.
The tools the figure carries
Many of the objects shown here were used in daily life by well-to-do are traditional symbols of
Egyptians. They reflect belief in the afterlife and the practice of burying kingship, while the scarab
possessions that it was believed would be used by the dead person’s represents the god Khepri.
spirit in the afterlife. The ruling classes were buried with great wealth,
but almost all of their tombs were stripped of their riches either in scarab ornament
antiquity or more recently. on chest

mask of cartonnage—a combination details such
of plaster and linen as eyes are

modeled
in paler
wrappings

Shabtis lapis lazuli
1292–1190 BCE inlay
Statuettes of servant-figures called shabtis
were commonly placed in tombs. The Egyptians Mummified jackal or dog
believed they would come alive to serve the c. 600BCE
dead person’s spirit in the life to come. Jackals and, from the 8th century BCE
onward, also dogs were mummified in
Funerary mask honor of the jackal-headed god Anubis,
c. 1500 BCE who presided over funerals and embalmings.
This mask would have been placed over the head
of a mummy. The Egyptians mummified bodies
because the deceased spirit could not survive
unless there was a body for it to return to.

ANCIENT EGYPT

Necklaces Ear studs and earring backing for
c. 1550–1069BCE c. 1550–1069 BCE
Egyptian craftsmen had access Once the basic shapes for these Wooden comb mirror
to many semiprecious stones and studs and earring were made,
precious metals. Necklaces were strands of glass in a contrasting c. 300BCE
worn in daily life and also buried color were wound around
with the dead. them. The studs required large This double-sided comb has a
perforations in the wearer’s lobes.
gold band row of longer and shorter teeth.
purple amethyst Cosmetic spoon
c. 1360 BCE Many Egyptians had short hair handle and
ibex symbolizes grace This spoon for cosmetic paste and wore wigs. Combs were backing made
and mastery over the was carved from schist in the
natural world shape of an ibex, with its head used to keep both natural hair of ebony
bent over its back, so that its
disk representing sun straight horns touch the bowl. and wigs tidy.

Amulet Mirror handle
912–34 3 BCE c. 1360 BCE
The wedjat eye symbolizes This hardwood mirror setting
the eye of the god Horus. This originally held a polished
charm was placed on mummies bronze mirror disk. The handle
to protect the dead person’s is carved in the shape of a
spirit in the afterlife. It also papyrus column topped with
symbolized regeneration. the god Bes—a popular deity.

Male figure amulet Frog amulets
c. 2200BCE c. 1360 BCE
This golden charm shows a Frogs were a symbol of life
kneeling male god clasping and fertility. Women wore
two palm ribs. He is probably frog amulets for luck. These
the god Heh, who symbolized charms are made of blue
eternity. The palm ribs are faience (pottery) with details
notched, representing years. picked out in gold.

inlay held charm may
within cells have been part
of gold of a necklace

Scarab pectoral Winged scarab
c. 1361–52 BCE 644–322 BCE
This magnificent chest ornament Scarabs were common lucky charms.
represents the scarab god Khepri The scarab beetle was a symbol for
rolling the red sun-disk. It was found rebirth and was worn as jewelry
in the tomb of King Tutankhamun. in ancient Egypt.

39

1000–900 BCE 900–800 BCE

In the mid-10th centuryBCE, during the reign of King Solomon, Megiddo (in The jaguar featured in many Mesoamerican and South American religions.
modern Israel) was an important Israelite fortress and administrative center. Here it is depicted in a stone carving from Chavín de Huántar.

IN THE 10TH CENTURY BCE, THE SHALMANESER III (858–824 BCE) were skilled engineers and Grave goods
PERIOD OF DECLINE in the major architects who built canals and This Iron Age brooch
powers of Western Asia continued. In the 9th century BCE, King leveled slopes for farming and was discovered in a grave at Hallstatt
Egypt, Babylon, and Assyria had Shalmaneser III of Assyria construction. The main in Austria. The type of jewelry
weakened, enabling the rise of the greatly expanded his empire, settlement, Chavín de found suggests that a woman was
short-lived but historically with campaigns against Huántar, was high in the buried there.
significant Kingdom of Israel. Mesopotamian tribes, Israel Andes, and seems to have
The Israelites were Semitic- and Judah, Syria, Urartu, and been a pilgrimage center for a plied the western Mediterranean.
speaking pastoralists who, Anatolia. This black limestone cult of supernatural beings that Colonies were set up in Cadiz, in
according to the Bible, migrated obelisk commemorates his were part-human, part-animal. Spain, on the Balearic Islands,
into the land of Canaan in the deeds and those of his The main god, the “Staff God,” is and, most notably, on the North
1200sBCE. There, they came into commander-in-chief, Dayyan- usually depicted with fangs. African coast at Carthage (in
conflict with the local Philistines Assur. It details, in cuneiform, modern Tunisia). Through this
and Canaanites. Around 1000BCE the enforced tributes paid by In Europe, iron was gradually trading network, the Phoenician
King David (r. 1006–965 BCE) the people he conquered. replacing bronze as the metal of alphabet became known
united the Israelite tribes and choice for tools and weapons. The throughout the Mediterranean.
established his capital at Israel and, later, Judah became THE OLMEC CULTURE CONTINUED area around Hallstatt in Austria
Jerusalem. David’s son Solomon part of the Assyrian Empire. TO DEVELOP IN MESOAMERICA became a center for an early Iron In Western Asia, the Neo-
(r. c. 965–928BCE) increased in the 9th century BCE. After Age culture that developed from Assyrian Empire began to
Israelite territory and built a Meanwhile, Assyria began to San Lorenzo was destroyed the Urnfield culture (see 1200BCE). expand, and, one by one, Israel,
magnificent palace and temple in reemerge as a major power in in c. 900BCE, La Venta to the Hallstatt chieftains dominated Judah, and the small states of
the capital, but on his death the Mesopotamia. King Ashur-dan II northeast became the main local salt mining and ironworking. nearby Syria and Phoenicia were
kingdom split in two. Eventually (r. 934–912BCE) boosted agriculture, Olmec center. This larger They lived in hilltop forts and were brought under Assyrian control.
bringing prosperity. His successor settlement was dominated by buried with rich grave goods.
Etched in gold Adad-nirari II increased Assyria’s a 111ft (34m) high pyramid, the
This golden plaque showing the territory, regaining lands that had forerunner of Mayan temples. During the 9th century BCE, the
protective wedjat eye symbol dates been held by the Middle Assyrian The Olmecs also devised a script Phoenicians were becoming a
from the reign of Psusennes I of the Empire in the 13th century BCE. of glyphs—the first in the region. major power in the Mediterranean.
21st dynasty, when Egypt was divided. Their influence spread across Their trading ships, previously
Mesoamerica, impacting on other confined to the eastern sea, now
cultures that were starting to
emerge at this time—the KEY EUROPE
Zapotecs and the Maya.
Assyria Caere Black Sea
In eastern North America, the Pithekoussai
Adena culture was developing Egypt Athens Khorsabad
in the Ohio Valley. It was Carthage Corinth
characterized by ritual earthworks Phoenician Miletus Nimrud
and burial mounds containing colonies AFRICA
objects of fine craftsmanship. Gadir Sparta Al Mina
Phoenician nean Byblos
Far to the south, the Chavín city-states M Syracuse
culture had appeared in the editerr Babylon
Peruvian Andes by c. 1200BCE and Greek a S e a
spread to the coast. The Chavín colonies
Jerusalem
Greek
city-states Bast Tanis

Emerging
Etruscan
city-states

Mediterranean region
This map of the Mediterranean region in the 8th century BCE shows
the colonies established by the dominant civilizations of the period,
including the Phoenicians and Greeks.

c. G1r0teo0ei0fnkoBstuChnEbedeAgcieongloenaines c. u1n0ai0tneh0dsiBsmCthcEaaeKkpIiesintsragalJeDelarituveisdtarliebmes c. k1i0nfo0gu0dnoBdmCEedNofuKbuiasnh 96E6mBCpEirNeefoo-uAnsdseydrian 90n0oa–mc7ra0od0sssBCstEphrSeecsaytdtehpipaen 85w3ianBgCskEaiBinSnaghstattollcfemoDoaaaflnmiQteioasaenrsarclrueIIsdI by c.k8i4nb0gedcBooCEmmAeorsmf pUeornwaiaretnruful c. c8u0iln0tuEBrCueErHoappaepllesatarstt

bcHu.iil1ltl0tino0p0wBfeoCsErEttuesrronpe cocm. 1m0G0ua0nniBgtCieeEssFvasaerlmtlteliyen,dgInindia deAvdeelonpaacluolntcgu.rNO1eh0osri0ott0ahRrBAtiCsvmEetroerinica 965SBoClEoISsmrtaaorentl’so(tfroeK9iig2nn8gBinCE) 8b8e0cBoCmE Nesiomcf arAupsdistayrlia setctl.e8smi5tee0noBtCfEbRuEoiamltrleoieninstthItealy 814 BCEinCNarotrhthagAefPrfiohcuoanebdnyeictdhiaens c. 800HBuCáEnCtahrafvoínunddeed

40

800–700 BCE

In 705BCE, the Assyrian capital moved to Nineveh. This stone relief shows the Assyrian
king and his queen feasting in the gardens of the royal palace there.

ASSYRIA CONTINUED ITS POLICY Ritual container In China, the Zhou capital moved been embroiled in a Kushite statue
OF AGGRESSION through the 8th Zhou smiths were highly skilled east to Luoyang in 770BCE, destructive civil war and This alabaster statue dates
century BCE, conquering rival metalworkers. This bronze bowl marking the start of the earlier was now divided into from the period of Kushite
states in Western Asia and dates from the 8th century BCE, the part of the Eastern Zhou era, small states. In the 8th rule in Egypt. Amenirdis I,
reducing them to provinces. time of the Eastern Zhou dynasty. which lasted until about century BCE, the Kushite
Assyrian success was based 480BCE (see 500BCE). Royal ruler of Nubia to the sister of Shabaka (r. c. 716–
on a disciplined, technically Iran and Anatolia, conquering control had weakened, as the south, Piye (r. 747– 702BCE), is shown holding
advanced army and an efficient Babylon and, in 714BCE, defeating lords who held large fiefdoms had 716BCE), conquered a flail—a traditional
bureaucracy. Conquered peoples the Armenian state of Urartu. He grown more powerful. Now both Upper and
had to pay costly tributes, and also defeated the Israelites and central control disintegrated, and Lower Egypt, and symbol of Egyptian rule.
revolts were ruthlessly crushed. transported the “ten lost tribes” of rival warlords fought one another. united them under
Particularly troublesome nations Israel to northern Mesopotamia. Despite the chaos, this era was a Kushite rule. for their own language,
suffered forced deportations— time of technical and cultural and not long after, Homer’s
large numbers of people were advancement. Iron tools increased In the Mediterranean, epic poems the Iliad and
resettled in Assyria. efficiency in agriculture and food Phoenician influence the Odyssey—hitherto
production. Populations and cities continued to spread, transmitted orally—were
Following a period of weak rule grew, and philosophy, the arts, as the city of Carthage probably written down.
in the first half of the 8th century and literature began to develop. in North Africa grew
BCE, Tiglath-Pileser III (r. 744– In Egypt, the unrest of the Third powerful. Greece, In the 8th century BCE,
727BCE) recouped Assyria’s Intermediate Period continued. meanwhile, was starting central Italy was a mosaic
losses. His successor Sargon II Since 850BCE, the country had to emerge from the Dark of small states ruled by the
(r. 722–704BCE) campaigned in Age that had followed the dominant Etruscans—Italy’s
Mycenaeans’ downfall. first indigenous civilization—
City-states or poleis were ,, and Italic tribes such as the
forming on the Greek Latins, Umbrians, and
mainland, centered on Sabines. Rome is thought
hilltop citadels. To
increase their territory, the to have been founded by
poleis founded colonies the Latin chief Romulus
around the shores of the Aegean. in 753BCE. In its early
Although rivalry between cities days, the city, built on
was often intense, a distinct seven hills, was ruled by various
Greek identity and culture peoples, including the Etruscans,
was emerging. All Greeks were Latins, and Sabines.
identified as “Hellenes.” In 776BCE
the first pan-Hellenic games were SUCH A
held in honor of Zeus at Olympia. GREAT TASK
By the mid-700sBCE the Greeks had IT WAS TO
adapted the Phoenician alphabet
,,FOUND THE
Twin discovery
This painting by Charles de La Fosse ROMAN
depicts the legend of Romulus and RACE.
Remus, who were abandoned as
babies and suckled by a she-wolf, Virgil, from Aeneid 1:33
before being rescued by shepherds.

77H6eaBltClaeEOnnFtldiyhicrmeesgrvtpeaepiamraafyteinenfs-orGuhrreelyedecaer,s 77m1omBvCaEeErsaZksheitnoaegusrtnbcteaoZgphLiiontuaunoliypnaegnroigof,d c. o7f5EN0guByCbpEitaK, scuoesnnhdqituaeerrrmuinileegsristinbtyo747BCE c. t7a2k(t2eosB7CA0Es5SsBayCrrEgia)onntIhIrone 70m5oBvCeEsAtsosyNriinaenvceahpital

cG.r7eo7ef5kMBcCeoEdloSitnteairzrrtaatoinfoenan753fBoCrEfToruandditiinogbnyaolfRdRoamotmeuelus c. 7I5li0aBdCaEnwHdroiOtmtdeeynrs’dssoewy n Preiclieg. sn7e4br4eIBgIICinEosfTA(itgsolsa7yt2rhi7-aB’sCE) U7r1a4rBtuCEsaaSncadrregsdoancskitIsIediotesffeMmauatssjoursir 701 BiCnEvAadsseyJruiadnasea

41

3

THE
CLASSICAL AGE

700BCE–599CE

Culturally dynamic civilizations emerged in Greece, Rome,
Persia, India, and China, marking the beginning of the
Classical Age. The impact of Classical developments in
science, art, and politics is still felt to this day.

700–676 BCE 675–651 BCE
,,

,,
HE EVERYWHERE
SOUGHT EXCUSES FOR

,,STIRRING UP WAR.

Livy, from Histories book I, xxi, on Tullus Hostilius, third King of Rome

Pyramids from the cemetery at Nuri, Sudan, which was the burial site of the
Napatan and Meroitic kings from around 650BCE.

IN CHINA, THE CITY OF LUOYANG 7THE IT TOOK A CONCERTED CAMPAIGN ,,TAHARQA THE GODLESS
HAD FALLEN TO THE SHEN in NUMBER BY ASHURBANIPAL (r. 668–627BCE)
771BCE, and the Western Zhou OF in 664–663BCE to defeat the CAME OUT TO TAKE
capital was transferred east to KINGS Egyptians who had rebelled EGYPT.
Chengzhou. From there, the OF ROME against Assyrian rule, and to push
Eastern Zhou dynasty presided Assyrian control as far south as
over the fragmentation of China In Italy, the city-state of Rome
into as many as 148 states. From was beginning to acquire an urban Thebes (modern Luxor). This Ashurbanipal's account of the conquest of Egypt, 664 BCE
around 700BCE the Zhou were heart, and the first forum was was not the last rebellion against
ruled by puppet-emperors, while constructed. The second king
real power lay with the ba (“senior of Rome, Numa Pompilius the Assyrians—only ten years
one”) among nearby states. (r. 716–674BCE) is believed to have
Under Qi Huan Gong (r. 685– established the main Roman later, the vassal king of Saïs, The new ruler, Cypselus (reign assisted Psammetichus I of
643BCE), the state of Qi had priesthoods and a calendar.
supremacy. After Huan Gong’s Psammetichus I (r. 664–610BCE), c. 657–627BCE) relied on force of Egypt in his revolt against the
death the competition for power In the Near East, the Assyrians
between his five sons weakened continued their expansion, revolted against his Assyrian personality rather than divine Assyrians. He also adopted an
Qi, and Jin Wen Gong (r. 685– confronting Egypt, whose
643BCE), the ruler of Jin, rose to intermittent support for rebels masters, driving them out and sanction, and established a aggressive stance towards his
become ba. By the end of the against Assyrian rule in Syria had
century, power in China alternated long been a source of tension. In founding the 26th Dynasty, under dynasty under which Corinth neighbors, the Ionian Greeks of
among the states of Qi, Jin, 671BCE, the Assyrian ruler
Qin, and Chu. Esarhaddon invaded, capturing which Egypt’s independence was enjoyed a seven-decade period Miletus and Smyrna.
the Egyptian royal capital of
Nubian Pharoah Memphis. However, Assyrian restored. After the final collapse of dominance, creating colonies According to Japanese tradition,
Taharqa ruled Egypt for 19 years control over Egypt was weak,
before an Assyrian invasion forced and the Nubian pharaoh Taharqa of Assyrian power, in 609BCE, throughout the western the first emperor, Jimmu Tenno,
him to return to Nubia in 671 BCE. drove the invaders out.
Egypt was able to establish a Mediterranean. a descendant of the sun goddess
The Etruscans expanded
southward from modern foothold in Palestine under On the fringes of the Greek Amaterasu, ascended to the
Tuscany and Umbria around
700BCE. Their language remains Pharaoh Necho II (610–595BCE). world, in western Asia Minor, the throne in 660BCE. The stories
undeciphered, but lavish tombs
indicate a rich material culture. In Greece, the rise to kingdom of Lydia was increasing of his migration from southern
During their expansion, the
Etruscans founded cities such preeminence of a number of city in power under Gyges (685– Honshu eastward to establish
as Capua, but came into conflict
with Greek colonies and with states, notably Athens, Sparta, 647BCE), its first great king. He his kingdom near Nara are
Rome. Although more powerful
at first, the Etruscans were and Corinth, began. In Corinth, allied with Ashurbanipal of legendary, but may echo real
politically disunited, and a long
series of wars with the Romans a new type of ruler, the “tyrant,” Assyria to see off a joint threat events of the Japanese Yayoi
turned against them.
emerged with the overthrow of to their two lands by Cimmerian period after 100BCE, when tribal

the Bacchiadae kings in 658BCE. raiders in 668–665BCE, but then chieftains began to consolidate

their territories.

ASHURBANIPAL (r. 668–627 BCE) The third king of Rome, Tullus

Hostilius (r. 673–642BCE) was

Ashurbanipal initially shared more martially inclined than his

rule over Assyria with his precedessor Numa Pompilius, and

brother, Shamash-shuma-ukin.

After defeating his brother’s 30,000
revolt in 648BCE he greatly
expanded the Assyrian domains.
As well as annexing Egypt, he

attacked Elam, sacking its THE NUMBER OF
capital, Susa, in 647BCE. His CLAY TABLETS
latter years saw none of the UNCOVERED IN
military successes of his early
reign. At his death a dispute

between his two sons further ASHURBANIPAL’S
weakened the Assyrian Empire. LIBRARY

c. 7S0cey0ssttBhaeCwbitEatlelniNessshtmoembpreeneangrdtsismnitceotaponnpetehnset 70A0sbBsuCypEtruitSathedebnonenwsraienretcgauherirnsbesvJooetfolrtuAssaslyerm7ia0,bt0eouBgpCinEpseArtdoOeflnhoaioucVruiasllthlueiryne 68T9aPBhChafEoaruqNrdonayuandbbhaiienasocgtnfoytEmkhgieneygs2p5t,th 67b4eBcCoEmTeusliuthsirHdoksitnilgiuosf Rome 67c0otBmhCrEeosGntyeogoetfhsLeydia 66k8ineBgxCMpEAeeAAslmssshssupTyyrahrrbhiiiaasaan,nnrrkigepaoeavsflretoarmnbmlisehnint gin E6g6yipn3tdtBheCteEpheAEensg2sdy6ypetrtnhiarcdeneygsnfaruaoinnsmtsdyer 66r0ebcBoaCGErttdrEleeeaedrbklneiceatiwsvttyae-lesntates

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44

650–601 BCE

A lion frieze from the Processional Way in Babylon, which was built around 600BCE and ran
through the heart of the city to the Ishtar Gate.

PHRYGIA URARTU THE ASSYRIANS HAD FINALLY to them and the Scythian King 600BCE. New cities were in the 8th century BCE. The
LYDIA MEDES CONQUERED BABYLON in 691BCE, Bartatua was even sufficiently established as far west as Spain, hereditary monarchy was
Carchemish Harran Khorsabad partially destroying the city. influential to be given an Assyrian and around the Black Sea coast. replaced by nine “archons,”
Cyprus Reconstruction work began under princess as his wife. The alliance chosen annually. Shortly after a
Nineveh Ashur Esarhaddon (680–669 BCE), and by with Assyria survived into the In Greece itself, the city-state of damaging popular uprising by
652BCE Babylon had recovered reign of his son Madyes, but Sparta was establishing its Cylon in 632 BCE, Athens received
Medite ASSYRIA its importance and became the around 615BCE the Scythians dominance in the Peloponnese. A its first law code, drafted by Draco
center for a major revolt led by switched sides and played a key defeat by the city-state of Argos, in 621BCE. The Draconian law
SeJarreParnHuesOaanETleNyrmIeCIISAARMADEMaLmONascDSuEYsRSEIBARBaNTbAyBloUYnLruOkNIAELUArM Shamash-shuma-ukin against role in Assyria’s destruction. in 669BCE, was followed by was later known for the severity of
EGYPT JUDAH his younger brother Ashurbanipal. Their Median subjects soon turned military reforms and victory the punishments it prescribed.
It took four years of war to on them and around 590BCE the against the Messenians (660–
MOAB suppress the Babylonians and Scythians retreated north. 650BCE). By 600BCE, Sparta had To the south of Egypt the state
their Elamite allies, and the conquered almost all the of Napata became a power of the
Memphis fighting drained Assyria’s ability to In the Greek world, there was a southern Peloponnese and first order, conquering Egypt
hold on to its empire. By 630BCE, growing movement to establish established a stratified social under Piankhy (751–716BCE) and
The Assyrian Empire Assyria had lost Egypt and colonies in the Mediterranean. system. controlling it under after the death
From its core around Assur and Palestine, and in 626BCE the Among the earliest were in Italy, of Taharqa (690–664BCE).
Nineveh, the Assyrian empire grew to Babylonians regained their including Syracuse, founded Sparta’s future rival, Athens,
encompass Babylonia, Media, Elam, independence. By 616BCE around 733 BCE. In North Africa, gradually united the area stylized
Urartu, Syria, and Egypt. Babylon was strong enough to Greek settlers founded Cyrene (in surrounding Attica under its rule body
invade Assyria, aided by the Libya) in about 630BCE, and
led the war against neighboring Medes (whose base was in Massilia (Marseilles) around Scythian stag
Alba Longa, which ultimately led northwestern Iran). In 612BCE The flowing lines and realistic
to that city’s destruction and the the Babylonians, Medes, depiction of the stag’s muscled
deportation of its population to and Scythians sacked flanks in this late 7th century shield
Rome, in the first major Roman the Assyrian capital of ornament are typical of the art
expansion. The fourth king, Nineveh. The of the Scythians.
Ancus Marcius (641–617BCE), Assyrian empire
expanded Roman territory toward crumbled.
the coast, and founded Rome’s A remnant of the
great port of Ostia at the mouth Assyrian army
of the Tiber. His successor, regrouped and
Tarquinius Priscus (616–578BCE) established a small
was the fifth king of Rome and one kingdom around Harran,
of the city’s greatest kings. He but by 609BCE this, too,
came from an Etruscan had fallen.
background, a sign of the high
level of Etruscan influence over The Scythians
the early city of Rome. Tarquinius formed part of a
Priscus won a series of victories culture of nomadic
over the Sabines, the Latins, horsemen which held
and the Etruscans, who all a large territory on the
competed with Rome for steppes north of the
dominance over central Italy. He is Caucasus from around
also said to have established the 800BCE. In 652BCE they
public games in Rome. forced the Medes to submit

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45

600–551 BCE 550–501 BCE

A medieval view of the city of Jerusalem, which was captured by the Babylonians in 597BCE. It was taken again, Central Asia became a stronghold of Buddhist beliefs. These cave paintings
and largely destroyed, 10 years later. After both sieges many of its inhabitants were deported to Babylon. in Dunhuang, China, illustrate a variety of Buddhist parables.

HAVING HELPED DESTROY THE Under the last Median king, The powerful city-state of Athens CYRUS, RULER OF THE SMALL Darius the Great
ASSYRIAN EMPIRE, Nabopolassar Astyages (r. 584–549BCE), Median experienced reforms under Solon KINGDOM OF PERSIS (also called King Darius is shown enthroned and
(r. 626–605BCE), first king of the armies campaigned in Azerbaijan about 600BCE, notably a law code Pars) in the west of Persia (Iran), bearing symbols of power in this
neo-Babylonian dynasty, and controlled land as far west as that protected the property rights revolted against his Median frieze. His son Xerxes succeeded him.
embellished the city of Babylon. Lydia (Turkey). But by the 550sBCE, of the poor, forbade debt-slavery, overlords in 559BCE. By 550BCE
His son Nebuchadnezzar (r. 605– Media was under pressure from and moderated the more extreme he had conquered the Median Cambyses died in 522 BCE and
562BCE) defeated the Egyptians in the Babylonians to the south and parts of the Draconian laws capital of Ecbatana and after the brief rebellion of Bardiya,
605BCE, repaired Babylon’s main the new power of Persia. (see 650-601). Around 560BCE, overthrown their ruler, King who was either the younger
ziggurat, and ordered the building Pisistratus seized power and began Astyages. Afraid of the increasing brother of Cambyses or someone
of the famous “Hanging Gardens.” The kingdom of Judah had long to rule as a tyrant (dictator). Driven power of Persia, the Lydians impersonating him, Darius, a
The last neo-Babylonian king, acted as a block to Assyrian and out once, he returned in 547BCE under King Croesus opposed Persian noble, took over as king.
Nabonidus (r. 556–539BCE), Babylonian expansion to the west. and established a stable regime. Cyrus, but he struck west and Widespread revolts broke out,
moved his royal court to the In 597BCE, Nebuchadnezzar took in 547BCE, on the Halys River, including in Media, but Darius put
Arabian oasis of Tema, but Jerusalem and deposed King The Greek city of Miletus saw the defeated the Lydian army and
discontent rose among the Jehoiakim. The king they installed beginnings of philosophical annexed western Asia Minor.
Babylonians during his reign. in his place, Zedekiah, turned thought from about 600BCE.
against the Babylonians, and in Thales (born c. 624BCE) tried In 539BCE Cyrus captured
The Medes of northwest Persia 587BCE there was another siege. to understand the basic nature Babylon, acquiring most of
(Iran), consolidated their kingdom Much of the city was burned, the of the universe and thought its Mesopotamia and making the
under Cyaxares (r. 624–585BCE) Jewish Temple destroyed, and fundamental element was water. Persian Empire the greatest in
and took part in the destruction many of its inhabitants deported the Middle East. Cyrus died in
of the Assyrian Empire in 612BCE. to a life of exile in Babylon. 530BCE while fighting in what
is today Turkmenistan, and was
succeeded by his son Cambyses.

In 526BCE Cambyses sent his
armies south into Egypt. The
Pharaoh Amasis had just died and
his successor Psammetichus III

,, ,,I HAVE FOUGHT 19

BATTLES IN ONE YEAR…
I HAVE WON THEM.

The Behistun inscription of Darius

Lawgiver and reformer was not well established. them all down. He then
This image shows the Greek statesman and lawgiver Solon teaching. His Cambyses defeated the Egyptian expanded the Persian Empire
reforms began to undermine the power of the aristocracy in Athens. army at Pelusium in 525BCE and by annexing lands in central Asia
then captured the royal capital and on the borders of India from
at Memphis. He installed himself 519 to 515BCE. In India, the
as the pharaoh and then subdued political power had coalesced
southern Egypt. Persian rule in around the Mahajapanadas, a
Egypt lasted until 402BCE. group of around 16 powerful

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,, ,,EVEN DEATH IS NOT

TO BE FEARED BY ONE
WHO HAS LIVED WISELY

Gautama Siddharta (Buddha), 563–483 BCE

482 Roman aristocrats led by Lucius consuls were elected by the material life. He is known as the Spring and Autumn period. From
Junius Brutus and Lucius popular assembly each year. Buddha (which means the the age of 15 he devoted himself
THE NUMBER Tarquinius Collatinus (the king’s “awakened one” in Sanskrit), and to scholarship, and the political
OF YEARS OF cousin) won over the army and Some time around 530BCE, his followers, who became known philosophy he developed reflects
THE ROMAN barred the gates of the city to Gautama Siddharta, a Hindu as Buddhists, spread his ideas the turbulent times. He taught
REPUBLIC the king, who was deposed. prince of Kapilvastu (now in throughout South Asia and, in the that the righteous man (or junzi)
The coup leaders then Nepal), had a religious revelation late 3rd century CE, into China and must have regard to others and
kingdoms. Of these, Magadha established a republic in which and rejected his noble upbringing thence to Korea, Japan, and inflict no unnecessary harm.
was the most important state. supreme authority was held by to embark on a quest for Southeast Asia. His philosophy, as developed
Afterward, Darius subdued most two magistrates called consuls. “enlightenment.” Six years later by his disciples, taught respect for
of the Greek city-states of Ionia, The power of the consuls was he received it and began to preach Confucius (or Kong Fuzi) was elders and became a cornerstone
before he crossed into Europe in limited by the fact that new a way of moderate asceticism to born around 551BCE, in a period of of the later imperial system.
513 BCE to conquer Thrace. gain release from the suffering of political instability during China’s
CYRUS THE GREAT
In Italy, Servius Tullius (r. 578– (r. 559–539 BCE) Persian elite
534), the sixth king of Rome and These archers from the palace of Darius at Susa were the elite of the Persian army, which
said to be a former slave, had Little is known about the included representatives from provinces as far off as Ethiopia and Afghanistan.
succeeded Tarquinius Priscus in early life of Cyrus. He was
578BCE. During his reign he the ruler of the kingdom of
implemented important reforms, Pars when he led a revolt
fixing the formal boundaries of against his Median overlord
the city by dividing the Romans Astyages. By defeating
into four “tribes,” a system that Astyages, Cyrus became king
would be extended as Roman of the Medes. He then
territory grew, and also into continued to expand Persian
classes that were graded by influence with the conquest
wealth. The population was of Lydia. Cyrus adapted local
divided by what equipment they ideas about kingship to cast
could afford and what role they himself as an ideal ruler in
played in the Roman army. The the cities he conquered.
wealthiest class fought as cavalry, Cyrus died in 539BCE.
the higher classes as heavy
infantry, and the poor as light
auxiliary troops. The votes of the
richer classes carried much
greater weight in the popular
assembly. The last king of Rome,
Tarquinius Superbus (r. 534–
509BCE) was an Etruscan.
Concerned at the growing
tyranny of his rule, a group of

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swept-forward snake-haired
cheek piece Medusa figure

Medusa antefix

DATE UNKNOWN

This terra-cotta
antefix—an ornament
placed at the cornice
of buildings or at roof
eaves—is in the form of
Medusa, the mythical
creature whose gaze
turned people to stone.

leaf-shaped blade

Corinthian helmet Spearhead
600–500 BCE 600–400 BCE
The Corinthian helmet, made Greek hoplites (armed
from a single bronze sheet, infantry soldiers) carried
was the most common type in a large thrusting spear,
Greece, from around 750–300 BCE. of which this is the tip.

ANCIENT GREECE Aphrodite,
the goddess
FROM THE FUNCTIONAL TO THE DECORATIVE, THE GREEKS PRODUCED ART OF GREAT BEAUTY of love

While the Greeks created magnificent monumental art, smaller fastening Bronze mirror
items such as jewelry, musical instruments, weaponry, and chain 490–460 BCE
vases show the Greek love of intricate forms and decorative This mirror is richly
adornment throughout all periods of their history. adorned with an image
of Aphrodite flanked
Greek art underwent a series of phases that were reflected in all aspects by cupids.
of artistic production, but particularly on vases. In the Geometric phase
(c. 850–700 BCE), decoration was mainly composed of geometric forms, Gold earrings
replaced in the Orientalizing phase (c. 700–600 BCE) with floral and 420–400 BCE
animal themes, followed by the more naturalistic representations These delicate gold filigree
of the Classical phase (from 600 BCE). earrings depict boats containing
sirens, mythical creatures
silver mouthpiece Bronze cymbals Mirror lid and fibula whose beautiful voices lured
500–400 BCE 420–400 BCE unwary seafarers to their doom.
Greek cymbals are bell- or This silver fibula (brooch) and
cup-shaped, and are often chain may have fastened together Gold brooch
a cloak. The ornate mirror-back 650–600 BCE
depicted on vases being shows Aphrodite with the This hawk-shaped brooch dates
held by fauns or satyrs, half-goat god Pan. from a period in which Oriental
or by women in (and particularly Egyptian)
Bacchanalian revels. finger hole influences were strong in Greece.

cup-shaped form

Aulos
400 BCE
This wind instrument was
originally a double one (one
wooden pipe has been lost),
played through a reed.

48