Timelines of History_ The Ultimate Visual Guide To The Events That Shaped The World

Sarpech Hansli necklace MUGHAL EMPIRE
Date unknown 18th century
The extraordinary wealth of the Cast in gold and heavily encrusted Talisman
Mughals was evident in their love of with precious stones, this rigid torque Date unknown
jeweled objects. This sarpech, made or necklace was known as a hansli, Mughal craftsmen were famed for
of gold, emeralds, diamonds, rubies, because it was designed to rest on the the intricacy of their work. This
and a pearl, adorned a royal turban. wearer’s collarbone—or hansli in Urdu. talisman, or tabeez, is decorated
with verses from the Qur’an.
large ruby enameled
at center floral motif

solid jade floral pattern
pestle shows through

spike can be Bowl inlaid with jade
used as weapon 18th century
Parchîn kârî, or inlay, reached
Mortar and pestle its peak during the reign of Jahan
17th century (1628–58). This bowl is inlaid with
Jade could only be worked using jade and precious stones.
diamond dust, so it was highly prized
in Mughal society. This mortar and Enameled gold wine goblet
pestle was carved from one block. 17th century
Records of Mughal courtly life describe
kings sipping their wine from enameled
gold or silver goblets, and dozens of
dishes served on gold and silver plates.

engraving of
a dancing girl

bowl for
holding tobacco

deer
motif

water jar
or bowl

silver incised golden
hookah bowl base

Mughal court painting Jahan, fifth Hookahs 199
17th century Mughal emperor 18th century
The splendor of the Mughal court is clear The Mughals brought the Persian tradition
from this painting of the emperor Jahan of hookah-smoking to India. Both men and
(r. 1628–58) among his nobles, grouped in women used hookahs, in which tobacco
strict hierarchical order around the throne. smoke is cooled with water.

1590–91 1592 1593–94

£500,000

THE GREATEST PRIZE EVER
TAKEN BY ENGLISH PRIVATEERS,
FROM THE MADRE DE DEUS

An estimated 40,000–50,000 people died in Paris in 1590 until the Spanish In this Portuguese map of Mombasa,
army led by the Duke of Parma broke the four-month siege in September. Fort Jesus is depicted bottom right.

BY 1590, TOYOTOMI HIDEYOSHI 1578–79), launched an invasion of THE SEVEN YEAR WAR began Rialto Bridge THE OTTOMAN–HABSBURG
(see 1582–87) had effectively the troubled Songhay Empire in the spring of 1592 when The Rialto Bridge over the Grand FRONTIER, generally stable after
completed the unification of (see 1582–85). Al-Mansur’s goal Japanese forces mounted a Canal in Venice was completed in the renewed Ottoman attempt on
Japan, and the distinctive was the trans-Saharan gold sustained invasion of Korea. 1592. It was the fifth bridge built at Vienna in 1529, was a key focus
character of the regime that was trade. The invasion involved a Partly an attempt by Toyotomi the site, and the first made of stone. of Ottoman–Christian conflict. It
to dominate the country for over perilous four-month crossing of Hideyoshi to unite the Japanese came center-stage again in 1593
250 years was established. the Sahara by a fighting force in a common cause, it was more end until 1608, by 1599 it was with the Long War. A series of
Though it was not the capital, from of 4,000 men sustained by 8,000 particularly the fulfillment of his effectively over. Paradoxically, it inconclusive campaigns followed
1590 Hideyoshi based himself at camels. In March 1592, a Songhay predecessor Oda Nobunaga’s was Japan that benefited most. in Hungary and the Balkans, with
Edo, where the feudal nobility, army over 40,000 strong was ambitious goal of a conquest of The defeat had a significant the nominal Ottoman vassals of
now entirely subservient to him, routed at the Battle of Tondibi by Ming China itself. The campaign influence on its subsequent, if Transylvania, Wallachia, and
were required to spend every other the Moroccans’ vastly superior met with mixed results. Japanese never absolute, isolation from the Moldavia supporting the
year. It proved a highly effective firepower, which included land victories in Korea were wider world. Korea, by contrast, Habsburgs. The net result of the
means of preventing rebellion. This numerous arquebuses and eight matched by Korean naval took years to recover, while the eventual peace settlement—the
elaborate social structure was English cannons. victories—the heavily armed and immense cost of the war to Ming Treaty of Zsitvatorok of 1606—
largely supported by the peasantry, protected Korean turtle ships China not only provoked riots was to leave the frontier in a state
who had to pay heavy taxes. Castle complex proving decisive against Japan’s against the extra taxes levied but of simmering uncertainty.
Himeji, or "White Egret," Castle is progressively weakened fleets. weakened its military capacity on
Attempting to impose himself on one of 200 massive castles built on Chinese intervention late in the its vulnerable northeastern frontier. On June 10, 1594, in the Spanish
France as king, Henry of Navarre the orders of Toyotomi Hideyoshi to year tipped the balance against settlement of St. Augustine,
(see 1588–89) besieged Paris in ensure his power across Japan. Japan. By the spring of 1593, the From 1592, Akbar (see 1555–56) Florida, Father Diego Escobar
May 1590. The siege was broken Japanese were forced to sue for launched a further round of de Zambrana baptized Maria,
in September by Spanish troops peace. By the middle of the year, conquests that saw the Mughal daughter of Juan Jimenez de la
under the Duke of Parma. they had begun to pull out. In 1597, Empire's frontiers reach their Cueva and Maria Melendez. The
the aging Hideyoshi renewed the greatest extent during his reign. event was recorded in the oldest
In 1591, the Sultan of Morocco, campaign, sending larger forces. In the east, Orissa was annexed. In public document in what would
Ahmad al-Mansur, (see The result was a further defeat 1594, Baluchistan and the coastal become the US and is the first
for Japan in 1598, but the savage strip of Makran on the Safavid authentic record of a child born
fighting devastated Korea. Persian border were conquered. ,,to European settlers there.
Though the war did not formally And in 1596, the key Afghan city
of Kandahar, lost by Akbar's Fort Jesus in Mombasa, East
father Humayan, was retaken. Africa was built at the command of
Philip II and completed in 1593. It
proved to be crucial to Portuguese
endeavors in the Indian Ocean
throughout the 17th century.

,,PARIS

IS WORTH A
MASS.

Henry IV of France, 1593

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of
200

1595–96 1597–99

Despite the perils of the venture, all four Dutch ships that set out for the East This ceiling fresco at Chehel Sotoun Palace in Isfahan, Iran, shows Shah Abbas I,
Indies in 1595 made it back safely to Amsterdam with their cargo in 1599. seated on the right, playing host to Vali Muhammad Khan of Bukara.

THE FINAL CONVULSIONS OF THE 1595 against a combined Anglo–Dutch fleet attacks Cadiz ALTHOUGH THE BANNING OF WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
FRENCH WARS OF RELIGION Spanish–Catholic League force Nominally a joint Anglo–Dutch CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN had been (1564–1616)
(1562–98) were played out after in Burgundy was followed the operation, in reality, of the 150 ships enforced only partially since 1587,
1595. Henry IV (see 1588–89), by following spring by a renewed in the fleet that attacked Cadiz in in December 1596, certain that William Shakespeare exerted
his conversion to Catholicism in Spanish offensive that saw the 1596, 130 were English. Spain and Portugal were using more influence on English
1593, succeeded in winning broad capture of Calais and Amiens. Christian penetration as a prelude literature and European
acceptance as king. Yet his The inevitable sieges by Henry the East Indies. The crews to conquest, Toyotomi ordered the drama than any other writer.
conversion aroused the suspicions followed, and the capitulation endured scurvy and repeated deaths of 26 Christians—six The son of a Stratford-upon-
of the Huguenots—fearful he now of Amiens in September 1597 clashes with local rulers and the Franciscan missionaries and 20 Avon wool dealer, he was an
intended to turn against them— marked his final triumph. Portuguese, and van Houten was Japanese. On February 5, 1597, in actor turned author, and
and did nothing to appease the killed in Sumatra. When, in 1599, Nagasaki, they were strapped to wrote at least 37 plays and
ambitions of the leaders of the Until the beginning of the Dutch the beleaguered fleet returned to crosses and speared to death. The 154 sonnets. He is believed
Catholic League, whose goal was Revolt in 1566, the Netherlands Amsterdam, it brought with it an significance of their deaths was to have written the tragedy
not merely the extermination of largely dominated the lucrative apparently meager quantity of less that Christianity would not be Hamlet around 1599–1602.
Protestantism in France but the maritime trade between Spain spices, yet this was enough to tolerated in Japan, and more that He also excelled at comedy.
seizure of the throne. Henry’s and Portugal and northern secure a huge profit. The stage for any challenge to the central
response, in January 1595, was to Europe—it was Dutch ships that Dutch domination of the East India authority would not be allowed. rival factions within the Qizilbash
declare war on Spain. His aim carried spices and other New trade was set (see 1602–03). army and had lost substantial
was both to eradicate the Catholic World goods from Iberia to the The uneasy compromise territories to the Ottomans and
League, supported by Spain, while north. Thereafter, forbidden to One of England's few successes brokered by Henry IV in France Uzbeks. Abbas set about a major
demonstrating to the Huguenots trade with Iberian ports and in its participation in the Dutch after 1597 was symbolized by the reform of his rebellious army,
that, Catholic or not, he was no conscious of the failings of Spain’s Revolt was a raid on Cadiz in Edict of Nantes of April 1598. drafting in new troops, principally
puppet of the Spanish monarchy. maritime reach highlighted by the southern Spain in July 1596. Under it, Protestants in France from the Caucasus, who were
An early French victory in June Armada, the Dutch determined Much like Drake’s raid in 1587, it were granted the right to organize directly loyal to him. He rearmed
to break into the spice trade. In caused enormous devastation, a quasi-independent state within them with muskets supplied by
Anglo–Dutch ships 1595, four Dutch ships under with most of the city destroyed, France. Not only could they an English diplomat, Sir Anthony
Cornelius van Houten sailed for and contributed to the bankruptcy practice their religion freely— Shirley, who was negotiating an
Spanish ships of the Spanish crown in 1597. other than in Paris—but the Anglo–Persian anti-Ottoman
Crown guaranteed their security, treaty. Between April and August
150 40 paying them to garrison their 1598, Abbas launched a major
towns. Nothing if not pragmatic— campaign against the Uzbeks,
RAID ON and effective enough in the short driving them from the northwest
CADIZ term in ending the French Wars of Persia.
of Religion—inevitably it satisfied
10 32 no one. The Huguenots still felt
themselves unequally treated
Anglo–Dutch Spanish compared to the Catholics, while
ships lost ships lost the latter were horrified that the
Huguenots should be tolerated at
Raid on Cadiz all, let alone protected.
The Spanish lost 80 percent of the
fleet anchored at Cadiz. They set The accession in 1587 of the
many of their ships on fire to deny 16-year-old Abbas I as the shah
the Anglo–Dutch raiders their prize. of Safavid Persia rejuvenated its
fortunes. Under his father Shah
Mohammed, Persia had been in a
state of near civil war created by

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1600–01 1602–03 1604–05

The English East India Company began trading with Surat, a key center of Tokugawa Ieyasu was 60 years old when he received the title of shogun from Guy Fawkes (third from the right) and
Indian Ocean trade, in 1608. By 1615, it had ousted the Portuguese. Emperor Go-Yōzei. He remained the effective ruler of Japan until his death. his fellow Catholic conspirators.

BY ABOUT 1600, THE POLYNESIAN Maori weapon FOR AROUND 100 YEARS, THE French exploration in the New ,, THE SPANISH
PEOPLES OF NEW ZEALAND, the The wahaika, a short DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY, World was resumed by Samuel ASSAILED THE
Maori, had become progressively wooden club held by a established in 1602 and exact de Champlain in 1603. Over the UNASSAILABLE;
better established in their new dog-skin thong looped equivalent of its English rival, was following 12 years, he made
lands (see 1276–85). Although around the thumb the most successful commercial a series of pioneering journeys ,,THE DUTCH
theirs was still a Stone Age and wrist, was venture in the world. Its along the St. Lawrence River
society—and would remain so used for close toward the Great Lakes. In 1605, DEFENDED THE
until the arrival of Europeans and combat. navigators not only outflanked he also established a short-lived INDEFENSIBLE.
the introduction of metal—it was the Portuguese in the Indian French colony, Port Royal, in Novia
remarkably well adapted to the East Asia. That said, from the Ocean—pioneering new Scotia and, in 1608, a permanent Anonymous, Siege of Ostend
new environment. Known as the start the East India Company was routes deep into the Southern French base at Québec. Although
Classic Maori phase, a speculative venture at best. It Ocean as a means of access to partly motivated by a search for WHEN SPANISH FORCES UNDER
the culture was depended not merely on an the East Indies—but, having a river passage to the Pacific, GENERAL SPINOLA TOOK OSTEND
distinguished by uncertain ability to reach these reached their lucrative goals, Champlain recognized that this from a combined Anglo–Dutch
elaborate wood distant lands but, once there, to they exploited them with a rugged land was valuable in force on September 16, 1604, it
carving, precisely present itself—militarily and single-mindedness that left itself, above all for its furs. He ended a siege that had lasted
patterned bone tools diplomatically—as a credible their predecessors floundering. subsequently sponsored a series three years, two months, and 17
and weapons, and alternative to its European rivals. In 1602, the Dutch had laid claim of westward explorations beyond days. Even by the standards of
substantial earthwork It called for a combination of to Guiana in South America. More the Great Lakes, championing the 17th-century Europe—a century
settlements. seamanship, commercial importantly, by 1605 they had potential of Nouvelle France. that saw only four years of
intuition, and force—the last a ousted the Portuguese from the peace—it was an extraordinarily
The establishment, with royal permanent necessity. Eventually, Moluccas (Spice Islands). The Ships of Dutch trade brutal business. Siege warfare
approval, on December 31, 1600 it would establish itself almost as foundations of a Dutch East Asian Dutch East goods in developed in response to artillery,
of the English East India an arm of the English, later the trading empire had been laid. India Company to which the medieval castle, with
Company was a clear statement British, state. But it was never When James I (1566–1625) million tons high, thin walls, was vulnerable.
of English intent that Spain and intended as a means of conquest became King of England in 1603 Instead, fortifications became
Portugal could not expect or colonization—enrichment for on the death of Elizabeth I, he had 4,800 2.5 lower, thicker, and very much
exclusive domination of trade with its shareholders was its sole already been King of Scotland, as larger. So much so that many
goal. Ironically, its penetration of James VI, for 36 years. Although 1602–1798 fortified towns were beyond the
7 these new markets coincided with they remained two quite clearly range of contemporary guns, and
that of another latecomer, the separate countries, sharing only 2,700 0.5 a blockade was the only practical
CUBIC MILES Dutch. European domination for a common monarch, James did means of taking them.
the riches of the East Indies would manage to drive through the Ships of English
THE VOLUME OF be contested not between England repeal of mutually hostile laws. English trade goods The death of Czar Boris
MATERIAL and Iberia but between England Otherwise, the closest he came East India in million Godunov in 1605 brought to a
EJECTED FROM and the Dutch. to the union he sought was an Company tons head a political crisis rapidly
HUAYNAPUTINA Anglo-Scots flag, the Union Jack, engulfing Russia, one heightened
VOLCANO, PERU known for his preferred French Trade in East Asia by a terrible famine that killed
name, Jacques. The Dutch East India Company was two million people—a third of the
On the very same day as James’s five times as successful as its population—in 1601–03. Hoping
accession, Tokugawa Ieyasu English equivalent throughout the to exploit Russia’s divisions to its
(1543–1616) became shogun of 17th and 18th centuries. own advantage, and supported by
the Tokugawa shogunate of disaffected Russian nobles, an
Japan. He presided over a rigidly unofficial Polish–Lithuanian
stratified, inward-looking society force had already invaded the
that endured for 250 years.

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202

1606–07

A reconstruction of Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in North
America, established in 1607 on the James River in what is now Virginia.

country, its aim in part to claim his own right to the Russian ,, THE FIFTEENTH DAY OF JUNE,
Orthodox Russia for the Catholic throne. Alarmed at the prospect WE HAD BUILT AND FINISHED
church. With Godunov’s death, the of Poland–Lithuania taking over OUR FORT… THIS COUNTRY
interlopers placed on the Russian Russia, the Swedes invaded and
throne a man claiming to be Ivan captured Novgorod. In 1612, ,,IS A FRUITFUL SOIL, BEARING
the Terrible’s youngest son. After Russia was saved when a
less than a year, this False Dimitri patriotic rising under Prince MANY GOODLY AND
was overthrown by Vasili IV Pozharsky forced the Poles out of FRUITFUL TREES…
(1552–1612), who slaughtered the Moscow and elected the first
Poles in Moscow, perhaps 2,000. Romanov czar, Mikhail (1596– George Percy, English colonist, from Jamestown Narratives
Seeking to strengthen himself 1645). Though unable to oust the
against continuing Polish Swedes, Russia came to terms IN DECEMBER 1605, PORTUGUESE partly to forestall
agitation, in 1609 Vasili allied with with Sweden in 1617 at the cost of NAVIGATOR Pedro Fernández de Spanish, French, and
Sweden, provoking an official giving up its access to the Baltic. Quiros received royal approval for Dutch attempts at
Polish declaration of war against In 1619, the Polish–Russian a second voyage across the Pacific settlement, and more
Russia. The following year, the conflict was ended by Russia in search of the presumed particularly to locate a
Poles had taken Moscow and ceding substantial territories on southern continent, Terra sea passage to East
their king, Sigismund III, asserted its western border. Australis Incognita. After sailing Asia, as well as to
through the Tuamotu Archipelago prospect for gold and
First newspaper on sale In Strasbourg in 1605, Johann in February 1606, he reached the other precious
The appearance of the Relation in Carolus (1575–1634) published New Hebrides in May, but was metals. Its early
Europe in 1605 was early evidence of what is generally acknowledged swept out to sea by the trade years were
a growing demand for information as the world’s first newspaper, winds and forced to return to New unpromising.
in a fast-changing world. Relation aller Fürnemmen und Spain. The expedition had a The site, chosen
second ship, under the command principally
gedenckwürdigen Historien— of Luis Váez de Torres. Continuing because it was
“Collection of all to the west, he discovered the easily defended,
Distinguished and strait that bears his name was swampy,
Commemorable between New Guinea and malarial, and had
Australia, sighting the continent little arable land. The
News.” Carolus already in the process. In the event, his colonists succumbed to
produced a hand-written discoveries, meticulously noted disease and starvation, and
news-sheet. He realized, but never published, would not be relations with the Powhatan
followed up by Spain. It was left to Indians were tense as well. It
however, that a printed the Dutch to confirm the existence was only in 1612, when the first
version, sold more of Australia. tobacco crop was exported, that
cheaply and to a wider audience, the colony looked to have any
would be more profitable. By On May 4, 1607, the first prospects of survival.
1617, there were a further four permanent English settlement
German newspapers. was established in North Torres Strait Islanders mask
The hopes of James I of England America. Jamestown, in The sea-faring Torres Strait
for religious toleration were dashed present-day Virginia, was a highly Islanders had a range of masks for
with the discovery on November 5, speculative venture, financed by ritual occasions, many of the most
1605 of a Catholic plot to blow the London Company (later the elaborate made from turtle shells.
up the Houses of Parliament. Virginia Company). It was intended
It is possible that the plotters
were encouraged by Robert Cecil,
chief minister of James I, in order
to stoke anti-Catholic opinion.

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203

1450–1749 REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION sumptuous clothing
identifies the artist’s
facial expression patron
intended to elicit

sympathy

Venetian gold ducat
16th century • ITALY
This gold coin depicts the Doge of Venice
(right) receiving the city’s banner from
a dominating St. Mark the Evangelist.

Processional cross The Descent from the Cross
15th century • ITALY c. 1435 • NETHERLANDS
The wealth of the Italian This painting by Rogier van der
Catholic Church is expressed Weyden (c. 1399–1464) exemplifies
by this cross, made of gold, Flemish assimilation of the
silver, and enamel, and Renaissance move toward
paraded on religious holidays. idealization of faces and figures.

THE RENAISSANCE horns represent
light rays
A REBIRTH OF EUROPEAN CULTURE INSPIRED BY ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME

A thousand years after the Roman Empire’s collapse, beard demonstrates
scholars in Florence, Italy, arrived at a renewed sculptor’s skill
understanding of the art, architecture, and literature
of the classical period, sparking a cultural revolution. larger than
life-size figure
(8.33 ft/2.54 m high)

In the 14th century, trade among European states increased and Florence, Figure of Moses
as a banking and commercial center—eventually under Medici control— c. 1515 • ITALY
developed a class of wealthy, educated individuals who became patrons Sculpted by Michelangelo
of artists and thinkers. If Florence stood initially at the forefront of these (1475–1564) for the tomb
artistic and intellectual developments, by the 16th century, the lead had of Pope Julius II, this statue
passed to Papal Rome and Venice. now stands in the Church
of San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome.

floor plan lantern lets
under dome in light and air

Florence Cathedral’s dome
15th century • ITALY
The octagonal cathedral dome by
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446)
consists of three parts, with the
innermost visible from inside
the building, as shown by this
19th-century engraving.

inner brick dome
supports light roof

Mona Lisa
1503–06 • ITALY
Also known as La Gioconda, this
enigmatic painting by Leonardo
da Vinci (1452–1519) is the most
famous Renaissance work and
the world’s best-known painting.

204

THE RENAISSANCE

straight lines represent
headings of mariner’s compass

Medici ceramic red ball signifies Mediterranean sea
15th century • ITALY a medicine pill
This tin-glazed majolica plate, Mappa Mundi
emblazoned with the Medici coat of pose of the goddess 1502 • SPAIN
arms, suggests the wealth and prestige Venus is based on Venice’s wealth derived from
of the Medici dynasty in Florence. a Roman statue its dominance of world trade
routes. This map shows
celestial globe symbolizes torquetum, an the Mediterranean and
navigational skills astronomical instrument, its adjacent seas, which
Venetian ships regularly
symbolizes scientific visited to distribute goods
learning that were carried to the west
by overland trade routes.

Asian carpet
symbolizes
exploration

The Birth of Venus
c. 1486 • ITALY
This masterly painting of the
early Renaissance by Botticelli
(c. 1445–1510) refers directly
to the Renaissance desire to
appropriate and update ancient
Roman ideals of beauty.

kidney

abdominal cavity
with intestines
removed to reveal
underlying organs

Organs in the abdominal cavity fur-trimmed coat
c. 1453 • ITALY denotes wealth
From De humani corporis fabrica and prestige
by Andreas Vesalius (1514–64), this
anatomical diagram typifies the structure
Renaissance determination to based on a
expand scientific knowledge. bat’s wing

Hand-powered wing distorted skull lute with broken The Ambassadors
c. 1490 • ITALY symbolizes death; string suggests 1533 • GERMANY
Leonardo da Vinci produced when viewed from religious discord A highly detailed painting with
several proposals for human- the side, the skull complex symbolism, this
powered flying machines, portrait of two young French
including this sketch for a is undistorted diplomats by Hans Holbein the
hand-cranked wing from his Younger (c. 1497–1543) includes
12-volume Codex Atlanticus. hand-crank much evidence of their lives and
mechanism accomplishments as cultured
men of the Renaissance.

205

1608–09 1610 1611

,, SO LONG AS THE MOTHER,
IGNORANCE, LIVES, IT IS NOT
SAFE FOR SCIENCE, THE
OFFSPRING, TO DIVULGE THE

,,HIDDEN CAUSE OF THINGS.

Johannes Kepler, German astronomer

A copper engraving depicts the assassination of Henry IV, King of This painting shows the Battle of
France, in Paris. Henry IV had survived 18 previous attempts on his life. Kalmar on the Baltic Sea.

ON OCTOBER 2, 1608, HANS minority Morisco population THE ASSASSINATION OF HENRY IV GALILEO (1564–1642) IN 1604, KING JAMES I OF
LIPPERSHEY (1570–1619), a remained on the margins of in Paris on May 14, 1610, stabbed ENGLAND authorized a new
lens-maker in Zeeland in the Spanish society—valued for their by a one-time monk and teacher, Galileo Galilei, born in Pisa, English translation of the Bible.
Dutch Netherlands, applied for cheap labor, but suspected for Francois Ravaillac, promised a was an Italian scientist who, Since the Reformation there
a patent for a device for “seeing their religious affiliation. In 1609, reawakening of the brutal despite obstruction from had been two previous English
things far away as if they were Philip III agreed to expel them religious divisions Henry had religious orthodoxy, revealed translations: the Great Bible of
nearby.” This was soon known from Spain entirely. The decision worked so hard—and killed so an entirely new, scientific 1539 and the Bishops’ Bible
as a telescope. Lippershey’s caused whole communities to be many—to avoid. The reality was understanding of the world. of 1568. However, it was felt
device was crude, only magnifying summarily expelled and their quite the opposite. Not only was The Church regarded his that both contained minor
by three times, and was soon possessions forfeited. It also Henry’s nine-year-old son revelations as heresy but, inaccuracies and neither fully
exceeded by others. But it was still created economic dislocation immediately accepted as the new reluctant to condemn the reflected the doctrinal authority
a milestone in the development in many parts of the country monarch, Louis XIII, but the scientific pioneer outright, did and structure of the Church of
of scientific observation in 17th- as a valuable source of labor threat of renewed conflict between its best to accommodate him. England. The new translation,
century Europe. disappeared. Muslim resentment France and Spain was averted. Heretic or not, Galileo died published in 1611 as The Holy
toward Spain predictably increased. Both had been sparring for with his reputation not just Bible, was the work of 47
Since 1606, the Dutch had been control of the duchy of Jülich- growing but assured. scholars under the direction of
trying to broker a truce with Spain In 1609, the Dutch East India Cleves in Germany, threatening a the Archbishop of Canterbury,
to halt the ongoing wars of the Company had sent Henry Hudson renewed pan-European religious bodies could orbit only one fixed Richard Bancroft. Though
Dutch Revolt. Forty years of war to investigate North America’s conflict. With Henry’s death, both point in the skies: the Earth. accepted relatively slowly by the
had left both sides spent, yet each east coast. He explored the Hudson could now legitimately retire with This explosive revelation was Anglicans, by the 18th century
feared the other would use a River to present-day Albany, no loss of face. Henry IV, first of reinforced later the same year it was widely regarded by all
ceasefire to regroup—as each claiming the region for the Dutch. the Bourbon kings, was among when Galileo began a systematic English-speaking Protestant
intended to do. Despite this, in April the most remarkable of France’s series of observations of the churches as the definitive
1609, a 12-year truce was agreed. Hudson River kings: his reconstruction of the planet Venus. Its phases— English-language Bible. It was
New York State’s river is named for pestilential medieval shambles of crescent, partial, and full—could only when the revised edition was
In 1526, Charles V had decreed Englishman Henry Hudson, who Paris echoed his far-sighted be explained only if it, too, was issued in the late 18th century
that all Muslims in Spain convert explored the river’s course. reconstruction of France itself. orbiting another body, the Sun. that it became commonly referred
to Catholicism. The resulting Observations made possible by
Less than a year after Hans the telescope were poised to
Lippershey claimed to have revolutionize humanity’s 17 15
invented a telescope, Galileo understanding of its relationship
(see panel, right), working from with a vast, impersonal universe. WESTMINSTER OXFORD
no more than descriptions of ABBEY UNIVERSITY
Lippershey’s device, had devised SCHOLARS
his own. It took him, he claimed, SCHOLARS
less than one day to put together.
It was 10 times more powerful. It 15
was with this basic instrument
that, in January 1610, Galileo CAMBRIDGE
began to observe the “three fixed UNIVERSITY
stars,” invisible to the naked eye, SCHOLARS
that were next to the planet
Jupiter. They were, he realized, King James Bible
orbiting the planet. This was a Several scholars from each
discovery that challenged the institution translated the Bible
accepted notion of how heavenly from Greek, Hebrew, and Latin
into English in 1604–08.

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1612–13 1614–15

Tully Castle in County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland, was built in 1619 for The title page of Don Quixote, part one of which was published in 1605, and
Sir John Hume, a Scottish “planter,” or settler. part two in 1615. It remains a cornerstone of European literature.

to as the “King James Bible”. And one of 37 OVER THE WINTER OF 1609–10, 100,000 cruel Wei Zhongxian. With the
it was only in the early 19th pearls the fledging English colony at semiretirement of the Wanli
century that it came to be known Jamestown in Virginia endured THE emperor, Wei Zhongxian had
as the Authorized Version. sapphires what was known as the Starving ESTIMATED assumed personal control of the
and Time, a systematic attempt by the NUMBER OF government. The Donglin
In June 1611, English explorer Powhatan Indians to starve the EUNUCHS scholars, adherents of the moral
Henry Hudson, then in the pay of emeralds EMPLOYED imperatives of Confucianism,
a group of English merchants, colony into submission. All but BY THE MING objected to the self-glorification
was abandoned by his crew after Old 60 of the 500 colonists died. DYNASTY and extravagance of the eunuchs.
spending an arduous winter on Testament What transformed its IN CHINA By 1624, Wei Zhongxian had
the southern shore of the great prospects was tobacco. The ensured the execution of the
bay in northwest Canada that scenes IN STARK CONTRAST TO ENGLAND, leading Donglin academics.
bears his name. He was never Indians themselves cultivated where parliamentary authority
seen again. Hudson was tobacco but the native strain, would progressively increase Meanwhile, the Dutch started to
searching for a northwest Nicotiana rustica, was so harsh as throughout the 17th century, the settle North America. In 1615,
passage to Asia. Just as Magellan to be unsmokeable. John Rolfe, influence of France’s legislative the Dutch cemented their 1609
had discovered a route to the who arrived at Jamestown in assembly, the Estates-General claim to the region of present-day
Pacific around the tip of South 1610, had with him seeds of the withered almost entirely. During Albany by building Fort Nassau
America, so it was believed that a much sweeter Nicotiana tabacum. the crises of the French Wars of at the same site. In 1625, they
comparable northern passage His first crop, in 1612, found an Religion and their aftermath, the would build a further settlement
must exist. The search for it had instant market in London. Estates-General met regularly, if at the mouth of the Hudson
sparked one of the most heroically By 1627, the trade was worth ineffectually: six times between River, New Amsterdam. Dutch
futile episodes in global £500,000 a year. 1560 and 1614. But it would colonial settlement would,
exploration, a series of mostly not meet again until 1789, however, dwindle by the end
English endeavors from 1576 that Meanwhile, in Ireland the by which point France of the 17th century.
revealed only unnavigable, deliberate settlement of would be on the verge
ice-choked, dead-ends. Protestants, many from Scotland, of revolution. bones
started in 1613. It was intended to in box,
Control of the Sound—the reassure James I’s Scottish By 1615, China shown
narrow waterway between was grappling with end on
Denmark and Sweden at the subjects that he had not financial crisis and
mouth of the Baltic—was a forgotten their interests social breakdown. numbered
central preoccupation in the and to “pacify” and There were tensions in rod or bone
continuing Scandinavian convert the rebellious the Chinese government
struggle for supremacy in Catholic population over conflict between the Napier’s Bones
the Baltic. In 1611, Sweden, of Ireland. Its scholars of the Donglin Academy This is an abacus created by John
determined to end results were (literally, “the Eastern Grove Napier around 1615, which used
Denmark’s stranglehold on generally only to Academy”) in eastern China, and numbered rods in order to simplify
this vital waterway, began inflame religious the court eunuchs—particularly multiplication.
what became known as the passions and, by the notoriously capricious and
Kalmar War. The result, in creating a Catholic
1613, was inconclusive, the underclass, to
Dutch and England in particular create tensions that
supporting the Swedes once still slumber today.
a Danish victory threatened.
Future conflict was, in effect, Czar’s orb
merely postponed. This jewel-encrusted orb was
used at the coronation of Mikhail
Romanov on July 1613.

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1612 TobacbceogNcinuoPsrle,ttiahVvcaiAretgmiooirnnafeinraKis,cnoaämreAfdoJl—vrasrSnbewuotuaregrrd,nyeono2nf0ptfw,aho1yirets6thrf1vreD3oasenssnttoimefrasrMkikchFzaeairbl rRoufoaRmruaysns2oi1av,e(1cl6ero1cwi3tnendJeudly) 2 0 716F1r4eLnbaceshfotErmeset1ae7tt8ein9sg-RGoeefvnto1hel6eurE1atui5loronEpnegalannadmsbMeanusdgssha1fida6rol1src5totIounrtet rbneatwl ceaonenndflDcicootrnpringualprCitnthyepi(nuta1oanr6tu1py1c6a5h2rt7P)oMufbaDlnioccnahtCaQio,eunbrixyvoaoMftnefiitgendusaee,lllSadpeain

1616–17 1618 1619–20
,,
,,
I HOPE IT WILL BE HARD

,,FOR THE RUSSIANS TO

JUMP ACROSS THAT
CREEK.

Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, Treaty of Stolbovo, 1617

An illustration depicts the defenestration of two regents by Protestants in The work of the English philosopher Francis
Prague Castle, Bohemia, an event that sparked the Thirty Years’ War. Bacon was to have a lasting impact.

THE SEEDS OF THE LATER FALL of difficult to navigate. In 1616, a THIS IS A SHARP THE DUTCH, IN AGGRESSIVELY
China’s Ming dynasty (see 1644) Dutch expedition under Jakob le SEEKING to supplant the
were sown in 1616 when Manchu Maire and Willem Schouten found ,,MEDICINE, BUT IT IS A Portuguese in the East Indies,
tribal leader, Nurhaci (1559–1626), a new route through open water had first attempted to establish
pronounced himself Great Jin, to the south, naming its PHYSICIAN FOR ALL a trading post in Java in 1596.
establishing the Qing dynasty. southernmost island, Cape Horn. DISEASES AND MISERIES. From 1602, they also had to
contend with English efforts to
20,000 One of Islam’s finest buildings Sir Walter Raleigh, last words before execution, October 29, 1618 infiltrate themselves in the East
was completed after seven years Indies. In 1619, the Dutch struck
THE NUMBER in 1616. The Sultan Ahmed ON MAY 23, 1618, THE PROTESTANT English privateers (state- back decisively, ousting the
OF BLUE Mosque, in Constantinople (now Count Thurn had the two regents sponsored raiders) had bought English and their Javanese allies,
CEILING TILES Istanbul), is known as the Blue of the Catholic king of Bohemia, and sold African slaves since the and establishing themselves in
THAT GIVE THE Mosque because of the many and future Holy Roman Emperor, late 16th century, but in 1618 Jayakarta, which they renamed
BLUE MOSQUE ceramic tiles of its interior. Ferdinand II (1578–1637), thrown England’s involvement in the Batavia. It would become not
ITS NAME from an upper window of Atlantic slave trade became merely the capital of the Dutch
Gorée Island, to the south of Prague Castle, in Bohemia. The deeper when the first slave East Indies but the focal point of
Since 1599, he had united other Africa’s Cape Verde, was Defenestration of Prague shipment to its North American the Dutch colonial empire,
Manchu tribes in the Eight purchased by the Dutch from its sparked the brutal Thirty Years’ colonies arrived from West Africa dismembered only by its conquest
Banners military system. War Portuguese owners in 1617. They War. It was mostly confined to at Jamestown, Virginia. by Japan in 1942.
with the Ming followed in 1618. turned it into a major slave Germany, which by 1648 was a
trading base, a role continued by scene of wholesale destruction EARLY SLAVE TRADE
Although the Magellan Strait, the French, who took it in 1677. and slaughter. Initially a religious
linking the Atlantic and Pacific in conflict, Ferdinand’s quest to Although it was in the 18th
southern South America, had The 1617 Treaty of Stolbovo erase Protestantism from all his century that the Atlantic
been discovered in 1519, it was ended the war between Russia dominions became a Europe-wide slave trade reached its peak,
and Sweden that had lasted seven fight for supremacy involving, at in the early 17th century it
years. It drew a new, more secure different points, every major was developing rapidly.
boundary for Sweden that made European power. Slaves were transported
use of lakes Ladoga and Peipus. from a series of slave forts
On October 29, 1618, the English on the west coast of Africa to
Dutch slave base soldier and explorer Sir Walter the burgeoning European
This colored engraving shows the Raleigh (1552–1618) was colonial lands of the New
fort at Gorée Island when it was executed by beheading at the
controlled by the Dutch. It proved a Tower of London. He had World. Male
highly profitable venture for them. been one of the early English slaves were
colonizers of Virginia, North branded with
America, but his failure to irons (pictured)
find the legendary South on the Atlantic
American city of El Dorado, Ocean crossing,
as well as his attacking
a Spanish settlement in which
against the expressed about 25
wishes of King James I, percent
had sealed his fate. died.

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May

1621–23

,, MANY WILL TRAVEL
AND KNOWLEDGE

,,WILL BE INCREASED.

Francis Bacon, English philosopher, from Novum Organum, 1620

American Indians of the Powhatan attack a farm in the English colony of
Virginia in 1622, massacring all of its inhabitants.

Novum Organum, one of the might have expected. It galvanized 120 hostility. Yet the subsequent relations with the Powhatan they
great books of philosophy, was Protestant opposition to him, fighting was less an attempt by meant it exclusively on their own
written by English philosopher importantly including Denmark. POPULATION 80 Spain at the reconquest of the terms, rose against them. The
and scientist Francis Bacon Dutch so much as an effort to predictable consequence was a
(1561–1626) in 1620. It was a The founding of Jamestown in 40 destabilize them politically and violent English backlash, which
major work in the development 1607 as the first permanent economically by attempts to ban by the middle of the century had
of scientific method. English colony in the New World 0 1621 Dutch mercantile activities and all but eliminated the Powhatan
was overshadowed by the arrival 1620 to blockade their principal ports. American Indians.
The initial phase of the Thirty near modern Boston in November The Spanish were successful in
Years’ War climaxed in the Battle 1620 of the Mayflower. The Population of Plymouth besieging Jülich and Steenbergen Determined to end the power
of White Mountain in November 102 passengers on board were The population of Plymouth Colony in 1622 but an attempted siege of the Janissaries—the elite
1620, when the forces of Holy Puritan pilgrims, Protestant dropped dramatically in the first, of Bergen-op-Zoom had to be military group that formed the
Roman Emperor Ferdinand II self-exiles staking all on a new difficult year of its founding. abandoned at huge cost. household troops and bodyguard
decisively routed those of the life in a new world. of the Ottoman sultan—Osman II
Calvinist Frederick V (1596–1632), THE PURITAN PILGRIMS of the The Banda Islands, in the East (1604–22) had made a dangerous
ruler of what was called the Battle of White Mountain Mayflower had arrived in the New Indies, were the only known enemy for himself since becoming
Palatinate, in southwest Germany. This major engagement—a Catholic World in 1620 not only late in the sources of nutmeg and mace, sultan in 1618. His attempts to
Ferdinand’s victory over victory—took place near Prague, and year, with the New England winter spices that commanded a huge assert himself as an independent
Frederick had almost exactly the ended the first, or Bohemian, period settling in, but in the wrong place: premium in Europe. They were ruler provoked a Jannissary
opposite effect from what he in the Thirty Years’ War. their original goal was the Hudson accordingly the focus of bitter, uprising that saw him imprisoned
River, several hundred miles to often violent rivalry, first in his own palace. On May 20,
the south. Their early survival between the Portuguese and the 1622, the 17-year-old sultan was
at what they named Plymouth Dutch and, by the early 17th murdered, probably strangled by
Colony was almost entirely a century, between the English and one of his captors.
matter of luck, a harsh winter the Dutch. In 1621, having ousted
survived largely through American the English from the islands, the Sultan Osman II
Indian aid. Thereafter, they Dutch, actively encouraged by the This equestrian portrait of gouache
scraped a desperate existence, Governor-General of the East on paper shows the Ottoman sultan
dependent on uncertain Indies, Jan Pieterszoon Coen, set Osman II. His short, but brave, reign
reinforcement from England and about the extermination of the ended in violent tragedy.
their own meagre efforts. islanders. It is estimated that of a
population of 15,000, all but 1,000
The expiration in 1621 of the were killed or expelled.
Twelve–Year Truce between
Spain and the Dutch Republic in On March 22, 1622, the
1609 was, perhaps predictably, Powhatan American Indians in
the signal for a further round of what was now the English colony
Spanish–Dutch conflict. Both of Virginia, killed 347 of the
sides had increased their armies settlers—men, women, and
and navies in expectation of a children—approximately 25
resumption of the war. In addition, percent of the total number of
Dutch financial if not military help colonists. As early as 1610,
to Frederick V—now in exile in the tensions between the settlers and
Dutch Republic after his crushing the American Indians had flared
defeat at White Mountain the year into open conflict. By 1622, the
before—provided an obvious Indians, realizing that when the
motive for renewed Spanish settlers claimed to want peaceful

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FHeAoruldyginRuasontmd2a8InI,eE1l6mep1cap9te1leaKd6rcoy2eor0tooIfm, Kcpoaemtrsipualrleat,ed Owcr1ti6toe2bs0eNrFPro1oav6lnue2mcs0isaOOtBrtBtgaoaacmonttnualemnsofdCefeecNaotPoriavlPgelrmyimmboseourantr1hMr6iCva2eoy0lflaootnwyer 2 0 911662211sJSeawipzeaetdonReetissrgaeavfeolrobvidedrs1ee6na2s2KSaanfdaaavnhiddarPeefxrrposemilaPfnMrosourmttgauhkHgaeuolserO,msceetunozdbSeBprea1rn6gi2seh2n-sDoiueptg-ceZhooofm1623 MSaefsaovpidBoaPtagemhrdsiaaiadfnr,osMmcoaAsOpuutttlug,oruamensadtn1s6Pi2nr3oTBtheaisrttttaylenYteoaafrrSmst’ayWddatelrosshtrenoeysePdDuebcleicFmaotbliioeoSnrhoo1faf6WkF2eii3slrlpsiaetmare

1624–25 1626–27
,,
WAR IS ONE OF THE SCOURGES
WITH WHICH IT HAS PLEASED

,,GOD TO AFFLICT MEN.

Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister of France, 1620s

This illustration shows Peter Minuit purchasing the island of Manhattan from
the local American Indians, most likely the Lenape people, in 1626.

IN AUGUST 1624, CARDINAL Fronde (see 1648–49). His political Dutch, taking Breda after an ONE OF THE MOST FAMOUS EVER BAROQUE
RICHELIEU (1585–1642) became astuteness and manipulation of 11-month siege, while France, TRANSACTIONS occurred on ARCHITECTURE
chief minister to the king of factions, however, prevented whose policy was now being May 26, 1626 when Peter Minuit,
France, 23-year-old Louis XIII political breakdown, and by his directed by the hawkish Richelieu, director-general of the Dutch Gathering pace in the early
(1601–43). Richelieu claimed that death, France was making became covertly involved in West India Company’s New 17th century, the Roman
his goals were “to destroy the progress against its Habsburg supporting an anti-Habsburg Netherlands settlement, bought High Baroque was a strong
military power of the Habsburgs, enemies. Richelieu also knew that struggle in northern Italy. Manhattan island—site of Fort Catholic response to the
to humble the great nobles [of Huguenot military power at home This was an attempt by Richelieu Amsterdam since 1625—from Protestant Reformation,
France], and to raise the prestige (see 1597–98) was a permanent to sever the Spanish Road, the its American Indian inhabitants. and reasserted classical
of the House of Bourbon in threat to France’s stability, but tenuous but vital link between The fee was 60 Dutch guilders, Renaissance architecture. Its
Europe.” It was ambitious, and that the persecution of Protestant Habsburg Italy and the estimated since to be around $24. church building, in particular
involved alliances with groups that worship would lead to last-ditch Netherlands. At almost precisely Neither side felt the deal to be St. Peter’s Basilica in
had little commitment to his resistance at home and imperil the same moment, Christian IV of overly unreasonable. Rome (pictured), sought to
program. Eventually, the price of France’s alliances with foreign Denmark (1577–1648) entered the advertise and glorify the
confronting enemies abroad and Protestant powers, on which its war, in part seeking to bolster The Thirty Years’ War was a Catholic Church, and
Protestants at home would be anti-Habsburg strategy rested. the Protestant cause, but more brutal watershed in 17th-century produced numerous new
popular revolt in France against particularly to forestall Swedish Europe, but its cruelty was not and grandiose buildings.
the financial and military burdens In 1625, the already tangled ambitions to control northern merely a grim consequence of
imposed by him. It would also conflicts of the unfolding Thirty Germany and the Baltic. In August battle. Always strapped for money, overly heavy taxes by soldiers,
lead to rebellion by the elites that Years’ War became even more 1626, his army was defeated at armies took funding into their own peasants and poor townspeople
culminated in the civil war of the complex. With the Twelve-Year the Battle of Lutter (see right) by hands and imposed taxes became even more vulnerable to
Truce over, Spain squeezed the directly on the peasants and the fluctuations in food supply
a Bavarian Catholic towns. Faced by the collection of through bad harvests, military
army led by Count activity, and looting. Across much
Tilly and in alliance 25 of Europe, but notably in France,
with the Habsburg 200 8,500 the Austrian Habsburg lands, and
emperor. It seemed Spanish southern Italy, peasant
for the moment that casualties casualties revolts and urban riots
French scheming 20 threatened to take whole areas
and Dutch fighting out of the control of government.
could not prevent ARMIES (IN THOUSANDS) 15 With the onset of the Little Ice Age
a comprehensive in the mid-17th century (see
victory for the 10 1645), the problem intensified.
Habsburgs.
5
The Surrender
of Breda 0
Justin von Nassau is
shown surrendering Imperial Danish
Breda in 1625 to
Ambrosio Spinola, the army army
Spanish commander,
after an 11-month- Battle of Lutter
long siege. Breda was In 1626, a Danish army, with a huge
retaken in 1637. loss of about 8,500 men, failed to
hold ground against a similar-sized
Holy Roman Empire force.

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210

1628–29 1630–31

This 17th-century ink and watercolor miniature of Shah Jahan shows the fifth A hand-colored woodcut depicting the siege of Magdeburg by the Holy Roman
Mughal emperor with a holy nimbus around his turbaned head. Empire. The city was later burned and 20,000 people massacred.

FORCES (IN THOUSANDS) 60 Battle of Breitenfeld
5,500 At Breitenfeld in 1631, a strong
casualties Swedish–Saxon army inflicted huge
numbers of casualties on an army of
50 20,000 the Holy Roman Empire.
casualties

40

30 have led to nothing, however,
had not the Imperial troops
20 besieging the Lutheran
stronghold of Magdeburg in 1631
10 then massacred the population.
This provoked outrage among the
0 Lutheran princes. With their Queen of France
political support, in addition to Portrait of Marie de Medici, the
Swedish–Saxon Imperial substantial French funding, second wife of King Henry IV of
Gustavus Adolphus inflicted a France, who attempted to displace
army army crushing defeat over an Imperial Cardinal Richelieu in 1630.
army at Breitenfeld, near Leipzig,
AFTER MORE THAN A YEAR, THE Siege of La Rochelle THE ENTRY OF SWEDEN INTO THE in September 1631. At this stage, Medici (1575–1642), the mother of
SIEGE OF LA ROCHELLE, the Chief minister of France, Cardinal THIRTY YEARS’ WAR in 1630 added his army marching triumphantly the king, and when he retired to
strongest Protestant enclave in Richelieu, inspects the formidable a new dimension to the conflict. south, Gustavus Adolphus seems ponder his decison they believed
France, ended in October 1628 sea wall defenses of La Rochelle, It was still essentially a religious to have conceived a vision of an they had been successful. Yet
with defeat for the Huguenots. during the siege of 1628. war—one that the Catholic Holy empire that included both Sweden powerful friends saved Cardinal
The siege was Richelieu’s Roman Emperor Ferdinand II was and Germany. Yet the events of the Richelieu, and the king’s mother
response to lingering hopes of emperor in 1628. His 30-year clearly winning. Exploiting this, following year would destroy this was exiled to Compiègne.
Huguenot opposition to the reign would be a golden age for Sweden’s Lutheran king, hope (see 1632).
French Crown, and was designed Mughal India, hugely increasing Gustavus Adolphus (1594–1632), 900
to both crush Huguenot the size of its territory as well as presented himself as the savior On a day in November 1630,
resistance and dismantle its still initiating a great flowering of of the Lutheran princes of north forever known as the Day of THE
formidable military. Although Mughal architecture and culture. Germany. Yet he was potentially Dupes, the enemies of Cardinal APPROXIMATE
Richelieu acknowledged their as much a threat to them as to Richelieu attempted to overthrow NUMBER OF
right to religious toleration, he In the 17th century, rulers Ferdinand. Having spent the him. They commanded Louis XIII PEOPLE BURNT
made sure they could mount no across Europe embraced the idea previous 19 years fighting the to replace Richelieu with Marie de AT THE STAKE
further threat to the Crown. of strong central authority as Russians, Poles, and Danes for AFTER THE
the only guarantee of stability. In control of the Baltic, he now copper alloy WÜRZBURG
The publication in 1628 of On the England, for Charles I (1600–49), hoped to dominate its German barrel WITCH TRIALS
Motion of the Heart and Blood, by absolute monarchy was coast too. His intervention might
royal physician William Harvey legitimized by his conviction that Swedish field cannon
(1578–1657), marked one of the he had been divinely sanctioned This cannon was used by the army
major discoveries of the 17th by God to rule. In 1629, irritated by of Gustavus Adolphus. The barrel
century. It explained both the its checks on his authority, he has a caliber (diameter) of 2¾in
circulation of the blood and the dismissed Parliament, provoking (7cm), and weighs 440lb (200kg).
functioning of the heart, by using a growing resentment among
observation and experimentation. those seeking to share
power at what were
One of the great leaders of seen as attempts to
India’s Mughal Empire, Shah impose illegal
Jahan (1592–1666), was crowned taxes.

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211

1632–33 1634–35

An oil painting depicting the trial of Galileo shows the Italian physicist and The assassination of Field Marshal Albrecht Wallenstein took place at the
astronomer sitting before the assembled ranks of the Inquisition, in Rome. Pachelbel House, at Eger, Bohemia. He was awoken and killed by his own men.

2,000,000 THE DEFEAT AT LÜTZEN WAS one forces, who crushed the Swedes gradually reversing their previous
of the last times that Albrecht at the Battle of Nördlingen in losses, so Germany was
THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE Wallenstein (1583–1634) led an November 1634. The subsequent devastated. The fighting spilled
WHO DIED IN THE DECCAN Imperial army. Although generally Treaty of Prague, in 1635, made into France when, in 1636,
FAMINE, 1630–32 successful, he was distrusted by clear the extent of the Habsburg a Spanish army invaded the
almost everyone and was believed triumph and the Swedish defeat. northeast, briefly threatening
ANXIOUS TO RECOVER ITS LOSSES the Imperial armies in April 1632 to be negotiating a separate Germany’s Protestant princes Paris, and again, in 1637, when
TO POLAND–LITHUANIA under the at the Battle of Rain, in Bavaria. A peace. He was charged with now backed Ferdinand II. It Spain launched an attack on
Treaty of Deulino of 1619, and minor triumph in November at the treason by Holy Roman Emperor provoked the final and most brutal Languedoc in the south. In 1639,
exploiting the death of the Polish Battle of Lützen, near Leipzig, Ferdinand II, but in February 1634 phase of the Thirty Years’ War, and France retaliated by invading
king, Sigismund III Vasa, Russia might then have confirmed he was murdered by some of his direct French intervention. Catalonia in the northeast of
besieged Smolensk in October Swedish territorial ambitions in own officers, with the tacit Spain. In this wave of violence, all
1632. Polish forces were unable to Germany had King Gustavus approval of Ferdinand. Yet, with As in the 16th century, France the participants were by now
attempt a lifting of the siege for Adolphus not been killed in the the Swedes having failed to follow feared Habsburg encirclement. effectively bankrupt. It was Spain
almost a year. Their ultimate battle. At a stroke, the impetus up their victory at Lützen, the Up to now, it had sought to secure that suffered the most, with
defeat of the Russians in 1634, went out of the Protestant initiative returned to the Imperial itself by financing those states attempts at raising revenue
however, was absolute. campaign. Habsburg supremacy most likely to defeat the Habsburg provoking bitter resentment, even
seemed to have been assured. Battle of Nördlingen forces, Sweden above all. With the in Spain itself. In 1640, outright
Sweden’s success of the Fought in southern Germany, this Swedes on the verge of pulling out revolt against the Spanish Crown
previous year in the Thirty Years’ In 1633, Italian astronomer battle resulted in a crushing victory of Germany, the French now took broke out in Catalonia and
War continued with a defeat of Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was for the Habsburgs—but it was not a the field themselves. As Franco– Portugal, both uprisings openly
called before the Roman conclusive end to the war. Swedish armies progressively encouraged by France. In the
Inquisition of the Catholic ravaged Germany, the Swedes
Church. His crime was to support
FORCES (IN THOUSANDS) 30 6,800 the heliocentric view of the Solar
6,000 casualties System that placed the Sun, and
not the Earth, at its center. He was
24 casualties found guilty of heresy, forced to
recant, and spent the rest of his
18 life under house arrest.

12 Under Japan’s Tokugawa
shogunate, a policy of kaikin (“sea
6 restriction”) was declared in 1633.
Contact with the outside world
0 was strictly controlled, although
trade with Korea and China was
Swedish Imperial allowed, and the Dutch kept a
trading post. The idea was to
army army prevent possible territorial
incursions into Japan. It remained
Battle of Lützen official policy until 1853.
Similar-sized forces suffered similar
casualties at the Battle of Lützen.
Critically, though, the Swedes lost
their leader, Gustavus Adolphus.

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,,1636–37 1638–39

IT IS NOT ENOUGH

,,TO HAVE A GOOD MIND;

THE MAIN THING IS TO
USE IT WELL.

René Descartes, from Discours de la Méthode, 1637

This engraving depicts the Ottoman sultan, Murad IV, sitting on a horse. His
reign restored internal authority and brought secure borders with Persia.

same year, there was no Spanish Gondar Castle THE INTERMITTENT CONFLICT
between the Ottoman Empire and
New World treasure fleet. By now, Part of the Fasil the Safavid Persian Empire, which
had begun in 1623, climaxed
the original causes of the Thirty Ghebbi, founded by in 1638. Baghdad fell to the 1,200 Portuguese
Years’ War had been superseded. Fasilides, in Ethiopia, Ottomans under Sultan Murad IV soldiers
Habsburg weakness, in Spain this 17th-century (1612–40), the last Ottoman ruler NATIVES
as much as in Germany, was castle shows Arab, to lead his troops in battle. This canoes
increasingly apparent. Nubian, and Baroque was followed in 1639 by the
design influences. Treaty of Qasr-i-Shirin, which 70
When not conspiring against his definitively settled the long- 47
disputed Ottoman–Safavid border,
enemies, chief minister Cardinal largely to the benefit of the Pedro Teixeira’s
Ottomans. It granted all of Amazon expedition
Richelieu schemed to promote ETHIOPIAN EMPEROR Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) to Teixeira’s expedition was immense
the Ottomans, while handing the and expensive. Of some political
French prestige, or gloire. He since 1632, Fasilides city of Yerevan (in present-day interest, it was financed by the
Armenia) to the Safavid Persians. governor of Maranhão, in Brazil.
championed colonial expansion, (c. 1603–67) founded
The problems that would
and promoted French arts and a permanent imperial eventually lead to the execution
of Charles I of England in 1649
learning. Among his lasting capital at Gondar in stemmed from the king’s
high-handed conviction that he
achievements was the Académie 1636. The buildings could always impose himself on
his kingdoms. This was not
Française, set up in 1635. Part he constructed there included the One of the founders of modern exclusively a matter of royal 1639 by the invasion of England
versus parliamentary authority. by a “Covenanter” army from
of a pan-European move toward Fasil Ghebbi, a fortress complex philosophy, French writer René A significant element of religious Scotland. The king’s options
controversy was involved, too. were narrowing.
officially sanctioned institutes of that became home to Ethiopia’s Descartes (1596–1650), an In 1637, Charles, encouraged by
William Laud, the archbishop of In 1638, Portuguese explorer
learning, it was also designed to emperors until the 18th century. advocate of rationalism, produced Canterbury, had made the use of Pedro Teixeira (d. 1641) achieved
the Church of England’s Book of a remarkable double first in
consolidate what France saw as An early speculative bubble Discours de la Méthode in 1637. Common Prayer compulsory in becoming the first person to make
Scotland. Both Charles and Laud the return journey of the entire
one of its chief claims to gloire: its burst in February 1637, when the It was one of the most influential cordially despised the Calvinist length of the Amazon River,
Scottish Kirk (Church). For their reaching Belém, at the river’s
language. The Académie’s 40 Dutch price of tulip bulbs peaked works of Western philosophy. part, Scotland’s Kirk elders, much mouth, more than two years after
like their Puritan counterparts in he had set out. The previous year
members continue to pronounce England, considered any attempt Teixeira had been the first person
to impose Anglican religious to make the journey upstream,
on language usage today. 1,000 PERCENT uniformity little better than a venture partly inspired by the
In 1635, the system of sankin papism. Their virulent protests in need to know how far east
the following year, known as the Spanish colonists had advanced
kotai (“alternate attendance”), Great Covenant, were followed in beyond the Andes and into the
introduced to Japan by Toyotomi Amazon Basin.

Hideyoshi in the 1590s, was made On November 24, 1639, English
astronomer Jeremiah Horrocks
compulsory. The daimyo (feudal THE RELATIVE PRICE OF TULIP (1618–41) became the first person
to both predict and observe a
lords) were forced to spend every transit of Venus. This rare event
sees Venus pass directly between
other year at the shogun’s court at BULBS COMPARED TO THE the Sun and the Earth. Observing
Edo to participate in lavish rituals. the transit provided information
The cost of such submission, plus ANNUAL INCOME OF A SKILLED vital to calculating the distance
from the Earth to the Sun.
the time spent at court, made

DUTCH CRAFTSMANrebellion less likely. When they

returned to their estates, which

they held from the shogun, each and then suddenly nose-dived, A major new encyclopedia, The

daimyo’s wife and heir remained allegedly ruining many investors. Exploitation of the Works of Nature,

behind. Exacting demands were A luxury item, they were seen as by minor provincial bureaucrat,

enforced regarding dress, types a safe haven for investment in an Song Yingxing, was published in

of weapons carried, soldier uncertain time. Although Tulip China in May 1637. Its wide range

numbers accompanying each Mania prices are difficult to be of information regarding Chinese

daimyo, and the contributions— certain about, and have been technology distinguished it from

military and financial—the daimyo disputed, anecdotal evidence earlier traditions, and provided an

were expected to provide. suggests significant highs. obvious and extensive resource.

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213

1640–41 1642–43

An illustration of Malacca, which was taken from the Portuguese by the Dutch A depiction of the Battle of Rocroi, fought on May 19, 1643. It resulted in

in 1641. An earlier attack by the Dutch in 1605 had failed. the crushing victory of a French army over a Spanish force.

FOLLOWING A SCOTTISH INVASION By 1640, French painter Nicolas THE COURSE, NOT TO MENTION FORCES (IN THOUSANDS) 40 10,000 domination for that of control by
OF ENGLAND IN 1639, in April 1640 Poussin (1594–1665) completed A THE CAUSES, of the English Civil casualties the French. In the longer term,
Charles I (1600–49) recalled the Dance to the Music of Time, a key War that began in August 1642 32 Spanish decline seemed
parliament he had dismissed 11 work of the era. Poussin stressed was never clear cut. It pitted a 4,000 inevitable.
years earlier. He needed approval clarity and order rather than the king bent on absolutism against
to raise taxes for an army. emotion and color of the Baroque a Parliament determined not so casualties In 1643, Italian physicist and
Determined not to submit to its style dominant at that time. much to overthrow the monarchy 24 mathematician Evangelista
lists of grievances, he dismissed as to reassert its claim to shared Torricelli (1608–47) made a
it, but a second invasion in August From 1641, a devastating plague sovereignty in the government 16 major contribution to scientific
forced a recall. In December 1641, struck China, further weakening of the kingdom. As the opening method in Europe with his
Parliament presented a Grand a Ming China threatened by both battles were fought, Charles I 8 invention of the mercury
Remonstrance, an accusation of the Manchu military to the north proved himself a surprisingly barometer. He had not intended
royal abuses of power. The king and increasingly lawless bands of obstinate and able war leader. 0 to make this invention, but while
responded, in January 1642, peasants roaming the country, However, he was soon to become Swedish Imperial working on a water pump for the
with an attempt to arrest his victims of repeated famines. An undone, not just by his compulsive Duke of Tuscany, and substituting
parliamentary opponents. By almost complete breakdown of deviousness but by the fact that Second Battle of Breitenfeld the much heavier mercury for
August, the country was at war. central control in China followed. he found himself confronting The imperial army of the Holy water, he realized that the rising
increasingly assertive and better Roman Empire suffered heavy and falling of a column of
Life dancing to music Continuing Dutch encroachment organized Parliamentarian forces. losses at the hands of the Swedish mercury in a tube sealed at one
Poussin’s A Dance to the Music of on the territory and trade of the These would be largely dominated army at Breitenfeld, in Saxony. end was due to changes in
Time shows four dancing figures Portuguese in Asia saw the by the formidably imposing figure atmospheric pressure.
representing poverty, labor, wealth, capture of the key trading base of Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658), and making the Catholics of the
and pleasure in a perpetual cycle. of Malacca in 1641. It would prove a Puritan, East-Anglian country Holy Roman Empire more Torricelli’s barometer
a valuable cornerstone of the vast squire and Member of Parliament. amenable to negotiation. In this engraving, Torricelli
Dutch Empire in the East Indies. The war’s significance, at least in demonstrates the existence of
English terms, was to be that The overwhelming French atmospheric pressure through the
Parliament could claim greater defeat of Spain at the Battle of use of mercury-filled tubes.
legitimacy than that of any king: in Rocroi in northeast France in May
short, that Parliament could 1643 put to an end to hopes of a
restrain a king, divinely Spanish triumph against either
sanctioned or not, held to have of the Dutch Republic or France in
broken his trust with his people. the Thirty Years’ War. Spain was
already on the defensive against
Eleven years after the village of both countries. Rocroi marked the
Breitenfeld, in Saxony, had seen end of its dreams of European
King Gustavus Adolphus of imperial dominance. The Spanish
Sweden defeat a Holy Roman army in Flanders was destroyed,
Empire army (see 1631), the losing almost all its most
Second Battle of Breitenfeld in experienced infantry in the
October 1642 saw another battle. Combined with its internal
decisive victory for Sweden in the struggles against the Catalonians
Thirty Years’ War. Sweden was and the Portuguese, and its
subsequently free to occupy chronic shortage of money, Spain
Leipzig and the rest of Saxony, risked permanent eclipse. In the
further strengthening short term, defeat reduced the
Protestantism in Central Europe, threat from the Dutch, who were
anxious that they had potentially
swapped the prospect of Spanish

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214

1644–45 1646–47
,,
WE STUDY THE GLORY OF GOD, AND THE
HONOUR AND LIBERTY OF PARLIAMENT,
FOR WHICH WE… FIGHT, WITHOUT

,,SEEKING OUR OWN INTERESTS…

Oliver Cromwell, English Parliamentarian general, Battle of Marston Moor, 1644

Carisbrooke Castle, on the Isle of Wight, England, was where Charles I was
imprisoned for 14 months, from 1647, after his defeat in the English Civil War.

ON APRIL 24, 1644, AS A REBEL In the English Civil Potala Palace in Tibet POWER IN THE EARLY YEARS OF now made this compulsory for
MING ARMY under Li Zicheng War, the Battle of The Potala Palace, seen atop the THE QING DYNASTY was exercised all male Han Chinese (the Queue
prepared to take Beijing, the Marston Moor in Marpo Ri hill in this view from the by the child-emperor’s uncle, Order). Clashing with Confucian
Chongzhen Emperor, the last July 1644 saw a south, rises more than 1,000 ft Prince Dorgon (1612–50). A contention that hair, as a gift from
Ming ruler, committed suicide. decisive victory for (300 m) above the valley floor. distinctive feature of the Qing was your parents, should never be cut,
In February, Li had proclaimed the Parliament. The their hair, shaved at the front, to wear a Manchu pigtail was seen
Shun dynasty, but it was not to last following summer, at emphasized the ultimately braided into a pigtail at the back, as a mark of servility, as Dorgon
long. In May, the Manchus, allying Naseby in June 1645, superior resources of the and known as a “queue.” Dorgon intended. Thousands who refused
with a remnant Ming force, ultimate victory was Parliamentary cause. to adopt it were put to death.
crushed Li’s army at the Battle of virtually guaranteed attachment for
Shanhai Pass. By the autumn, the when the main army From about 1645, the Northern holding strap On May 26, 1647, the
first Manchu Qing emperor of of Charles I was Hemisphere saw crop failures Massachusetts Bay Colony
China, the six-year-old Shunzhi annihilated by Parliament’s newly brought about by abnormally cold English Civil War armor banned Jesuit priests from the
Emperor (1638–61), had been formed New Model Army. Led by winters. The result was famine on Metal breastplates with appended colony. Founded as a staunchly
installed in Beijing. Ming Oliver Cromwell and Sir Thomas a massive scale, leading to both tassets (to protect the legs and lower Puritan enclave, the colonists
resistance in the south continued Fairfax, the New Model Army war and the collapse of state body) were used by foot soldiers on loathed the Jesuits as a sinister
until 1681. The Qing themselves brought a greater professionalism structures across the globe. both sides during the civil war.
ruled until their collapse in 1911. and mobility into the conflict, and These climatic changes, manifestation of popery. Also,
known since 1976 as the increasingly alarmed by the
KEY R U S S I A N E M P I R E AMUR Maunder Minimum, were French Jesuit missionaries in
the result of reduced
Under Manchu MANCHURIA sunspot activity, the Canada, who had converted
control by 1644 Mukden direct consequence of many Huron and Algonquin
which was the Little Ice American Indians, they
Under Qing XINJIANG OUTER Sea of Age, in which global were determined that a
control by 1660 MONGOLIA Japan temperatures fell by movement “subversive to
several degrees.
Under Qing Beijing society” should have no
control In 1645, the 5th Dalai place in the new colony.
by 1770 Lama, Lozang Gyatso
(1617–82), began the After escaping
TIBET construction of the modern Parliament’s siege of
Potala Palace, in Lhasa, Tibet.
Nanjing Suzhou Construction finally ended in Oxford in April 1646,
1694, and it remained the seat of King Charles I
Lhasa Chongqing Changsha the Dalai Lama up to 1959. surrendered to a
Fuzhou Scottish army. The
Bay of next year they
INDIA Bengal Guangzhou PACIFIC delivered him to
Macao OCEAN Parliament. He
was imprisoned
GROWTH OF QING EMPIRE at Carisbrooke
Castle, on the
Having secured control of China proper in 1644, the Qing Empire Isle of White.
continued to expand throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, From there, he
provoked in part by the threat of Russian, British, and French
moves into Asia. Only some areas of the vast empire were continued to try to bargain
governed directly by the Manchu or settled by the Chinese. Much with the various parties, but his
was secured, at huge expense, through military garrisons. secret negotiations with the
Scottish Presbyterians to invade
England led to a renewal of the
English Civil War.

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1645
215

1450–1749 REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

THE STORY OF cherub’s head
decoration
ARMS AND
ARMOR hole to
attach crest
FROM STICKS AND STONES TO A DEADLY ART FORM
rope
Whether for hunting or sport, conflict or contests of skill, handheld arms comb
have played a crucial role in human existence and advancement. The first
weapons developed out of survival tools: found objects, such as stones, were two sections of
used to bludgeon prey, or to fend off predatory animals or rival humans. skull plate join

As prehistoric humans’ skills advanced, clubs and daggers, spears, and arrowheads. Soft, easily at comb
stone hand-axes gave way to carefully crafted worked metals such as copper replaced flint,
wooden spears used to hunt animals or impale followed by stronger, sharper, and longer Bronze French 16th-century embossed helmet
fish. Even more effective weapons married wooden Age and Iron Age swords, daggers, javelins, and Armor reached its greatest decorative
shafts with razor-sharp flint blades to form axes, battle-axes. Until the advent of firearms, the heights during the Renaissance. Suits and
history of handheld weapons is one of variations on helmets were embossed and etched, gilded
SHIELDS a theme, culminating in the sophisticated forging or silvered, particularly for tournaments—
processes of Japan’s samurai swords, which at and to show the owner’s wealth and status.
Like arms and body armor, their height in the 14th–16th centuries wrapped
shields—a type of “accessory super-sharp steel around a flexible iron core.
armor”—could be functional,
decorative, or both. During THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR
the medieval period in Europe, Early “armor” consisted of padding: thick layers of
when knights held high status cloth with a stiff leather “helmet” to protect the
in society, shields were often head. Plated helmets, breastplates, and wooden
embellished with elaborate shields were used by classical Greek and Roman
scenes of courtly devotion or armies, but elsewhere, ordinary soldiers relied on
prowess in battle. Decoration padding, leather, and luck—a situation that changed
like this was thought to bring little in Europe until chain mail was perfected in
added protection to the bearer. 11th-century France. Full suits of armor were
costly, so they were also used as status symbols.
15th-century Flemish shield

750,000–50,000 BCE 5500–3300 BCE 2500 BCE 6th–mid-5th
Flint arrowheads Helmets centuries BCE
Flint cutting edges The wooden bow combined The first part of the The crossbow
with arrowheads made from body to be protected Crossbows can
Razor-sharp flint sharpened flint proves a is the head. Early be cocked well
deadly combination, allowing armies use plated in advance of
daggers, spears, and users to strike their victims helmets, but most firing—providing
from a safe distance. soldiers rely on one of the earliest
axes are used for leather caps. “loaded” weapons.

both hunting and Flint Early Chinese
crossbow
warfare. dagger Attic helmet

450,000–400,000 BCE 3700–2300 BCE c. 1400 BCE 3rd–4th Roman
Wooden weapons Metal weapons Suit armor develops
Metalworking gives Plated body armor is centuries gladius
Easily worked and readily available, rise to sophisticated an early invention, but
wood is shaped into spears and effective blades it is expensive and not Steel blades
for hunting or defense. in the Bronze and always practical for
Iron Ages. movement in battle. Adding carbon to iron
Wooden spear
Bronze ax Mycenaean armor produces steel, which

allows bladed weapons to be

mass-produced. Blades also

become stronger and longer.

216

THE STORY OF ARMS AND ARMOR

surface is made
from bright steel

closed visor protects breastplate is
face, but limits field combined with a
of view
neck guard

single pivot for visor separate plates
and face guard offer protection, but

peg for allow movement
lifting visor

The return of armor
During World War I, body
armor was revived. German
machine gunners wore suits
like this one when firing
from exposed places.

upper bevor
decorated with
figures in Roman
armor

77 lb THE
APPROXIMATE

WEIGHT OF
A FULL SUIT OF EUROPEAN 16TH-
CENTURY TOURNAMENT ARMOR

neck guard

Wheel-lock 1939–1945 Reinforced
pistol Flak jackets flak jacket
Based on the
15th–17th centuries same design as
Firearms developed the cuirass, World
War II flak jackets
With the invention of guns, body armor stop shrapnel,
shrinks back to the cuirass (breastplate), but not bullets.

to allow for drawing of pistols.

11th century 1100 onward 15th century 19th century 20th–21st centuries
Mail perfected Swords improve First suits of full plate Automatic-loading firearms Kevlar and “liquid”
Lighter and less bulky The cross-guard is added armor develop The advent of the revolver, with its body armor
than armor plate, to protect the hand, and Suits of armor provide the rotating cylinder, meant that multiple Kevlar threads are five times
chain mail worn over a marks the first big change best protection. Gloves now shots could be fired before reloading. stronger than steel. Soaked
gambeson (padded to sword design since have jointed fingers, while in shear thickening fluid
jacket) saves lives. Roman times. Refined shoulder plates bring freer Colt 1849 pocket pistol (STF), it can withstand
edges mean swords can movement and less exposure. bullet penetration.
Chain mail now cut and stab.

217

1648 1649–50

Cannon and gunners are seen in this 17th-century painting commemorating This depiction of the execution of King Charles I of England outside the
the actions of the royalist forces in defeating the Fronde uprising in France. Banqueting House, in London, was painted by English artist John Weesop.

THE DEATH OF LOUIS XIII in May ,, DO YOU NOT KNOW, MY ON JANUARY 30, 1649, Charles I
1643 had brought to the French of England was beheaded. He
throne the four-year old ,,SON, WITH WHAT LITTLE remains the only king of England
Louis XIV, under the regency of to have been legally executed.
his mother, Anne of Austria (in WISDOM THE WORLD His conviction by the High Court
direct defiance of Louis XIII’s will). IS GOVERNED? of Justice as “tyrant, traitor, and
Whatever France’s successes in murderer” was carried by a vote
the Thirty Years’ War (see 1635) Axel Oxenstierna, Swedish chancellor, Westphalia, 1648 of 68 to 67. Throughout his trial,
and its emerging supremacy over Charles consistently rejected any
Spain, the country was not only manage factional rivalries while twice forced into exile. When it idea that any court could legally Dahomey panther mask
strapped for cash, it had to maintaining a costly war were to fizzled out in 1652, the way lay try a king. “I would know by what This bronze pendant in the shape of
confront continuing peasant lead to government breakdown in open to a better management of power I am called hither… a stylized head of a panther, dating
uprisings brought about by 1648 with the Fronde—initially a aristocratic loyalties that was to Remember I am your King, your from 17th-century Dahomey, shows
harvest failures and punitive parliamentary protest, but later an come with the personal rule of lawful King.” In reality, there is the country’s cultural sophistication.
demands for tax. In addition, aristocratic uprising. Four years Louis XIV from 1661. little doubt that since the triumph
those nobles that Cardinal of turmoil followed: Paris was of the parliamentary New Model separate from the person of the
Richelieu (see 1624) had excluded taken, the royal family fled, and In October 1648, after four years Army, dominated by Oliver king existed that no one, legal
from government were invited Mazarin was of negotiations, the Thirty Years’ Cromwell, his death became a ruler or not, could disregard:
back to counter those supporters War in Germany was brought to possible outcome to the crisis. Parliament, not the king, was
of Richelieu who were hostile to Treaty of Westphalia a close with a series of treaties The awkward question was the law’s rightful custodian.
Anne and her new chief minister, This document was agreed over collectively known as the Treaty whether one form of tyranny was
Cardinal Mazarin (1602–61). several months and signed by the of Westphalia. France was still being swapped for another. At the end of the 1640s, the
Bungled attempts to Holy Roman Emperor and the king at war with Spain (as it would be Nonetheless, what counted was Kingdom of Dahomey began to
of France, ending 30 years of war. until 1659), but Germany’s horrors the assertion that a body of law emerge as a powerful force
seal of one of at least had been ended. France under King Wegbeja (d. 1685).
109 parties secured rather vaguely defined Oliver Cromwell After uniting the lands of the Aja
gains on its eastern border; This portrait of Oliver Cromwell, the and the Fon, he introduced new
Sweden was confirmed in its chief instigator of the trial and laws, reformed government and
possession of Pomerania on the execution of the king, was painted by bureaucracy, and initiated a
Baltic coast, as well as receiving a English artist Robert Walker. religion and culture that would
huge cash payment from the Holy characterize this West African
Roman Emperor, Ferdinand III, to state for more than two centuries.
withdraw its troops. Among the
German states, Brandenburg–

Prussia gained the most.
Crucially, Spain also recognized
the independence of the Dutch
Republic, and Germany’s local
rulers were given the right to
make alliances with foreign
powers, in effect confirming them
as sovereign states. The authority
of the Holy Roman Emperor
appeared fatally undermined.

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218

1651–52 1653–54

,, IT IS NOT WISDOM
BUT AUTHORITY THAT

,,MAKES A LAW.

Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher, from Leviathan, 1651

The Coronation of Louis XIV, a tapestry from a painting by Charles Le Brun,
court artist to Louis XIV, shows the young Louis about to receive his crown.

CHARLES I’S EXECUTION did not POLISH–LITHUANIAN ONE OF THE WORLD’S ICONIC inevitable that the vacuum could merely Poland’s loss of the
mark the final collapse of the FORCES structures, the Taj Mahal, in Agra, be filled only by the restoration of Ukraine to Russia under the
royalist cause in England. A rump India, was completed in 1653 after the actual king-in-waiting, the Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667;
army, much of it Scottish, was still 40,000 19 years. A mausoleum built by future Charles II. rather, that Orthodox Russia was
active. The royalists had an cavalry Mughal emperor Shah Jahan immensely boosted, and its czars’
obvious figure to rally round, (1592–1666) in memory of his Weakened by its struggle with claims to rule “all the Russias”
Charles’s elder son, also called 700 third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, it the Cossacks during the made tangible.
Charles. Yet his defeat at casualties combined Indian, Persian, and Khmelnytsky Uprising, the partial
Worcester in September 1651 Islamic styles of architecture. dismemberment of the Polish– On June 7, 1654, the 15-year-old
marked the final battle of the 63,000 Lithuanian Commonwealth by Louis XIV was crowned king of
English Civil War, and saw Charles INFANTRY In December 1653, Oliver neighbors eager for territorial France. Since acceding to the
forced into a nine-year exile. Cromwell was made Lord gains became inevitable. The throne when aged four, first his
40,000 Protector of England. Various resulting devastation—its mother and then Cardinal Mazarin
One of the foundations of cavalry types of government for the new population almost halved, its acted as regent. His subsequent
Western political philosophy republic had previously been tried, economy all but destroyed—is reign, of 72 years and 110 days,
appeared in 1651 when Thomas 100,000 40,000 including military rule, while known as The Deluge. Not only remains one of history’s longest.
Hobbes (1588–1679) published INFANTRY casualties parliaments were formed and did Poland endure a Russian
Leviathan. It argued for the dissolved, generally by the invasion in June 1654, in what Taj Mahal
absolutism of a sovereign COSSACK–CRIMEAN irascible Cromwell, with great became known as the Thirteen This view of the white-domed marble
authority. Though recognizing the TARTAR FORCES rapidity. Cromwell resisted the Years’ War, the following year of the Taj Mahal, in India, has made
liberty of the individual, Hobbes idea that he be made king. In the Sweden, too, invaded the country. it one of the most recognizable and
believed that anarchy could only Battle of Berestechko, 1651 end, after his death in September The most enduring consequence admired buildings in the world.
be averted through a strong The Cossack–Crimean Tartar forces 1658, it appeared desirable and of this calamitous period was not
central government. It was an suffered 40,000 casualties at
early example of social contract Berestechko, far more than their
theory (individuals in society are Polish–Lithuanian adversaries.
united by mutual consent) and
was profoundly influential. The first of three wars between
England and the Netherlands
In 1648, the Khmelnytsky began in 1652 (two followed in
Uprising saw a Cossack revolt 1665–67 and 1672–74). All were
against the rule of the Polish– naval wars fought for command
Lithuanian Commonwealth in the of the sea and shipborne
Ukraine, which had been awarded commerce. For the Dutch, a
to Poland under the Treaty of small nation with few natural
Lublin of 1589. The uprising resources, but still the leading
climaxed in 1651 with the Battle mercantile power of Europe, they
of Berestechko, the largest assumed vast importance. For
single battle of the 17th century. the English, they marked the
The result was a victory of sorts emergence of a new bullish
for the Polish–Lithuanians. confidence. England’s eventual
However, the ultimate effect of the victory signaled the decline of
struggle was a weakening of the Dutch commercial preeminence,
Commonwealth, which was and launched a new Anglo–
already wracked by numerous French rivalry for commercial
internal disputes among its and colonial supremacy.
querulous nobles.

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219

1655–56 1657 1658–59

This engraving on wood depicts Brandenburg forces storming Polish positions A manuscript showing Ottoman
at the Battle of Warsaw in 1656 during the First Northern War. troops on the island of Lemnos.

4,600,000 Las Meninas, an enigmatic work ON MARCH 2, 1657, the Great Fire IN JUNE 1658, AURANGZEB
that has been hugely influential. of Meireki began in Edo (Tokyo). (1618–1707), or Alamgir
SQUARE MILES In two days, fed by relentless (“Conqueror of the World”) as he
A renewed phase of Ottoman winds, it destroyed almost 70 called himself, was crowned
THE APPROXIMATE SIZE OF THE confidence began when Köprülü percent of the city, consuming the Mughal emperor. It ended two
EMPIRE CLAIMED BY PORTUGAL Mehmed (1575–1661) became paper and wooden buildings and years of infighting between him
grand vizier in 1656, Sultan killing around 100,000 people. and his brothers for their father,
FEARFUL OF RUSSIAN the Polish capital Warsaw was Mehmed IV handing him control Shah Jahan’s, throne—this
DOMINATION OF THE BALTIC, taken by a Swedish–Brandenburg of the empire. He ruthlessly Although an offshoot of the First despite Shah Jahan still being
Sweden entered the Thirteen force, further undermining the stamped out opposition and Northern War, the Swedish– alive. All three brothers were
Years’ War between Russia and Polish–Lithuanian state. embarked on a series of military Danish Wars of 1657–58 and subsequently executed (two by
Poland–Lithuania in 1655, thus campaigns—completed after his 1658–60 developed into a largely Aurangzeb). His reign would prove
creating the First Northern War. One of the greatest paintings in death in 1661—that saw the separate conflict over control of paradoxical. Mughal India was
Other countries were sucked in Western culture was created in empire at its greatest extent. the Baltic when, in June 1657, still immensely rich and powerful.
and alliances changed. In 1656, 1656 when Spanish artist Diego Denmark joined the coalition Under Aurangzeb, a devout
Velázquez (1599–1660) painted Las Meninas confronting Sweden in Poland. Muslim, it reached it greatest
Diego Velázquez’s painting of Sweden had made consistent territorial extent (see p.234). Yet
Margarita, the daughter of Philip IV gains at Denmark’s expense the near continuous warfare of his
of Spain, and her entourage, is since the mid-16th century; the 49-year reign, in which immense
known for its complex composition. prize, control of The Sound—the
strategically and economically Conqueror of the World
vital entrance to the Baltic—still This portrait of the Mughal emperor,
under Danish control in 1657. In Aurangzeb I, seen here with his
the winter of 1657–58, Charles X courtiers, is attributed to the Indian
of Sweden (1622–60) outflanked artist Bhawani Das.
the Danes, marching his troops
into Denmark and then, in
February, across the frozen Baltic
to Copenhagen itself. The Treaty
of Roskilde in 1658 confirmed
Sweden’s territorial dominance.
The second war, if less favorable
to Sweden, still underlined
Sweden’s Baltic superiority.

With the Ottoman Empire now
reinvigorated by Grand Vizier
Köprülü Mehmed, in late 1657 its
fleet captured the Aegean
islands of Lemnos and Tenedos
from the Venetians. The islands,
which dominated the approaches
to the Dardanelles, had been used
by the Venetians to blockade
Constantinople, the Ottoman
capital. The Venetians would not
pose such a threat again.

16c5h5aedcMvkaaRnnuccehsusinira1itano6Sn5Sws5PibeoFedliraerinnsadt, –RNLuoisrthsthiuaea,rnDniaeWninmarcaosrnekfle, siacnMtdaseyfir1zo6ems55JSaEpmnaiganliacandOcJteoPwboselaronf1dL5,u,m1b6alis5ns5,acred16D5e6pcaMccyaeuntdgreishbutauellttrsaernfitoaaonrtrcedyeJtoublyyS1w65e6diWsha–rBsarawncdaepntbuur1re6gdC5ao6frlrmooDEmmumytbpPcohio,rreCctaueapygttluioutesnrse,heeight JaonfuMaeriyreGkrie, aJatApFuaiinrgneNuNosertwtQhAuAmamkseetrersricdaaarmriv,e FeTbrSreuwaStaecyfrdaroyeonfnm2dRi6gnoD,aas1eivnk6niasi5mlnds8aeopr,uektnhinersnula16p5r8MocAulgauihrmaanlsgehzmiempbseerolfr
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MSaartcuhr2nmd5’soi,sol1can6or,5CvgTe5ehirstreaHitsdnut,ibyaygaenns dyn1a6st5yi5ntSoMpao’pdrloiecdcKoJaönniugasrbyer1ga6n5ad6lliBTerrseaSnawtdyeeon1dbfb6eeun5cr6ogKmöepsrgüOrltüatonMmdeavhnizmiEe1emr6d5poM6fireeVneilnáazsq,uSmepzaapsntaieisnrhptsBieLacareosoqfue DePicneevnCmedhnbumrtielesuardttmih1abea6ycmn5lDo6Hauctkuticcyhigaenns

220

1660–61

,, THE TRUTH IS, I DO INDULGE
MYSELF A LITTLE THE MORE IN

,,PLEASURE, KNOWING THAT THIS

IS THE PROPER AGE OF MY LIFE
TO DO IT.

Samuel Pepys, English diarist, diary entry, 1660

The Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659 saw Louis XIV of France (center left) meet
Philip IV of Spain to ratify the treaty that ended Franco–Spanish conflict.

North Swedish Empire LOUIS XIV (1638–1715) resolved this dilemma. It was
Sea The Swedish left to his successor, the rather
Empire reached its Louis XIV, known as Le Roi less shrewd James II, to provoke
Trondheim peak in 1658 in the Soleil (Sun King), had a greater the crisis that would later
reign of Charles X, impact on France than any definitively propel England into
FINLAND following the other monarch. Determined a unique parliamentary
Treaty of Roskilde. to be the absolute ruler of his revolution (see 1688).
NORWAY SWEDEN However, the need nobles and his country, he
Christiania to defend its new centralized the state, fought The famous English diarist
Helsingfors territories forced it numerous wars, and also Samuel Pepys (1633–1703) began
into a series of encouraged culture. By his putting his daily thoughts on
Stockholm Narva unsustainably later reign, France had paper in 1660. Pepys was a
expensive wars. expanded its territory and was high-ranking naval official, and
RUSSIA the leading nation in Europe, his diary, which he kept until 1669
Baltic Sea much admired and imitated. but which was not published until
DENMARK Malmö Riga the 19th century, provided one of
Copenhagen Stralsund the most valuable sources of
POLAND– information on life during the
BREMEN LITHUANIA English Restoration.

campaigns were launched against The year 1659 marked the start The Peace of the Pyrenees in “I... BLESSED GOD... IT WAS THE The death of Cardinal Mazarin
the Sikhs and the Marathas, of one of the most remarkable November 1659 ended the LORD’S DOING.” With these words (see 1648) in 1661 began the
exhausted the country’s developments of the scientific enduring Franco–Spanish conflict diarist John Evelyn recorded the personal rule of the 22-year-old
treasuries and highlighted the revolution in Europe with the in Europe. France was now overwhelming reception accorded Louis XIV. He would remain on
internal flaws of his vast empire. beginning of what is now known Europe’s major power, and Charles II (1630–85) in London in the French throne for a further
By his death in 1707, it was visibly as the Central England Spain, its New World revenues May 1660 on his restoration as 53 years. A childhood in which
in decline. Temperature, or CET, record. It diminishing, its internal tensions king of England. By any measure, France was divided made him
was a scientific experiment on an multiplying, and its support from Charles’s restoration was a aware of the need to develop a
Near Dunkirk, in northeastern unprecedented scale, an attempt triumphant vindication of the style of personal assertiveness
France, on June 14, 1658 a to measure temperatures almost £400 principles of kingship, as well as and grandeur. This was to impress
combined Anglo–French force nationally, but in reality within a of the contradictory limitations of on the French elites that they
defeated the Spanish. This was triangle bounded in the north by THE VALUE OF Oliver Cromwell’s republican were part of his great project for
the last decisive conflict of the Manchester, the east by London, THE EARLIEST- experiment. Charles II swept back French glory and preeminence in
Franco–Spanish War that had and in the west by Bristol. Today, it KNOWN CHECK to his throne on a wave of popular Europe. United under a ruler who
begun in 1635, and as such the constitutes the oldest continuous sentiment. Worldly, knowing, and, recognized their privileges and
last battle of the Thirty Years’ War. measurement of temperatures Austria curtailed, was slowly at heart, lazy, Charles was always status, French nobles and officials
It was also the last confrontation in the world. It had a precedent subsiding. The change roused ready to compromise with his supported a series of wars to
of the Anglo–Spanish War, which of sorts in 1657 in Italy, the those states able to confront an parliamentary opponents. His assert this position. However,
had begun in 1654. For the Accademia del Cimento (Academy assertive France to do just that, charm was legendary. That said, these wars would bring France
French, the imperative, as ever, of Experiment) in Florence putting France on a collision his weakness for pleasure- to the brink of disaster and
was dominance in Europe; for the instituting what has been called course with the other emerging seeking combined with his pauperize most of its population.
English, to steal whatever the “world’s first weather powers in Europe: England, the instinctive sympathy for Yet the cultural impact of Louis’
advantage, commercial or observation network.” If Europe’s Dutch, and Habsburg Austria. Catholicism, especially when rule remained; no other European
territorial, they could over Spain, scientific revolution depended on funded by Louis XIV in France, country would approach France
hence the pragmatic alliance accurate observation and highlighted a still unresolved in the second half of the 17th
between Oliver Cromwell’s measurement, the CET was a political crisis. Charles, by turns century for such a projection of
Puritan England with Louis XIV’s crucial forerunner. vengeful and forgiving, never national preeminence.
Catholic France.

Judleyof1ne6aA5tms8RuQruinsRsgiivaflener,eflStoibt1ie6lCrl5aioa8slloDanvuyetcsshtfarirontmCtoaIinpmedpiaorJtaonfuPEaolfvrrrotayums1ga4uSl,elp1sbae6uin5itn9(gdauBecaahprteiaetnlnvedeteeden1sc6e681)6(5V9CieaAtCmnnoanbmmaopmdeasiiantee;y)EpinnovgsaltidssehabEaansdtoIMnndaeEiydna1g36l1t5ah,n8e1dT6H,r5aae9ngaduNtyeFeorthfaenRrcoleasknreidlcsdo,egantizNeoPvePeaymcFrerebaonenfercteo7hs–,eS1ep6nad5ns9ish war JaSnaubmeaguriyenl1sP,de1iap6ry6ys016e6a0mrlGaierusijtatimrkanetoiscwhpnarorIntdsduicaenMaoyfom1fE6tohn6neg0alCraRcnoehmdsy,tmoaSrfcotaoenttrwiloafenanaldllt,hanodfFIerEebmllraoupnntaehdgrraeoynsrt56br,1ee1yig6gei6nna1srosKCf mahniongraxe’si

SepCtaernmoPdmbrioswetrseeu3cllct,odc1rei6eeb5sdy8e(sObdo.lina1vs5eR9rLi9co)hradrdEFaerlbiiersusdta-rrkaynw1onw6, ,inn1c6Lh5oe9ncMdEkonangyClr2aon5md, 1’ws6eL5lol9rrRdesiPcighronatrsedacstor Octoebxeprlo1r0er, 1A6bd5ei9elsTDa(ubst.mc1ha6Nn0o3v)eumnbdeecarrpNM2ty5uibc,rhoe1ir6eDg5laf9drneoDismRuhutSccyhwitteyerTdoeifsm1h6p5e9raCtuernetrraelcEonrdglbaengdun 1660EmCoplilraep,sWeeosftMAafMrliicCaaoyp2e7n,h1a6g6e0nNToerrnetadhtseyrFMonirfaWsrtLacorhu9is, 1X6rIVe6g1beePngeti,rnCssoawnrdiatilhnradulelMeataohzfaorfin 16C61farroIinbmdsiMgeexanprboteyiulnlsFeiqrdeunech

221

1662–63 1664 1665

A 1635 view of Fort Zeelandia, in The people of New Amsterdam plead with its director-general, Peter This representation of London’s Great Plague shows, in the center foreground,
Tainan, present-day Taiwan. Stuyvesant, not to resist the English warships gathering in the harbor. the Angel of Death holding an hourglass and a spear.

FOR ALMOST FOUR DECADES the NUMEROUS ENGLISH RAIDS on ,, ONE IS EASILY
Dutch East India Company had Dutch shipping and trading posts
controlled western Formosa in this year were the result of an ,,FOOLED BY THE PUBLICATION IN THIS YEAR OF Hooke’s
(Taiwan), with its trading base Fort English desire to win as much Micrographia, by English natural findings
Zeelandia at its heart. Hostile to Dutch trade as possible. The most THAT WHICH philosopher and polymath Robert This page from
this alien presence, the Chinese successful of these took place on ONE LOVES. Hooke (1635–1703), was the first Robert Hooke’s
Ming dynasty besieged the fort, August 27, when a small English work under the patronage of the 1665 publication,
which was inadequately supplied fleet arrived at New Amsterdam, Molière, from Tartuffe, 1664 Royal Society. It was not merely Micrographia,
by water, and captured it in the capital of the Dutch North the first time that those other shows a detailed
February 1662. The Dutch were American colony of New Ottoman army, intent on capturing than a closed circle of specialists illustration of
forced to abandon Formosa. Netherland, and demanded its Vienna, was defeated by a had been made aware of the an ant. Hooke had
surrender. Director-general Peter Habsburg force at St. Gotthard, remarkable world revealed by drawn the ant after
The pace of scientific Stuyvesant eventually complied. Hungary. Although the Ottomans microscopes. His drawings of an viewing it under his
investigation in the 17th century By March 1665, the Second gained favorable peace terms, ant, louse, and flea, lovingly microscope, which
led Europe’s scientists to share Anglo–Dutch War broke out. their invasion was curtailed. detailed and precisely executed, is shown here.
ideas, and then to form bodies sparked particular astonishment
devoted to a better understanding The Austro–Turkish War that Alarmed at English and Dutch at the complexity of this hitherto of a living organism, the term
of science. In 1662, the Royal broke out in 1663 reached a domination of trade with Asia, unsuspected microworld. It was, derived from the fact the cells
Society, the world’s oldest such climax in August 1664, when an in 1664 the French East India according to diarist Samuel Hooke observed reminded him of
scientific body, was founded in Company was established, with Pepys, “the most ingenious book a monk’s cell.
London. That it had royal approval Battle of St. Gotthard royal patronage. It was lavishly that I ever read in my life.” Of
showed how both the practical This woodcut, based on a drawing by funded, but it resulted only in greater significance was that The year 1665 also saw the last
application of science and the Adolf Ehrhardt, shows an attack by the settlement of the island of Hooke was the first to use the outbreak of bubonic plague in
pursuit of pure knowledge had the Habsburg cavalry in the defeat of Réunion in the Indian Ocean and a term “cell” for the smallest unit England. The disease was
become of interest to the state. the Ottomans at St. Gotthard. handful of trading posts in India. concentrated mostly in London,
where, at its height in September,
5 7,000 a week were dying. In the 18
months the plague ravaged the
MILLION city, 100,000 people died.

THE PRICE
IN LIVRES
FOR WHICH
FRANCE
BOUGHT
DUNKIRK

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222

1666 1667 1668
,,
THE MIND IS ITS OWN

,,PLACE AND IN ITSELF, CAN

MAKE A HEAVEN OF HELL,
A HELL OF HEAVEN.

John Milton, English poet, from Paradise Lost, 1667

In 1666, a major fire swept through the central parts of London, consuming A woodcut portrait of the admiral and
thousands of houses and wiping away centuries of history. privateer Henry Morgan.

79 84 THE TREATY OF ANDRUSOVO in 80,000 THE PORTUGUESE TRADING POST
January 1667 ended the Polish- AT BOMBAY (Mumbai) had passed
SHIPS SHIPS Lithuanian Commonwealth’s THE NUMBER OF to the English Crown in 1662 as
calamitous war with Russia PEOPLE KILLED part of the dowry of Catherine of
10 ships lost 4 ships lost that had begun in 1654. It also IN THE SAMAKHI Braganza, Charles II’s Portuguese
ENGLISH FLEET DUTCH FLEET climaxed The Deluge—its EARTHQUAKE wife. In 1668, the king leased it to
dramatic decline above all in IN AZERBAIJAN the East India Company for an
Four Days’ Battle the face of Russian expansion. annual rent of £10, making it the
In one of the longest naval engagements ever, the Four Days’ Russia, granted Smolensk and England, Sweden, and the Dutch Company’s third trading post
Battle, fought in June 1666 during the Second Anglo–Dutch War, present-day Belarus, could for the Republic forced the isolated Louis in India after those at Surat and
saw the Dutch inflict a defeat on the English. first time claim to have unified to return most of his gains by the Madras. With Bombay Castle
the Slavic peoples of the region. 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. completed in 1675, from 1687
THE BIGGEST ENGAGEMENT OF effective precautions were taken. it became the focus of all the
THE SECOND ANGLO–DUTCH WAR, Though drought and a heat wave The completion in 1667 of the In 1667, the epic poem Paradise Company’s trading in India,
which had begun in 1665, the had made the city especially Piazza San Pietro, by Gian Lost, by English poet John Milton resisting attempts to storm it
Four Days’ Battle was an English vulnerable, a crucial added factor Lorenzo Bernini (1598–1680), saw (1608–74), gave the English by the Mughals and the Dutch.
attempt to destroy the Dutch fleet was a strong easterly wind. The the high point of urban planning in language one of its greatest
before it could grow to challenge result was that the whole of the Baroque Rome. Many of Rome’s literary achievements. It told the In 1668, the Welsh privateer
them. However, the English City was destroyed, including the public spaces were ambitiously Christian story of man’s fall from (state-sponsored raider) Henry
suffered such losses that it medieval St. Paul’s Cathedral, 87 rebuilt by a series of architects to grace in the Garden of Eden. Morgan, famous for his attacks
handed the initiative to the Dutch. other churches, and upward of make them deliberately imposing, on Spanish settlements in the
Disaster then followed for 13,000 houses. The official death and worthy to be at the center of Siege of Lille Caribbean, succeeded in one of
England in June 1667 after a toll of six has long been disputed. the Catholic Church. Louis XIV directs French forces at the most daring assaults ever
daring Dutch raid on the Medway Lille during the War of Devolution. Its when his ships captured the
River, in the Thames estuary. With Not to be outdone by the The War of Devolution began in capture provided one of France’s few well-protected Spanish trading
discontent at home, England founding of the Royal Society of May 1667 as a result of Louis XIV’s gains from a frustrating conflict. city of Porto Bello, in Panama.
brought the war to a halt. London (see 1662), in December continuing claims to the Spanish It won him both great wealth and
1666 Louis XIV gave his blessing Netherlands. It saw France take further English support for his
As the Great Plague ended, a to the creation of the French some Habsburg cities in Flanders, buccaneering endeavors.
new disaster overtook London, Academy of Sciences, which in as well as Franche-Comté to its
the Great Fire, which burned 1699 became the Royal Academy east. However, a Triple Aliance of Just as Philip II’s seizure of the
from September 2 to 5. London of Sciences and was installed in Portuguese crown in 1580 was
was still a medieval city, filthy the Louvre Palace, in Paris. Today, a sign of Spanish power, so its
and unplanned, with no great it is part of the Institut de France. recognition of Portuguese
spaces and few public buildings of It was at the heart of a drive for independence in 1668 under the
note. The City, which was the verifiable scientific knowledge. Treaty of Lisbon, which confirmed
commercial heart, was especially As an arm of the state it was also the House of Braganza as rulers
overcrowded and unsanitary. It interested in discoveries that of Portugal, was evidence of its
was here the fire began. Although could enrich its country, such as decline. From 1640, Portugal had
the risk of fire was well known, no in agriculture and armaments. been in open revolt against Spain,
and in June 1665 at the Battle of
Montes Claros a combined
Anglo–Portuguese force inflicted
a crushing defeat on them. Close
to bankruptcy, and sure of further
French hostility, the Spanish had
little option but to concede.

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223

1669 ,,1670 1671–72

,,COME QUICKLY,

I AM DRINKING
THE STARS.

Attributed to Dom Pérignon, while tasting champagne, 1670

The Badshahi Mosque, Lahore, was Portuguese glazed tiles decorate the São Miguel Fortress in Luanda, a key
commissioned by Aurangzeb. military strongpoint in the colonization of Angola in the later 17th century.

ONE OF THE REASONS GIVEN FOR IN MAY 1670, THE HUDSON’S BAY Cossack leader IN 1671, PORTUGAL ENDED THE while the Dutch preferred a weak
THE DISINTEGRATION of the COMPANY WAS FORMED under Stepan Razin, the Cossack leader INDEPENDENCE of the kingdom of Spain as a neighbor to a strong
Mughal Empire after the death of British royal charter on the who rose up against the nobility and Ndongo, in what is today Angola. France. The War of Devolution of
Aurangzeb in 1707 has been his initiative of two French fur the czar’s bureaucracy, is seen here A Portuguese colony had largely 1667–68 had seen French gains,
supposed religious persecution trackers, Pierre-Esprit Radisson on the Volga River, South Russia. dominated the Ndongo since the and then losses, in the Spanish
of Hindus and other minorities. and Médard de Groseilliers. They 16th century, but a rebellion by Netherlands, but in 1672 Louis,
Where his predessor Akbar I had learned that the best furs he was devoted to eliminating the their king, Philip, in 1671, saw allied with England and Sweden,
had pursued an active policy of came from the Cree territory to bubbles such wines produced, as Portuguese troops capture the tried again in the Franco–Dutch
religious toleration as the most the north of Lake Superior. Easier the pressure they built up in the capital and take control of its War. The war ended with the
effective means of controlling his to reach via Hudson Bay rather bottles tended to explode them. entire territory. Dutch granting New Amsterdam
Hindu vassals, Aurangzeb— than via the rivers and lakes to the But as cellar master of the Abbey, to England, while the French—
himself a Sunni Muslim—was south, they proposed a base there. he did make a major contribution Just as fears of Spanish although their conquest of the
said to have systematically Rebuffed in France, they solicited to the production of white wines, dominance in Europe had allied Dutch Republic failed—gained the
destroyed Hindu temples. In support in England. The by using grapes otherwise used in France, England, and the Dutch former Burgundian territory of the
addition, he banned the use of Hudson’s Bay Company would red wine. It was not until the early Republic, so French dominance Franche-Comté and a string of
music, central to Hindu practice, become one of the great 18th century that the taste for after 1659 saw anti-French border territories in the Spanish
issuing a decree, perhaps in 1669, commercial enterprises of sparkling wines, in England and alliances throw Spain and the Netherlands. Yet the peace proved
to this effect. He also had drawn England, the basis of its claim to France, grew rapidly. Dutch Republic together. Spain a brief pause in Louis’ attempts to
up an exhaustive digest of Canada, and source of regional opposed Louis XIV’s claim to the expand and safeguard France.
Muslim law, the Fatawa-e- rivalry with France. A Cossack uprising in South Spanish Netherlands by marriage,
Alamgri, said to have been Russia in 1670 was brutally
rigorously imposed. All these The claim that in 1670 Dom suppressed by the czar, and its FUR TRADE
claims are disputed, however. In Pérignon (1638–1715), a monk at leader Stepan Razin was executed
fact, the number of Hindu temples the Benedictine Abbey of the following year. An attempt to A valuable natural asset of North America was fur. It drove the
said to have been destroyed varies Hautvillers, in Champagne in protect Cossack independence French westward into Canada and saw the English establish the
improbably from 80 to 60,000. northeast France, invented the against the centralized Russian Hudson’s Bay Company (see 1670). It also led to Anglo–French
That Aurangzeb was strongly sparkling wine of that name, is state had become a revolt by a conflict there. While the French would accompany the American
anti-Christian, though, seems largely discounted today. In fact, disaffected peasantry that saw Indians on fur-trapping expeditions, the English, and the Dutch
certain to have been true. several cities sacked and looted. (pictured) before them, usually took delivery of furs from the
Indians at their trading posts. All depended on Indian aid, while
£100 the Indians became dependent on European weapons and tools.

MILLION

THE ANNUAL
REVENUE
RAISED BY
AURANGZEB’S
EXCHEQUER

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1673 1674 1675

Marquette and Jolliet descend the Ceremonial entrance of the Qing emperor, Kangxi, to Beijing. Kangxi oversaw Frederick William I leads his troops
Mississippi River with their guides. the complete suppression of the Three Feudatories revolt. at the Battle of Fehrbellin.

Leibniz mechanical calculator THE EXTENSIVE WATERWAYS FOLLOWING THEIR TAKEOVER OF albeit not until 1681. With the IN 1675, MUGHAL EMPEROR
One of the first calculating OF North America provided CHINA WITH THE COLLAPSE of the rebels as wary of each other as AURANGZEB ORDERED THE
machines, developed by Gottfried a ready-made means of Ming dynasty in 1644, the Qing they were of the Qing, they rarely EXECUTION of Tegh Bahadur,
Leibniz, this device multiplies by exploring its interior. In 1673, coopted some of the more cooperated, allowing the Qing to ninth guru of the Sikhs, after he
making repeated additions. powerful Ming generals, making pick them off one by one. Those had refused to convert to Islam. It
French–Canadian explorer them regional governors and rebels who did not commit suicide brought to the Sikh throne his
In 1671, German mathematician Louis Jolliet and French Jesuit allowing them considerable were executed. nine-year-old son, Gobind Singh
Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) Jacques Marquette traveled latitude in their rule over what (1666–1708). It would be several
demonstrated one of the world’s down the Mississippi River became almost independent After freeing the Hindu Maratha years later that, under Singh’s
first mechanical calculators. It to within 370 miles (600km) territories. It was felt that if they from the Sultan of Bijapur, Shivaji leadership, the Sikhs would pose
was the first such machine that of the Gulf of Mexico. They enriched themselves—as they (1630–80) was crowned Maratha a growing military threat to
could perform all four of the basic did on a prodigious scale—the king in 1674, establishing the Mughal rule, and contribute
arithmetic functions. Leibniz went turned back for fear of less likely it was that they would significantly to its collapse.
on to further refine his calculating arousing Spanish hostility revolt. The risk was that their Maratha Empire (see p.242) However, the pattern of religious
machines, thus providing the but discovered the Missouri progressively greater revenues that would later defeat opposition to the Mughals was
basis of the modern calculator. and Ohio rivers, as well as would be matched by greater the Mughals to
confirming that the river led to the pretensions to rule China. In dominate India until already well
Repeated Cossack and Gulf and not the Pacific. English 1674, the Revolt of the the early 19th century. established in many
Crimean Tartar revolts against exploration inland from their Three Feudatories broke
the weakened Polish–Lithuanian scattered coastal settlements was out across southern parts of India,
Commonwealth in 1672 drew much more hesitant, rarely China in those most obviously
their Ottoman allies into a coordinated, and additionally provinces controlled in the Western Ghats,
four-year Polish–Ottoman War. blocked by the Appalachian by the three most where Shivaji had
Polish resistance under Jan III mountain chain. It almost always prominent declared the Maratha
Sobieski (1629–96) was greatly depended on native assistance. rebels, Wu Empire.
undermined by grudging support For example, it was after spending Sangui, Shang On June 18, 1675, a
from the Polish parliament, the a year with a group of Tomahitan Kexi Gungdong, combined Prussian and
Sejm, and was hardly equal to the Indians in present-day Georgia and Geng Jingzhong, Brandenburg army, led by
progressively larger armies of the that Gabriel Arthur traveled with joined by lesser Frederick William I, Elector
Ottomans. The result was the loss them across the Cumberland Ming governors. of Brandenburg (1620–88),
of what little prestige Poland Gap, unwittingly discovering what Led by the Kangxi met and defeated a Swedish
could still claim as well as most in the 18th century would be the Emperor (1654– army, led by Count von
of its Ukrainian territories. principal route to Kentucky and 1722), the Qing Wrangel, near Fehrbellin, in
the west. response, with Brandenburg. This relatively
its superior insignificant battle in the Scanian
2,000 military, was War, itself a by-product of the
successful, Franco–Dutch War, nonetheless
MILES, THE marked a crucial moment in
LENGTH Statue of Shivaji Sweden’s long struggle to
OF THE This bronze statue of impose itself as the dominant
APPALACHIAN Shivaji on horseback in Baltic power. Defeat at the
MOUNTAINS Maharashtra, India, hands of an otherwise
commemorates his relatively minor German state
leadership of the Maratha dealt the Swedes a lasting
campaign for self-rule. blow. Swedish pretensions to
great power status were
revealed as precarious at best.

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225

1676–78 1679–81

Horseshoe Falls, on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls, is about 2,600ft A 19th-century image of the Asante, who
(800m) wide. Europeans first discovered this natural wonder in 1677. dominated West Africa from the 1680s.

IN FRANCE, LOUIS XIV’S principal sweeping up to its immense royal patronage. This official state engraving of ,,IN 1679, THE ENGLISH
architectural endeavors façade and 15 courtyards theater aimed to showcase the author PARLIAMENT passed the Habeas
concentrated on his immense clustered behind. Its most glories of the French stage Corpus Act. Like Magna Carta
palace at Versailles, just outside memorable feature, the lavish and French Religious work (see 1215), it represented a
Paris. Louis was also determined royal chapel L’Église du Dôme, culture as widely This is the frontispiece from the cornerstone of English liberty. It is
to continue the transformation of was added slightly later. Placed as possible. third edition of John Bunyan’s The the legal assertion that no one
the French capital, begun by his at the southern end of the Pilgrim’s Progress, a hugely may be unlawfully detained.
grandfather Henry IV at the start complex, it was designed with a European influential work in the 17th century.
of the 17th century. Henry’s intent vast dome and spire, with details explorers began The law was passed for
had been to lift the city from picked out in gold. to realize the One of literature’s most pragmatic reasons rather than
medieval slum to a capital immensity of significant religious works was as a liberal principle of justice.
worthy of the first power of Louis XIV’s reign marked one of North America as published in February 1678. The Its aim was to prevent James,
Europe—a city to rival Rome for the most fertile periods of the 17th century Pilgrim’s Progress was written by
its imposing public buildings and French literature. The year 1677 progressed. The English writer and Christian Duke of York, the Catholic
commanding spaces. The Louvre saw the first performance of extraordinary variety preacher John Bunyan (1628–88), brother and heir of Charles II,
Palace, predictably, was Phèdre, the greatest tragedy of and natural beauty of who completed much of the work from arresting his Protestant
significantly enlarged and French dramatist Jean Racine its landscape also while imprisoned in Bedford Gaol opponents without legal
remodeled, notably the east (1639–99). Dramatists such as continued to amaze. (jail). It was published in two parts
wing, whose stately façade Racine, Pierre Corneille (1606– The discovery of (the second part appeared in justification, as Charles’s
encapsulated the French taste 84), and Molière (1622–73) thrived Niagara Falls in 1677, 1684) and is an allegorical tale of
for Classicism at its most austere under royal patronage, captivating a waterfall hugely larger an everyman’s journey from this YOU MAY
and precise. But the building that court audiences in different ways. than any in Europe, with world to heaven. The Pilgrim’s
most memorably reflects Louis’s Corneille and Racine reflected over 6,000,000cuft (170,000cum) Progress has become one of the ,,HOLD THE BODY,
contribution to Paris is Les courtly concerns through their of water thundering over it every most translated books in history.
Invalides, or more properly use of formal verse, classical minute, provoked wonder in the SUBJECT TO
L’Hôtel National des Invalides. Part themes, and emphasis on honor, Old World. There is doubt as to Les Invalides, Paris EXAMINATION.
hospital, part retirement home for virtue, and renunciation, while which European can claim to have These sumptuous buildings now
French soldiers, it was completed Molière’s racy dramas mocked seen the falls first. However, the contain museums and monuments English writ of Habeas Corpus, 1679
in 1676. Designed by Libéral the social pretensions of the French Franciscan missionary relating to France’s military history,
Bruant (1635–97), Les Invalides bourgeoisie. As a result of this Louis Hennepin (1626–1701), and a hospital for war veterans. chief minister, the Earl of
was conceived on an grand scale, rich and growing theatrical exploring at the request of King Clarendon, had begun to do. The
with vast formal gardens tradition, the Comédie-Française Louis XIV, is generally credited underlying principle of the Act,
was established in Paris under with their discovery, in 1677. which is incorporated into the
American Constitution, remains
fundamental to most Anglo-Saxon
legal systems as an ultimate
guarantee of individual liberty.
However, in reality the law is
hardly ever invoked.

In August 1680, the Pueblo
people of the colony of New
Mexico rose against the Spanish
occupiers and drove them from
the area for 12 years. Spanish
claims to New Mexico, though
dating back to Francisco
Coronado’s expeditions of the

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226

,,1682

HE THAT DOES GOOD FOR GOOD’S

,,SAKE SEEKS NEITHER PARADISE

NOR REWARD, BUT HE IS SURE OF
BOTH IN THE END.

William Penn, English Quaker, establishing Philadelphia, 1682

mid-16th century, had never conquered in 1701 at the Battle Penn in America follow-up expedition by sea in belonging to James, Duke
amounted to much more than of Feyiase (in modern Ghana). This detail from a painting shows 1684 failed to find the river and of York, founded the settlement
statements of priority and English Quaker William Penn’s saw three of its four ships that would grow into the city of
Christian preeminence over the Few projects revealed the meeting with American Indians in wrecked. La Salle was murdered Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
region. New Mexico was seen as a determination of Louis XIV’s what is now the state of Delaware. by the remainder of his party. Penn promised religious freedom
land of marginal value as it was France to extend itself than the and material wealth to all those
remote and arid. The Pueblo construction of the Canal du THE 1682 CORONATION OF In 1682, William Penn (1644– Europeans who settled there.
revolt was provoked partly by Midi, a navigable inland waterway nine-year-old Peter the Great 1718), an English Quaker and
drought and by the suffering that stretched between the (1672–1725) as czar of Russia philosopher who had been
such natural events inevitably Mediterranean Sea and the brought to a close this vast granted land in North America
brought in their wake, but Atlantic Ocean. Its construction nation’s vague, imperial influence
more particularly by Spain’s was necessary because it would as a semipower on the margins of Hudson Newfoundland French claims to
determination to crush local replace a perilous and indirect Europe. Peter’s childhood was Bay North America
religious practices—Pueblo sea passage with a simple canal scarred by revolt, and it left him This map depicts the
shamen were consistently route. The technical problems, no determined to punish his internal York Factory vast areas of North
accused of witchcraft and less than the cost, were daunting. enemies and reshape Russia as America claimed by
executed. When the Spanish The main problem was how to a western European power. In a NORTH RUPERT’S LAND France, as well as the
returned in 1692, they did so in ensure a sufficient supply of water life of compulsive energy, he built NEW areas under Spanish
overwhelming numbers. to the highest parts of the canal. a new capital, St. Petersburg, AMERICA Lake FRANCE ACADIA and British control in
It was easily the most complex and ruthlessly imposed himself Superior the late 17th century.
The Asante kingdom, founded engineering problem undertaken on his boyars (nobles). His version
in about 1680, was formed from by any 17th-century European of Versailles, recreated on the
the Akan, who dominated West state, calling for labor on a edge of the Baltic, did not amount
Africa. The most prominent group massive scale, and used entirely to much more than a statement of
of the Akan was the Oyoko. Using untried engineering solutions. intent, but by the end of his reign
diplomacy and warfare, the Oyoko When completed in 1681, the Russia was a massive power-in-
consolidated the Akan tribes in Canal du Midi stretched a distance waiting, looming over Europe.
the 1670s, uniting them against of 149 miles (240km).
the threat of the neighboring In 1682, nine years after Jolliet
Denkyira, who they eventually The Pueblo of southwest North and Marquette had ventured down
America, so called by the the Mississippi, confirming that
PUEBLO POTTERY Spanish for their pueblos, these territories contained neither
or villages, were famed easily exploited wealthy natives
for their sophisticated nor obvious sources of gold, PAYS D’EN Montreal
and elaborate pottery. Robert de La Salle (1643–87),
It is characterized by a veteran of North American HAUT New York
a light background on exploration, determined to follow Lake Philadelphia
which are painted stylized the river to its mouth. With his Michigan
animals and repeated party of 19 American Indians, he
reached it on April 9, 1682, and LOUISIANA Charleston AT L A N T I C KEY
abstract patterns in ocher, proclaimed the river and its TEIRNRIDITAONRY OCEAN
black, and gray coloring. hinterlands a French possession, British control
Louisiana, named after the New Orleans Bahamas and settlement
French king. This formed the Gulf of
basis of a French claim to a vast SAINT- Spanish control
swathe of North America. Yet a Mexico DOMINGUE and settlement

CUBA Santo Domingo French control
and settlement
Mexico City VICEROYALTY OF NEW SPAIN French influence
Caribbean
PACIFIC Sea approximate
OCEAN western limit
Panama of French claim

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227

1683–84 1685–86

The Battle of Kahlenberg saw a Polish–Imperial army lift the Ottoman This 19th-century illustration shows Friedrich Wilhelm I, elector of
Empire’s two-month siege of Vienna. Brandenburg, welcoming French Protestant Huguenots to Berlin in 1685.

ON JULY 14, 1683, AN OTTOMAN League of the Holy Roman 70 5,000FORCES (IN THOUSANDS) THE EDICT OF NANTES, AGREED by brutality—that it aroused not just
army besieged Vienna. As with Empire, Poland, and Venice, casualties Henry IV in 1598, was essential the indignation of Protestant
the previous Ottoman attempt on formed in 1684 under papal to ending the French Wars of Europe but reinforced its alarmed
the city in 1529, this was a direct authority, driving them south 60 Religion. Of necessity, it was a perception that Louis XIV’s France
assault on the Christian West. In across the Balkans. compromise, and it saw France’s had to be opposed at all costs.
the event, the siege failed just as it 50 substantial Protestant Huguenot
had in 1529. But whereas 1529 Taiwan’s Tunging kingdom, a minority granted religious The consequence of Louis XIV’s
had been the climax of a series of supporter of China’s ousted Ming, 40 toleration in return for accepting obvious designs on Europe was
conquests that had seen the had supported military assaults Henry as king. In October 1685, the establishment in 1686 of the
Ottomans sweep across Hungary, against the Qing since 1661. By 30 12,000 with the Edict of Fontainebleau, anti-French League of Augsburg,
the 1683 Ottoman assault was a 1683, negotiations toward a casualties Louis XIV revoked it. His decision subsequently known as the Grand
frantic final attempt to regain settlement had led nowhere and was entirely logical. There was Alliance. The League was created
former glories in the face of so the Kangxi Emperor (1654– 20 practically no European state that initially by the newly confident
internal weakness. Confronted 1722) launched the Qing’s military permitted religious toleration. Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold I
with renewed resistance, the might, securing a huge naval and 10 Louis’s absolutism clearly (1640–1705)—vanquisher of the
siege was broken in September land victory over the Tunging at demanded nothing less than an Ottomans—and urged on by
at Kahlenberg by a combined the Battle of Penghu, resulting in 0 officially sanctioned state William III of Orange (1650–1792),
Imperial–Polish force led by the their kingdom becoming part of Qing Tunging ruler of the Dutch Republic. In
Polish king, Jan III Sobieski. The the Qing empire.
collapse of Ottoman rule in Battle of Penghu 900,000
Hungary followed, with a Holy The climatic changes of the So seriously did the Qing take the
Maunder Minimum, which had Tunging threat that it sent a huge THE NUMBER OF HUGUENOTS
Thames Frost Fair, 1683–84 begun in 1645 as a result of land and naval force, including more IT WAS CLAIMED FLED FRANCE
Frost fairs were a regular feature on reduced sunspot activity, had by than 200 ships, to guarantee victory. AFTER LOUIS XIV ISSUED THE
the Thames River, in London, during the 1680s initiated a particularly EDICT OF FONTAINEBLEAU
the winters of the Little Ice Age, with cold period of the Little Ice Age bitter winters, that of 1683–84
tents and coaches on the ice. across the world, and global was considered by many to be the
temperatures had fallen by worst. The Little Ice Age did not
several degrees. Amid its many end until the 19th century.

Dissatisfied with the Treaty of religion, and that religion was time, every western European
Nijmegen in 1679, Louis XIV strove Roman Catholicism. In every state bar Switzerland was ranged
to extend France’s frontiers at other respect, however, it was a against France.
the expense of the German states disaster for France. The huge
and the Spanish Netherlands numbers of Huguenots who fled In 1685, the aging James II
with bids to occupy territory in the country were among the (1633–1701), younger son of
Flanders and the Rhineland—the most industrious in France, and Charles I and younger brother of
latter crucial in controlling trade they were eagerly embraced by Charles II, brought a curious
on the Rhine. Using bluster, those countries to which they incompetence to a brief
threat, and bogus legal claims, he emigrated, chiefly England, the occupation of the English and
gained Alsace, Luxembourg, and Dutch Republic, and Prussia. Scottish thrones. Determined to
key forts in Flanders, consolidated Simultaneously, so naked an act reimpose Catholicism on a now
by the Treaty of Ratisbon in 1684 of aggression was this against Protestant, parliamentary nation,
at the end of the brief War of the France’s Protestants—the policy in less than three years he would
Reunions of 1683–84. Now at the was imposed with consistent overturn the delicately cynical
peak of his power, Louis was political settlement of Charles II.
determined to impose himself
on Europe, but succeeded only in
uniting Protestant and Catholic
Europe alike against him.

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228 SeKp1at6eh8mlse3ienbBgbeaeertrot1glf2eeV,oniefdnsna 16tr8a3diDnugtcaht Cb1ae6ng8tCi4nofhnoAi,rnnmati-eOdtutonmdearnpHaoplaylLaCeuaathgthouAerepirtirynielb1oI5ron,f1R(6du.8s14s7ia27) 1684 sSeuilzteans Toaf nM1g6oie8rorE4cnfCcrgoohlmaannMdgPaaoumrntiugrgewuEee,mssepoiaurtethBdeaertnftelAaetforifca

1687–88 1689
,,
I HAVE CONQUERED

,,AN EMPIRE BUT I HAVE

NOT BEEN ABLE TO
CONQUER MYSELF.

Peter I (the Great), czar of Russia, reflecting on his rule, 1672–1725

This Dutch painting shows William III’s fleet departing the Netherlands
for England at the start of the Glorious Revolution of 1688.

IN OCTOBER 1688, DESPITE A LACK ISAAC NEWTON (1642–1727) of England in what was, legal WHEN CONFRONTED WITH THE echo when German Calvinist
of finances, Louis XIV’s forces inventions aside, a direct INVASION OF WILLIAM III IN 1688, Jacob Leisler overthrew the
devastated the Rhineland In 1687, the English physicist deposition of a reigning monarch. James II of England abandoned royal governor in May 1689 in the
Palatinate, in Germany, provoking Isaac Newton published the The consequence, known as the an army he sent to confront name of William III. An English
the Nine Years’ War. His goal was universal law of gravitation, Glorious Revolution of 1688, was William and fled to Louis XIV’s force arrived to compel Leisler to
to force Leopold I to recognize one of the most remarkable a triumph of Parliamentary France. Charles II had been surrender in January 1691, and
French rule over the frontier of all scientific discoveries. authority, and England would be happy to be financed by Louis XIV, he was executed for treason.
territories previously annexed, as It explained what holds the immeasurably strengthened. but he had disguised the fact.
well as create a devastated strip universe together: that all James II now actively reveled in Since 1682, a young Peter I
of land that would be difficult for heavenly bodies exert a force However, for Louis XIV the French backing. In March 1689, he (1672–1725) had ruled Russia
armies to cross to attack France. called gravitas, or weight. result of the Nine Years’ War, landed with a French-financed jointly with his disabled half-
The next month, William III of Newton’s work would dominate which would be mainly fought army in Ireland, and attracting brother Ivan V, but the real power
Orange landed in England with science’s views on the physical around France’s borders, but also substantial Catholic support had been his sister and regent,
an army of 15,000. These two universe for almost 300 years. in Ireland, North America, and briefly threatened the new Dutch Sophia. The power struggle came
events provoked a kind of volcanic India, would not be the one he had Protestant settlement. However, to a climax in 1689 when, gaining
eruption in European political If Louis XIV’s apparently absolute intended. Although France had William’s victory in 1690 at the the support of the Streltsy royal
history. Whereas Louis’s invasion, monarchy seemed the pattern by fought well, it was crippled by Battle of the Boyne saw James guardsmen, he overthrew Sophia,
almost immediately bogged down which modern princes could most economic woes, and eventually back in France three days later. forcing her into a convent and
in winter mud, eventually led to effectively exercise power, the welcomed a settlement with the Henceforward, the Stuart Jacobite leaving him and Ivan as co-czars.
an eclipse of French power in accession of William III to the Grand Alliance, which too was claim to its thrones in Britain (see
the face of a Europe united in English and Scottish thrones financially exhausted. By 1697, 1715 and 1745) would complicate Leisler’s Rebellion
opposition to him (see 1685–86), made plain a radical alternative: although Louis would retain French diplomacy, and seem Jacob Leisler is shown swearing in
within three months William III that Parliament was the ultimate Alsace, he would have to return unlikely to change political reality. volunteers to support his overthrow
had become not just the joint arbiter of who should rule. No one the province of Lorraine and all of the governor of New York. He
monarch of England (with his had disputed the right of William’s his gains on the east bank of the In New York, the Glorious captured Fort James, Manhattan,
wife, Mary) but the leader of the ousted predecessor, James II, to Rhine, as well as accept William Revolution produced a short-lived briefly renaming it Fort William.
pan-European, anti-French the English throne. His clumsily as king of England and a string of
Protestant alliance. At stake active promotion of Catholicism, Dutch fortresses along his border
was a fundamental clash over however, was wholly at odds with with the Spanish Netherlands.
the nature of legitimate rule. the strongly Protestant
sympathies of the ruling elite,
whose power was exercised
through Parliament. It was a

consortium of English magnates
of all parties who invited
William to take over the throne

Nine Years’ War coin
This German commemorative
coin—a form of propaganda—shows
the destruction of the Rhineland
Palatinate by French troops during
the Nine Years’ War.

MaexrdpcehlMoL1rieas9rs,Si1Rsa6solli8bpe7epmriFteurCexrpnadAevcepdehrInilertitdidieoolurlno4leng,re1an6tic8oe7nbDtroeiecEfllnaygrblaartniinodgnAsousrfgeeOuelitssgttoiHom1ou2lasy,n1Ls6ei8an7gHuBueandtgtelaefreyoaft Mohács YearsD’eWEcnaRegrmelJavabnomeldure,tGs1iol6IonI8rd8sieoeIpuenosssed FeabnjrdouiEnMantragmyrlyiWosInhIialdPlrieacachrmllsaiaIrbImeIydeMntawritchhFDreepnocshe-dbaJcakmeedMsaaIorIymfltaSyhnaeidmnsMIbraheralaajtinh, daHiEgmh pPirroet,edciteosrP(ebat.seo1srf6uI5Rm(7uteh)ssesicGaornetarto)l
DeFcreseemnCtctbohleeloHrinnu1yg6D,u8Aue7tfncrihoctaCsaNpobeveegminsbe(tro11668987)Nine

PIrsianaJccuiplNiyae1ew6xt8pog7lnar’sianvsity SeptemberaDt1at6almc8k7atOViatetnaoenmtdiaaGnnrsseie1nc6fle8o8weGreinngrookfukEabrau,kJiathpeaanWt;eiNlrloiaavrmermivIIebIsoefirnO1Er6an8ng81(gl6vaee8nn8duLelooyf dLslocyodofsfpeienenshsuo,ruLasonenc1ed6)o8n8BHeolglyraLdeeagfruoemcaOptttoumreasns Leisler’s iRneNbeelwlioYonrk AlliFarnacnecaegfaoirnmAsstueedgttulesst TSrineoa–tyRoufssNieanrcbhoiKnridsneAkgrmsWeiinrlilcFiaarmnenc’scohWloaannriedbsEe(gntoignl1sis6h97)
Grand
2 2 9May

1450–1749 REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

THE RISE AND FALL OF THE AT L A N T I C
OCEAN
OTTOMAN EMPIRE

AN ENDURING POWER THAT DOMINATED IN EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST FOR NEARLY 500 YEARS

The long decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century disguised the PORTUGAL SPAIN
fact that for 450 years after its emergence in about 1300, it was not just one
of the most dynamic and sophisticated polities in the world, but also one of Madrid
the largest. It dwarfed its European and Middle Eastern rivals.
Lisbon

At its height, toward the end of the 17th century, Caldiran and much of the Middle East and North Oran
the Ottoman Empire stretched from the gates of Africa was conquered. Suleiman the Magnificent Fez
Vienna to the Indian Ocean, and from the Crimea (r. 1520–66) expanded Ottoman territories deep
to Algiers. Though the Mongol leader Timur had into Hungary and almost as far as the Atlantic. MOROCCO
checked Ottoman ambitions in the early 15th Faced with such potency, the Christian West could
century, once Murad I took the throne in 1413, the do little. Enormously rich, technologically advanced,
expansion program was vigorously renewed. His and buoyed by its leadership of the Muslim world,
son, Mehmed II (r. 1451–81), extended Ottoman Ottoman power seemed irresistible. The empire’s
rule across the Balkans and seized Constantinople decline after the failure of the siege of Vienna in
(Istanbul) in a blaze of conquest. Under Selim I 1683 was the result less of internal weakness than
(r. 1512–20), the Safavids were contained at of the growing strength of its European opponents.

FORMIDABLE OPPONENTS 2 Size of the 16th-century Empire
The Ottoman state began as a small frontier principality Ottoman Empire At its peak, the Ottoman Empire
preying on Christian Byzantium. Under a succession of MILLION By the turn of the was not just a land power—its
14th-century warrior-sultans, a series of rapid conquests SQ MILES 20th century, the navy dominated the eastern
were launched, notably at Kosovo in 1389, when a combined Ottoman Empire had Mediterranean and the maritime
Christian–Balkan force was defeated. Bayezid I (r. 1389–1402) 0.7 shrunk to a third of routes with the Indian Ocean. It
exploited this victory by annexing Bulgaria and invading the size it been three challenged not merely European
Hungary. Ottoman success was based on a highly trained MILLION centuries earlier. but its Middle Eastern rivals, too:
army. The most feared troops, the janissaries, were recruited SQ MILES Modern Turkey is a Mamluk Egypt, conquered in
from the conquered peoples of the Balkans, converted to fraction of that. 1517, and Safavid Persia, an
Islam. In addition, Ottoman artillery in the 15th and 16th equally dynamic and
centuries was among the most destructive in the world. 301,384 sq miles sophisticated state.

KEY 1914 Modern Turkey
1683

HOLY HUNGARY Caspi 1520 Population of the
ROMAN 1566 Ottoman Empire
EMPIRE 1683 Although the
1831 population did not
Black Sea an Sea 1856 reach its peak until
1881 the first half of the
Mediterranean Sea 1905 19th century, by then
1919 the empire was
AFRICA Red Sea Arabian clearly in decline as
Peninsula 0 a political and
military force.
1481 From a small nucleus c. 1300, the KEY
Ottomans went on to conquer a vast area, Empire at 1300 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
covering much of Anatolia and the area Empire at 1481 POPULATION (MILLIONS)
around the Black Sea by 1481.

230

POLAND- KHANATE OF RUSSIAN
LITHUANIA Kiev THE CRIMEA EMPIRE

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE JEDISAN Astrakhan

Esztergom Khotin Cas

Vienna (Gran) Azov
Koszeg (Güns) MHBouUhdNáacGsATRRYANSYLVMANOILAJDaAssVyIA
Bender Sea of
VENETIAN REPUBLIC Azov
Sea
FRANCE pianKaffaCaucasus Derbent
(Kefe)
MVenice Szigetvár

WALLACHIA Black Sea Tiflis Baku

Belgrade GEORGIAN

STATES Ganja

Sofia Adrianople Trebizond Kars
(Edirne) Nakhichevan

Corsica REPUBLIC Amasya
OF RAGUSA
Erzurum Tabriz

NAPLES Constantinople Çaldiran Tehran
Hamadan
Sardinia ns
ai Isfahan
ANATOLIA Mo u nt
Marj Basra
Reggio Taurus Dabiq
Persian Gulf
Aleppo

Sicily Preveza SYRIA M

Algiers Tunis Rhodes Damascus E S O Baghdad
Cyprus
ALGIERS e Malta Monemvasia PO TA M I A
d
i Tripoli
t Crete
e r
r a an
n e Sea
Jerusalem
TUNIS Tripoli Alexandria

Al Raydaniyya Bahrain

Cairo Suez

TRIPOLI HEJAZ

Medina Arabian
Peninsula

,, ,,THE PRESENT EGYPT

KEY TERROR OF THE Jedda Mecca
Ottoman Empire and vassals 1512 WORLD.
Conquests of Selim I 1512–20 R e d
Conquests of Suleiman I 1520–66 Attributed to a European ambassador c. 1600
Ottoman conquests 1566–1639 Suakin
Major Ottoman campaigns

Sea

EUROPE AUSTRO- Caspi EUROPE Caspi Massawa
HUNGARIAN
Black Sea an Sea Black Sea an Sea
EMPIRE

TURKEY

TUNISIA GREECE PERSIA GREECE PERSIA Aden
Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean Sea SYRIA
NEJD
IRAQ
Arabian
Peninsula NEJD

LIBYA EGYPT PALESTINE TRANSJORDAN

KEY EGYPT Arabian
Turkey 1923 Peninsula
AFRICA Red Sea French mandate Red Sea
British mandate

1913 Ottoman power had dwindled. Greece, Serbia, Romania, 1923 The Ottomans’ remaining Arab territories were divided
and Montenegro were now independent, and other European between Britain and France. Turkey was reduced to its Anatolian
powers had taken over North Africa and the Black Sea. heartlands, sparking nationalist conflict with Greece and Armenia.

231

1690 1691–92

Fort William, shown here in the 1700s, was built after the English East India This woodcut, taken from the title page of a pamphlet, shows the devastation
Company moved its main Bengal trading station to Calcutta in 1690. of Port Royal, Jamaica, by both an earthquake and a tsunami in June 1692.

THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA ,, THE EUROPEANS ARE VERY
COMPANY had been a presence
in Bengal since the early 17th ,,QUIET; THEY DO NOT EXCITE ANY
century. Seeking greater
security for their trade, a new DISTURBANCES… THEY DO NO HARM TO
base, Fort William, named after ANYONE, THEY COMMIT NO CRIMES…
William III, was established in
1690 in what is now Calcutta. The Kangxi, Chinese Qing emperor, announces the Edict of Toleration, 1692
fort, continually enlarged and
improved, would be critical to the Philosopher John Locke ALTHOUGH THE NINE YEARS’ WAR hysteria. On June 10, an elderly Jesuit missionaries had been in
later British dominance in India. John Locke contended that there is had quickly settled in 1688 into a widow, Bridget Bishop, was East Asia since the 16th century.
a contract between monarch and stalemate on land that would last hanged as a witch, and by In contrast to Japan (see 1597–
In 1690, English philosopher people under which the monarch to 1697, at sea the Grand Alliance September a further 18 people 99), in China they were valued by
John Locke (1632–1704) wrote can be overthrown if he abuses it. enjoyed a clear superiority over had been executed on the same a succession of emperors, not
An Essay Concerning Human France. The six-day Battle of La charge, and one man crushed to least for their knowledge of
Understanding. It marked Locke toleration, and monarchy, it also Hogue from May to June 1692 death. Trials for witchcraft were western science. They made many
as a key thinker in the Western ensured his influence in debates saw much of the French fleet no longer common in England by converts, and in 1692 the Kangxi
philosophical tradition, above all about liberty and reason in either beached or destroyed by this time, and the mass hysteria Emperor issued an edict of
for his assertion that knowledge 18th-century France and America. fireships. It ended hopes of a of Salem remains hard to explain. toleration of Christianity.
of the world came through French invasion of England.
experience of it, and that the basis The turnip, a basic root crop of
of this understanding was the agricultural revolution of the At 11:43am on June 7, 1692, a
reasoned, empirical (based on 17th century, was first cultivated catastrophic earthquake struck
observation) thought. Reinforcing in England in about 1690. The Port Royal, capital of the English
many of his established ideas Dutch, to make best use of their colony of Jamaica, and one of
about property rights, religious limited lands, had already the most important ports in the
discovered that crop rotation Caribbean, as well as a legendary
Orange Jacobite (arable crops alternated with root base for pirates. Most of the city
forces of forces of crops rather than leaving fields sank beneath the sea. With
William III James I fallow) not only improved fertility the subsequent tsunami and
but provided food for sheep whose outbreaks of disease, the death
35,000 21,000 manure furthered productivity. toll was about 5,000.
TROOPS TROOPS
On July 12, 1690, William III’s In Salem, Massachusetts, in late
BATTLE victory over the deposed Catholic 1691, young girls started having
OF THE James II at the Battle of the fits and hallucinations, citing
BOYNE Boyne, in Ireland, was decisive demonic possession. This led to
in maintaining the Protestant claims of witchcraft, which by
Orange Jacobite 1,500 supremacy that had been 1692 had reached the point of
established there by the Glorious
500 casualties casualties Revolution of 1688. In Ireland,
brutal sectarian violence would
Battle of the Boyne, Ireland continue for centuries. Salem Witch Trial
The Orange army of William III The trial of George Jacobs was one
inflicted a decisive defeat on the of many in a Puritan community
Jacobites of James II, giving the lie riven by petty jealousies, where none
to William’s “bloodless revolution.” disputed the existence of Satan.

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FeosCrttaaWlbcluiisltlhtiaae,mdInindiJaBuolyyn1e2sBedaeetstfleWeaitollfJiaathmmeeIIsI II AipnptrrooxdiumcatitoenindotaoftetEunfBroOgenrtlliatpgonrmdadanesrefrcoamptAuuresdtrbiayns caMptaurrcehdN1bi6ny9eF1YreMeanoOrcnschL’stiWroimnibgaeehrrrtisc3kt,ob1C6ria9et1flhyTorlgiecivaset,syIroceiflvailndFSeGcbolarettulntaaacncrodksye:ue1MMdp3paaf,oocs1rrDs6tafo9aWcn2irliauelllr,diaesmtoIII MTaorlecrha2ti2oC,nh1ri6nis9ttr2ioaEdndusicciEentadoCrPffthohoirnrqJtauuRankoeeya7dl,e,1Js6at9rmo2yasica SepdteemVabregrNearest1wa6(k19Me62s4e3xDSPi–aicue1oneg7,tbo0adl4ouF)rerie,nvgolt

232

1693 1694–96

The summit vent of Mount Etna, an active volcano on the east coast of Sicily, The forces of the Grand Alliance, led by William III of England, gather outside Namur,
in Italy, has witnessed many destructive eruptions, not least in 1693. where a French garrison is besieged. The siege lasted two months.

IF SOUTHERN EUROPE Dodo IN JULY 1694, ENGLAND FOUND A (“Black Gold”) and Diamantia, and Battle of Azov
had been spared the The dodo stood about 3ft 3in (1m) in NOVEL SOLUTION to the problem the region’s population exploded, In this painting by Robert Kerr
worst of the Little Ice height and weighed about 44lb of a lack of funds that had plagued from scattered handfuls to Porter, Peter the Great is seen
Age (see 1683–84), the (20kg). It had a long, hooked bill, the combatants of the Nine Years’ 320,000 (half of them slaves). A personally leading his galley fleet
eruption on January 11, grayish or brownish plumage on a War. The Bank of England served result was the near collapse of during the capture of Azov in 1696.
1693 of Mount Etna, in fat body, and very small wings. both Crown and government, and the sugarcane industry, stripped
Sicily, proved a cruel was closely modeled on the Bank of most of its workforce. blocked access to the Black Sea, a
reminder of the power little more than suffer and accept of Amsterdam, founded in 1609. factor that had contributed to the
of nature. The eruption its unavoidable fate. A private venture (until 1931), One of the few moments of failure of its Crimean campaigns
set off an earthquake it immediately loaned the significance in the Nine Years’ War against the Ottomans in 1687–89.
that devastated Sicily In 1598, on the isolated island government £1.2 million—raised took place in September 1695, Finally, Peter I (the Great), the sole
and large areas of of Mauritius, in the Indian Ocean, by its investors in 12 days—at an when the Grand Alliance retook czar of Russia since the death of
southern Italy and the Dutch admiral Wybrand van annual interest rate of 8 percent the city of Namur after three his disabled half-brother, Ivan,
Malta. About 60,000 Warwijck described a bird he and for an annual service charge years in French hands. The loss of attacked Azov with a combined
were killed in Sicily called a “walghvogel.” Later of £4,000, in return for the right to the most important fortress in the land and naval force, capturing
alone, and thousands of square Dutch settlers there called it a print bank notes. It also created a Netherlands further weakened an the city in July 1696. A lesson
miles became uninhabitable due “dodaars,” which was a reference National Debt, but at the same already defensive French position. learned was that Russia needed
to lava flows and tsunamis. to what they saw as the knot of time allowed England not merely a navy, and it embarked on a
tails at its rear. Portuguese sailors to finance its own part in the war In 1696, China began an massive shipbuilding program.
For several years after the that visited the island called it a but to finance its allies. The bank eastward expansion that by the
summer of 1693, a series of “doudo,” meaning “fool” or was possibly the most significant end of the 18th century would see Caucasian pistol
famines swept western Europe. “crazy.” By perhaps 1693, the factor in Britain’s subsequent it almost double in size. It was This ornately fashioned pistol with
In France alone, about two million dodo, a flightless bird that was emergence on the world stage. provoked by the invasion of a long barrel and a short, gently
died. These were among the most related to the pigeon, had become Khalkha (Outer Mongolia) by
calamitous consequences of the extinct. The dodo is the first European colonialism in the the nomadic Zunghar people of curved handle was typical of
Little Ice Age, with bitter winters animal whose extinction can be 17th and 18th centuries had the Central Asia in 1690, who were the weaponry employed
giving way to dismal, rain-soaked specifically ascribed to man; it simple goal of money. In the New anxious to forestall a possible in the Azov campaigns.
summers, and stunted crops was a victim of its trusting nature, World, the Spanish had conquered Chinese takeover of the region.
rotting in sodden fields. Even in the destruction of its woodland two rich civilizations and found a The invasion failed, sparking only
years of relative plenty, the vast habitats, and the introduction of vast silver mine. The Portuguese a confused series of campaigns
majority of Europe’s peasants, cats, rats, pigs, and dogs that in Brazil had found only native under the Zunghar ruler, Galdan,
themselves the overwhelming hunted it to its extinction. peoples and tropical jungles; as well as a civil war. In 1696, the
majority of the continent’s sugarcane plantations worked by Kangxi Emperor led a Khalkha–
population, had a subsistence slave labor were the source of its Chinese army across the Gobi
existence at best, with root marginal profits. Then, in Minas Desert into Mongolia and crushed
vegetables, bread, and oatmeal Gerais, in the southeast, gold the Zunghar. Outer Mongolia was
as their staple diet. When the was found in 1695. It transformed incorporated within the Chinese
crops failed, they starved. In colonial Brazil, as did the later empire the following year.
the face of these near Biblical discovery of diamonds in the
visitations of mass misery, there same region. Vast, lawless towns Russia fought two campaigns in
seemed to be no answer. Almost appeared, chiefly Ouro Preto 1695–96 to capture the Ottoman-
entirely dependent on the food held fortress port of Azov. The
surpluses generated by its heavily port was key to Russia because it
taxed peasant population, even
as obviously powerful a state as
late-17th-century France could do

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233

1697–99 1700
,,
THE GREATEST COMFORTS AND

,,LASTING PEACE ARE OBTAINED,

WHEN ONE ERADICATES SELFISHNESS
FROM WITHIN.

Guru Gobind Singh, 10th Sikh Master, 1697

An engraving depicting 16-year-old Philip, duke of Anjou, being recognized
as Philip V, king of Spain, on October 2, 1700.

THE NINE YEARS’ WAR THAT HAD Treaty of Ryswick gains, including the gradual THE DEATH IN 1700 OF CHARLES II, annihilated a Russian army four
SEEN FRANCE TAKE ON the Grand The treaty was absorption of Hungary by the the childless king of Spain, caused times the size of his own. The
Alliance of England, the Holy signed at the Austrian crown. a major crisis when he nominated following July, he inflicted a
Roman Empire, Spain, and the palace of Huis ter Philip of Anjou (1683–1746), the similarly crushing defeat on a
Dutch Republic was ended by the Nieuwburg, the In July 1698, English military grandson of Louis XIV of France, combined Polish–Saxon force at
Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. It country house of engineer Thomas Savery as his successor. Charles hoped Klissow in Poland. With Sweden
established that all territory taken William of Orange, (1650–1715) registered a patent that French power would preserve never more dominant, Charles’s
since 1679 was to be returned. in Ryswick, in the for “a new invention for raiseing the Spanish Empire if ruled by a bold campaigning, whatever the
Dutch Republic. of water... of great use and Bourbon. Louis accepted the vast odds against him, had apparently
The Ottoman defeat at the Siege advantage for drayning mines.” increase in family prestige and been wholly vindicated.
of Vienna in 1683 marked not was rapidly emerging as one Basic forms of steam power had French influence, but opposition
just the beginning of a protracted of the foremost commanders existed since the 1st century CE, to the succession and its increase From about 1700, a major
Ottoman decline, but the in Europe, an Imperial army but none of these had ever been in French power grew hugely. development in European
emergence of Habsburg Austria surprised the Ottomans as they translated into working machines.
as a European power to challenge attempted to cross the Tisa River. Savery’s steam engine was The accession in 1697 of the culture began to take shape: a
France, England, and the Dutch The Ottomans were massacred: basic, prone to violent explosions, 15-year-old Charles XII musical tradition, part courtly,
Republic. After 1683, Austrian about 10,000 drowned, and a and unable to pump water more (1682–1718) to the throne part church-based, known
Imperial armies pursued the further 20,000 were killed in than 33ft (10m) below it, meaning of Sweden was the signal as the High Baroque.
retreating Ottomans south across battle. The Treaty of Karlowitz that in mines it had to be installed, for Sweden’s Baltic It evolved from later
the Balkans, a process that in 1699 confirmed the Austrian dangerously, underground. It rivals, Denmark, Saxony, Renaissance music, above
climaxed at the Battle of Zenta, was only in 1721 when Thomas Poland, and, increasingly, all in Italy, but developed to
in Serbia in September 1697. Newcomen (1664–1729), working Russia, to attempt to end reach a new level of polyphonic
Under the Italo-French general with Savery, produced his Swedish pre-eminence. In fact, tonal and instrumental
Eugene of Savoy (1663–1736), who atmospheric engine, that a viable in the conflict that followed, complexity. It was
commercial use was found. Yet, the Great Northern War characterized by both new
MUGHAL EMPIRE the real potential of steam as an of 1700–21, Charles, and more elaborated musical
engine of industrialization would “the Swedish Meteor,” forms: the concerto, fugue,
The crushing of a Sikh revolt Kabul not be realized until the invention would prove himself oratorio, prelude,
in the Punjab in 1699 saw the by the Scot, James Watt (1736– a general of genius. cantata, and opera. It
Mughal Empire at its zenith. Punjab ASIA 1819), in 1769, of a separate In the four months was made possible
From its Afghan heartlands, condenser, and then only with the from August 1700, by new forms
it had grown under Akbar, Qandhar Lahore Him ala y a s backing of English businessman he successively of existing
taking all but the tip of India’s Qalat Matthew Boulton (see pp.274–75). defeated the Danes instruments: the
subcontinent by the end of Delhi and then, over on organ, harpsichord,
the 17th century. The harsh Jaipur Agra the other side of the and, above all, violin.
rule of Aurangzeb saw many Fatehpur Sikri Baltic, at Narva, It depended also on
revolts, and the later rise of Ajmer composers of genius,
the Marathas (see 1720) left Rajputana Stradivarius violin such as Johann
the Mughals as puppets. The Stradivarius Sebastian Bach
Gujarat Calcutta violin, made by (1685–1750) and
KEY Italian Antonio George Handel
Bombay n hats Stradivari, entered (1685–1759),
Akbar’s domains, 1556 Arabi a golden age in and on a more
Western Ghats a Bay of 1700. These violins extensive world
Additional areas held by an Sea Bengal were larger than of courtly and
Mughals at Akbar’s death, 1605 c G earlier models. private patronage
Madras of them.
Additional areas acquired up to Dec
the death of Aurangzeb, 1707 ern

t

s

a

E

Cochin

INDIAN
OCEAN

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169t7hWeCeGzsartereraPntetEtoeuurrroTSspreeepatteymofbRNeryins2ew0Yi,ce1ka6re9sn7’ dWsar 169E8xcLhoanndgoenfSotcuoancldckeud1la6t9e8s IsspaeaecdNAopefSwrsiintologu1nhn3d,c1re6a9t9eosGrdSueirkruh, GtmhoebiliKinthadarylsa1699 Omanis cZa1ap6Snt9iuzk9rihbeMsapruinogwhPaeulrnsjnasobuw;pMpartuehgsehsiaglht RisBekuoignfagBndadonamt,uEAoaffsritca Russo–TurkiasfhteWr atwroenyedasrs NdoevfeeamtosbfReNuras2rs0viaaS,awitneBdEaestnttolenia

234

1701–03

Jethro Tull’s seed drill is shown here being operated manually. It sowed seeds
in rows, performing work that previously required several laborers.

A REVOLUTION IN AGRICULTURE 25 18
BEGAN IN 1701 when English SHIPS SHIPS
agriculturalist Jethro Tull
(1674–1741) created the horse- ANGLO–DUTCH FRANCO–SPANISH
drawn seed drill (see pp.250–51).
A major time- and labor-saving FORCES FORCES
device, it sowed great numbers of
seeds in neat rows. Although not Battle of Vigo Bay, October 1702
taken up at once, it later proved In an early encounter in the War of
popular with large landowners the Spanish Succession, 25 ships
and would lay the basis of modern of an Anglo–Dutch fleet defeated a
productive agriculture. Franco–Spanish fleet at Vigo Bay.

No sooner had the Nine Years’ Freelance Samurai warriors
War ended than Europe’s powers known as ronin emerged from
found themselves in another the Japanese civil wars of the
lengthy and costly war. The 14th and 15th centuries. In 1651,
surprise choice of Philip, duke of they engaged in rebellion and
Anjou, as King Philip V of Spain continued to instigate dissent
(see 1700), greatly disturbed the into the 18th century. In 1701, a
European balance of power, respected lord, Asano Nugatory,
and Louis XIV did nothing to was forced to commit suicide after
discourage fears of a Franco– assaulting an official who had
Spanish military alliance. He took insulted him. In revenge, 47 of
over military duties in Philip’s his samurai became ronin and
lands, moving troops into the murdered the official, an act
Spanish Netherlands to defend normally punished by execution.
them from the English and the But because Confucianism taught
Dutch. With renewed confidence that it is honorable to avenge a
in France’s European status, Louis lord’s death, they were allowed to
then recognized James III, son of commit suicide in turn.
the exiled James II (1633–1701),
as king of England. With England The kingdom of Prussia—later
and the Dutch Republic backing the forerunner of the German
Austria’s claims to the Spanish state—was proclaimed in 1701
throne—in the form of their when Frederick I, duke of Prussia
candidate, Archduke Charles of and elector of Brandenburg, was
Austria—armed opposition to crowned the first “king in
France was now guaranteed. The Prussia,” in Konigsberg Castle.
War of the Spanish Succession
that began in 1701 saw a Grand Revenge of the 47 ronin
Alliance oppose the unification of This color woodcut is one of a series
the French and Spanish thrones. on the 47 ronin uprising, the most
It would last until 1713–14 and famous incident of the samurai code
redraw the map of the continent of honor, bushido.
and the world.

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17C0a2rmeFpirseeaanrlcdohsf

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235

1704–06 1707–08

This modern photograph shows Halley’s Comet, named after the British astronomer Edmond This picture depicts the Mughal
Halley, who was the first to determine that the comet returned periodically, every 76 years. emperor Aurangzeb hunting nilgai.

THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM, 300 News from home Also in 1706, Spanish THE DEATH IN 1707 OF
fought in 1704 near the village Published weekly, The Boston conquistador Juan de Uribarri AURANGZEB, sixth Mughal
of Blindheim on the Danube THE NUMBER News-Letter provided English claimed southeastern Colorado, emperor of India (b. 1618),
in Bavaria, Germany, ended OF POCUMTUCKS colonists in America with news of an area populated by warring marked the start of the decline of
in victory for the Duke of AMONG THE England’s political events and wars. American Indian tribes, and joined the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb’s
Marlborough and the Grand RAIDERS AT it to Spanish New Mexico. successors squandered the
Alliance (see 1701), and turned DEERFIELD of French-Canadians and dynasty’s fortunes while losing
the War of the Spanish American Indians. Also in 1704, In England, the first steam control of regional governors,
Succession in favor of the Grand In Tunisia to the southeast, the The Boston News-Letter, North engine using moving parts was who went on to built their own
Alliance. The battle halted a Husaynid dynasty was established America’s first continuously built in 1704 by Thomas empires. Aurangzeb, disturbed by
Franco–Bavarian march on in 1705 when Al-Husayn ibn ’Ali published newspaper, appeared, Newcomen (1663–1729) and the growing power of the Sikh
Vienna, and Bavaria played no (1669–1740) was recognized by largely funded by the British Thomas Savery (see 1698). The Guru Gobind Singh, had
further part in the war. the Ottoman sultan as governor government. first working Newcomen engine
of the province. The Husaynid was installed to pump water from GURU GOBIND SINGH
Meanwhile, the Gibraltar dynasty lasted until Tunisia gained In 1706, the most decisive a mine in Staffordshire in 1712. (1666–1708)
peninsula on the Spanish independence in 1957. event in the War of the Spanish
mainland was seized by a Succession occurred in North Italy, Edmond Halley (1656–1742), The tenth and last guru
combined Dutch–English force In North America, Deerfield, where the Duke of Savoy, allied English mathematician and of Sikhism, Gobind Singh
in 1704; Gibraltar was ceded Massachusetts, was the scene with Austria and Britain, was astronomer, published A Synopsis was a powerful figure in
perpetually to Britain in 1713. in 1704 of a massacre of English defending his territory against of the Astronomy of Comets in Indian history. In 1699 he
colonists by a combined force French invasion and siege of the 1705, in which he described the transformed Sikhism by
Victor of Blenheim capital, Turin. The French were parabolic orbits of 24 comets. He creating the Khalsa (Pure),
The Duke of Marlborough (in red) crushed when the Duke of Savoy proved that three sightings, many a community of the faith that
sits astride his horse in this tapestry, and Prince Eugene broke through decades apart, were of a single trained as warriors; now the
now hanging in his eventual home, French lines and routed the army, comet—the comet that is now Khalsa embraces all Sikhs.
Blenheim Palace, England. driving them out of North Italy. known as Halley’s Comet—and Aurangzeb considered
determined that this comet returns coming to terms with Gobind
to the solar system every 76 years.TROOPS (IN THOUSANDS) Singh, but the rajas of the
Sivalik Hills remained
70 hostile, and Gobind Singh
20,000 12,000 was assassinated in 1708.
casualties casualties

56

42

28

14

0
France Allies

Battle of Blenheim losses
About 112,000 troops took part in
the Battle of Blenheim, with 20,000
French casualties but almost half
as many from Britain and its allies.

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236

1709–10

In a detail of a painting by Ignace Jacques Parrocel, Prince Eugene of Savoy’s
troops are shown confronting the French at the Battle of Malplaquet.

48 THE BATTLE OF MALPLAQUET in July 1709. The Swedes were faced provinces of Scania, Halland, and
1709 was the bloodiest of the War by Peter the Great’s army of Blekinge to Sweden in 1700 but
YEARS REIGN of the Spanish Succession (see 80,000, which eventually ran them still had hopes of seizing them
1701) and, indeed, the entire 18th from the battlefield. Charles, back. Assuming Sweden to be
27 century. Grand Alliance forces exiled in Moldavia, persuaded the weakened by the Battle of Poltava,
under the Duke of Marlborough Ottoman Empire to go to war Denmark found pretexts to
YEARS OF WAR attacked the French at with Russia in 1710, but Peter the declare war on October 18, 1709.
Malplaquet, France, southwest of Great (1672–1725) accepted terms In November, a large Danish
Aurangzeb’s reign the French-held fortress of Mons, in 1711. invasion force landed in Sweden
Emperor Aurangzeb reigned for 48 which lay over the present-day virtually unopposed. However,
years, from 1658 until his death in Belgian border. In gaining In 1709, the Persian Safavid by February 1710, Sweden had
1707, but for 27 of those years he possession of the battlefield, the rulers of southwestern managed to amass 16,000
was at war with the Marathas. Allies suffered more than 21,000 Afghanistan were overwhelmed men, and this force
casualties, twice as many as the by an uprising organized by defeated the Danes
summoned him, but died before French, but the French retreated Mirwais Khan Hotak (1673– in the Battle of
they could meet. Gobind Singh in good order and remained a 1715), a tribal chief of the Ghilzai Helsingborg.
became friends with the new future threat. Pashtuns and founder of the Denmark lost 7,500
emperor, Bahadur Shah (r. 1707– Hotaki dynasty (which lasted from men in the battle
12), but was assassinated in 1708 Meanwhile, in the Great 1709 to 1738). Furious at Safavid and thereafter
on the orders of a rival leader, Northern War (1700–21) between cruelty and attempts to force abandoned hope of
Nawab Wazir Khan. Russia and its western neighbors them to convert from Sunni regaining its former
(see 1700), Charles XII of Sweden to Shia Islam, the Afghans possessions.
Far from India, the kingdom had been leading forces in a assassinated their Safavid
of England and the kingdom of march on Russia. The Swedish governor, Gurgin Khan, and In 1710, French
Scotland were formally unified as army of 17,000 men attacked the massacred many Persians. settlers of the
Great Britain by the Acts of Union fort of Poltava in the Ukraine in Canadian east coast
of 1707. Henceforth, both were In Britain, revolution of an region of Arcadia
ruled by a single monarch and by 17,000 80,000 industrial kind was in the making. (now Nova Scotia)
a parliament based in London. SWEDISH RUSSIAN In 1709, Abraham Darby endured a third, and
FORCES FORCES (1678–1717), a Quaker ironmaster this time successful,
Britain, still embroiled in the who was smelting iron using British attempt to seize
War of the Spanish Succession, BATTLE OF charcoal, was the first to produce Port Royal. The victory
joined Dutch forces to seize POLTAVA high-quality pig iron using coke. secured Britain their
Minorca and Sicily from France in His new process freed iron first French colonial
1708; both were used as military 10,000 1,300 smelting from its dependence possession and helped to
bases. Also in 1708, British on wood supplies, and coke— obstruct French colonization
settlers lost control of the Swedish forces Russian processed from coal—was much of Canada for years to come.
Canadian east coast after a defeat more plentiful. In 1710, it was
by the French at St. John’s, killed/captured forces killed Germany’s turn to transform German chinoiserie
Newfoundland. an industry. In that year, the This 18th-century Meissen porcelain
Forces in the Battle of Poltava Meissen factory, near Dresden, vase has moldings picked out in
In the Battle of Poltava, 60 percent of produced the first successful gold leaf. Its form and decorative
the Swedish troops were killed or European porcelain. motifs were inspired by imported
captured, while less than 2 percent Chinese porcelain.
of the Russian troops were killed. North of Germany, Denmark
was taking an interest in the Great
Northern War between Sweden
and Russia. Denmark had lost the

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1450–1749 REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

THE STORY OF

NAVIGATION

THE QUEST TO EXPLORE AND MAP THE WORLD’S OCEANS AND CONTINENTS

Perhaps the most surprising fact in the history of navigation is that, until the H1 chronometer
18th century, it was impossible for explorers and mariners to determine
their position accurately. Today, thanks to developments in navigational
technology, it is possible to pinpoint locations to within a few meters.

The earliest sailors had no means of accurate enabled direction and latitude to be gauged

navigation other than by sight, relying on reasonably accurately (by measuring the angle LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

landmarks along coastlines, judging distances and of the Sun or a star above the horizon) but the

directions from the positions of the Sun, Moon, problem remained of how to determine longitude. LATITUDE
Latitude lines (parallels) run
and stars, and using simple sounding devices, such horizontally on a map and are
measured in degrees north
as weighted lines, to ACCURATE NAVIGATION or south of the equator.
Each degree is about
keep ships from running Calculating longitude depends on comparing local 69 miles (111 km) apart.

aground. The invention time with “universal” time (the time at an agreed

of instruments such as location, which is now Greenwich, England). Each latitude line

the magnetic compass, hour’s difference equates to 15 degrees’ difference in

astrolabe, and sextant longitude. Calculating longitude therefore relies on LONGITUDE
Longitude lines (meridians)
accurate timepieces, which did not exist until John run vertically on a map and are
measured in degrees east or
John Harrison Harrison developed his chronometer in the 18th west of Greenwich, England.
English clockmaker John century. The next major advances in navigation did They meet at the poles and are
farthest apart at the equator.
Harrison was the first to not come until the 20th century, with the advent of

make accurate timepieces the gyroscopic compass, radar, and, from the 1990s, longitude line
that enabled longitude to be

calculated with precision. of the global positioning system (GPS).
ONE OF THE MOST EXQUISITE
,, winding handle
,,MOVEMENTS EVER MADE.
William Hogarth, English artist, on Harrison’s H1 chronometer, from Analysis of Beauty, 1753

3000–1500 BCE 12th-dynasty sailing boat 11th century Sand 1300–1500 Portolan
Early sounding Dead reckoning clock Navigational charts chart
Ancient Egyptians Sand clocks are Portolan charts of the
use sounding reeds to used for dead Mediterranean and Mariner’s
measure water depth reckoning: European coastlines astrolabe
and gauge their position measuring the allow sailors to
from coastal landmarks. time traveled and navigate from port
speed to estimate to port using compass
a vessel’s position. bearings.

c. 150 c. 1100 Mariner’s c. 1480
Ptolemy’s maps The compass compass The astrolabe
A Roman based in Egypt, Chinese sailors are the Sailors start to
Ptolemy creates maps first to use a magnetic use astrolabes
using a grid system that compass (which uses a to estimate latitude
influenced navigational magnetized needle to by measuring the
maps until the 17th century. show the direction of angle of the Sun
north and south) or a particular star
Ptolemy’s map for navigation. above the horizon.

238

seconds hand

Harrison’s H1 chronometer
John Harrison’s first “sea clock” was the
H1, which he made to solve the longitude
problem—how to measure time accurately
enough at sea to calculate longitude.
However, the H1 was impractically
large, a problem Harrison solved in
1759 with his H4 chronometer.

minute hand

1735–59 calendar hand, hour hand
The chronometer indicating date
John Harrison makes the first marine
chronometer (the H1) in 1735. He of the month
then makes improved versions,
culminating in the H4 in 1759.

1907 1930s–40s Late 20th century
Gyroscopic compass Radar Global positioning
American Elmer Sperry The invention of radar systems
invents the gyroscopic makes it possible to The introduction of
compass, a major advance determine an object’s satellite-based GPS
for accurate navigation position even when it makes it possible
because it always points cannot be seen. to pinpoint locations
to true north and is not and navigate to within
subject to deviation. Ship’s compass Radarscope a few yards. GPS chart plotter

239

1711 1712–14

,, ,,RIGHT IS RIGHT, EVEN IF EVERYONE

IS AGAINST IT; AND WRONG IS WRONG,
EVEN IF EVERYONE IS FOR IT.

William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania, 1681

On completion, St. Paul’s Cathedral dominated the north bank of the Thames
River. It remained the tallest building in London until 1962.

IN AN EXTENSION OF THE WAR 1
OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION
(see 1701–03) in South America, a SHIP
squadron of French ships attacked BURNED
Portuguese-held Rio de Janeiro,
incapacitated Portuguese ships in 3 3
the harbor, and only spared the
city’s defenses from destruction SHIPS SHIPS
on payment of a ransom. French REMAINED GROUNDED
morale, which had been at a low
since their withdrawal from the Losses at Rio de Janeiro 1:9 Smallpox epidemic
Battle of Malplaquet (see 1709), Caught unawares by a French naval In the South African
was raised by this proof that attack in Rio de Janeiro harbor, Cape, smallpox
French long-range naval power Portuguese ships tried to escape. ravaged the native Khoisan
had not been extinguished. Three drifted aground, and one was population, killing nine people
destroyed by its crew. for every one survivor.
In North America, the
Tuscarora War began in North moved to counter the uprising ON 7 JUNE 1712, PENNSYLVANIA,
Carolina between Tuscarora organized by Mirwais Khan Hotak under moral pressure from its
American Indians and settlers (see 1709–10), but the Safavid Quaker population, freed all the
from Britain, Germany, and the army and its leader, Khosru Khan, slaves in the state, an early step in
Netherlands. The settlers and were annihilated, and Afghan the abolition of slavery. However,
northern Tuscarora American independence was secured. Queen Anne reversed the decision
Indians began to kidnap the in the following year. Quaker
Tuscarora in the south, sell them In December 1711, St. Paul’s state-founder and slaver trader
into slavery, and appropriate their Cathedral, London’s most iconic William Penn (1644–1718) was not
lands. The southern Tuscarora building, was completed. himself an opponent of slavery.
retaliated in September with Designed by Christopher Wren, it
widespread attacks on was the fourth church to occupy In South Africa’s Cape region,
settlements in which hundreds its site; its predecessor was badly Dutch sailors infected with
of settlers were killed. damaged in the Great Fire of smallpox inadvertently caused
London in 1666. The building had a catastrophic decimation of the
In Asia, the Persian Safavid the first triple dome in the world: native Khoisan people in 1713.
rulers of western Afghanistan a light, timber-framed outer The disease rapidly spread from
dome, supported by a hidden laundrywomen infected by the
brick cone, and inside it, the sailors’ dirty linen to the wider
inner dome that is visible from population because no one had
the interior. immunity or medicine. The
epidemic killed 90 percent
Attack on Rio de Janeiro
French corsair René Duguay- An end to war
Trouin’s ships enter Rio de Janeiro This painting from the French royal
harbor to salvage French honor— almanac for 1714 shows signatories
and profit at the same time. of the Treaty of Utrecht, which ended
the War of the Spanish Succession.
FeGbecrroumFmarahripdnyiosLe-s2boroei4onpcrrdeHnGoraenanoRrdgienelasldtaogiens SespqdtueeamdJraboneneriirn1ov2ahFdareresbnoRcrhio OcAtfoPgbehKeraarsnni2sad6naanhanarmrihyilaatte 17p1r2oofhPsieblnaitvnsesisymlvpaonritaation FeDbuirntuctKrahhoArsdoyfauirs1iiclca3oeanr,’sss1pm7iCen1aoaa3lppdllepveoeoxrtfetSonotluyth
1713 sBlraiavtaeftisenrtboSeSpgpainainsnisssiuhgpncpAsolgylAoirnsneigieeemnsteont dAopcruilm1e1n,Ut1ot7rf1eT3crhFetianstayiglonfed JuPloyAr1nti3snnm,eA1’som7uW1et3rhairTcear(nbedeasgtyQanoufe1e7n02)
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July 27d, e1f7e1a4tsRBtuhastestlSieawnoefndGaevasynignut
240

1715–17

,, …SUCH A FIGURE, THAT

,, ,,IMAGINATION CANNOT FORM

AN IDEA OF A FURY FROM HELL,
TO LOOK MORE FRIGHTFUL.

Captain Charles Johnson describing Edward Teach, from A General
History of the Robberies and Murders of the most notorious Pyrates, 1724

William Penn, English Quaker leader The flag of English pirate Edward Teach, known as Blackbeard, became

and colonialist. notorious in the Caribbean between 1717 and his death in 1718.

of the southwest Cape’s Khoisan. THE STATE OF WAR BETWEEN THE NO CHINESE CATHOLICS men (mainly Scottish) marched
Survivors fleeing inland were MAJOR EUROPEAN POWERS in the toward London but were defeated
killed by neighboring tribes to late 17th and early 18th centuries ,,ARE ALLOWED TO WORSHIP in November by Hanoverian
limit the disease’s spread. created a profound sense of forces at the Battle of Preston.
lawlessness. This was most ANCESTORS IN THEIR While his lieutenants countered
In 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht marked in regions where FAMILIAL TEMPLES. the threat to his reign in the north,
was signed; together with the desperate efforts were being life for Hanoverian king George I
Treaty of Rastatt in 1714, it was made to seize colonial power. With Pope Clement XI, Papal bull, 1715 in London was seemingly
to end the War of the Spanish the standing navies at war, some unaffected: there were several
Succession. Underlying the of the work of policing the new several missions and, in 1718, the had ensured their protection with performances for the king and
Utrecht Treaty (actually a series colonies fell to privateers. For town of San Antonio. While the an Edict of Toleration (see 1692). members of the court of Water
of treaties) was the principle of many it was only a short step to latter became the target of raids However, in 1715 Pope Clement XI Music by the German Baroque
maintaining the balance of power becoming outright pirates. One by Apache American Indians, the issued a Papal bull condemning composer George Frideric
between France, Spain, and their of the most notorious, Edward Spanish successfully encouraged Chinese ancestor worship. In Handel (1685–1759), who had
neighbors, so that no state could Teach, known as Blackbeard the Yamasee and other tribes retaliation, the Kangxi emperor made his home in London in 1712.
dominate Europe. The lines of (c. 1680–1718), became a target in their attacks on hundreds of would repeal his edict in 1721,
succession of the two countries for the authorities after he took British settlers in South Carolina, officially forbidding Christian BAROQUE MUSIC
were separated, so no Spaniard charge of his own ship in a conflict known as the Yamasee missions in China.
could claim the French throne, November 1717. He was finally War (1715–17). A style of European music
and vice versa. Savoy gained Sicily, murdered in November 1718. In Europe, King Louis XIV of that began around 1600
Austria received the Spanish In Asia, Zunghar Mongols France died in 1715, leaving the and lasted until about 1750,
Netherlands, and Britain was In North America, the signing of invaded Outer Mongolia infant Louis XV as his heir. Ignoring baroque developed from the
ceded Newfoundland, Nova the Treaty of Utrecht (see 1713) and Tibet in 1717, and the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht, masses and madrigals of
Scotia, and Gibraltar. In addition, had failed to bring an sacked the Tibetan King Philip V of Spain claimed the the Renaissance. It had
the Asiento Agreement gave end to the hostilities capital of Lhasa, throne of France if the infant were a stronger emphasis on
Britain a 30-year contract to between the European looting the tomb of the fifth to die. In 1717, a Triple Alliance counterpoint and rhythm,
supply slaves and goods to colonizing powers, and, Dalai Lama. Tibet appealed was signed by the Dutch Republic, greater expression of
Spanish colonies. in turn, these were struggling to the Qing Kangxi emperor France, and Great Britain in an emotion, and gave greater
to dominate competing (1654–1722) for assistance. effort to compel Philip to abandon importance to the solo voice
In Britain, after the death of American Indian tribes. The Zunghars defeated an his expansionist ambitions. and instrumental solos. It
Queen Anne in 1714, George I In 1716, in an attempt to Austria’s joining of the alliance also established opera, with
(1660–1727) became the first block French expansion invading Qing army in 1718, in the following year turned this Monteverdi and Cavalli being
monarch of the German House westward from Louisiana, and the Qing Empire was into a Quadruple Alliance against early practitioners. Notable
of Hanover to rule Great Britain the Spanish entered east not to liberate Lhasa for Spain (see 1718–19). baroque composers include
and Ireland. The Hanoverian Texas; they established three years (see 1720). Peri and Allegri (early
succession in 1714 ended the Meanwhile, in the Chinese In Britain, the Hanoverian baroque); Lully,
reign of the House of Stuart, Qing cloisonné succession (see 1714) had Pachelbel, and Purcell
which had ruled Scotland from This ornamental homeland, Jesuit provoked anger among (middle); and Bach,
1371, and Great Britain and elephant with two missionaries Jacobites—supporters of the Handel, Telemann,
Ireland since 1603. miniature vases found deposed Stuart king James VII of and Vivaldi (late
exemplifies the themselves Scotland and II of England—and in baroque).
In 1714, the Ottomans declared sophistication under threat. 1715 this erupted into the First
war on the Venetian Republic. that cloisonné Impressed Jacobite Rebellion. Over- BAROQUE
The final conflict between the two enamel-work by their estimating the support they could LUTE
powers, the war ended in 1718 reached during the services, the count on in England, about 4,000
with an Ottoman victory and Qing dynasty period.
Venice’s loss of the Peloponnese, Kangxi emperor
its major possession in Greece.

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S1e7pd1te4eVcmeOlantbOrtioec1etetm7rwo;1m9aae8,nnrawsdnoisntvhiincatnory SFreepnt(cekhmnKkoibniwnegngr,”aL1bso,.u1t1h7i6se13X5“8IS)Vudnies MAmJaaseGnsreauicocaarrrngeyiIiatn2nh,d7eTsi,eauC1tngh7sYsaae1Clmar6orogoeaka,eseikneesestWinar AEuuggeunscotOom5ftt,Smo1am7avon1ayn6d,seIPrmPa,rtiepndBtecerraeofietavtaalltersaodfin JanuaryAFR1rlela,pi1anu7ncbe1cle,7icaaBnsgridgaitinDaniusTnttr,ciShppleain perfJourWmlyaaG1tne7ecr,oeM1rog7ufe1sH7iIcaoFnffoirdErsentKlg’sinlagnd

241

1718–19 1720

Admiral Sir George Byng’s British fleet sail into the Straits of Messina prior This detail of a map by Willem Blau (c. 1650) shows the position of British-
to the Battle of Cape Passaro, in a painting by Richard Vale. controlled Honduras, lying on the east coast of the Yucatán peninsula

THE TREATY OF UTRECHT (see withdrawal of Philip’s invasion THE BRITISH COLONY IN Maratha expansion H Plateau
1713) had ceded Sardinia and force. The British fleet, led by Sir HONDURAS (now Belize), the only The Maratha expanded
Sicily to Savoy, but the treaty was George Byng, clashed with the British possession in Central their empire to the north, i m of Tibet
ignored by King Philip V of Spain Spanish invasion fleet—which America before it gained full south, and east. Such alayas
(1683–1746), who sailed to capture had not been informed of the independence in 1981, was was their reputation that
the islands in 1717. Set against ultimatum—in the Battle of Cape established on the eastern coast they were able to raise SINDHIA
Philip was the Triple Alliance (see Passaro on August 11, 1718. The of the Yucatán peninsula by taxes even beyond areas Ujjain
1717) of Britain, France, and the larger Spanish warships were British buccaneers. By the turn of their direct
Dutch Republic, which Austria captured, while the smaller ships of the 18th century the colony had administration. Maheshwar
joined on August 2, 1718, escaped. Later that year, an begun to exploit the region’s Nagpur
expanding it into the Quadruple Austrian army landed at Messina, logwood (Haematoxylum KEY
Alliance. On July 21, Austria— CASUALTIESSicily, to oust the Spanish garrison, campechianum), which yielded an THAR DESER HOLKAR P E S H WA
under Holy Roman Emperor Tbut was defeated on October 15 in important dye used for textiles BaroGdAaIKWAR
Charles VI (1685–1740)—had the first Battle of Milazzo. and paper. In 1720, slaves—many
signed the Treaty of Passarowitz, Eastern G D e c c a n from Jamaica and others directly Maratha Empire BHONSLE
ending the Austro–Turkish War Coromandel CoastIn 1719 there were furtherfrom Africa—were first imported
(1716–18). This freed Charles’s attempts by the Quadruple to this area of the so-called Maratha campaigns Arabian Bay of
forces to turn their attention to Alliance, now joined by Savoy, to Mosquito Coast to expand logging S e a Pune Bengal
Spain, and the War of the curb Spain. France invaded the operations on the Belize River.
Quadruple Alliance was declared Spanish Basque Country and Satara hats
on December 17, 1718. then Catalonia, but disease The year 1720 saw the end of Kolhapur
forced both forces to withdraw. the War of the Quadruple reestablished in 1674. The
Previously, the Triple Alliance The Austrians attacked in Sicily Alliance (see 1718) with GOOTY
had set an ultimatum for the and eventually the Spanish the signing of the SAVANUR
occupiers capitulated, their Treaty of the Hague.
War casualties supplies having been blocked by Philip agreed to catalyst for the expansion, which I N WDeIsAtMeNarlnabGaOhr aCCtosEasAt N
In the War of the Quadruple Alliance, the British navy. In another abandon his claims
28,350 men were killed or wounded, example of Spain’s vulnerability to Sicily and Sardinia, began in 1720, was the death in
including more than 2,000 from from the sea, the British captured which came under the
Sardinia, which was invaded by Spain. the port of Vigo in October. control of Austria and 1719 of Balaji Vishwanath (b.1680)
the Duchy of Savoy
respectively, with the duke and the succession of his son TANJORE
being titled king of Sardinia. In
North America, the French Bajirao (1700–40), who was only
returned Pensacola in Florida
to King Philip V, along with 20 years old at the time but
places they had occupied
in the north of Spain, receiving already a charismatic Ceylon
trade advantages in exchange.
The treaty also confirmed Texas and dynamic leader.
was a Spanish possession.
Recognizing the expansions in 1728, when he
Meanwhile, the Maratha, a
sub-ethnic group inhabiting the weakness of the grip also moved his capital from
Maharashtra region of western
India, began a major expansion that the Mughal Satara to Pune.
of the empire that it had
Empire, based in Far to the northeast, the

Delhi, had on the Zunghar Mongols had taken

states around him, possession of Tibet (see 1717). In

Bajirao’s army struck out into 1720, a force of Qing and Tibetan

12,000 Hindustan. The campaign was warriors drove the Zunghars from
10,000
successful and gained Bajirao Tibet. The Zunghars had killed the

great credit at home. This sixth Dalai Lama, claiming he

helped him negotiate peace was an impostor. The Qing force

8,000 treaties with Mughal authorities brought with it a replacement,

in the Deccan. With the security Kelzang Gyatso, who was made the

6,000 of the Maratha homeland seventh Dalai Lama. Tibet became

assured, Bajirao began further a tribute-paying protectorate of

Qing China, and the Tibetan region

4,000 of Kham was annexed to China’s
Sichuan province. However,
2,000 Maratha mace disputes over who should govern
The head of 118 spikes and under the Qing emperor resulted
0 a quadrangular top spike on in harsh suppressions by the
Austria Britain Spain France Sardinia Dutch Rep. this Maratha mace testify to Chinese in the years that followed.
its fearsome effectiveness
as a weapon.

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2 4 2PaJsusloyro2w1T,rit1ez7aAs1tyui8ggonbufeesdatt1S1p,a1i7nC1ina8DpBBeeAarclPitelttiiamalsesnhsbcoaeefrrod1e7c,la1r7e1s8(wcQA.au1rpa6rod5inprl9uuS2–pb1p5ll7ea,is3i1hn17e)1,s9BRDroiatbinsinehslnoDonevCfeorleiusst,Ooecctaopbteurre17S1p9anBirsihtoispfhoVritgo FebQrueuanaddrrsyuwp1li7ethWATlatlrhrieaeoanfHtcyeaogfue April 1h7isBfa(apitrrhaimeoMresaaumrscacPitneheieassdthEeswmr)apoifre TuscCIanardorioralaninsAamfl’seeEercuiNcoraoolonrpntehiazenrs

1721–22 1723–24
,,
SLAVES WHO ARE

,,DISABLED FROM WORKING

…SHALL BE…PROVIDED
FOR BY THEIR MASTERS.

From the Louisiana Code Noir, 1724

Brilliant polychromatic decoration characterizes this detail of a rectangular
Persian dish made in the 18th century during the Safavid dynasty.

THE GREAT NORTHERN WAR Russia. Sweden was irrevocably the three ships chanced upon EUROPEAN SUCCESS in procuring French territory of Louisiana,
(1700–21) between Sweden and diminished by the terms of the Easter Island (now Rapa Nui), slaves in West Africa for North America. The code was
Russia was brought to an end by treaty, while Russia, with its new so-named because it was transporting to the new colonies partly intended to give slaves
the conclusion of the Treaty of Baltic ports, now dominated discovered on Easter Sunday. depended on the enthusiastic basic protection from their
Nystad. In 1719, Russia had Eastern Europe. Roggeveen also discovered the cooperation of certain tribes. masters—all were to be given
successfully challenged Sweden’s Society Islands and Samoa In Dahomey, in what is now the food and clothes, for example—
supremacy in the Baltic by In one of the landmark before returning home. Republic of Benin, King Agadja but it also legitimized cruel
attacking cities on the Swedish moments of Dutch exploration, (r. 1708–40) presided over a punishments: runaway slaves
east coast. An alliance of the Jakob Roggeveen (1659–1729) In 1722, the declining Safavid culture of enslavement and were to be branded, their ears cut
British and Swedes in 1719 then set out in 1721 to find Terra dynasty of Persia was deposed by human sacrifice. His conquest off, and, after a second offence,
gave Sweden British navy Australis, the mysterious independent Afghans to the east. of neighboring Allada in crippled by having their
protection that discouraged southern continent earlier Mahmud Hotaki (c. 1697–1725), 1723 provided a ready source hamstrings cut.
further raids. The Nystad Treaty mapped in part by Spaniard Juan son of Mirwais Khan Hotak (see of captives for sale, and by
restored Finland to Sweden, but Fernández and Dutchman Abel 1709), brought an army to the 1724 Dahomey had become Also in 1724, the disintegrating
former Swedish Baltic territories Tasman, among others. A former Safavid capital of Isfahan, sacked the Europeans’ principal source Mughal Empire saw the Indian
in Estonia and elsewhere went to employee of the Dutch East Indies the city, and proclaimed himself of slave labor. state of Oudh gain independence
Company but now sponsored by shah of Persia. It was not until under Saadat Ali Khan (c. 1680–
Deified ancestors its West Indies counterpart, 1729, and the defeat of the Hotaki In 1724, the Code Noir, King 1739). He founded the Moghul
Moai were erected by clans on Roggeveen and his three ships dynasty by Afsharid Persians who Louis XIV of France’s extensive Awadh dynasty, which ruled until
Easter Island to watch over their sailed to the Falkland Islands, were descended from the definition of the conditions of its power was seized by the
fields. This group, at Ahu Akivi, is Chile, and the Juan Fernández Mongols at the Battle of slavery, was introduced in the British in the early 19th century.
the farthest inland. Islands. While crossing the South Damghan, that the Afghans were
Pacific Ocean the following year, finally forced back to Kandahar.

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243

1725–27 1728–31

,, ,,YOU ARE NOW TRAVELING

INTO THE PARADISE OF
THE SCHOLARS.

Caspar Wolff, German scientist, praising the Academy of Sciences
in a letter to mathematician Leonhard Euler, c. 1779

Peter the Great’s Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, founded in 1725, The Shinto gate (torii) at the entrance
was rehoused in this building of 1783–85 on the Neva River. to the Itsukushima Shrine, Japan.

THE TREATY OF THE HAGUE Panama, but withdrew without To the southeast, the Afghan Coffee in Brazil THE RUSSIAN EMPEROR PETER
(see 1720) did not end rivalries success in 1727 after severe shah of Persia, Mahmud Hotaki This 19th-century woodcut shows a THE GREAT was determined to
between the major European losses from disease. (see 1721–22), died in 1725. He Brazilian coffee plantation. From small discover the full extent of his
powers. In 1725, Austria signed was succeeded by his cousin, beginnings in 1727, Brazil grew into lands to the east. A Danish
the Treaty of Vienna with Spain, Emboldened by its promise Ashraf Khan (d. 1730), who may the world’s largest coffee producer. seaman, Vitus Bering (1681–
gaining trading advantages in the of Austrian support, which was have murdered him. By then, 1741), was commissioned to
colonies for its Imperial Ostend negated by a secret pact made Also in 1727, the Treaty of follow the Siberian coast
Company; in exchange, Austria between Britain and Austria, Persian lands were being Kyakhta was signed by Imperial northward from the Kamchatka
abandoned all claims to the Spain besieged Gibraltar in encroached upon by Russia and the Chinese Qing Peninsula, and in 1728 Bering
Spanish throne and also promised 1727, an act that precipitated the Ottoman forces, who were Empire; it remained the basis of sailed into the narrow strait, now
to help Spain recapture Gibraltar. Anglo–Spanish War. The linked to the previous relations between the two until named after him, that separates
In 1726, Britain embarked on an four-month siege failed, costing regime by an Ottoman– the mid-19th century. Mongolia’s Siberia and Alaska. By sailing
attempt to blockade Spanish Spain 1,400 men to British Safavid alliance. However, northern border was mapped and farther north, Bering established
treasure ships at Porto Bello, casualties of 300. The war ended Ashraf Khan defeated the agreed on, and routes established that Siberia reaches its eastward
with the Treaty of Seville in 1729. Ottomans in a battle near for trade in furs and tea. limit at the strait. Bering
CATHERINE I (1684–1727) Isfahan at Kermanshah, suspected that there must be land
In Russia, the St. Petersburg and peace was eventually The late 1720s saw the start of farther east, but it was only during
The orphaned daughter of Academy of Sciences was declared at Hamadan, coffee-growing in the Caribbean a second voyage, in 1741, that he
Lithuanian peasants, the founded in 1725 by Peter the Persia, in 1727. and South America. Seedlings first saw the coast of Alaska
future wife of Peter the Great Great (1672–1725). The most were first brought to Martinique across the strait.
was born Marta Skowrońska. eminent scholars of all disciplines Satirical novel around 1720, and in 1727 the king
She was secretly married were invited to work there—for Clergyman and writer of Portugal sent to French Guinea On the Indian subcontinent, the
to Peter in 1707, and she example, German embryologist Jonathan Swift (1667–1745) for seeds. His envoy, Francisco Maratha people, after nearly a
reigned as Russia’s first Caspar Wolff (1733–94) offered first published Gulliver’s de Mello Palheta, persuaded the decade of consolidating their
female monarch from his Swiss mathematician Leonhard Travels in 1726. This edition French governor’s wife to provide power under Bajirao (see 1720),
death until her own. In her Euler a 200-rouble salary as an of the satire on humanity seeds and seedlings, and these struck out into the Deccan region
reign, she was supported by enticement, which he accepted. was published in the 1860s. enabled the Portuguese to start surrounding their homeland. In
the Supreme Privy Council, a coffee industry in Brazil. 1728, in the Battle of Palkhed,
which wanted to deny power they confronted rival prince
to the aristocracy. Asaf Jah I of Hyderabad (also
known as Nizam-ul-Mulk) who
had been laying claim to Maratha
leadership and who was refusing
to pay them chauth (a tribute tax).
In a strategic masterstroke, the
Marathas cornered the nizam’s
army in a waterless zone, where it
refused to fight. In consequence,
the nizam abandoned his
leadership claim and payment
of chauth was resumed.

The year 1729 was a pivotal
point in trading relations
between China and the West
because the Qing Yongzheng
emperor banned almost all

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244

obsessed. Ottoman architecture 180CASUALTIES the Fulbe Revolution. The first
and art were invigorated, but such state was Bondu, in Guinea,
importation of opium. Chinese Bering Strait high prices for tulips and tulip 150 formed in the late 17th century.
goods were in high demand in This satellite image shows the bulbs distorted the economy. The Then came Futa Jallon (centered
Europe, but the Chinese were Bering Strait, a 56-mile (96-km) instatement of Mahmud I in 1730 120 in Guinea but sprawling over
unimpressed by European goods stretch of water that separates brought an end to the Tulip neighboring territories), where
and accepted payment only Asia and North America. Period, but Halil was strangled 90 the Islamic Fulbe took power from
in silver—which Britain, in in front of the sultan in 1731 for the existing leaders and non-
particular, had to obtain at number of Natchez for work overreaching himself. 60 Islamic Fulbe people.
exorbitant cost. In the early 18th on Caribbean plantations. A confederation of provinces
century, British traders had begun In Japan, whose population 30 was formally created in 1735 with
to trade Indian opium for Chinese The short-lived Ottoman Tulip had been ruled by the Tokugawa its capital at Timbo, Guinea. Other
goods, and there was soon a Period (1718–30) was ended by shogunate since 1603, there was a 0 areas that were profoundly
growing number of addicted a rebellion against unpopular resurgence of the Shinto religion. Men Women Children affected by the Fulbe Jihad—as the
Chinese that greatly reduced measures led by a janissary Beginning around 1730, it was seizure of power was termed—
Europe’s silver requirement. (soldier), Patrona Halil, that fueled by the writings of scholars Massacre at Fort Rosalie included the formerly declining
European opium smugglers caused Sultan Ahmed III to be such as Kada no Azunamaro On November 28, 1729, Natchez Bornu Empire (in present-day
remained a major problem for supplanted by Mahmud I. The (1669–1736) and Kamo no American Indians killed 242 settlers Nigeria), the fortunes of which
China into the 19th century. Tulip Period was one of stability Mabuchi (1697–1769). The Shinto at Fort Rosalie, Mississippi, in underwent a significant revival.
in the Ottoman Empire and was scholars rejected Chinese and retaliation for years of mistreatment.
Also in 1729, after more than a marked by increased interest Buddhist influences and sought to In 1731, formerly independent
decade of mistreatment, Natchez in Western ways. Just as Western identify a purely Japanese of Mombasa and the island of Dahomey in West Africa finally
American Indians killed more Europe had been fascinated by spiritual identity. Shintoism was Pemba had been captured by the accepted the suzerainty of the
than 200 French settlers at Fort reinstated as the national religion Omanis in 1698, and by 1730 they Yoruba Oyo Empire (present-day
Rosalie, Mississippi. However, tulips in the 17th of Japan more than a century had driven the Portuguese from Nigeria). The Yoruba had invaded
by 1731 the French, assisted by century, the later in 1868. the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts and defeated them after a
the Choctaw people, were to Ottoman and gained control of the island of protracted and bitterly fought
retaliate by enslaving a large court Meanwhile, the Arabian state Zanzibar (now part of Tanzania).
became of Oman was expanding its campaign in 1728,
equally dominions in Africa. The In West Africa, Islamic Fulbe, or but resistance
Portuguese-held Kenyan city Fulani, people began to unify into in Dahomey
larger communities in did not end
what is now known as until 1748.

,, ...IN LESS THAN Opium pipe and poppy
This traditional Chinese
,,TWO HOURS THEY opium pipe has a knob-
shaped bowl in which the
MASSACRED MORE THAN drug (dried latex from the
200 OF THE FRENCH. opium poppy) is vaporized
when the bowl is heated.
Father le Petit, missionary, in a letter to Father D’Avaugour, Procurator
of the Missions in North America, 1730

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245

1732–34

“Tavern Scene” is one of the eight paintings of British artist William Hogarth’s A Rake’s
Progress (1732–33), which depicts the downfall of a rich merchant’s feckless heir.

OBSESSED WITH CREATING a ,, WHERE on the Alaskan mainland. In the (1704–80). The loom had a
strong, independent state, SOME same month, his second ship sent wheeled, thread-carrying shuttle,
Frederick William I (r. 1713–40), STATES men ashore on Alaska’s Prince of 1:4 Polish election, 1733 which greatly increased the rate
the “Soldier King” of Prussia, HAVE AN Wales Island. Stanislaw Leszczyński at which fabrics could be made.
instituted compulsory military ARMY, THE gained 12,000 votes Kay’s new loom threatened the
service: every young man had to Meanwhile, during the Kyoho and temporarily became king of livelihood of weavers, who
serve in the military for three ,,PRUSSIAN era (July 1716 to April 1736) Poland. Augustus III gained only 3,000 attempted to get the loom
months of each year. In this way, in Japan, famine had struck. In votes but succeeded him in 1734. banned. However, they were
the Prussian army became the ARMY HAS 1732, swarms of locusts attacked unsuccessful, and Kay’s invention
fourth-largest in Europe, with A STATE. the crops, especially rice, of the backing of Russia and Austria was adopted widely.
60,000 soldiers, despite having agricultural communities around to install Augustus as king in
the twelfth-largest population. Voltaire, French thinker (1694–1778) the inland sea. Heavy rains then 1734. What began as a civil war VOLTAIRE (1694–1778)
destroyed winter crops of wheat developed into the War of the
In America, the state of Georgia Also in 1733, Danish seaman and barley, and insects decimated Polish Succession (1733–38) as Born François-Marie Arouet
was founded in 1732, becoming Vitus Bering (1681–1741), after the following year’s rice crop. The the Bourbons (France and Spain), in Paris, Voltaire was a
the last of the Thirteen Colonies whom the Bering Strait is named worst-affected area was the north the Habsburgs (Austria), Prussia, prolific writer, historian, and
established by Britain on the (see 1728), began the Great of Kyushu Island, where around Saxony, and Russia campaigned philosopher of the French
Atlantic coast. Named after Northern Exploration. Empress 15,000 people died. In cities such outside Poland to seize territories Enlightenment (see 1763)
Britain’s King George II, the new Anna of Russia (1693–1740) had as Edo (present-day Tokyo) and lost after the War of the Spanish who disseminated his radical
state was intended to strengthen authorized a large expedition Osaka, the cost of rice rose Succession (see 1701). Only with humanist ideas in works that
the British presence in the south. involving 3,000 people in three seven-fold, and in 1733 rice shops the Treaty of Vienna in 1738 did ranged from essays and
The first settlers began to arrive separate groups: one group was were attacked during food riots. Stanislaw give up his legal claim. historical works to poems,
in 1733 and included many plays, and novels. His ideas—
released from debtors’ prisons. to map northern Siberia; the In 1733 Poland’s King Augustus II British culture in this period on social reform and civil
second, to explore north of died. Stanislaw Leszczyήski was came to be dominated by radical liberties, for example—often
Japan; and Bering’s group, made king when 12,000 Polish humanism, a conviction that met with hostility, forcing him
to determine what lay east nobles voted for him in the Sejm human identity, ethics, and to flee several times, but they
of the strait. It was not election. However, 3,000 nobles knowledge need not be based on had a major influence on
until June 1741, just who voted for Augustus III used a belief in God. Alexander Pope thinkers of the French and
months before his (1688–1744) wrote in his poem An American revolutions.
death in December, 20% Essay on Man (1734), “Know then
that Bering first DEAD thyself, presume not God to scan /
caught sight of The proper study of Mankind is
Mount St. Elias TOTAL Man.” Secular humanism spread
POPULATION to the arts, with artists such as
Prussian blue William Hogarth (1697–1764)
The conscripted army of Kyoho famine in Japan bringing sharp social criticism
Prussian king Frederick In the Fukuoka Domain, northern and satire to their depictions
William I wore dark blue Kyushu, about 20 percent of the of humanity.
coats with red linings and population died during the 1733
red-and-white facings. famine of the Kyoho era. Another British development
was the patenting in 1733 of a
flying-shuttle loom by John Kay

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246

1735–37

An illustration depicting sugar processing in the Caribbean from Histoire des
Antilles by French clergyman and plantation owner Jean-Baptiste Labat.

CHARLES MARIE DE LA In North America, pressure from signaled that no treaty could
CONDAMINE (1701–74), French expanding British colonies forced easily end the War of the Polish
explorer, scientist, and the French to strengthen their Succession (see 1733). In addition,
mathematician, joined an claim to Indiana by establishing a Russia, joined by Austria in 1737,
expedition to Peru in 1735. After permanent settlement. In 1732, intended to seize the Crimea and
falling out with his colleagues, he a trading fort had been erected at gain access to the Black Sea, at
continued alone to Quito, Ecuador, the site of present-day Vincennes, the same time ending raids by
from where he traveled down the but in 1735 the traders were Crimean Tartars. One Russian
Amazon to Cayenne, thereby joined by a wave of agricultural army captured part of the Crimea
making the first scientific in 1736, but was forced by disease
exploration of the river. ax head to retreat. Another army recovered
Returning to Paris in inlaid with Azov from the Ottomans in
1744, he published the silver Romania and advanced to Jassy
journal of his travels and calligraphy (Iaşi), Moldavia. In 1737, renewed
discoveries in 1751. When Russian gains in the Crimea were
in Ecuador, La Condamine workers. Vincennes quickly reversed due to a lack of supplies.
was the first European to grew, becoming not only the
encounter rubber—the foremost French trading post By 1737, the Maratha Empire
Mayans had been making in Indiana but also the in India (see 1728) was enjoying
flexible rubber for centuries— dominant center of French its greatest expansion to the
and in 1736 he introduced the culture in the region. north, at the expense of the
product to Europe when he Mughal Empire. Peshwa (prime
sent sheets of processed Meanwhile, the year 1736 minister) Bajirao I (r. 1721–40)
rubber to Paris. marked the end of Safavid masterminded this expansion, but
rule in Persia. Persian almost as powerful as the Peshwa
By the early 18th century, the military leader Nader Shah were Maratha chieftains called
Portuguese, Spanish, British, (1698–1747) had become more Sardars—among them Gaekwads
French, and Dutch had powerful than the Safavids he of Baroda, Shindes of Gwalior,
slave-worked sugar served (Tahmasp II until 1732, and Holkars of Indore—who
plantations in Brazil and and Tahmasp’s young son, established their own kingdoms
throughout the Caribbean. Abbas III). When Nader in the captured lands.
In 1735, the French East India proposed himself as shah, few
Company began to develop stood against him. He was In 1737, Swedish taxonomist
plantations on the islands of crowned in 1736. In 1737, and botanist Carolus Linnaeus
Ile-de-France and Bourbon Nader moved against Persia’s (1707–78) published Genera
(now Mauritius and Réunion). former Afghan overlords by Plantarum, later joined by Species
Soon to follow was the first occupying southern Plantarum (1753). Along with his
sugar refinery on Mauritius, Afghanistan. When Tahmasp earlier Systema Naturae (1735),
built at Ville Bague in the north. and Abbas were murdered in these works laid the foundation
1740, the Safavid dynasty was for the system of biological
Weapon of conquest extinguished. classification still used today.
This finely decorated battle-ax
belonged to Nader, who was The Russo–Austrian– Plant anatomy
crowned shah of Persia in 1736. Turkish War (1735–39) Carolus Linnaeus’s Genera
He led the Persians to war with Plantarum classified plants by their
Afghanistan in the following year. sex organs—the numbers of
stamens and pistils in their flowers.

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1738–39 1740–41

The ruins of the old Kandahar citadel, Afghanistan, lie on the hilltop behind the 12th-century arch. In the Persian Frederick II (left) converses with the
siege, Hussein Hotaki took refuge in the citadel but surrendered after it was bombarded by Nader Shah. Marquis d’Argens near Sanssouci.

THE AFGHAN HOTAKI DYNASTY 1939, around 68 miles (110km) Santa Fe AT L A N T I C Administration WITH THE DEATH OF KING
had been expelled from Persia from Delhi, Nader Shah entered OCEAN of empire FREDERICK WILLIAM I OF PRUSSIA
in1729 by Nader Shah (1698– the city victorious on March 9, Charleston The Viceroyalty in 1740, his son, Frederick II
1747), and he was also 1739. The Mughal treasury was of New Spain, (1712–86), ascended to the throne.
determined to eliminate the empty but the shah seized the VICEROYALTY OF New Orleans centered on the In his youth, Frederick II had
remaining threat posed by the emperor’s personal jewels, Bahamas Caribbean and been fond of music, poetry, and
Afghan Ghilzai people. Having including the famous Koh-i-Noor Gulf of Mexico was philosophy. He studied the works
occupied southern Afghanistan and Darya-e-Noor diamonds. NEW SPAIN Gulf of Mexico Havana Hispaniola San Juan the first of four of Niccolò Machiavelli (see 1513)
in 1737, he besieged the Hotaki created to govern in preparation for kingship, and
stronghold of Kandahar in 1738. Also in 1739, the Austro– Tampico Santo Domingo Spanish New in 1739 wrote a refutation of
Nader Shah exiled Hussein, last of Turkish War (1737–39) was ended Mexico City World territories. the Renaissance Florentine’s
the Hotakis, destroyed the towns by the Treaty of Belgrade. In the Jamaica WEST I N D I ES ideas, Anti-Machiavel, which he
of Kandahar and Qalat-i-Ghilzai, same year, the Treaty of Niš Trinidad published anonymously in 1740.
and finally crushed the hopes of brought the Russo–Turkish War His rule was characterized by
the Ghilzais by backing the rise of (1735–39) to a conclusion. Both Trujillo Caribbean Caracas modernization, tolerance, and
the rival Afghan Durrani people. these treaties confirmed Austria’s patronage of the arts. Yet he
Afghanistan was then part of the loss of northern Serbia and PACIFIC Sea became known as Frederick the
Mughal Empire, centered in Delhi, Belgrade to the Ottomans, OCEAN Panama VICEROYALTY OF Great for the political and military
but the Mughal governor had obliging Russia to abandon hopes feats by which he first expanded
been powerless to stop Nader of capturing the Crimea, although NEW GRANADA the borders of Prussia (until 1701
Shah’s Persian force, which the Russians were allowed to known as Brandenburg–Prussia)
swept through Kabul and crossed build an unfortified port at Azov 16th century, responded by Mississippi Basin with Spanish far beyond their historical limits,
the Indus in December 1738. and trade on the Black Sea. increasing its defenses around Colorado and Santa Fe. In 1739, then defended these acquisitions
After defeating the forces of the Caribbean coast. two French brothers, Pierre against massive coalitions of
Mughal Muhammad Shah in the Hostilities broke out once again and Paul Mallet, opened up a powerful enemies. Frederick II’s
Battle of Karnal in February between Britain and Spain in In North America, French route by negotiating the Missouri first opportunity to expand
1739. Britain had been awarded colonists were maintaining their and Platte rivers, traveling Prussia’s frontiers arrived quickly
8:1 Battle of Karnal limited rights to trade slaves and drive to push westward into southward to the Arkansas after his accession. The Habsburg
Trying to prevent goods in the Spanish colonies Spanish territories. A priority River, from where a local man emperor, Charles VI, died in 1740
Nader Shah’s Persian (see 1713), but increasingly, the was to identify a route to link the guided them to Santa Fe. Despite and was succeeded by his
invading army from reaching Delhi, Spanish were seizing British the continuing existence of a daughter, Maria Theresa (1717–
the Mughals lost 20,000 men while cargoes. In 1731, Spanish Battle of Porto Bello buffer state of warring American 80), who was to rule Austria’s
the Persians lost only 2,500. coastguards had severed the Fought in 1739, in the early stages of Indian tribes, a link between the hereditary domains with her
ear of a British captain, Robert the War of Jenkins’ Ear, the Battle French and Spanish settlements husband, Francis Stephen, as
Jenkins, and in 1739 the case led of Porto Bello resulted in the British was established. Holy Roman Emperor.
to a war, which was later dubbed seizing the settlement from Spain. Immediately, Prussia and France
the War of Jenkins’ Ear by the challenged the arrangement.
Scottish historian Thomas Carlyle. Most of Europe took sides in what
Britain began to attack Spanish became the War of the Austrian
possessions in the New World, Succession (1740–48), with
such as the Spanish naval base of Britain, the Dutch Republic,
Porto Bello in Panama. Following Sardinia, and Saxony supporting
the Battle of Porto Bello, the the queen. Frederick, claiming
British took possession of the inheritance of Silesia—parts of
settlement in November 1739. present-day Poland, Germany,
The Viceroyalty of New Spain,
first established in the early

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