Timelines of History_ The Ultimate Visual Guide To The Events That Shaped The World

Men of the US Coast Guard cutter Spencer watch the explosion of a depth
charge that sank a German U-boat in the Atlantic on April 17.

Women at war The shortages experienced by Flying fortress
A US poster suggests that working German civilians were replicated, The crew of an
in munitions factories can be as in greater or lesser degree, in all American Eighth Air
glamorous as joining the various European countries, including Force B-17 Flying
uniformed women’s services. neutral Spain. In Britain, labor Fortress at a base in
shortages led to the conscription England prepares for
Germany came under heavy air of women for work in civil a bombing mission
attack through 1943. RAF Bomber defense, military auxiliary services, over Germany. The
Command, equipped with the new factories, and in agriculture. In the Eighth Air Force lost
Lancaster bomber, achieved a US, women workers were 26,000 men between
spectacular success in the employed in heavy industrial jobs 1942 and 1945.
“Dambusters” raid in May. Using traditionally reserved for men.
“bouncing bombs,” Lancasters prevented food
made a low-level night attack on Black workers also took jobs from reaching
four Ruhr dams, breaching two of that in peacetime were reserved the starving.
them. In July, bombers saturated for whites. This led to racial
the port city of Hamburg with tensions that erupted into In Asia, 60,000
incendiary devices. In hot, dry rioting in Detroit in June. White Allied prisoners of
weather conditions, separate fires and black mobs clashed, and 34 war (POWs) and
blended into a single immense people were killed before federal almost 200,000 Asian laborers
firestorm. More than 37,000 people troops restored order. were forced to build a railroad
were killed, most of them civilians. from Thailand to supply Japanese
One of the worst tragedies of troops in Burma. Around 16,000
While the RAF bombed Germany 1943 was the Bengal famine that POWs and 90,000 Asian workers
by night, the US Army Air Force killed more than a million people died while they were building it.
began a daylight bombing in British India. Responsibility for
campaign. The US bombers, this catastrophe is disputed, but 650
bristling with guns, were expected Prime Minister Churchill refused Americans
to fight off attacks by German to allow shipping space, which
aircraft and drop bombs on 13,000 29,350
targets using technologically
advanced bombsights. In practice, AUSTRALIANS BRITISH
the B-17s and B-24s suffered
Marshal Pietro Badoglio from captivity. They set him up as alarmingly heavy losses and 18,000
(1871–1956), signed an armistice ruler of a puppet Italian Social precision bombing proved hard to
with the Allies in early September. Republic, which was founded in achieve under combat conditions. DUTCH
But the Germans had time to take the town of Salo. As Allied forces
over key positions in Italy and fought their way northward from The impact of bombing on the Building the Burma Railroad
defend the peninsula against Naples toward Rome, the German civilian population was Alongside Asian forced laborers,
Allied invasion forces. German Badoglio government joined the huge. Aside from the casualties, chiefly British, Australian, and Dutch
paratroopers rescued Mussolini Allies, declaring war on Germany. hundreds of thousands were prisoners of war were used by the
made homeless and there were Japanese to build the railroad.
severe food shortages. Over two
million children were evacuated
from the cities. Many factories
were relocated underground to
avoid the bombing.

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1944

150,000 THE NUMBER OF ALLIED
TROOPS THAT LANDED ON
THE NORMANDY BEACHES

9,000 THE NUMBER OF ALLIED
CASUALTIES DURING
THE LANDINGS

American soldiers wade ashore from a landing craft during the invasion of Normandy
on June 6. The landings began the liberation of Occupied France.

IN EARLY 1944 THERE WAS HEAVY movement (see 1942) Burma Star exploded, devastating the room The breakout of Allied forces
FIGHTING IN ITALY as German also suppressed, the This military medal was and killing four people, but the from Normandy in August
troops blocked the Allied advance British had reasserted awarded to British and dictator survived unscathed. (see p.389) led rapidly to the
on Rome. In January, Allied their authority over Commonwealth soldiers Stauffenberg and some of the liberation of Paris. After
seaborne landings at Anzio, the subcontinent. for service in the Burma other leading conspirators were French Resistance fighters began
behind the Germans’ defensive campaign between 1941 shot by firing squad; thousands an uprising in the city on
Gustav Line, failed to break the Meanwhile, Allied and 1945. more were arrested and tortured, August 19, General Charles de
deadlock. In February, Allied preparations for an many suffering lingering deaths. Gaulle’s Free French forces,
commanders decided to bomb the invasion of Occupied soldiers arrived offshore. Field Marshal Erwin Rommel fighting as part of Eisenhower’s
medieval abbey at Monte Cassino, France turned It was the largest (1891–1944) was also implicated Allied armies, raced for Paris. A
a key point in the Gustav Line, southern England into amphibious operation in in the plot, but he was permitted column of French tanks reached
but this much-criticized act of an armed camp. Operation history. Three of the five to commit suicide. central Paris on August 25.
desecration was also ineffectual. Overlord, was commanded
Monte Cassino eventually fell by General Dwight D. landing beaches,
to the Polish infantry in May, Eisenhower (1890– codenamed Sword,
allowing Rome to be liberated 1969). The Allies chose Juno, and Utah, were
the following month. Normandy as the target taken with relative ease
for their invasion. by British, Canadian,
In the spring, British Indian Postponed because and US troops, but
troops withstood a Japanese of bad weather, the the British at Gold
attempt to invade northeast India Normandy landings took place beach and especially the
from Burma. The Japanese on June 6, referred to as D-Day. Americans at Omaha beach
offensive was so successfully suffered substantial losses before
repulsed that Allied forces were During the night, 18,000 airborne securing ground.
able to mount their own offensive troops landed by parachute or Two ingenious innovations, the
to retake much of Burma later glider behind the German coastal Mulberry floating harbor and
in the year. With the Quit India defenses. At dawn, a fleet of 5,000 the Pluto undersea oil pipeline,
ships carrying around 130,000 allowed supplies to reach Allied
forces once ashore. A grueling
Cherbourg English Channel struggle ensued to break out of
Normandy, and German resistance
US 1ST ARMY BRITISH 2ND ARMY was not overcome until August.
Meanwhile, Adolf Hitler
UTAH (1889–1945) survived an
assassination attempt. A plot
OMAHA GOLD was mounted by patriotic German
officers and officials to overthrow
St Mère JUNO the Führer and seek peace with
Eglise SWORD the Western allies. On July 20,
Colonel Claus Schenk von
Pointe du Hoc Bayeux Lion-sur-Mer Stauffenberg (1907–1944) carried
Vierville Arromanches Caen a bomb in his briefcase to a
meeting at Hitler’s headquarters
FRANCE at Rastenburg, East Prussia. He
placed the bomb under a table
D-Day Landings KEY at which Hitler was sitting. It
The Allies landed on five Normandy Allied landing/advance
beaches—Sword, Juno, Gold, Utah, Allied parachute landing
and Omaha. Allied troops also Allied front line June 7, 1944
parachuted in behind enemy lines.

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,, ,,… AN OPERATION

OF THE MOST
EXTREME DARING.

General Alfred Jodl, Chief of Operations on Hitler’s counteroffensive

Soldiers of US 7th Armored Division patrol the snowy Belgian town of St. Vith, a site
of fierce fighting during the German Ardennes offensive in December.

As the Germans withdrew, the of thousands subjected to public determination. Flying bomb
celebrations in Paris began, and humiliation—for example, women In the battle for The German unmanned V-1 flying
so too did reprisals against were paraded with shaved the island of Saipan bomb was propelled by a primitive
alleged collaborators. Around heads—before De Gaulle formed between June 15 and jet engine and packed with
9,000 French people were a provisional government July 9, almost the entire explosives. In summer 1944
summarily executed and tens and restored order. garrison of 30,000 Japanese
soldiers were killed. The more than 100 a day were
Liberation of Paris At the beginning of August the Japanese Imperial Navy was fired at London.
Parisians celebrate the liberation Polish resistance movement almost wiped out in two great
of their city, and welcome the return staged an uprising against the battles—the Philippine Sea in mounting
of General de Gaulle to France as Germans in Warsaw. The Soviet June, and Leyte Gulf in October. dominance of Allied
leader of the Free French. Red Army had almost reached air forces. The V1 flying
the city, after pushing westward Facing near certain death in bombs launched against
through the summer, but Stalin unequal combat with superior London caused heavy casualties, Ardennes, which became known
had no desire to help the Poles, US forces, some Japanese naval but had no decisive effect, nor did as the Battle of the Bulge.
who were mostly anti-Russian pilots mounted “kamikaze” the V2 rockets, the world’s first German tanks broke through the
and anticommunist. The Red suicide attacks, deliberately ballistic missiles. Around 3,000 US front line and headed for
Army stopped short of Warsaw, crashing their aircraft into US V2s were launched, mostly at Antwerp. Stiffening resistance,
and did little for two months warships. These tactics proved London and Antwerp. They arrived especially by US airborne troops
while the Polish uprising was without warning and there was at Bastogne, was followed by a
crushed by Nazi troops. Several Prayer for safety no defense against them, but they well-organized Allied counter-
hundred thousand Poles were For good luck, some Japanese were inaccurate, and failed to attack. The German tanks ran
killed. After the survivors servicemen carried their national have the impact Hitler desired. out of fuel, and improved weather
surrendered in early October, flag with a special prayer written allowed Allied aircraft to strike in
the Germans destroyed Warsaw. on it, asking for a safe return. In December, the German support of ground forces. Hitler’s
Führer made his last gamble with last throw of the dice had failed.
In the west in September, with so effective that they were a surprise offensive in the
the Allies in control of most of adopted as a form of mass attack,
Belgium, British general Bernard using hundreds of virtually 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945
Montgomery (1887–1976) devised untrained rookie pilots. 250
a plan to end the war quickly by
an airborne invasion of the Facing defeat in Europe, Hitler 200
occupied Netherlands. British, put his faith in secret weapons.
US, and Polish paratroopers The first jet aircraft, the German NUMBER OF SHIPS 150
attempted to seize and hold a Messerschmitt 262, entered the
series of bridges that would allow conflict, but failed to reverse the 100
Allied tanks to advance into
northern Germany. The last 50
bridge at Arnhem was not taken,
however, and the operation failed 0
leaving the Netherlands to suffer ABS ABS ABS ABS ABS
a harsh winter under the Nazis.
NAVAL UNITS
The US offensive in the Pacific
gathered momentum through the US and Japanese naval strengths KEY A Aircraft carriers
year (see pp.394–95). Outnumbered A combination of vastly productive US B Battleships
and militarily outclassed, the US shipyards and heavy Japanese Japan S Submarines
Japanese fought with suicidal losses enabled the US to win naval
dominance in the Pacific.

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1914–2011 TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS

Party member Yellow star Anti-submarine weapon

GERMANY GERMANY BRITAIN

This membership book, dated July 15, From September 1941, all Jews Depth-charge launchers were
1937, certified that the holder was a in the German Reich were forced carried by British Navy ships
member of the Nazi party, the ruling to wear a yellow star with Jude to counter attacks by German
party in Germany during World War II. (German for “Jew”) written on it. U-boats. The charge
exploded at a
preset depth.

depth-charge
launching tube

SS motto

symbol of French Canadian poster
British monarch
(King George VI) CANADA

SS dagger symbol of This poster, addressed to Canada’s
the Third French-speaking population,
GERMANY Reich appeals for naval volunteers to join
the fight against German U-boats.
Ceremonial daggers were issued to
all members of the Nazi elite SS. The
blade bears the SS motto Meine Ehre
heißt Treue (“My Honor is Loyalty”).

WORLD WAR II

A GLOBAL CONFLICT THAT INVOLVED NOT ONLY MILITARY PERSONNEL BUT ALSO CIVILIANS

World War II cost more lives than any other conflict in paper tape on which
human history. Battle was joined on land, at sea, and encrypted message
in the air, with weapons ranging from the bolt-action
rifle to the atomic bomb. was printed

World War II involved more than 100 million military personnel and most setting knob
nations of the world. As well as being the most widespread war in history,
it was also marked by mass casualties among civilians, who were subjected Cipher machine
to large-scale aerial bombardment, massacre by German and Japanese
soldiers and security forces, and the dropping of atomic bombs on Japan. US

rifle bolt The M-209 was a mechanical
cipher machine that provided
swift and basic encryption,
providing sufficient security
for use on the battlefield.

movable arm

Lee Enfield bolt-action rifle foresight scale
marked in
BRITAIN
degrees
This rifle, which fired .303 cartridges from a
10-round magazine, was the standard British and eyepiece
Commonwealth infantry rifle in both world wars.

Field telephone

US

Portable telephones, such as the
American EE8 shown here, were
used for battlefield communication
over relatively short distances.

Prayer card Naval sextant rotatable
mirror
JAPAN JAPAN

This wooden prayer card Used to calculate a ship’s
belonged to a Buddhist position, the naval sextant dates
Japanese serviceman. from the age of sail but was still
Troops of all nations in use during World War II.
sought comfort in religion
and in superstition.

402

Suicide pill Sniper rifle telescopic
sight
BRITAIN USSR

The British sent agents into The Soviet Red Army
Nazi-occupied Europe to liaise made extensive use of snipers,
with local resistance fighters. especially in the Battle of Stalingrad.
Each agent carried a suicide They used a standard-issue Mosin-Nagant
pill to swallow if captured. infantry rifle with a telescopic sight.

Improvised boots

GERMANY

German troops invading the USSR in
1941 were not equipped to face the
Russian winter. Some made straw
boots to protect against frostbite.

viewing window shows
code letters

Civilian ration card Blackout poster scorpion
badge of
GERMANY GERMANY Long Range
Desert Group
Shortages of food, fuel, and other A dramatic poster calls on German
essentials led most combatant citizens to observe blackout regulations 403
countries to introduce rationing. during air raids. The slogan says “The
This German ration card is for meat. enemy sees your light! Make it dark!”

Red Cross parcel Desert headgear

BRITAIN NEW ZEALAND

Prisoners of war received Red The Long Range Desert Group,
Cross food parcels. As a result, set up by the British, was initially
by the end of the war, Allied POWs formed of New Zealanders. They
were better fed than their captors. found Arab-style headgear a good
defense against desert conditions.
plugboard; its setting can be
altered to change the cipher pressure
activation plate

Anti-tank mine

GERMANY

This Teller mine had a fuse
activated by the pressure of tank
tracks. Over three million of these
mines were made in World War II.

Enigma cipher machine Nuclear relic

GERMANY JAPAN

The Germans believed messages This melted glass bottle
encrypted by Enigma were secure, shows the extreme heat
but with the help of an early generated by the US atom
electromechanical computer, Allied bomb that destroyed
codebreakers cracked the code. Hiroshima on August 6, 1945.

1945 ,,

,,THIS IS YOUR VICTORY! IT IS

THE VICTORY OF THE CAUSE OF
FREEDOM IN EVERY LAND.

Winston Churchill in an address to the crowds in London, May 8, 1945

Exuberant Londoners celebrate on Victory in Europe (VE) Day, May 8, after the
announcement of the final unconditional surrender of German forces.

IN FEBRUARY 1945, JOSEPH Landing on suffered 26,000 casualties on March 9–10 killed at least
STALIN, FRANKLIN ROOSEVELT, Iwo Jima capturing the island of Iwo Jima, 80,000 people.
AND WINSTON CHURCHILL met for American a volcanic rock in the Pacific
the last time at a conference at Marines are defended to the death by an President Roosevelt did not
Yalta in the Crimea. Stalin agreed pinned down by 18,000-strong Japanese garrison. live to see the defeat of Germany
to hold democratic elections in Japanese fire on and Japan. The news of his death
Poland—a promise he did not a beach of the The American invasion of the on April 12 came as a shock
intend to keep. To aid the Soviet volcanic island of much larger Okinawa Island, to the American people. The
troops invading Germany from the Iwo Jima during launched in April, resulted in inexperienced Harry S. Truman,
east, the Western leaders agreed the landings on a bloodbath. Japanese soldiers vice-president for less than three
to step up bombing of German February 19. as usual fought to the death and months, took over at the White
rail centers, including Dresden. tens of thousands of the island’s House, facing formidable
On the night of February 13–14, their most civilian population also died, responsibilities.
Britain’s RAF dropped explosive graphic many by suicide. The Allied fleet
and incendiary bombs on experience of offshore was battered by mass The Allies had agreed that
Dresden, causing a firestorm that Nazi barbarity kamikaze attacks (see 1944). the Soviet Union should have the
destroyed the city’s historic center at Belsen, a honor of capturing Berlin, and
and killed some 25,000 people. concentration camp in Saxony. Meanwhile, American B-29 the heavy casualties that went
Liberating the camp in mid-April, bombers began the systematic with it. Hitler was determined
There was little pity for the British troops found thousands of destruction of Japanese cities. to fight to the end, although
Germans, as the liberation of prisoners dying of starvation, An incendiary raid on Tokyo much of the defense of
the death camps exposed Nazi mistreatment, and disease, and Germany had devolved upon
crimes. The major extermination bodies dumped in mass graves or adolescents and the elderly.
centers, including Auschwitz, left unburied. Cinema newsreel While American and Soviet
were liberated by the Soviet Red footage of Belsen convinced most troops advancing across
Army. The Western Allies met people that the war against Germany from west and
Germany had been justified. east met amicably at the
Elbe River, the Red Army
The human cost of the war with fought street by street
Japan continued to mount. In to take Berlin. As the
February–March, US Marines Soviets drew near his
bunker, on April 30
Dresden in ruins Hitler shot himself.
Inhabitants of the German city of By then, former Italian
Dresden attempt to cope with the dictator Benito
aftermath of Allied bombing that Mussolini was also
created a firestorm in the city. dead, executed by
communist partisans.

11.5 MILLION THE
ESTIMATED NUMBER OF
“DISPLACED PERSONS”
IN EUROPE IN 1945

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A formally dressed Japanese delegation prepares to sign the surrender papers on board
the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on September 2.

KEY between the Western Allies
Military toll and the Soviet Union were
growing, Stalin agreed to
15 Civilian toll join in the war on Japan. At
the end of the conference the
10 Allies issued the Potsdam
CASUALTIES (IN MILLIONS) Declaration, calling on Japan to
China5 surrender immediately or face HIROSHIMA
“prompt and utter destruction.”
Soviet Union The Japanese government The American B-29 bomber,
Poland rejected the call to surrender Enola Gay, piloted by Colonel
as “of no important value.” Paul Tibbets, took off from
Germany Tinian Island in the Marianas
Britain and Commonwealth Preparations for dropping atom at 2:45 on the morning of
bombs on Japanese cities were August 6 carrying an atom
Japan well advanced even before the bomb. It dropped the bomb
France first atomic test. The first bomb on the Japanese port-city
Italy was dropped on Hiroshima as of Hiroshima at 8:15. Heat,
US soon as it was ready and weather light, and the explosion killed
conditions permitted (see panel, some 70,000 people instantly.
0 right). Three days later, on The lingering effects of
August 9, a second bomb radiation raised total deaths
World War II casualties devastated the city of Nagasaki, to an estimated 140,000.
More civilians than servicemen died in World War II. The Soviet killing at least 35,000 people. The
Union and Germany had the heaviest military death tolls. Poland Soviet invasion of Manchuria surrender if the status of the
lost one in five of its population, including most Polish Jews. was a further shock to Japan. emperor was guaranteed.
Although Truman refused to offer
His body and that of his mistress socialism outweighing the popular Since June, the Japanese any such assurance, on August 15
Clara Petacci were hung upside appeal of Churchill’s war record. government had been split Hirohito told his people the war
down from meat hooks in a Milan between those who wanted a had developed “not necessarily to
gasoline station. On July 16, the New Mexican negotiated peace and militarists Japan’s advantage,” and that he
desert was lit up by the world’s insisting on a fight to the death. was making peace.
The surrender of German first atomic explosion. This was On August 10 Emperor Hirohito
forces was complete by May 8, the culmination of the top-secret intervened decisively in favor The war had ended with
sparking heartfelt victory Manhattan Project, a feat of unexpected suddenness. Dealing
celebrations in Allied countries. science and engineering that had of the peace faction. The with the aftermath of devastated
Although war continued with cost America $2 billion, spent on Japanese agreed to cities, broken economies, occupied
Japan, the British Labour Party presidential authority without enemy countries, refugees
withdrew from the wartime Congressional approval. Time of death (“displaced persons”), and war
coalition to fight a general The explosion produced A pocket watch criminals posed almost as great
election against the Conservatives temperatures higher than retrieved from the a challenge as the war itself.
led by Churchill. To general those at the core of the sun. body of a citizen
astonishment, Labour won a of Hiroshima
landslide victory, their promise The successful atomic records the exact
of a welfare state and democratic test coincided with the moment when
gathering of Allied the atom bomb
Raising the red flag leaders for a exploded above
Taken by a Red Army photographer, conference at the city.
this photo reconstructs the moment Potsdam, a
when soldiers raised the Soviet flag Berlin suburb.
on the Reichstag building in Berlin. Although
differences

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1946

Jewish refugees make their way to Palestine. Thousands attempted this journey before
Britain stopped allowing illegal entry into Palestine.

REPRESENTATIVES OF 51 NATIONS The Soviet Union tightened its grip ,,AN IRON CURTAIN,,
on Europe by creating “satellite
BEGAN THE YEAR BY FORMING states.” Communist governments HAS DESCENDED ACROSS
the United Nations (UN) General were set up in Czechoslovakia, THE CONTINENT.
Assembly, the successor to the Bulgaria, Albania, Poland,
League of Nations (see 1919). Its Romania, and Hungary. In France Winston Churchill, British politician, March 5 1946
aims were to provide a forum for and Italy, communist parties
the nations of the world and to narrowly missed seizing control. August 16, Jinnah declared a longer allow illegal entry into
uphold peace and security. Direct Action Day, a mass protest Palestine, igniting a diplomatic war.
Tensions increased in India against British proposals for an
The peace after World War II was following Britain’s declaration that all-India government. Violent Civil war resumed in China,
short-lived, as relations between India would gain independence fighting erupted and thousands having been suspended during the
Western allies and the Soviet after the war. The leader of the died. In response, Mohandas world war. The communist leader
Union continued to cool. In March, Muslim League, Muhammad Ali Karamchad Gandhi (1869–1948) Mao Zedong (1893–1976) declared
Winston Churchill summed up Jinnah (1876–1948), demanded a began a campaign for reconciliation war on the ruling Kuomintang
the threat of communism in a separate Muslim state, while between Hindus and Muslims. nationalist party and its leader
speech that described an “iron Hindus opposed this idea. On Chiang Kai-shek (1887–1975).
curtain” falling across Europe. The US granted independence
to the Philippines in July, though France remained determined
Faroe Islands NORWAY FINLAND the gift had strings attached: the to hold on to its colonies in Dead Sea Scrolls
(to Denmark) SWEDEN US kept sovereignty over several Indochina, beginning one of the The discovery of the Dead Sea
ltic Sea military bases, the Philippine longest guerrilla wars in history. Scrolls was one of the most
North economy was dependent on US In November, clashes intensified important archaeological finds of the
markets, and a “parity” clause between the Viet Minh, led by century. The scrolls are fragments of
Sea DENMARK Ba gave US citizens equal economic Ho Chi Minh (1890–1969), and the manuscripts of the Old Testament.
rights with Filipinos.
UNITED Juan Perόn Far East Expeditionary Corps, led
The drive for liberation in Africa Fiercely nationalistic, anti-US, and by France. The First Indochina
KINGDOM U SSR continued with the establishment anti-communist, Perón pledged a War, involving the rebellion of
of the Pan-African Federation by “Third Way” between capitalism Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos
REPUBLIC EAST POLAND Black Sea Kwame Nkrumah, from Ghana, and communism. against France, was declared on
OF IRELAND GERMANY and Jomo Kenyatta, from Kenya. December 19 (see 1954).
They aimed to promote African
THE NETHERLANDS GEWREMSATNYCZECHOSLOVAKIA unity and end racial discrimination. The Argentine former secretary
BELGIUM AUSTRIA HUNGARY of labor, General Juan Domingo
In Palestine, conferences were Perόn (1895–1974), was installed
LUXEMBOURG held to resolve the growing crisis as president of Argentina on
of admitting Jewish refugees June 4. With strong working-class
SWITZERLAND ITALY YUGOSLAVIA ROMANIA into Palestine, but no agreement support and military backing, he
BULGARIA was reached. The problem was promised social security and
FRANCE compounded in August, when higher wages.
PORTUGAL boats carrying refugees were
Corsica blocked by British warships. Technicians at the University of
Britain told the US it would no Pennsylvania began operating the
SPAIN Sardinia ALBANIA first practical electronic digital
computer. The machine was first
GIBRALTAR M edite GREECE TURKEY used for military purposes. It
occupied 1,800sqft (167sqm),
MOROCCO TUNISIA r r anean had 18,000 vacuum tubes, and
weighed almost 50 tons.
Malta Sea Cyprus SYRIA
LEBANON
IRAQ
ISRAEL

ALGERIA EGYPT JORDAN

LIBYA

SAUDI ARABIA

The division of post-war Europe
After the war, Britain, France, and the US occupied
West Germany, while the Soviet Union controlled East
Germany. Lithuania, Latvia, Moldavia, and Estonia
were absorbed into the USSR.

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1947

The UN General Assembly in session in Central Hall, London. The General Assembly
is the only part of the UN where all members have equal representation.

LORD LOUIS MOUNTBATTEN WAS The rulers of Kashmir were left war had broken out between Anne Frank’s diary While the British organized their
APPOINTED THE LAST VICEROY with a momentous decision: to communists and the royalist The publication of withdrawal from the region,
of India to oversee the end of become independent, or to join government. In response, 400 Het Achterhuis (The Arab and Jewish communities
British imperial rule. He India or Pakistan. In October, million dollars were sent to Greece Secret Annex) on clashed and terrorist attacks
believed that the only way forward war broke out between India to help end the communist threat. June 5 introduced intensified (see 1948).
for the country was to partition it, and Pakistan after Pakistan President Truman’s doctrine Anne Frank, a young
dividing it in two parts based on supported a Muslim insurgency in pledged support to all states Jewish girl whose
the religion of those areas. In Kashmir. India agreed to a request struggling to uphold democracy diary chronicled her
July, the British passed the Indian for armed assistance from against the threat of communism. years hiding from the
Independence Act, dividing the Kashmir’s maharaja, in return for Nazis in Amsterdam
Raj into India (Hindu and Sikh) the accession of Kashmir to India With fears that all of Europe during World War II.
and Pakistan (Muslim), leaving once the hostilities between India could fall to communist regimes,
Kashmir to determine its own and Pakistan ceased (see 1949). the US secretary of state George The crisis in Palestine (see
fate. Pakistan was split into East Marshall (1880–1959) introduced 1946) continued to worsen as
and West Pakistan, with India After six years of war, Britain’s a plan to help Europe’s shattered Britain referred the situation to
separating the two areas. On status had diminished, and the economies recover from the war, the UN. A plan was devised to
August 14, Pakistan gained US emerged as the only power helping victors and vanquished partition the area into separate
independence, and Muhammad capable of matching the Soviet alike. The European Recovery Jewish and Arab states. The
Ali Jinnah became its first Union. The “Truman Doctrine” Program, or “Marshall Plan,” UN General Assembly agreed to
governor-general. The next day was established on March 12, provided fuel, raw materials, loans, this resolution on November 29,
an independent India was born. when Winston Churchill requested food, and machinery, aiming to but it was unpopular with Arabs.
Partition set off waves of violence US aid in Greece, where a civil help jump-start economic growth.
and displaced millions of Hindus
and Sikhs who had lived in what
was now Pakistani territory, as well
as Muslims who lived in newly
Indian territory.

HIMAL AYAS

WEST INDIA
PAKISTAN
EAST
PAKISTAN

The partition of India Uprooted by partition
Partition split the former British Partition caused the largest mass migration in history—around 10 million people were displaced.
Raj into two separate new states: These Sikh refugees are leaving the Muslim section of the Punjab.
India and Pakistan. Pakistan was
formed of two territories, 1,050
miles (1,700km) apart.

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407

1948

Mohandas Gandhi lies in state after his assassination by a Hindu fanatic
who blamed him for the partition of India.

THE CROWNING ACHIEVEMENT He based his policy on a system UN PARTITION the independent states of the National Health Service
OF MOHANDAS GANDHI (b. 1868) that became known as apartheid North and South America. They (NHS) on July 5.
was realized when India won and enforced a racial hierarchy PLAN 1947 pledged to fight communism,
independence in 1947. However, privileging white South Africans increase security, and aid With World War II over, the
the concessions he made to (see 1994). proposed LEBANON economic growth. Olympic committee (IOC) could
Muslims led to his assassination once again select a nation to host
by a Hindu fanatic who blamed Anticolonial sentiment grew Arab State Harry Truman (1884–1972) the Olympic Games. London was
him for the partition of India, even in the Malay Peninsula after had steered the US through chosen, but six years of war had
though Gandhi had bitterly World War II. Groups of guerrillas proposed SYRIA the end of World War II and the left Britain with shortages of food
opposed the splitting up of the took to the jungle, led by Jewish State Haifa beginning of the Cold War. and clothing, and the 1948
subcontinent. The news of communist fanatic Chin Peng However, he was not expected to celebrations became known as
Gandhi’s assassination had a (b. 1924). In February, there were proposed Nazareth win the 1948 presidential the “Austerity Games.” These
profound effect throughout the terrorist attacks on European election against the Republican Olympics saw the first defection
world, and a state of mourning settlers, and later an “emergency” International Thomas E. Dewey, due to his from the communist East to
was declared in India. was declared. pro-Civil Rights policies, which the West when the head of the
zone had alienated many southern Czechoslovakian gymnastics
South Africa held May elections All-Korean elections had been Democrats. As the campaign team, Marie Provaznikova,
that saw the National Party take called for in 1948, but Kim Il Sung West continued, he won the following refused to return home.
power from Jan Smuts’ United (1912–94), the leader of North Bank of the people and was reelected
Party. Dr D. F. Malan (1874–1959) Korea, persuaded the Soviets not in one of the biggest election Czechoslovakia had been
became prime minister and to allow the UN north of the 38th Mediterranean Tel Aviv Jericho upsets in history. moving toward democracy after
formed the first government parallel (the boundary between Sea World War II, but the Soviets did
dominated by Afrikaners. the northern zone of the Korean In Britain, the debate over free not intend to allow any state
Immediately after the election, Peninsula, occupied by the USSR, Gaza Strip Jerusalem healthcare had been ongoing within their sphere of influence
the government began and the southern zone, controlled since the 19th century. After to become a democracy.
institutionalizing segregation. by US forces), believing he could Hebron Dead Labour’s election victory in 1945, Communists, supported by the
Malan believed that Africans not possibly win a free election. Gaza Sea Aneurin Bevan (1897–1960) Soviets, carried out a coup in
threatened the prosperity and As a result, a month after the presented a plan to provide free Prague, in February. The Czech
purity of the Afrikaner culture. South was granted independence Beersheba healthcare to all for the first president, Edvard Beneš
as the Republic of Korea, on time. Bevan formally launched (1884–1948), was removed from
Segregation sign August 15, the Democratic EGYPT TRANSJORDAN
Under apartheid, separate residency People’s Republic of Korea
areas were created, and social (DPRK) was proclaimed, with Kim Eilat DAVID BEN-GURION (1886–1973)
contact between different races was as premier. On October 12, the
strictly prohibited. Soviet Union declared Kim’s Plan for Palestine The founder of the state of
regime the only lawful government The UN General Assembly proposed Israel, Ben-Gurion was born
on the peninsula. By 1949, to split Palestine into Jewish and in Poland and immigrated to
North Korea was a full-fledged Arab states, with Jerusalem under Palestine in 1906. He became
communist dictatorship. international administration. an active supporter of the
struggle for an independent
The UN had devized a plan to May 15. Five Arab armies from Jewish state and was expelled
split Palestine into Jewish and Jordan, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, from Palestine in 1915 due
Arab nations, but it was not and Iraq immediately invaded the to his nationalist activities.
adhered to when the state of new Jewish state but were During World War II, he helped
Israel was proclaimed by its first repulsed. The Israeli army Jews fleeing from the Nazi
prime minister, David Ben- crushed pockets of resistance Holocaust. Ben-Gurion retired
Gurion, on May 14. The last and extended its borders in what from politics in 1970.
British troops withdrew on became known as the first
Arab–Israeli War (see 1949). The
realization that the Israeli nation
might survive increased anti-
Israeli and anti-Jewish sentiment
throughout the Arab world.

The Organization of American
States (OAS) came into being
on April 30. Its members were

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408

,, I KNOW OF NO OTHER MAN IN OUR TIME,

OR INDEED IN RECENT HISTORY, WHO SO

CONVINCINGLY DEMONSTRATED THE POWER

,,OF THE SPIRIT OVER MATERIAL THINGS.

Sir Stafford Cripps, British statesman, on Gandhi, 1948

Harry Truman holds up a newspaper that prematurely
announced Thomas Dewey had won the election.

power and replaced by the leader The Berlin Airlift
of the Czech communist party, A crowd of Berliners watch a
Klement Gottwald (1896–1953; Douglas C-54 Skymaster plane
see 1989). This was a tense period carrying vital supplies to the Allied
in Czechoslovakia. Jan Masaryk, sectors of the city.
the Czech foreign minister, had
tried to assure the Soviets that a road and rail links between the
democratic Czechoslovakia posed city and the West in June. The
no security threat. However, he Allies responded to the “Berlin
had been in favor of accepting aid Blockade” by organizing a
from the Marshall Plan (see massive airlift to supply the
1947), which Stalin refused to people of Berlin, and the blockade
endorse. On March 10, the Czech was lifted in May 1949.
government reported that
Masaryk had committed suicide. The end of World War II brought
Despite suspicions that the mass movements of refugees as
communists had murdered millions of displaced people fled
Masaryk, nothing was proven. or were expelled from Eastern
Europe. Many were treated
Berlin was divided into four brutally and found it hard to
zones after World War II, under assimilate. In response, the UN
an agreement between Britain, adopted the Universal
France, the US, and Russia (see Declaration of Human Rights,
1961). Berlin as a whole was an which guaranteed a “right to seek
enclave within Soviet-occupied and to enjoy in other countries
East Germany. The Soviets were asylum from persecution,” as
determined to force Western well as the Convention on the
powers out of Berlin and, in the Prevention and Punishment of
first crisis of the Cold War, cut the Crime of Genocide.

fresh yeast for baking Feeding Berlin
whole milk for children At the height of the
cheese Berlin blockade,
coffee one plane reached
powdered milk Berlin every 30
seconds. This
salt graph shows the
fat quantity of food
meat and fish that was flown in
cereal daily to sustain
dehydrated vegetables 800 Berlin’s 2 million
dehydrated potatoes citizens.
sugar

flour

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
FOOD WEIGHT (TONS)

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,,1949

…A ROOF STRETCHING OVER

,,THE ATLANTIC OCEAN.

Ernest Bevin, British foreign secretary, describing
the North Atlantic Treaty

At the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty in Washington, D.C., on April 4,
US president Harry S. Truman gave an address on its significance.

NORWAY DENMARK ESTONIA Germany. West Germany held the Civil war in China (see 1946) December and conceded
GERMANY LATVIA first free elections since 1932, and drew to an end in 1949. Beiping independence after four years of
the Christian Democrats under was taken by the communists and war. President Ahmed Sukarno
ICELAND Dr. Konrad Adenauer (1876– its name changed back to Beijing, (1901–70), who had cooperated
1967) won a small majority. and between April and November, with the Japanese in the war,
CANADA UNITED LITHUANIA most major cities passed to emerged as the strongest
KINGDOM POLAND In July, the Vatican issued the communist control with minimal national leader; he was faced
UNITED STATES Acta Apostolicae Sedis under resistance. Mao Zedong (see with the task of welding all the
NETHERLANDS CZECH REPUBLIC Pope Pius XII, which effectively 1921) proclaimed the founding of separate regions into a united
KEY excommunicated Catholics who the People’s Republic of China nation under a new constitution,
Original BELGIUM SLOVAKIA collaborated with or supported on October 1, and in December, with Jakarta as the capital of
signatories LUXEMBOURG HUNGARY the Communist Party. The decree Chiang Kai-shek and his the Republic. On September 26,
represented a significant Nationalist troops fled from 1950, Indonesia was admitted
FRANCE ROMANIA counteroffensive by the Holy See the mainland to the island of to the UN (see 1965).
in a religious Cold War against Formosa (Taiwan), naming Taipei
PORTUGAL TURKEY the communist regime, following the temporary capital of China. New 7-inch vinyl records
the persecution of Catholics in (also called 45s) were
SPAIN ITALY communist states. The Dutch finally gave up their introduced in the US by record
struggle over Indonesia in company RCA on January 10.
SLOVENIA On Easter Monday, April 18, Eire
became the Republic of Ireland, With its format of
CROATIA following the bill of 1938. It meant one song per side,
Ireland had officially broken free the “single” was
ALBANIA of allegiance to the British crown. perfect for rock ’n’
In May, the British Parliament roll, and it went on
GREECE approved a bill continuing the to revolutionize the
status of Northern Ireland as a part pop music
BULGARIA of Great Britain; six northern Irish business. In the
counties had shown a majority in first year of
FRENCH favour of remaining British in production, RCA
GUIANA the Northern Ireland General pressed more than
Election held on February 19. 25 million 45s.
Joined after NATO alliance
1949 This map illustrates the 12 nations The Fourth Geneva Convention People’s Republic
that originally signed up to NATO in was adopted in August. It brought Following the
A TRUCE WAS REACHED IN THE 1949. The alliance enabled the US to together the elements of the proclamation of the
ARAB–ISRAELI WAR (see 1948), keep military bases in Europe. previous three Geneva People’s Republic of
bringing an end to eight months of Conventions of 1864, 1906, and China, propaganda
hostilities. The Israelis referred to threatened. The treaty also 1929, and added rules to protect posters showed a
it as their “War of Independence,” provided that member countries civilians during war. It came in smiling Chairman
while the Arabs called it “Al would try to settle disputes by response to Nazi atrocities during Mao Zedong
Naqba,” or “The Catastrophe.” peaceful means. World War II and the practice of encouraging his
The Arab states negotiated “total war.” The international people to build a new,
separate armistice agreements. The Soviet Union stunned the treaty governed the treatment prosperous country.
Egypt was the first to sign on West by exploding its first atomic of civilians during wartime,
February 24, followed by Lebanon, bomb, on August 29, at a remote including hostages, diplomats,
Jordan, and Syria. The agreement test site in Kazakhstan. Named spies, bystanders, and civilians in
established a line between Israel “First Lightning,” its development territory under military occupation.
and the Jordanian-held West was facilitated by US spies, such
Bank, which became known as as Julius and Ethel Rosenberg,
the Green Line. and British spy Donald Maclean,
who had passed technological
Representatives of Belgium, secrets to the Soviets (see 1951).
Britain, Canada, Denmark, France, The loss of nuclear supremacy
Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the led US president Harry Truman
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, to order the development of
and the US met in Washington, the much more powerful
D.C., in April, to sign an historic hydrogen bomb.
treaty that established the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization, The Berlin Airlift (see 1948)
or NATO. The alliance was by the Western Allies had aided
intended for mutual defense; solidarity with the West German
countries promised to develop leaders. On May 23, the western
their capacity to resist armed occupied zones were united to
attack, and to consult one another form the Federal Republic of
when any of the countries was

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1950

,, WE SHALL
,,
,,LAND AT INCHON,

AND I SHALL
CRUSH THEM.

Douglas MacArthur, US General, 1950

The civil war in Korea quickly escalated and drew in troops from across the world under
UN command, including these British machine gunners.

AFTER NEARLY Emblem of India but many lost their jobs and their MCCARTHYISM
100 YEARS OF India adopted this reputations (see 1954).
BRITISH RULE, emblem, taken Named for senator Joseph McCarthy (1908–57), McCarthyism
India became from a sculpture In June, a new crisis divided became synonymous with the hunt for communists in US public
a republic on called Lion Capital former wartime allies in Korea. life during the 1950s. The triumph of communism in Eastern
January 26. India of Ashoka, after it Split into a Soviet-occupied Europe and China provoked a severe crisis in the US. Fears of a
had been managing became a republic. northern zone and an American- worldwide communist conspiracy resulted in a campaign against
its own affairs since The words “truth occupied southern zone, once people suspected of communist leanings. McCarthy held senate
the partition in 1947, alone triumphs” these two powers had withdrawn, hearings to “out” communists, and so-called “anti-American”
but this day marked are inscribed in the north—still backed by the books were removed from public libraries.
the official cutting of Devanagari script. USSR—invaded the south.
all ties. In a formal The US, determined not to appease
ceremony, president to witness the Russians, provided the main
Rajendra Prasad increasing racial contingent for a United Nations
(1884–1963) tension. Whites army that went to the support of
took the oath and blacks were the South Koreans. Within four
of office and a segregated on a months, the UN force had driven
new constitution large scale, and deep into North Korea; only the
came into force. intervention of China saved North
identity cards Korea from collapse (see 1953).
Since it was first created as specifying a person’s race were
Transjordan after World War I, introduced. On May 1, a general South 21
the Hashemite Kingdom of strike was held protesting against Korea
Jordan faced problems arising all discriminatory laws. Police MILLION
from its disputed status, weak opened fire in the Alexandra
economy, and artificial frontiers. Township, killing 18 people North 9 The first human organ electro-magnetism in a way that
On April 24, King Abdullah of and wounding 30. Korea transplant took place on June led to a new understanding of
Jordan (1882–1951) annexed MILLION 17 at the Little Company of quantum mechanics.
Arab Palestine to create an A year after communists had Mary Hospital in Illinois. A kidney
expanded kingdom, to the fury of assumed power in China they POPULATION IN 1950 from a dead body was used to The first modern credit card,
his Arab neighbors. The annexed invaded neighbouring Tibet. The replace a damaged kidney. which could be used at a variety
territory included East Jerusalem military assault took place in 135,000 North Although it was later rejected, of stores, was introduced in the
and doubled Jordan’s population. October, and by April 1951, Tibet’s Korea the transplant gave the patient’s US by Diners Club on February 8.
leaders claimed to have been 95,000 remaining kidney time to recover. It was established mostly for
South Africa, with its oppressive strong-armed into signing a South businessmen to use for travel
apartheid laws (see 1948), began treaty, known as the “Seventeen Korea German-born physicist Albert and entertainment expenses.
Point Agreement,” which gave Einstein (see 1919), who had Cardholders had up to 60 days to
COMMUNISM China control over Tibet’s external ARMY SIZE IN 1950 become actively involved in pay in full. Merchants were quick
IS A HAMMER affairs and allowed Chinese advocating nuclear disarmament to accept the card because they
military occupation. Korean population and army and civil rights, published found that customers who used
,,THAT WE USE Despite having less than half the “On the Generalized Theory of a credit card usually spent more
Anti-communist witch-hunter population of South Korea in 1950, Gravitation” in April’s Scientific if they were able to “charge it.”
TO CRUSH THE Senator Joseph McCarthy North Korea’s army was superior American. In this paper, he
ENEMY. launched a “red scare” crusade in in size and much better equipped. attempted to unify gravity and
America on February 9, claiming
Mao Zedong, 1950 that the US State Department was
harbouring 205 communists. His
claims were never substantiated,

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1914–2011 TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS

radio antennae Cosmonaut’s suit
8–10 ft 1965 • USSR
(2.4–2.9 m) long Soviet Aleksei Leonov was the
first man to walk in space,
steel sphere in March 1965. His suit, the
weighing Berkut, came with a backpack
life-support system.
185 lb (84 kg)

Marine award seal connects
1962 • US helmet to suit
John Glenn, the first American to orbit
the Earth, was awarded a special medal
by the US Marine Corps to commemorate
the event. Alan Shepard had become the
first American in space in the previous year.

Sputnik 1 suit includes
1957 • USSR an airtight
The first artificial satellite, launched
ahead of the US version, contained a insulation layer
radio transmitter. Orbiting hundreds
of miles above the Earth, it helped Gagarin poster
scientists understand more about 1961 • USSR
Earth’s atmosphere. This Soviet poster shows a beaming
Yuri Gagarin, who made history as
the first man in space aboard Vostok I.

THE SPACE RACE

TWO SUPERPOWERS COMPETE TO PROVE THEIR TECHNOLOGICAL MIGHT

Two nations dominated the race to explore space in the pressure
1960s—the US and the USSR. What had begun as a gauge
search for long-range missiles became a battle for
international prestige, which neither wanted to lose. insulated gloves with
rubber fingertips to
In 1957, the Soviet Union stunned the US when it launched Sputnik 1 into assist grip
orbit. Then, in 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human
to orbit the Earth. It looked like the US was lagging behind. But after the
creation of the Apollo program, the US eventually won the ultimate prize:
Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin stepped onto the lunar surface on July 21,
1969, marking the beginning of a new era in space exploration.

Moon rock
1969
Collected by Apollo 11 astronauts, Moon
rock resembled volcanic lava found on Earth,
suggesting that the Moon was once molten.

Scoop Life magazine
January 20, 1969 • US
Brush Images from the Apollo 8 mission appeared
on the front cover of Life magazine, such was
Sample testing kit the interest in space exploration. The Apollo 8
1969 • US crew were the first to orbit the Moon.
The crew of Apollo 11 took special
tools and containers with them to
collect rocks, soil, and dust from
the lunar surface to return to Earth.

412

tunnel hatch Lunokhod 1 space probe THE SPACE RACE
1970 • USSR
access Lunokhod, meaning “moonwalker” directional
hatch in Russian, was the first of two roving helical
remote-controlled robots to land on antenna
the Moon on November 17.
rendezvous
window

solar cell recharges
batteries

Apollo 10 command module independently
1969 • US powered
This module, carrying three crew, wheels
went into orbit around the Moon
in a rehearsal for the Apollo 11
mission that landed on the Moon
two months later.

Apollo patch Mir patch sachet of
1969 • US DATE UNKNOWN • USSR freeze-dried food
An eagle carrying an olive branch This is the official mission patch
perches on the lunar surface in for the Russian Space Station Space food tray
the Apollo 11 patch, which was Mir program. The word “Mir”
designed by the crew. appears in Cyrillic. DATE AND PROGRAM UNKNOWN

This food tray is magnetic
to combat low gravity, with
metal cutlery and Velcro
fastenings to secure
shrink-wrapped food
packages and liquid.

magnetized
surface

Space tools sheet cutters

DATE AND PROGRAM UNKNOWN

Special tools were designed
to help astronauts collect
specimens. Because bulky space
suit gloves made grasping
difficult and tiring, tool handles
were thicker than normal.

soft lunar boots Commemorative cigarettes
ideal for 1975 • US AND USSR
spacewalking These cigarettes were made
to celebrate the Apollo–Soyuz
mission in 1975, when craft from Cuban newspaper
the US and USSR docked together 1980 • CUBA
in space. The packets were printed During the space race, astronauts from many
in both English and Russian. communist countries, such as Cuba, went into
space as crew members on Soviet spacecraft.

413

1951 1952 1953
IT HAD
,,
,,TO BE.

Julius Rosenberg, convicted
spy, on his death sentence, 1951

Thousands of suspected Mau Mau activists in Kenya were arrested following
open revolt against British rule.

EGYPT RENOUNCED ITS 1936 INDOCHINA PROVED VOLATILE EVA PERON (1919–52) STALIN’S POLICIES WERE met by reactions of foreboding in
TREATY THAT GRANTED BRITAIN THROUGHOUT THE YEAR. In April, BECOMING INCREASINGLY Western Europe. The doctors
a lease on the Suez base, in the French launched a big push to Maria Eva Duarte de Perón, ANTI-SEMITIC. At the end of 1952, were freed after Stalin died of
October. Britain refused to smash the Viet Minh resistance or “Evita,” played a crucial he told his Politburo that all Jews a stroke in March.
withdraw and a guerilla war northwest of Saigon. In October, role in helping her husband, were sympathetic to America.
began in the Suez Canal Zone. another French operation Juan Perón, become On January 13, nine doctors were Stalin’s death led to a major
targeted Viet Minh supply bases. Argentinian president. She arrested for conspiring to murder power struggle in the Kremlin
In March, the Iranian government was idolized by the poor, and prominent figures in the Soviet where a moderate coalition,
nationalized its oil industry, which A peace treaty that Japan had began many programs of armed forces. Six of them were headed by Georgi Malenkov
had been dominated by the Anglo– signed in San Fransisco, US, in social welfare and reform. Jews. These accusations were (1902–88), took over. His moderate
Iranian Oil Company. Britain 1951 went into effect on April 28, She died of cancer at age 32. policies became unpopular and
responded with a worldwide making the country an Hillary and Norgay Lavrenty Beria (1899–1953), who
embargo on Iranian oil. independent state again. foundations for the future Edmund Hillary and Sherpa had been the head of Stalin’s
European Union. Tenzing Norgay become the secret police, tried to gain power.
A new era dawned in nuclear On May 27, East Germany closed first to successfully reach the
power when the first nuclear its border with West Germany. A military coup in Egypt headed summit of Mount Everest, Beria was charged with
power plant, in Idaho, produced A 30-ft (10-m) wide ”control strip” by Colonel Gamal Abdal Nasser’s the highest point on Earth, treason and was then shot
around 100kW of power—enough was dug along the border. Committee of Free Officers seized during the British Everest
for four 100 watt light bulbs. control of the government in July. Expedition of 1953. in the back of a truck, in
King George VI of Britain died Egypt became a republic in 1953. what seems to have
Fears about the spread of on February 6. His daughter, been a summary
communism deepened as Julius Elizabeth, was officially The first atomic bombs had assassination.
and Ethel Rosenberg were proclaimed queen two days later. been dropped on Hiroshima and
accused of stealing information Nagasaki in 1945. The much more
from the US for the Soviets. Opposition to British rule led to powerful hydrogen bomb, or
British Foreign Office officials Guy the Mau Mau Rebellion in Kenya. H-bomb, was tested by the US
Burgess and Donald Maclean The Mau Mau were an anticolonial on November 1.
disappeared on 28 May—it was insurgent army. They began raiding
later found out that they had white-settler farms, and by the The world’s first successful use
defected to the Soviet Union. end of the year the British had of a mechanical heart was
declared a state of emergency. announced in the US, on July 3.
The Dodrill–GMR machine kept
The European Coal and Steel blood circulating for 50 minutes
Community came into being in during open-heart surgery.
July. Comprised of six nations, it
created a “common market” for
coal and steel, and laid down the

The Rosenbergs awaiting trial 50
Americans Julius and Ethel
Rosenberg were found guilty of THOUSAND
smuggling atomic secrets to the
Soviet Union. THE NUMBER OF
AFRICANS WHO
DIED IN THE MAU
MAU UPRISING

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1954 1955

The Indochinese conflict lasted eight years, ending in 1954. This photograph shows
French forces evacuating Hanoi.

DNA ISRAELI FORCES CONDUCTED A ROSA PARKS (1913–2005)
SURPRISE RAID on the Egyptian-
A scientific breakthrough was made in 1953, when the blueprint held Gaza Strip in February. The Rosa Parks made history when
of life, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), was mapped out by James raid was the largest of its kind she refused to give up her seat
Watson and Frances Crick. DNA is the hereditary material that against Arab forces since the end on a bus for a white man. Her
contains the coded information needed to build and maintain all of the First Arab–Israeli War in arrest mobilized a boycott of
living organisms. Watson and Crick proposed a model for 1949 (see 1956). the bus system, which ended
DNA called a double helix. It explained heredity and led to segregation on Montgomery’s
the development of an entire biotechnology industry. Under its apartheid legislation, buses. The boycott also
the South African government brought international attention
chromosome forcibly evicted 60,000 black people to the civil rights cause. Parks
from Sophiatown, in February, to remained committed to her
coiled structure make it a white-only suburb. The cause, and was a symbol of the
African National Congress (ANC), struggle for civil rights until
base pair an antiapartheid organization, her death in 2005, aged 92.
responded with a day of prayer.
War in Korea (see 1950) ended FRENCH RULE IN INDOCHINA Austria remained neutral. The December 1, when Rosa Parks
when an armistice was signed on CAME TO AN END ON 21 JULY. The Friendship, Cooperation and Austrian State Treaty was signed broke Alabama race laws by
July 27, but a state of suspended Laos and Cambodia became Mutual Assistance Treaty, known on May 15, reestablishing Austria refusing to move to the back of a
hostility remained. The Republic independent, while Vietnam was as the Warsaw Pact, was signed as an independent sovereign state. bus. Thousands boycotted the bus
of Korea (South) and the divided into North Vietnam, with on May 14. The treaty set up a It joined the UN the same year. company in protest.
Democratic People’s Republic a communist government, and military alliance of communist
of Korea (North) chose not to sign South Vietnam. In all three states to counter NATO in the West. Juan Perόn’s position as In the West, by the mid-1950s,
the peace treaty. noncommunist states, communist president of Argentina was teenagers stood out as a distinct
guerrilla movements sprang up. The Soviet Union ended its weakened by his wife’s death and group with interests, musical
Mount Everest, the world’s occupation of Austria, which had a quarrel with the Roman Catholic tastes, and their own fashions. This
highest mountain, was first Senator Joseph McCarthy been ongoing since the end of Church. He was overthrown in a led to disapproval from adults who
climbed on May 29, by New intensified his campaign to root World War II, on condition that coup on September 19, and exiled feared juvenile delinquency. New
Zealander Edmund Hillary out communists (see 1950). He to Paraguay. slang was condemned, dances
(1919–2008) and the Nepalese set his sights on the US army Eastern alliance were closed, and some institutions
Sherpa Tenzing Norgay and made unsubstantiated The Warsaw Pact united the Eastern There was a turning point in banned the wearing of jeans.
(1914–86). They stayed only allegations against them. This Bloc in a similar alliance to NATO. The the US Civil Rights movement on
15 minutes at the summit as they led to his being censored by the signatories were Albania, Bulgaria, KEY
were low on oxygen. Senate on December 2. Public Czechoslovakia, East Germany, SOVIET UNION Signatories of the
support dwindled, and McCarthy’s Hungary, Poland, and the USSR. Warsaw Pact
A new “absurdist” play, Waiting reign of fear ended.
for Godot by Samuel Beckett POLAND ROMANIA
premiered at the Theatre de A vaccine for polio was tested EAST BULGARIA
Babylone in Paris on January 5. in a huge field trial in the US, in
Critics were at once divided over April. The trials were successful, GERMANY
its merits. and a nationwide vaccination
scheme was started the CZECHOSLOVAKIA
following year. HUNGARY
ALBANIA

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1956 1957

,, ,,WHAT COULD WE

DO? THERE WAS A REIGN
OF TERROR.

Nikita Krushchev, on Stalin, February 25, 1956

Nikita Krushchev, photographed during an eight-day visit to London. Khrushchev’s The Soviets began the “Race for Space” with the launch of the world’s first
“de-Stalinization” of the USSR prompted a thaw in the Cold War. satellites, Sputnik I and II—an achievement celebrated by this poster.

THE US CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT March 2, although Spain retained Chevrolet Bel Air Convertible KASHMIR WAS FORMALLY Britain (see 1948). Eventually,
experienced a turbulent time this control of Ceuta and Melilla on The 1956 Chevvy was just what the INCORPORATED INTO INDIA on Britain realized that this situation
year when a black student began the coast. Border disputes with American public wanted—it was January 26, defying a UN ruling. could not be resolved by military
attending the University of Algeria led to fighting in 1963. fast, big, and affordable. It soon It was granted special status means, and made constitutional
Alabama. White community became a classic symbol of the under India’s constitution, which advances that culminated in the
members attacked African- Riots erupted in Cyprus in American Dream. ensured, among other things, that independence of the Malayan
Americans, and the activities of March, after British authorities non-Kashmiri Indians could not Federation on August 31.
the Ku Klux Klan, an organization deported Archbishop Makarios, Egypt and Israel following the buy property there. Pakistan
of white supremacists, increased. leader of the campaign to unify crisis, which became known as the strongly objected (see 1917, 1965). President Sukarno of
Cyprus with Greece. He was Second Arab–Israeli War. Indonesia had struggled to
Morocco declared its accused of fostering terrorism. Ghana became the first black maintain a parliamentary
independence from France on Nikita Khrushchev, Communist African country to gain its democracy since independence
Egypt’s President Nasser Party First Secretary of the Soviet independence from colonial in 1945. On March 14, he decided
nationalized the Suez Canal on Union, denounced Stalin as a rule on March 6. The first prime to dispense with parliament
July 26. Britain and France had “brutal despot” in a speech on minister, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah and imposed martial law. On
shares in the Suez Canal Company, February 25. It outraged Stalinists, (1909–72), initiated ambitious December 3, Sukarno nationalized
and met with Israel in October but led to the prospect of a thaw in development programs and Dutch businesses; two days later
to conclude a secret agreement relations with the US. In Eastern spearheaded the political he expelled all Dutch nationals.
that Israel should attack Egypt, Europe it had a dramatic effect on advancement of Africa.
providing a pretext for an Anglo– raising expectations for change. The Space Age began on
French invasion of the Suez Canal The Treaty of Rome was signed October 4, when Russia launched
Zone. On October 29, Israel The Hungarian Revolution, in on March 25. It set up the EEC its Sputnik I satellite into orbit.
invaded the Sinai Peninsula. The October, led to the formation of a (European Economic Community) It was followed a month later by
US pressured Israel to withdraw, liberal government and Imre and provided for the countries’ Sputnik 2, which carried a dog
and UN forces were stationed Nagy, a moderate, became prime social and economic programs. called Laika.
along the Egyptian–Israeli minister. On November 3, Nagy It also gave former colonies free
border. The Anglo–French assault announced a plan to withdraw trade with the EEC, and made North
was launched on November 5. from the Warsaw Pact (see 1955). them eligible for aid. Sea
International criticism forced a The next day, Warsaw Pact troops
TURKEY ceasefire and then a withdrawal. invaded, crushed the rebellion, The suppression of communist
Tensions remained high between and reestablished control. guerillas in Malaya had been a
CYPRUS SYRIA constant source of concern to
LEBANON
IRAN
ISRAEL IRAQ NETHERLANDS WEST
KUWAIT BELGIUM GERMANY
Cairo JORDAN TRUCIAL
Suez Canal Port Said STATES LUXEMBOURG

BAHRAIN

EGYPT QATAR

SAUDI FRANCE
ARABIA Corsica
Sardinia
ITALMAN Y
O Sicily
Red Sea

SUDAN YEMEN SOUTH YEMEN

KEY
Areas affected by the Suez Crisis

The Suez Crisis European Economic Community
The Suez Canal was a vital trading This map shows the composition
route from the Mediterranean to the of the EEC at its inception in 1957,
Red Sea. It was especially important when six countries signed the
for the shipment of oil. Treaty of Rome.

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June
416

1958

Elvis Presley, seen here singing to an adoring young crowd, joined the US Army
and set sail for Germany, putting a temporary halt to his extraordinary career.

MAO ZEDONG, FOUNDER OF THE 35 to form the United Arab CHARLES DE GAULLE (1890–1970)
PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA, Republic. Pro-Western regimes
initiated a program of reform in MILLION in the Middle East saw the union A soldier, politician, and
1958 that would ultimately kill as a threat to their security, and statesman, Charles de Gaulle
millions. The “Great Leap THE NUMBER Iraq and Jordan formed a loose became head of the provisional
Forward” was intended to OF DEATHS IN union. In July, a civil war broke government of France in 1944.
rapidly industrialize China’s rural THE GREAT out in Lebanon between the Elected president in 1945, he
economy. However, Mao’s scheme LEAP FORWARD predominantly Christian and resigned in 1946, returning to
plunged the country into one of strongly pro-Western regime of power in 1958 to solve the
the worst famines in history. At President Camille Chamoun and crisis brought about by the
least 35 million people were the Muslim Socialist National Algerian War. He resigned
worked, starved, or beaten to Front. On July 14, a group of Iraqi again in 1969 after being
death in the following four years. Free Officers led by Brigadier defeated in a referendum on
Abdul Karim Qasim captured constitutional reform.
Great Leap Forward power in Baghdad in a savage
This propaganda poster urges The Middle East felt the military coup. King Faisal II, The Iraqi coup threatened to Russia’s success in
workers to make more steel as part of repercussions of the Suez Canal the regent Abdul Illah, and destabilize Western control launching a satellite in 1957
Mao Zedong’s “Great Leap Forward,” crisis this year (see 1956). In Prime Minister Nuri al-Said over the Middle East and its oil spurred the Americans into
an attempt to modernize China. February, Egypt and Syria merged were murdered. resources. To counter this, within forming NASA, the North
48 hours of the Baghdad coup the American Space Agency. On
US sent a battalion of marines July 29, President Eisenhower
into Lebanon in Operation Blue signed the National
Bat, to help prop up the tottering Aeronautics and Space Act,
regime of President Chamoun. and NASA opened formally
Tensions eased, and the US three months later.
withdrew its forces on October 25
without a shot being fired. Elvis Presley had become
a huge star with a series of
French wars in Indochina, civil chart-topping records, and this
war in Algeria, and a series of year would prove to be pivotal.
unstable governments led to the On January 20, he began
recall of General Charles De work on his fourth motion
Gaulle (see panel, above) to picture, King Creole. Then, at
French politics. He demanded the height of what seemed a
special powers for six months promising career, Presley was
to restore order, and to draft a conscripted into the army,
new constitution for a Fifth and in September he set sail
Republic, which was submitted for Germany. Billboard noted
to the French public in a a drop in sales of his records
referendum on September 28. and Elvis’s army years would
De Gaulle won an easy victory mark a clear line between the
to become president on old Elvis and the new.
December 21, 12 years after he
had relinquished power.

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1959 1960

A REVOLUTION IS NOT,,

,,A BED OF ROSES.

Fidel Castro, prime minister of Cuba from 1959–76

John F. Kennedy and his wife, Jacqueline, smile from the back
of an open-top car during Kennedy’s inauguration celebrations.

THE RACE BETWEEN THE US AND Vietnam under communist rule. FIDEL CASTRO (1926–) THE STRAIN ON DIPLOMATIC TIES invented by the US physicist
USSR TO SEND A MAN INTO SPACE The US, seeking to stop the spread BETWEEN CHINA AND THE USSR Theodore Maiman (1927–2007).
accelerated in 1959. On January 2, of communism, trained the Army Fidel Castro was jailed for his became public in June, at the It drew the attention of scientists
the Soviets launched the first of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) revolutionary activities in Cuba congress of the Romanian around the world and led
spacecraft to escape Earth’s orbit and provided advisors to South in 1953. After his release he Communist Party, when Nikita to advances in engineering,
and reach the Moon, Luna 1. The Vietnam. On July 8, two Americans went into exile, but returned in Khrushchev and China’s Peng medicine, and technology.
US also had its first successful were killed by Viet Minh troops. 1956. He was Cuban prime Zhen clashed openly. The Soviets
mission this year, when the Juno 2 These were the first American minister from 1959–76 and the were alarmed with China’s “Great The influential civil rights
rocket sent the Pioneer 4 probe deaths in the Vietnam War. first communist head of state in Leap Forward” (see 1958), while activist Martin Luther King
toward the Moon. Luna 2 was the Americas. His relations with the Soviets reneged on their (1929–1968) rose to international
launched on September 12, and The Dalai Lama, the spiritual the US were originally good, but earlier commitment to help China prominence in the early 1960s.
on October 7, pictures taken by leader of Tibet, fled his country on speedily deteriorated. Although develop nuclear weapons, and King was arrested in Atlanta,
Luna 3 gave mankind its first look March 31 and escaped to India still a prominent figure, he were seen as too conciliatory to Georgia, during a “sit-in” on
at the far side of the Moon. with his ministers. This came retired as president in 2006. the West. At a meeting in October 19. He was sentenced
after widespread open rebellion November, the Chinese delegation to a four-month term in prison.
Cuba had been ruled by a series against Chinese rule within were reported killed as China clashed with the Soviets again, Presidential candidate John F.
of dictators, culminating in the Tibet, which had culminated suppressed the revolt. Over the but eventually a compromise was Kennedy (1917–1963) intervened
corrupt regime of Fulgencio in a full uprising. Thousands next few months, an estimated reached, preventing a formal split. to secure King’s release after
Batista (r. 1940–44 and 1952–59). 80,000 Tibetans fled to India. eight days in jail.
A group of revolutionaries led by The Belgian Congo became
law student Fidel Castro took up Antiapartheid riots continued independent on June 30, ushering John Fitzgerald Kennedy
arms and set up a base in the in South Africa. Those in the in a period of turmoil. It was was elected as 35th President
Sierra Maestra mountains, township of Sharpeville resulted renamed the Federal Republic of of the US in November. He
provoking Batista to indiscriminate in the deaths of 70 demonstrators, Congo, with Joseph Kasavubu as narrowly defeated the
repression. Batista’s regime and the African National president, and Patrice Lumumba Republican candidate Richard
collapsed, and Castro took Congress (ANC, see 1994) was —a socialist—as prime minister. Nixon after some fiercely
over—he was sworn in as prime banned. These events prompted In July, the province of Katanga contested television debates.
minister on February 16. A worldwide condemnation of declared independence and asked
“honeymoon” period with the South Africa’s apartheid policies. for Belgian help—Belgium sent Nixon Kennedy
US soon ended as Cuba became When the British prime minister an invasion force in response,
a totally socialist state. Harold Macmillan visited the causing Kasavubu to appeal to 49.7%
South African parliament in the UN. In September, Kasavubu
In Vietnam, northern guerrillas February 1960, he made a speech dismissed Lumumba as prime
under Ho Chi Minh (1890–1969) highlighting the “wind of change” minister, and in December he
attacked the southern army in which he believed would bring was arrested. Lumumba was
March. Ho Chi Minh aimed to unite independence for black Africans. murdered the following year.

VW Beetle In September, the major 49.5%
Produced by the German oil-exporting countries outside
company Volkswagen, the Beetle the communist bloc set up the Race for the White House
survived the war and decorated Organization of the Petroleum The presidential race between Nixon
Beetles became a symbol of Exporting Countries (OPEC). and Kennedy was incredibly tight.
peace around the world. They combined to fix oil prices by Kennedy beat Nixon by less than
controlling supply (see 1973). 1 percent—just 118,574 votes.

The laser was first operated on
May 16. A device that emits an
intense beam of light, it was

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1961

Paratroopers hold back a crowd of French nationals angry at news
of self-determination for Algeria.

First man in space It became a republic and left the
Yuri Gagarin is pictured here in the Commonwealth. In the same year,
cockpit of his spacecraft, Vostok 1. Nelson Mandela (b. 1918) headed
His groundbreaking first flight into the ANC’s new military wing, and
space lasted 1 hour 45 minutes. launched a sabotage campaign.

place on April 29, in Switzerland. President Charles de Gaulle
The “Morges Manifesto” became called for self-determination
the blueprint for the first global in Algeria (see 1954), but the
green organization, the World atmosphere between France and
Wildlife Fund (WWF). The Algeria remained murderous.
organization’s headquarters were French settlers living in Algeria
established in Switzerland, and reacted with outrage, and
national offices were gradually set France braced itself for civil war.
up across the world, starting with On October 17, thousands of
Britain, in November. South Algerians converged on Paris
America’s first ever National to protest against repressive
Park was also established this measures taken against them.
year, in Brazil. The government About 10,000 people were arrested
created the 5.6 million acre (2.3 and hundreds were killed.
million hectare) Xingu National
Park to resettle the indigenous Berliners found themselves
people of Brazil, as their lands living in a physically divided city on
were taken over and developed. August 13, as troops in East
Seventeen tribes were settled in Germany closed the border
the new park. between East and West Berlin.
Barbed wire fences up to 6ft (2m)
South Africa focused on its high were erected. Within days,
anti-British policies and won the these were replaced by concrete
vote for independence on May 31. blocks, and the wall became
permanent (see 1989).

THE PORTUGUESE LUXURY space. He orbited the Earth just invasion on the southern FRENCH Dividing wall
PASSENGER LINER SANTA MARIA once on April 12, traveling at more coast was immediately repulsed SECTOR The Berlin Wall
was hijacked in January while than 17,000 miles per hour (see 1962). enclosed the three
sailing in West Indian waters. (27,000 km per hour) in his Vostok BRITISH SOVIET sectors of West Berlin,
The hijackers were Iberian 1 spacecraft. One of John F. Kennedy’s first SECTOR SECTOR separating it from East
leftists who opposed the proposals as US president was Berlin and East
Portuguese government and In 1960, the Russians had scored the establishment of a Peace AMERICAN Germany.
the fascist regime in Spain. a triumph by winning the Corps to help in developing SECTOR
The 900 people on board were allegiance of Fidel Castro, the nations. The aim was for young KEY
released after 11 days. newly installed dictator of Cuba people to take one or two years Berlin Wall
(see panel, opposite). Washington working abroad as teachers, Berlin city limits
The Soviet Union scored a responded in April by financing healthcare workers, or advisors
victory in the space race when 1,500 anti-communist exiles in the in Africa, Asia, and South America.
Yuri Gagarin (1934–68) became ill-fated “Bay of Pigs” expedition.
the first man to be launched into This badly conceived attempt at Worldwide action to conserve
the natural world was put in

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in

May 5 Alan

419

1962 1963

Soviet missiles are displayed at a parade in Havana. The US came close to confrontation with Martin Luther King salutes the crowd
the Soviet Union over the establishment of Soviet nuclear installations on Cuba. from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial.

,, WE’RE EYEBALL TO Angeles apartment on August 5. In the US, concerns were growing THE 1960S SAW THE REKINDLING
EYEBALL AND THE OTHER She was 36 years old. There was over the alliance of Cuba and the of the women’s liberation
much speculation about the cause USSR. The installation of Soviet movement. Betty Friedan
,,FELLOW JUST BLINKED. of her death; the coroner reported missiles on Cuba had reduced the (1921–2006) identified some of
a “probable suicide,” but many warning time of a nuclear attack the frustrations felt by American
Dean Rusk, US Secretary of State, on the Cuban crisis in 1962 believed she had accidentally on the US from 15 minutes to two. housewives in her book The
overdosed on sleeping tablets. In October, President Kennedy Feminine Mystique, which was
PRESIDENT CHARLES DE GAULLE made repeated attempts on ordered a blockade of the island published in February, and
OF FRANCE reached an agreement De Gaulle’s life. Algeria gained Meanwhile, Nelson Mandela— to prevent the arrival of more helped start a “second wave” of
with Algerian nationalists in independence from France on leader of Umkhonto we Sizwe, the missiles, and delivered an feminism in the US.
March to proceed with Algerian July 3, after a referendum held armed wing of the African ultimatum to the Russian leader,
independence. The Organization in January backed the move. It National Congress (ANC)—was Nikita Khrushchev, to remove In another display of unity, the
Armée Secrète (OAS), a secret brought an end to eight years of arrested on August 5 after 17 existing missiles. The world was heads of states of 32 African
organization of army officers civil unrest and guerrilla warfare. months on the run. Convicted on the brink of nuclear war, but countries signed a charter on
who wanted Algeria to remain a French officials estimated it of sabotage, he was jailed for Khrushchev finally backed down. May 25, setting up the
French colony, launched a wave had cost 350,000 lives; Algerian five years on November 7. This incident became known as Organization of African Unity
of bomb attacks across Paris and sources put the figure at the Cuban Missile Crisis. (OAU). Their aims were to
Jamaica became independent promote African solidarity, end
1.5 million. within the British Commonwealth India and China were fighting colonialism, and to coordinate
Telstar, the world’s on August 6, with Alexander their own battle in a short but the economic, political, health,
Bustamante (1884–1977) of bloody border war over their scientific, defence, and cultural
first communication the Jamaica Labor Party as prime claims to the Aksai Chin Plateau, policies of the members. The
satellite, was minister. He would oversee on India’s northeast frontier. conference, hosted by Haile
launched on July 10 several years of growth under Chinese troops advanced into Selassie of Ethiopia, also planned
from Cape Canaveral. his moderately conservative India on October 20, but declared to support African freedom
In the early hours government. a ceasefire on November 21. fighters by supplying arms,
of July 11, live training, and military bases.
transatlantic The people of Berlin were not 5,000 around 150 were
television pictures celebrating any such freedom attemped to killed trying to Kenya, an early member of the
were sent from Maine after the construction of the cross the wall cross over OAU, became the 34th African
in the US to Goonhilly Berlin Wall (see 1961). Peter nation to achieve independence.
in Cornwall, England. Fechter, an 18-year-old German Jomo Kenyatta (1894–1978) was
bricklayer, became one of the first elected leader of the Kenya African
The US was back victims of the Berlin Wall’s border National Union after nine years in
in the news when guards after he was shot trying to prison, and won the national
screen idol Marilyn cross from East to West Berlin. election in May. Kenyatta became
Monroe, was found prime minister and led Kenya
dead in her Los In Britain, Liverpool-based from self-government to full
rock band The Beatles finally independence on December 12.
Marilyn Monroe signed with the record company Crossing the Berlin Wall
At the time of her EMI on June 4. They had Many people made desperate In Europe, US president
death Marilyn Monroe previously auditioned for several attempts to escape over the Berlin John F. Kennedy made a
was a huge star who record companies, but despite Wall from East to West Germany morale-boosting speech in
had appeared in 29 the enthusiasm of their manager, between 1961 and 1989. Berlin on June 26. In it he offered
movies. The Misfits Brian Epstein, they had been solidarity to the citizens of West
was her last film. turned down. “Love Me Do”, Germany, who were alarmed at
their first single, was released the construction of the Berlin
on October 5, and spent 18 weeks Wall. Thousands gathered in
in the charts.

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420

,, WE CANNOT
WALK ALONE…
,,
,,WE CANNOT TURN

BACK… I HAVE A
DREAM TODAY!

Martin Luther King Jr
speaking at a rally in 1963

SECOND WAVE His speech dashed any hopes through Dealey Plaza, Dallas, in plane, Air Force I, Vice President Oswald. He later stated that he
OF FEMINISM held by Moscow that the allies a open-top car. Texas governor Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn had done it “for Jackie Kennedy.”
would abandon West Berlin. John Connally was also injured. in as the 36th US president. The murder was filmed and seen
The “first wave” of feminism Both of their wives, who were Kennedy’s funeral took place live on televisions across the
addressed legal obstacles, Relations between East and with them, were unharmed. on November 25. The world’s US. Oswald had denied he was
such as votes for women, West were still strained following Secret Service agents immediately reaction to the news was one responsible for Kennedy’s death,
while the second focused on the Cuban Missile Crisis (see stormed the School Book of overwhelming shock. which fueled conspiracy theories.
sexuality and family. Simone 1962). The incident had raised Depository building, where shots In an attempt to investigate the
de Beauvoir’s Le Deuxième worldwide concerns about had been heard, and found a Two days after Kennedy’s truth, the Warren Commission
Sexe defined the woman’s nuclear contamination, which rifle with a telescopic lens. Just assassination, Lee Harvey was set up on November 29 to
movement and exploded the led to talks about a treaty to under an hour later, a policeman Oswald, the man charged with examine the facts.
myth that women were ban nuclear testing in the approached Lee Harvey Oswald the murder, was shot and killed.
second class citizens. atmosphere, space, and under and was shot dead. Oswald was Oswald, a former marine, was Kennedy funeral
water. The Test Ban Treaty was arrested and charged with the being transferred from police Over one million people lined the route
front of the Rathaus Schöneberg signed in Moscow by the foreign murder of the policeman and headquarters to jail. He was of Kennedy’s funeral procession, which
(City Hall) to hear him speak. In a ministers of the Soviet Union, the Kennedy’s assassination. surrounded by police and ended at Arlington National Cemetery.
strongly defiant message to the US, and Britain on August 5. It journalists. In the melee, Jack Millions more watched it on TV.
Soviets, Kennedy described West was ratified by the US Senate on Traveling back to Washington, Ruby, a Dallas nightclub owner,
Berlin as a symbol of freedom. September 24 and came into DC on board the presidential stepped forward and shot
force on October 11.

Meanwhile, the campaign for
racial equality in the US moved
a step closer to victory on August
28. A crowd of over 250,000 civil
rights protestors gathered at the
Lincoln Memorial for a mass
“March on Washington” for jobs
and freedom. Many leading figures
spoke, including Martin Luther
King Jr who famously stated
“I have a dream,” while predicting
a day when the promise of
freedom and equality for all
would become a reality in the US.

Another historical day for the
US was November 22, when
president John F. Kennedy was
assassinated as he traveled

ALL FREE MEN... ARE

,,CITIZENS OF BERLIN.

John Fitzgerald Kennedy, June 26, 1963

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May 25oOf rA(gOfarAincUiaz)naftoUiounnnitdyedKennJeudnyem2sa6pkePeersceihsnisidnpeiBnritenrgliSnkoJpujley, 2Ydu6egCsoetisratoylraytohvefiqdau,bayke August 28W“MaSsaehrpicnbthegeoctmoonnbm”eers1F6eoMdfeaMrlaaaSylttaeriaoaypnsntiesafmusbieornb2ag4bivyFe,inNrsteotwbulZnoeboaodOlracnntaoddbmeritt2in1gUcNomvomteusnaisgtaCinhsirtneNacoSovogeunmtihzbeVseigertoht7nveeaUnrmSenewmseent 4 2 1NPorJevosehimdnesbnoentrLs2Uyw2nSodVproinrcneeisnBi.daesnCtommissNiooKnveesnmentebudepyr’st2oa9isnWsvaeassrstriiDegnenaactgteieaominnsbferinordm1e2pBeKrnietdinseyhnacreule

1914–2011 TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS

END OF Empire in 1938 KEY
Imperialism was still widespread before United Kingdom and possessions
EMPIRE World War II. The largest foreign-held France and possessions
territories were in Africa, a product of Denmark and possessions
the "Scramble for Africa" in the 19th
century. France and Britain were the
leading colonial powers.

COLONIAL DOMINATION CRUMBLES AS INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS GROW MODERN OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
Overseas territories are countries that often
Up until World War II, empires belonging to Britain, France, Belgium, have a degree of autonomy, but do not possess
Portugal, and the Netherlands stretched back centuries. At the end of the full political independence or sovereignty as a
war, the political landscape had changed significantly, and there was state. Many colonies fought for self-rule after
mounting opposition and challenge to imperial rule. In the modern world, World War II, but several of them rejected
all that is left of the European empires is a sprinkling of islands. independence. Some overseas territories, for
example, are too small and lack the resources
By 1945 the empires of Italy, Germany, and Japan The last throw of the imperial dice for France to survive as viable independent countries.
had collapsed. The British Empire emerged from and Britain came with the Suez crisis in 1956. Others, such as French Guiana in the
the war relatively unscathed, but it was the British The French were being defeated in Indo-China Caribbean, which is ruled by France, and the
who made the first move to end colonialism when and were engaged in a brutal civil war in Algeria, Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic, which
they granted India independence in 1947. However, while Britain was trying to put down rebellions in are ruled by Britain, are of special strategic or
change was slow. In the mid-1950s, the globe was Cyprus, Kenya, and Malaya. When Egyptian economic importance to the states that
still circled by British possessions. president Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, it control them, so not easily let go.
was a further blow to British imperial powers.
Despite a widespread belief that imperialist British and French troops invaded, but were AUSTRALIA Ashmore and Cartier Islands
nations had a responsibility to protect their people forced into a humiliating climbdown (see 1956). Heard Island and the McDonald
from Communism, many were crippled by postwar The dismantling of colonies in Africa followed: Islands
austerity and, increasingly, discontent arose France had to give up Algeria, and Belgium the Christmas Island
among their populations. Nationalist movements Congo. But the wealth of their past rulers was Coral Sea Islands
flourished, supported by Soviet Russia, and never inherited by the new nations, and many Cocos (Keeling) Islands
encouraged by the US. This clash of ideologies former colonies struggled with foreign Norfolk Island
complicated the transition to independence; civil intervention, corruption, and poverty.
war often filled the vacuum.

422

END OF EMPIRE

1945

1945

1956 1956 1960 1944 1961
1962 1947 1943 1945
1947 1997
1973 1976 1999 1945
1966 1947
1951 1947 1942 1954
1954
1962 1960 1960 1960 1941 1961
1981
1962 1960 1960 1956 1967 1954
1966 1965
1975 1974 1960 1961
1958
1954 1941 1960 1963
1984
1961 1960 1947

1960

1960 1968 1963
1957
1960 1960 1960 1962 1945
1960 1960 1964 1949
1961 1976
1975
1975

1975
1964

1960

1966

1968
1966

Spain and possessions Norway and possessions Australia and possessions 1960 Date of independence Modern imperialism
Portugal and possessions Belgium and possessions US and possessions The world today looks very
Netherlands and possessions Italy and possessions Japan and possessions different: colonies in the West
Indies, Africa, and Asia have
gained independence. France is
now the leading colonial power.

UNITED Anguilla FRANCE Bassas da India THE US American Samoa
KINGDOM Bermuda Clipperton Island Baker Island
British Indian Ocean Territory Europa Island Guam
British Virgin Islands French Guiana Howland Island
Cayman islands French Polynesia Jarvis Island
Falkland Islands French Southern and Antarctic Islands Johnston Atoll
Gibraltar Glorioso Islands Kingman Reef
Guernsey Guadelope Midway islands
Jersey Juan de Nova Island Navassa Island
Isle of Man Martinique Northern Mariana Islands
Montserrat Mayotte Palmyra Atoll
Pitcairn Islands New Caledonia Puerto Rico
Saint Helena Réunion Virgin islands
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Saint Pierre and Miquelon Wake Island
Turks and Caicos Islands Tromelin Island
Wallis and Futuna

DENMARK Faroe Islands THE Aruba DISPUTED Antarctica
Greenland NETHERLANDS Netherlands Antilles TERRITORIES Gaza Strip
Parcel Islands
NEW ZEALAND Cook Islands NORWAY Bouvet Island Spratly Islands
Niue Jan Mayen West Bank
Tokelau Svalbard Western Sahara

423

1964 1965
,,
,,NOTHING IS MORE IMPORTANT

THAN INDEPENDENCE AND
FREEDOM.

Ho Chi Minh, president of North Vietnam, on a propaganda poster during Vietnamese war

Nelson Mandela was among eight men sentenced to life imprisonment during
the Rivonia Trial—they left the court with their fists raised in defiance.

THE YEAR BEGAN WITH Meanwhile, race equality in the Hostile terrain In Vietnam, the conflict was following covert operations by
INCREASING TENSION between US took a positive turn when the The US army was technologically escalating. President Johnson Pakistan across the ceasefire line.
Greek and Turkish Cypriots. In Civil Rights Bill became law on superior in Vietnam, but struggled ordered Operation Rolling Thunder, Since the ceasefire line had been
March, the UN sent 7,000 troops July 2. The bill created equal with unfamiliar territory such as a massive bombing campaign established in 1949, both countries
into Cyprus to try to keep the rights for all, regardless of race, the swamp that these marines against North Vietnam, and in had laid claim to Kashmir. After
peace. Strong diplomatic pressure religion, or color. The signing was are wading through. March the first American ground three weeks of fighting, they
finally brought an end to the witnessed by civil rights activist troops landed in South Vietnam. agreed to a UN ceasefire.
violence on August 10. Martin Luther King, Jr., who had ON FEBRUARY 18, THE GAMBIA By June they were fighting
emerged as the symbolic leader ACHIEVED INDEPENDENCE from alongside South Vietnamese President Sukarno of Indonesia
On May 27, Jawaharlal Nehru— of the worldwide struggle for civil British rule. Dawda Kairaba forces against the Viet Cong. barely survived an attempted coup
the first prime minister of an rights. At 35, he became the Jawara became the first prime in November. General Suharto,
independent India, and regarded youngest man to receive the minister, and was knighted the Back in the US, racial tension commander of the army’s
by many as the founder of modern Nobel Peace Prize for his work. following year. By contrast, was at boiling point. Following the strategic reserve, emerged the
India—died, aged 74. Gathering in Southern Rhodesia, led by prime arrest of a black man for drunk victor in the power struggle.
mile-long lines, 250,000 men, In Vietnam, the US was adamant minister Ian Smith, announced driving, Watts, a suburb of Los
women, and children filed past his that South Vietnam should a Unilateral Declaration of Angeles, erupted into violent race Meanwhile, the lights went out
body to pay their respects. not fall to the communists. On Independence on November 11. riots. Some blamed the heat in the US on November 9 during
August 7, US president Johnson Britain declared this action illegal, wave, while others pointed the the biggest blackout in US
In South Africa, Nelson Mandela, received approval from Congress and through the UN most countries finger at police brutality. history. More than 30 million
a prominent figure of the to “take all necessary action” applied economic sanctions people in the northwest were
antiapartheid struggle, was jailed against the communist regime in against Southern Rhodesia. In September India launched left without electricity, which
for life on June 12. During the North Vietnam. As a result the an invasion of West Pakistan, was caused by human error.
trial, Mandela and other members war escalated, but it was largely
of the African National Congress kept from the American public,
(ANC, see 1994) admitted trying and in November Johnson won a
to bring down the government. landslide victory (see 1965).

Beatlemania begins Capturing the American public’s
The Beatles took the US by storm in attention, the Warren Report,
1964. Their faces were splashed investigating the assassination of
across newspapers and magazines Kennedy (see 1963) was released
as their tour of 23 cities sold out. on September 28. It asserted that
there had been no conspiracy, and
concluded that gunman Lee
Harvey Oswald had acted alone.

In the East, Nikita Khrushchev,
leader of the Soviet Union,
“retired” in October, having been in
power since 1958. His policies had
become increasingly unpopular
and he was voted out of office.

The Beatles made it big this year,
sparking a hysteria known as
“Beatlemania.” Appearing on US
TV in February, by April their
singles occupied all top five spots
on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.

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4 2 4eleAcoptferSdilop1ur3tihmIeaernnmSRmihnJioaitsdwhteeaprshriiaamrMleaamlyNi2ne7ihsDtreuer,a(Itbnh.do1iaf8’s8Aa9up)gpVruoaisevcttetn7isoaU“nma”SOelalcCsgnteooaencibcngoeesrmsretsmsN1as5ouryrnSKtiohshvtriseutslhecahdeevrdNeDipkeoitcsbaeeemdcobmeres12a Kreepnuybalic JanJuoahrnys2o0nLsUywnSodpronrneisnBi.daesnt FelebarduearrMya2l1coBlmliancXNkesMhwuoYstMolFdirmaaekrra,ocdUuhSk1o7fDEegaytphto(fbK. 1in9g20o)ffeJnusnivee2in9 UViSettnroaompsfogrofiornsJttuthinmeere–ioAtusgfluasret RUaacSrcoceistsies RUhnoidlaNetoseivraoaeflamInDnbndeeoecrulpane1rcn1aedtsieonnce

1966 1967

The Black Panthers, a black nationalist group based in Oakland, California, argued for working class unity. Here Donald Campbell was attempting to break the world speed record when
supporters hold up copies of Mao Zedong’s Little Red Book. his speedboat Bluebird crashed, killing him instantly.

WITH INCREASED FIGHTING IN NORTH CHINA THE YEAR BEGAN WITH THE
VIETNAM, 1966 SAW THE US VIETNAM TRAGIC DEATH OF DONALD
launch its largest offensive Dien Bien Phu Gulf of CAMPBELL, who was killed on
against the Viet Cong in Operation Hanoi Tongking January 4 at Coniston Water in
Crimp, to capture the Viet Cong’s the Lake District, England, while
Saigon area headquarters. By the Thanh Hoa attempting to break his own
end of 1966, the number of US LAOS water speed record. He was
troops in Vietnam had reached traveling at more than 300mph
385,000, amid increased public Vinh (480kph) when his boat flipped.
protests about the war.
Vientiane Tensions were running high in
Pakistani and Indian leaders the Middle East after Egypt asked
met more peacefully in January at Dong Hoi for UN forces in the Sinai to be
Tashkent in Uzbekistan to sign a removed. The Israelis responded
declaration agreeing to resolve THAILAND My Lai with a pre-emptive attack, which
their dispute (see 1965) by ended after six days with Israel
peaceful means. Shortly Hue in control of Sinai, Gaza, the
afterward, Lal Bahadur Ahastri, Da Nang West Bank, the Golan Heights,
prime minister of India, died of a and Jerusalem.
heart attack. He was succeeded by SOUTH CHE GUEVARA (1928–67)
Indira Gandhi, daughter of Nehru. VIETNAM Meanwhile, in Bolivia, Ernesto
“Che” Guevara (see panel, right) Ernesto “Che” Guevara was
In Northern Ireland, violence Qui Nhon was captured and shot dead, on born in Argentina in 1928,
erupted following the 50th the Bolivian president’s orders, on 9 and became involved in the
anniversaries of the Battle of the CAMBODIA Na Trang The Little Red Book June. Guevara was in Latin opposition to Juan Peron. He
Somme and the Easter Rising— Saigon Full of Mao’s quotations, this book America helping guerrilla groups. traveled extensively through
symbolic dates for Protestants Phnom added to his cult and had a profound Latin America, where he saw
and Catholics respectively. The Penh impact on the masses during the More interested in saving lives, poverty and social injustice
murder of two Catholics by a Chinese Cultural Revolution. South African surgeon Christiaan that helped forge his radical
“loyalist” terror group called the Gulf of South political views. Che became
Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) Thailand China In August, Chinese communist an associate of Fidel Castro,
sparked more riots in May and Sea leader Mao Zedong launched the and played a role in the fight
June. The UVF was banned, but Cultural Revolution, aiming to for Cuba. He left Cuba to help
the cycle of sectarian killings, KEY purge the country of “impure” revolutionaries abroad, and
known as the Troubles, had begun. North Vietnam elements. One-and-a-half million was executed in Bolivia.
South Vietnam people died and much of the
The shock assassination of Demilitarized zone country’s cultural heritage was Barnard conducted the first
Hendrik Verwoerd, prime destroyed. In September 1967, heart transplant on December 3.
minister of South Africa and the State of play in Vietnam with many Chinese cities on the 11,500 Although the patient died later of
architect of apartheid, raised This map shows North and South verge of anarchy, Mao sent in the pneumonia, the procedure was a
queries about the future of South Vietnam in 1964, divided by a army to restore order. EGYPT great step forward for medicine.
Africa. He was stabbed to death on demilitarized zone. In 1966 the North
September 6 by Dimitri Tsafendas, Vietnamese crossed the zone and By the end of 1966, the decade In Europe, Nicolae Ceausescu
who claimed not enough was one of the largest battles to date known as the “Swinging became premier of Romania on
being done for whites. broke out near Dong Ha. Sixties”—so called because of December 9, defying the Soviets
the collapse of social taboos by establishing diplomatic
Race continued to be a dominant the mid-1960s. Student radicals relating to race, sex, and 1,000 relations with Germany.
issue in the US, with race riots were becoming impatient with gender—was in full flow. It
occurring in many cities throughout Martin Luther King’s strategy of was epitomized by rock music, 6,094 In Greece, after army officers
nonviolence, and in June, activist photography, and fashion, with seized power on April 21, a counter
Stokely Carmichael popularized London and youth culture at JORDAN coup by King Constantine II failed,
the term “Black Power.” In its heart. and he fled to Rome.
October he formed the Black Syria
Panther Party, combining
traditional civil rights slogans with Casualties in the Six-Day War
Marxist rhetoric, and the language Israel won a decisive victory in the
of black separatism. Six-Day War between Israel, Egypt,
Jordan, and Syria, with 759 casualties.
Arab losses, in contrast, were high.

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1968

During the first manned mission to the Moon, the three astronauts on board
Apollo 8 beamed back images of Earth as a planet in space.

THE MY LAI MASSACRE IN War paraphernalia he delivered his On 5 June, Robert Kennedy dramatic comeback; Nixon was
VIETNAM SENT SHOCK WAVES A Chinese compass, a map case, and famous speech, was shot in a Los Angeles hotel Dwight D. Eisenhower’s vice-
through the US political a map with enemy bases marked on, “I have seen the after giving a victory speech to president and lost the presidential
establishment. My Lai lies formed the basic kit for Vietcong mountaintop ...” celebrate his win in the California race to John F. Kennedy in 1960.
in the South Vietnamese militia during the Vietnam War. in Memphis, which Primary. A Palestinian
district of Son My, an area seemed to predict his immigrant, Sirhan Sirhan, fired Enoch Powell (1912–98), a
where the Viet Cong were On 4 April, the African-American end, “... I’ve seen the at Kennedy as he was being British right-wing politician,
deeply entrenched. On civil rights leader Martin Luther promised land. escorted through the kitchen made a hugely controversial
March 16, US troops, King, Jr. (see panel, right) was I may not get there pantry of the Ambassador Hotel. speech on April 20, in which he
who had been on a assassinated in the southern US with you”. Robert Kennedy’s support for warned the government against
“search and destroy” city of Memphis, Tennessee. King Israel was believed to have opening the “floodgates” to
mission to root out was shot on the balcony of his King’s death prompted the attack. He died the black immigrants. He called
communist fighters, killed hotel as he was preparing to lead sparked widespread following day. His death, coming for an immediate reduction in
more than 500 Vietnamese a march of sanitation workers race riots across the 63 days after that of Martin Luther immigration, and viewed the
civilians in cold blood, many of protesting against low wages. US that cost dozens King, Jr., made 1968 one of the future with foreboding. Quoting
them women and children. The The day before his assassination, of lives and led to most volatile and traumatic, the Roman poet Virgil, he said,
massacre helped to turn public damage worth years in US history. “... like the Roman, I seem to see
opinion against the Vietnam War, millions of dollars. the river Tiber foaming with much
although the story was not made It hastened the On November 6, Republican blood.” His speech caused a
public until the following year. process of “white Richard Nixon (1913–94) storm of protest, and ended
flight” from the inner cities that emerged victorious in the US Powell’s political ambitions.
By 1968, the Vietnam War was left many American downtowns presidential election. He had
costing the US $66 million a day. virtually abandoned. James based his campaign on rising Elsewhere in Europe, France
Protests against the war Earl Ray, a petty criminal, was crime and claimed he would experienced student riots, mass
escalated as people questioned convicted of King’s murder and restore law and order. It was a protests, and strikes throughout
the US’s role in the conflict. Vivid sentenced to 99 years in prison. May, which brought the country
news reports showed horrific Senator Robert Kennedy
civilian casualties. On August 28, (1925–68), increasingly opposed MARTIN LUTHER KING,
during the Democratic national to the Vietnam War, struggled JR. (1929–68)
convention in Chicago, 10,000 over his decision to challenge the
antiwar protesters gathered Democratic party’s incumbent A leading African-American
and were confronted by 26,000 president, Lyndon Johnson. His civil rights campaigner in the
police and national guardsmen. younger brother, Edward (Teddy), US, Martin Luther King, Jr. rose
The event was covered live on was against it; his wife, Ethel, to prominence in 1955, when
network TV. urged him on. Many feared he he led a boycott of buses in
would suffer the same fate as Montgomery, Alabama, in
200,000 his brother John, who had been protest against the state’s
assassinated in 1963. He transport segregation laws.
THE NUMBER OF WARSAW announced his candidacy on In this, and his subsequent
PACT TROOPS THAT INVADED March 16, and two weeks later campaigns, he insisted on
CZECHOSLOVAKIA Johnson dropped out of the race. non-violence. King was
America was a wounded nation, awarded the Nobel Peace
reeling from the war and inner- Prize in 1964. Four years
city riots. Kennedy based his later, he was assassinated
presidential election campaign on by a white gunman in
inequality and social justice. Memphis, Tennessee.

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426

,, ,,THANK YOU APOLLO 8.

YOU SAVED 1968.

Anonymous telegram received by Frank Borman,
after the success of the Apollo 8 mission

to its knees. It began as a series called for new parliamentary a repressive regime (see 1989). beauty standards as racist—no 150
of student protests that broke elections on June 23. Although De The invasion drew condemnation black woman had ever made it to
out at universities in Paris, Gaulle won the election, the Paris from around the world. Jan the final. The demonstrators WOMEN
following confrontations with riots were regarded as a cultural Palach, a Czech student, burned brandished signs that read PROTESTERS
administrators and police. Further and social revolution. himself to death in protest “Women’s Liberation,” and threw
police action inflamed the over the Soviet occupation. An bras into bins as a sign of protest, 52
situation, leading to a general Troops from five Warsaw Pact estimated 500,000 gathered to which began the myth that
strike by over 10 million workers countries (see 1955) stormed into watch his funeral procession. feminists “burn their bras.” BEAUTY
across France—roughly two-thirds Czechoslovakia on August 20 CONTESTANTS
of the workforce. The government to seize control and restore On September 7, a prominent Americans, finally, had cause to
came close to collapse; President communism to the country. gathering of women disrupted rejoice at the end of the year when Beauty and backlash
Charles de Gaulle (1890–1970) During an eight-month period that the staging of Miss America, a Apollo 8, the first manned craft to The glamorous contestants
became known as the Prague long-standing beauty pageant orbit the moon, was launched appearing in the Miss America
Protest in Paris Spring, the incumbent prime held at Atlantic City’s convention into space on December 21. Live Pageant, in Atlanta, were
When French strikers took to the minister Alexander Dubcek had hall. The protest was organized by pictures of the lunar surface were outnumbered three to one by
streets in May, the country was on made substantial reforms, the New York Radical Women beamed back to Earth. The crew, the protestors.
the verge of revolution. The largest including freedom of speech. (NYRW), a group active in the civil Frank Borman, James Lovell, and
rallies were held in Paris. He was arrested, and his rights and antiwar movements. William Anders, returned on
government replaced with They attacked the pageant’s December 27 as national heroes.

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427

1914–2011 TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS

THE STORY OF

GENETICS

THE SEARCH FOR THE BLUEPRINT OF LIFE AND THE MECHANISM OF HEREDITY

For thousands of years, humans have wondered how characteristics are Watson and
inherited, but it was not until the 19th century that scientists began to Crick’s DNA
understand the fundamental mechanisms. Now, the knowledge that DNA model
carries genetic information has provided insight into the basis of life itself.

One of the earliest theories of heredity was that genes reside on chromosomes. However, it was GENETIC CODE
of the ancient Greek Hippocrates, who proposed still thought that protein, not DNA, was the
that elements from all of the body became substance that transmits inherited traits. A gene is a portion of DNA containing information
concentrated in semen, which then made a human for making a specific protein (comprising a specific
in the womb containing the characteristics of THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DNA sequence of amino acids). This is encoded as an
both parents. Charles Darwin later called this In the 1940s, Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, “alphabet” of bases: A (standing for adenine),
mechanism of inheritance “pangenesis.” and Maclyn McCarty discovered that DNA is the C (cytosine), G (guanine), and T (thymine). These
hereditary molecule in most organisms and is are arranged into “words” (codons) of three
It was not until the 19th century that the basic the chemical basis of genetic information. In the letters; each codon corresponds to a particular
rules of heredity were discovered, by the Austrian early 1950s, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin amino acid. In a cell, a gene’s codon sequence is
monk Gregor Mendel. At about the same time, the discovered that DNA has a helix shape, and in 1953, translated into a sequence of specific amino acids,
Swiss scientist Friedrich Miescher extracted from these findings were put together by Francis Crick making the specific protein coded for by that gene.
the cell nucleus a substance he called “nuclein” and James Watson in their double-helix model of
(now known as DNA). In the early 20th century, DNA. The Human Genome Project went further,
American biologist Thomas Hunt Morgan’s mapping all the human genes.
experiments with fruit flies confirmed that

YOU, YOUR JOYS AND YOUR SORROWS, YOUR MEMORIES,,
AND AMBITIONS, YOUR SENSE OF PERSONAL IDENTITY AND
FREE WILL, ARE … NO MORE THAN THE BEHAVIOUR

,,OF… NERVE CELLS AND … MOLECULES.

Francis Crick, The Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search for the Soul, 1994

c. 460–375 BCE Hypocrates 1859 c. 1868–69 White blood cell
Hippocrates’ pangenesis Theory of natural selection Nuclein discovered
hypothesis Charles Darwin publishes The Swiss scientist Friedrich
Hippocrates devises the Origin of Species, in which he Miescher discovers a
theory that hereditary puts forward his theory that substance he calls
material collects from the fittest organisms survive “nuclein” in the nuclei of
throughout the body and and pass on their traits. white blood cells. Later
reassembles inside the called nucleic acid, nuclein
womb to form human life. The Origin of Species is now known as DNA.

1663–65 Robert Hooke’s 1863 Round and 1880s 1888
Cells first described microscope Gregor Mendel wrinkled peas Meiosis discovered Chromosomes discovered
English scientist Robert Hooke Experimenting with peas, Meiosis, the process of cell German anatomist Heinrich
coins the term “cell” to Austrian monk Gregor division that produces gametes Waldeyer notices that the
describe the microscopic Mendel finds that traits, (sex cells), is described in the central part of the cell
units he observed while such as whether peas are early 1880s. Its significance for (the nucleus) sometimes
examining a section of cork round or wrinkled, are inheritance is elucidated in the contains threadlike bodies,
with an early compound passed on by independent 1890s by German biologist for which he coins the term
microscope. units, later called genes. August Weismann. “chromosomes.”

428

aluminum plates
represent four
chemical bases
in DNA model

plate representing
the base cytosine

plate representing
the base guanine

plate representing
the base thymine

Watson and Crick’s DNA model

James Watson and Francis Crick made a model
of the DNA molecule using metal plates and
rods in their laboratory in Cambridge, England.
They proposed that DNA was a double-helix
polymer, shaped like a twisted ladder, and
noted that this structure allows for replication
of genetic material. This reconstruction uses
some of the plates from the original model.

plate representing
the base adenine

bonds between bases
represented by rods

Early 20th century 1953 1972
Role of chromosomes in heredity Structure of DNA discovered Recombinant DNA
Working with fruit flies, American American biologist James American biochemists Paul Berg
geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan Watson and British biologist and Herb Boyer produce the first
establishes that genes controlling Francis Crick discover that recombinant DNA molecules
heredity are positioned along the DNA molecule consists (recombinant DNA is DNA that
chromosomes, and links the of two helical chains of has been created artificially), an
inheritance of a specific trait with nucleotides wound loosely achievement that is considered the
a particular chromosome. around each other. birth of modern biotechnology.

1905 1940–44 1989–present
Sex chromosomes identified Human Genome Project
American geneticists Nettie DNA identified as genetic messenger
Stevens and E. B. Wilson The Human Genome
independently identify Using Streptococcus pneumoniae Organization maps the human
the XY chromosome
sex-determination system: bacteria, American scientists DNA sequence and discovers
males have XY and females it contains only about 20,000
have XX sex chromosomes. Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, to 25,000 genes. Full analysis

and Maclyn McCarty discover of the results continues.

that DNA is the hereditary

material in most living

X chromosome organisms. Streptococcus pneumoniae

429

1969

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430

,, 1970

THAT’S ONE SMALL
STEP FOR [A] MAN, ONE

,,GIANT LEAP FOR MANKIND.

Neil Armstrong, on first setting foot on the Moon, on July 21, 1969

This photograph shows hijacked planes that were set on fire by Palestinian
militants belonging to Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP).

YASSER ARAFAT (1929–2004), A Biafra starves free concert at Hyde Park, London; IN CAMBODIA, THE HEAD OF STATE, with up to 500,000 casualties.
PALESTINIAN FREEDOM FIGHTER, A child suffers the effects of hunger the American musician, Bob Dylan PRINCE NORODOM SIHANOUK Alleging neglect and lack of help
became the leader of the and malnutrition during the Biafran (b. 1941), performed the headline (b. 1922) was overthrown by from West Pakistan, the Bengalis
Palestine Liberation blockade. Pictures of the famine act at the Isle of Wight Festival, General Lon Nol in a coup, on went on to vote for Sheikh Mujibur
Organization (PLO) in February. garnered worldwide sympathy. England; and up to 400,000 turned March 18. Lon Nol claimed to Rahman’s Awami League,
He had formed the radical group up at Woodstock, New York. have support from the US. In which demanded autonomy
Al-Fatah in the late 1950s, which Concorde, the supersonic April, President Richard Nixon from West Pakistan in the
was merged with the Popular airliner, made its maiden flight in Millions marched across the US (1913–94) ordered US troops and following elections (see 1971).
Front for the Liberation of March. Piloted by Andre Turcot, on October 15 to protest against B-52 bombers into Cambodia to
Palestine (PFLP) to form the PLO. the Anglo-French plane took off the Vietnam War. In Washington destroy North Vietnamese and Elections were held in Chile on
from Toulouse in France; it DC, 250,000 people gathered to Vietcong sanctuaries and supplies. September 4, and Salvador
In Libya, Mu’ammar al-Gaddafi reached 10,000ft (3,050m), and participate in antiwar rallies and Allende’s Marxist coalition was
(b. 1940) led a group of army was in the air for 27 minutes. hear activists speak. In early September, Palestinian elected. Allende instituted a
officers to depose King Idris militants forced two planes to fly program of sweeping
(1890–1983) on September 1, in a Elsewhere in Europe, Beatle On July 21, Neil Armstrong to the Jordanian desert, where the nationalization and reforms.
bloodless coup, and established John Lennon (1940–80) and his (b. 1930) and Edwin Aldrin hijackers blew up the aircraft
the Libyan Arab Republic. wife Yoko Ono spent two weeks (b. 1930) took man’s first steps after releasing most of the In April, the German
in bed, drawing the world’s on the moon from their hostages. A third plane was flown pharmaceutical company
Nigeria banned food aid from attention to peace. They spent the spacecraft Apollo 11. Millions to Cairo and was also blown up. Grünenthal pledged to pay DM
the Red Cross to the breakaway first week at the Hilton Amsterdam, watched this televised event that After 24 days of talks, the 100 million to thalidomide
state of Biafra, bringing millions in March, and the second at the represented a symbolic victory remaining hostages were freed victims. Thalidomide, a drug
of people to the brink of Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal, for the US over the USSR during in exchange for seven Palestinian given to pregnant women for
starvation. Biafra accused where the song Give Peace a the Cold War. prisoners. On September 16, nausea, was withdrawn in 1961
Nigeria of using starvation and Chance was recorded, in May. fighting broke out between after nearly 10,000 babies were
genocide to win the civil war Time spent on the moon: Jordanian troops and PLO born with major disabilities.
(1967–70), and pleaded for help Large-scale music festivals 21 hours, 31 minutes, and guerrillas. Egyptian President
from the world. were held in Europe and the US Gamal Abdel Nasser (b. 1918) Charles De Gaulle (b. 1890),
during a summer that epitomized 20 seconds brokered a settlement on who led the French resistance to
On August 14, Britain sent the hippie movement. The British September 27. Nasser died of the Nazi occupation during World
troops into Northern Ireland band The Rolling Stones played a a heart attack the next day. He War II and became the President
following three days of violence in had become the most powerful of liberated France, died on
the predominantly Catholic figure in the Middle East while November 9. His funeral was held
bogside area of Londonderry. attempting to unify Arab nations. on Armistice Day, November 11.
Although intended to be a brief
intervention, the troops remained A catastrophic cyclone hit East The Beatles, the most famous
after the violence intensified. Pakistan (modern Bangladesh) on music band in the world, split
November 12. The Bhola Cyclone when Paul McCartney (b. 1942)
Willy Brandt (1913–92) was was the deadliest ever recorded, announced his decision to leave
sworn in as the Chancellor of in April. The group officially
West Germany on October 21, disbanded on December 31.
becoming the first Socialist
politician to lead a German Mission duration 500THOUSAND
government since 1930. 8 days, 3 hours, THE NUMBER
18 minutes, and 35 seconds
Eagle returns KILLED IN THE
Apollo 11’s lunar module Eagle, The lunar mission CYCLONE IN
holding astronauts Neil Armstrong The prime mission objective of BANGLADESH
and Buzz Aldrin, makes its way back Apollo 11 was stated simply
to the command module. as: “perform a manned lunar
landing and return.”

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1971 1972
,,
I AM NOT A
POLITICIAN, BUT

,,A SOLDIER.
Idi Amin, in his first speech to the Ugandan nation,
January 1971

British troops remove civil rights protestors from Londonderry, Northern Ireland, after the army opened fire
on demonstrators during “Bloody Sunday.” Among the 13 civilians killed were seven teenagers.

IN UGANDA, GENERAL IDI AMIN BRITISH MINERS WALKED OUT ON The agreement reiterated the 11 athletes, launching a new era
SEIZED POWER from President NATIONAL STRIKE on January 9 promises for peaceful negotiations of international terrorism.
Milton Obote in a military coup after refusing a government pay made in Tashkent (see 1966).
on January 25, while the president offer. All 289 pits across the country New horizons
was out of the country attending were closed. On February 19, they The terrorist group Black For the Munich Olympics, leading
the Commonwealth conference agreed to a new pay deal and September, a faction of the artists made 35 posters, including
in Singapore (see 1979). returned to work on February 25. Palestine Liberation Organization the one shown below. Their aim was
(PLO), took members of the to erase the memory of the 1936
Sierra Leone, in West Africa, On January 30, British troops Israeli team hostage during the games, held during Hitler’s reign.
and Qatar, in the Middle East, opened fire on demonstrators in Summer Olympics at Munich,
formally achieved independence Londonderry, Northern Ireland, West Germany. They later killed
from Britain in this year. killing 13 people and injuring 14.
IDI AMIN (1925–2003) The marchers were protesting
In March, a civil war broke against the policy of internment
out between Pakistan and its Idi Amin became known as without trial. This day came to be
dominion, East Pakistan (modern the “Butcher of Uganda.” known as “Bloody Sunday.”
Bangladesh). Nearly nine million After seizing power in 1971,
refugees fled to India. In he ruled by terror—an In the largest attack on mainland
December, Indian troops entered estimated 300,000 people Britain since “The Troubles” (see
East Pakistan, following a died during his reign. His 1966), the IRA bombed the 16th
surprise attack on Indian behavior was both barbaric Parachute Brigade headquarters
airfields. There was also heavy and eccentric: famously, he at Aldershot, Hampshire, on
fighting in Kashmir. In a campaign declared himself the “King of February 22, killing seven civilians.
lasting only 13 days, Indian troops Scotland.” Idi Amin’s rule
crushed Pakistani forces in the ended in 1979 after he was President Nixon flew to China
east. On December 20, the ousted by troops from in February and met Mao Zedong
independent state of Bangladesh neighboring Tanzania then (1893–1976), marking a new
was born (see 1972). forced to flee the country. cordiality in US–China relations.
In May, Nixon paid a state visit to
In Northern Ireland, the On October 25, China’s Moscow to sign 10 agreements,
Provisional IRA stepped up its admission to the UN boosted the the most important of which
campaign against British security country’s international status. were the nuclear arms limitation
forces (see 1969). In August, the The US president, Richard Nixon treaties known as SALT I.
Northern Ireland government (1913–94), sent his national
introduced internment without security adviser, Henry Kissinger On June 8, South Vietnamese
trial to stop the growing violence. (b. 1923), to China for secret talks. planes dropped a napalm bomb
Kissinger also began talks with on Trang Bang, which was under
On September 15, a small team the USSR, which led to a number North Vietnamese occupation.
of activists set sail from Vancouver, of formal agreements, including Napalm was an incendiary liquid
Canada, on the ship Phyllis one regarding access to Berlin. that burned everything it touched.
Cormack to protest against US Images of burned civilians were
nuclear tests in Alaska. They later shown around the world and
adopted the name Greenpeace. increased pressure on the US
to withdraw from Vietnam.
The Walt Disney World resort
officially opened near Orlando in The prime ministers of India and
Florida on October 1. It featured Pakistan, Indira Gandhi (1917–84)
Adventureland, Fantasyland, and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1954–79),
Frontierland, Liberty Square, and signed the Simla Agreement in
Tomorrowland. July, in the wake of the 1971 war.

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1973 1974

,, THERE WILL BE NO
WHITEWASH AT THE

,,WHITE HOUSE.

Richard Nixon, US president, in a TV speech
on Watergate, April 30, 1973

The White House, the official residence of the US President, was rocked by the Emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie,
Watergate scandal and the subsequent resignation of President Nixon. had been crowned “King of Kings.”

ON JANUARY 30, SEVEN MEN WERE In a landmark judgement PRICE IN DOLLARS 12 THE OIL EMBARGO OF 1973 HAD A
CONVICTED of breaking into referred to as the Roe v. Wade 10 DRASTIC EFFECT on the developed
the Democratic Party’s case, the Supreme Court world, leading to a long-term
Watergate headquarters in legalized abortions in the US. 8 recession. Unemployment and
Washington, DC and bugging it. The ruling came after Norma inflation soared, and stock
President Nixon, who had just McCorvey, under the pseudonym 6 markets crashed globally.
been reelected, continually “Jane Roe,” challenged the 4
denied any connection between criminal abortion laws in Texas. In Portugal, General Antonio
Watergate and the White House. 2 de Spinola (1910–96) led a
However, Washington Post The Vietnam war was officially bloodless military coup, ending
reporters Bob Woodward and over for the US, when it signed a 0 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 50 years of dictatorship. Known as
Carl Bernstein brought to light ceasefire agreement in January 1967 the Carnation Revolution, this
the president’s involvement in the after months of talks in Paris. event ushered in a new era of
bugging, which would eventually Costing dear democracy in the country.
lead to his impeachment and Britain, Ireland, and Denmark When OPEC shut off oil supplies to the western nations
resignation from office (see 1974). became full-fledged members that had supported Israel, it sent prices shooting up In Britain, the IRA attacked the
Their work on the “Watergate of the European Economic from less than $3 a barrel to $11 in a matter of weeks. Houses of Parliament on June 17,
scandal,” helped by crucial Community (EEC) in January, the Tower of London in July, and a
information from the mysterious bringing the number of member Heavy fighting broke out between deal, signed on November 11 Guildford pub in October.
informant, “Deep Throat,” led to states to nine. It was the first Arab and Israeli forces in what between Egypt and Israel, ended
the Washington Post being enlargement of the organization came to be known as the Yom the strife. Following the war, the In July, Turkish troops invaded
awarded the Pulitzer Prize. since its inception in 1957. Kippur War, in October. Egyptian Arab oil-producing countries northern Cyprus following a coup
forces broke the Israeli line on the imposed an oil embargo on all in which President Archbishop
Allende’s reforms The IRA extended its bombing eastern bank of the Suez Canal, the countries that had supported Makarios, a Greek Cypriot, was
The Chilean president’s sweeping campaign in mainland Britain. On and in the north, Syrian troops Israel. In October, oil prices deposed. The island was split in
nationalization and reforms resulted September 8, there were bombs in battled with Israeli defenses along soared around the world, from two parts, with Greek-Cypriots
in costly welfare schemes and Manchester city center and at the Golan Heights, seized by under $3 a barrel before the war fleeing to the south and the
economic chaos in the country. Victoria station, London. Two days Israel from Syria in 1967. A peace to over $11 by early 1974. Turkish community, to the north.
later, explosions ripped through
King’s Cross and Euston stations. THE POLITICS OF OIL After years of war and famine in
On November 14, an IRA gang was Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie
convicted of the bombings. The Arab oil embargo (1892–1975) was overthrown in a
caused global chaos. The coup, on September 12. General
In September, Chilean president Organization of Petroleum Tafari Benti (1921–77) became
Salvador Allende (1908–73) was Exporting Countries (OPEC) head of state.
killed in a coup led by his trusted switched off supply at a time
ally General Augusto Pinochet when the market was already In the US, the Watergate
(1915–2006), and backed by the US. starting to suffer shortages. breakin (see 1973) was traced to a
Pinochet killed 3,000 supporters The crisis revealed oil as a Nixon support group. In July, the
of the Allende regime, shut the powerful political weapon. Supreme Court ordered Nixon to
Chilean Parliament, and banned Countries in the Middle East turn over the tape recordings
all political activity. In 1974, he were seen to have acquired relating to the scandal. He was
made himself president (see 1998). control of a vital commodity, impeached, and resigned from
and Western nations were office in August.
In December, the Basque vulnerable because they
separatist movement, ETA, killed relied on oil imports. Disco, a genre of dance music
Spanish prime minister Admiral that had started in the clubs of
Luis Carrero Blanco in Madrid, in New York in the late 1960s,
retaliation for the execution of peaked at this time with new
Basque militants (see 1959). music, polyester suits, and films
such as Saturday Night Fever.

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1975 1976 1977

,, VIETNAM WAS LOST IN THE LIVING
ROOMS OF AMERICA, NOT ON THE

,,BATTLEFIELDS OF VIETNAM.

Marshall McLuhan, media commentator, writing at the end of the Vietnam War

Two punks kiss on the Kings Road in London. Punk rock emerged during
the mid-70’s as an angry expression of contempt for politics and society.

MARGARET THATCHER BECAME Fall of Saigon Beirut. This started a civil war THE MARXIST PEOPLE’S MOVEMENT THE ARCHBISHOP OF UGANDA,
THE FIRST WOMAN to lead a The North Vietnam troops (pictured) that lasted for 15 years (see 1990). FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA DR. JANANI LUWUM (b. 1922), was
political party in Britain on met little resistance in Saigon, (MPLA) took nominal control of murdered on February 16 for
February 11, when she won the but the final hours of America’s This was a year of global the whole country by February, being an Anglican, and for
Conservative Party vote. presence were marked by chaos. terrorism, as Arab terrorists and the new Angola People’s protesting against the excesses
held hostages at Orly airport in Republic was recognized. This of Idi Amin’s regime (see 1971).
In the Middle East, Saudi ended on April 30 as the Paris; a German left-wing group was preceded by intense fighting
Arabia’s King Faisal (1906–75) government in Saigon seized the German Embassy in that also involved the National Steven Biko (see panel, right), a
was assassinated by his nephew, surrendered to the North Stockholm, Sweden; and South Front for the Liberation of Angola prominent black rights leader in
Prince Faisal Ibu Musaed. Vietnam forces. Saigon was Moluccan terrorists took over (FNLA) and the Union for the Total South Africa, died in prison on
renamed Ho Chi Minh City and the Indonesian Embassy in Independence of Angola (UNITA). September 12. He had been
Prince Juan Carlos was sworn the following year, North and Amsterdam, the Netherlands. detained under the terrorism act.
in as King of Spain, two days after South Vietnam were reunified. Antiapartheid protests in His death caused international
dictator General Francisco Franco In November, oil began to flow Soweto, South Africa turned outrage but an inquest cleared
died on November 20. Mozambique became from the North Sea from sources violent on June 16. Demonstrators the police of any wrongdoing.
independent on June 25, after a that British Petroleum (BP) clashed with police and more than
In April, the Cambodian capital, coup in Portugal ended colonial discovered six years earlier. 300 people were killed. In Pakistan, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s
Phnom Penh, fell to the radical rule (see 1974). Four Pakistan People’s Party (PPP)
communist movement, the months later, Angola Microsoft was officially 40–70 was accused of vote rigging. This
Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot. also gained its founded on April 4 by prompted Army Chief General
They transformed Cambodia into independence (see 1976). Bill Gates (b. 1955) MILLION Mohammed Zia ul-Haq to depose
a communist, rural society. All and Paul Allen Bhutto in a military coup on July 4.
inhabitants of cities were expelled Iraq stepped up its (b. 1953), starting the THE NUMBER
to work in agricultural communes. military pressure against world of personal OF DEATHS The right-wing Menachem
Kurdish rebels in northern computing. CAUSED BY Begin (1913–92) had a surprise
After almost two decades of Iraq. The Kurds were MAO’S REGIME win at the Israeli elections in May,
fighting, the Vietnam War finally crushed with the razing US Purple Heart ending 29 years of Labor rule. As
of Zakho and Qala Diza. A US military decoration Mao Zedong (b. 1893), the premier, he initiated a peace
1,200 awarded to the wounded founder of the People’s Republic process with Egypt (see 1979).
1,000 In Lebanon, Christian or killed, 351,794 Purple of China, died of a heart attack
militia attacked a bus Hearts were awarded on September 9. Fruit of knowledge
DEATHS (IN THOUSANDS) 800 full of Palestinians in Apple Inc. computers went on sale
during the Vietnam War. Syrian peacekeeping troops this year. The distinctive logo—a
600 entered Lebanon on 9 June. In rainbow-colored apple with a bite
December, after more than 50 taken out—symbolized knowledge.
400 ceasefires had been violated,
uneasy peace prevailed.
200
The Seychelles gained
0 US independence from Britain on
June 29, with James Mancham
North South as president and France Rene as
Vietnam Vietnam prime minister of the coalition.

Vietnamese war casualties
More than one million North
Vietnamese troops died, compared
to around 220,000 from South
Vietnam, and 58,000 from the US.

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434

1978

,, ,,ALL EXAMINATIONS

SHOWED THAT THE BABY
IS QUITE NORMAL.

Obstetrician Patrick Steptoe, after the birth of Louise Brown

Dr. Robert Edwards holds the world’s first test tube baby, Louise Brown.
It was a medical breakthrough fraught with controversy.

STEVEN BIKO (1946–77) ISRAELI SOLDIERS CROSSED THE Pol Pot’s army was not completely
LEBANESE BORDER on March 14, defeated; thousands of his troops
In 1968, Steve Biko was the in Operation Litani. Thousands fled to the Thai–Cambodia
first president and cofounder of Palestinians fled the area and border, where they were able
of the all-black South African hundreds died. Israel claimed to build up their strength, and
Students’ Organization Palestinian fighters were using skirmishes forced the Vietnamese
(SASO), which aimed to raise southern Lebanon to mount to stay in Cambodia for the next
black consciousness. The attacks against civilian and decade (see 1991).
government banned him in military targets in Israel.
1973, but he continued Former Italian prime minister
to spread his word. On Demonstrators on the streets of Aldo Moro was kidnapped in
August 18, 1977, the police Tehran, capital of Iran, had been Rome on March 16. The extreme
seized Biko, held him for shouting dissent all year, but in left-wing Red Brigade, who
24 days, and tortured him September, protests grew against wished to overthrow capitalist
to death. The Rand Daily Mail the policies of Iran’s supreme ruler, Italy, claimed responsibility and
exposed their brutality. Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi demanded that the trial of their
(1919–80). The challenge stunned leader, Renato Curcio, be stopped.
Amnesty International, the the Shah and his generals, and The government refused, and eight
human rights organization, won rioters were attacked. Many weeks later, Moro’s body was
the Nobel Peace Prize for having people were killed, and martial found in the trunk of a car in Rome.
“contributed to securing the law was imposed in major cities.
ground for freedom, for justice, The oil tanker Amoco Cadiz ran
and thereby also for peace in the Egyptian President Anwar Sadat aground on Portsall Rocks, three
world.” The movement proclaimed (1918–81) arrived in Washington, miles off the Brittany coast, when
1977 “Prisoners of Conscience DC for talks with President Jimmy its steering mechanism failed. The
Year.” The following year, Carter (b. 1924), in February. His entire cargo of 1.6 million barrels
Amnesty also received the United visit represented a change in spilled into the sea, causing an
Nations Human Rights Award. Egyptian foreign policy which oil slick 18 miles (30km) wide and
had previously sought favor from 80 miles (130km) long. Dozens of
the Soviet Union. Shortly after, Breton beaches were polluted.
Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Devastating scenes of marine
Begin met President Carter. animals covered in oil and dying
These initial talks paved the way were broadcast around the world.
for historic joint meetings at
Camp David, Maryland, in The world’s first test tube baby
September 5–17. Here, both sides was born on July 25. Louise
signed the Camp David Peace Brown was born in Oldham,
Accord for peace in the Middle Lancashire, England, with the
East. Sadat and Begin later help of gynecologist Patrick
received the Nobel Peace Prize. Steptoe, who had pioneered the
technique along with Dr. Robert
Cambodia was invaded by Edwards (see 1969).
Vietnam on December 25 in a
lightning assault. The Vietnamese Khmer Rouge fighter
forced out Pol Pot’s Khmer Under Pol Pot, Khmer Rouge
Rouge regime, but the war that soldiers, often teenagers, controlled
followed continued to be a major Cambodia. They were responsible
source of international tension. for killing over 1 million people.

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435

1979
,,
IN ISLAM, THE LEGISLATIVE
POWER AND COMPETENCE TO
ESTABLISH LAWS BELONG

,,EXCLUSIVELY TO GOD.

Ayatollah Khomeini, from his lectures on Islamic Government

Iranian women holding posters of Ayatollah Khomeini show support for the Islamic Revolution.
Mass demonstrations brought the country to a halt.

China viewed the Vietnamese Afghanistan on December 24. rear sight
attack on Cambodia as a serious In doing so, they were confident
provocation, and, on February 17, of military superiority. However, barrel
Chinese forces invaded Vietnam. the US had been covertly
20:1 War casualties Casualties on both sides were training anti- detachable AK–47 Kalashnikov assault rifle
Afghans paid a high, and each side claimed to government forces, magazine The AK-47 became an iconic weapon
heavy price for have won the upper hand. the Mujahideen during the Soviet war in Afghanistan.
the Soviet invasion—for every Soviet (warriors), and the Ayatollah Khomeini, angered by Used by both sides, Kalashnikovs
who was killed or wounded, When Afghan communists took Soviets were met America’s long support of the were cheap and readily available.
20 Afghan soldiers lost their lives. power through a coup in 1978, with fierce resistance Shah, took control of the US
they found themselves pulled when they stormed embassy in Tehran. They seized this year. On March 30, shadow
VIETNAMESE FORCES ENTERED three ways: between the Soviets, into Kabul. 63 hostages, and vowed not to Northern Ireland secretary Airey
CAMBODIA in 1978, in response to the Americans, and the Islamic release them until the US Neave was killed by an INLA car
repeated border attacks by the regime in Iran. In March, a As the political returned the Shah for trial. In bomb. On August 27, Lord Louis
Khmer Rouge (see 1978). On resistance group declared a holy situation in Iran response, President Carter Mountbatten (a member of the
January 7, 1979, they seized the war against the “godless” Marxist deteriorated (see 1978), the Shah embargoed Iranian oil. Female British royal family) was killed by
Cambodian capital of Phnom regime and killed Soviet citizens was forced into exile. Ayatollah and non-US citizen hostages were an IRA bomb blast. Hours later, 18
Penh and the Khmer Rouge were in Herat, western Afghanistan. Ruhollah Khomeini (1902–89), released, and then a male soldiers were killed in booby-trap
driven from power. Pol Pot, leader In the countryside, revolt grew a Shi’ite Muslim cleric, returned hostage who became seriously bomb explosions close to the
of the Khmer Rouge, fled to the against repressive government from 15 years of exile to jubilant ill, in 1980, but 52 Americans border with the Irish Republic.
jungle in Thailand and began a initiatives, and the Afghan army crowds, and the Islamic Republic remained hostage until 1981. The deaths unleashed a series of
guerrilla war against a succession faced total collapse. In light of of Iran was proclaimed on civilian killings.
of Cambodian governments. this, the Soviet Union feared an April 1. Western influences were The left-wing Sandinista
On April 2, Vietnamese forces Iranian-style Islamist revolution. suppressed, and many who had National Liberation Front Ugandan leader Idi Amin
discovered a mass grave in Citing the 1978 Treaty of been educated in the West fled succeeded in overthrowing (1925–2003) was forced to flee the
the northeast—this was the first Friendship, the Soviets invaded the country. Young supporters of the US-backed regime in the capital city of Kampala on April 11
of many mass graves from the republic of Nicaragua and took as Tanzanian troops, along with
Pol Pot era to be discovered. It the capital, Managua. This ended exiles and the Uganda National
became apparent that between seven years of civil war against Liberation Front, closed in. Two
1975 and 1979 Pol Pot was the Somoza government. The days later, Kampala fell and a
responsible for the slaughter of Sandinistas established a coalition government took power.
more than 1 million people. revolutionary government on Yusufu Lule (1912–85), who had
July 20, led by Daniel and been driven into exile by Amin,
Rings of Jupiter Humberto Ortega. became president. Amin escaped
An image taken by NASA’s Voyager 2 to Libya, leaving behind a country
spacecraft shows Jupiter’s ring Both the Irish Republican Army with its economy in tatters.
system, never seen before, being (IRA) and the Irish National
bombarded by tiny meteorites. Liberation Army (INLA) were active The Sony Walkman was
launched in Japan on June 22.
The first Walkman featured a
cassette player and the world’s
first lightweight headphones.
It cost US$200, and sold out
within a month.

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II
436

1980

15 MILES
THE HEIGHT OF THE ERUPTION
COLUMN IN THE MOUNT
ST. HELENS EXPLOSION

Mount St. Helens in Washington State erupted, with a massive avalanche in May,
and a cloud of ash that screened out all sunlight as far as 250 miles (400km) away.

ROBERT MUGABE WON A people died from smallpox in six gunmen from a group opposed nationalist differences flared, Mount St. Helens, a volcano
SWEEPING VICTORY on March 4, the 20th century alone. to Ayatollah Khomeini took over and individual republics began in Washington State, northwest
becoming prime minister of the building. They demanded the pushing for independence. US, violently erupted on
Rhodesia. A Marxist guerrilla The Iranian Embassy in release of 91 Iranian political May 18, spewing a huge cloud of
fighter, he was hated by Ian Smith’s London became involved in a prisoners. The siege ended after a A huge bomb ripped through a ash. It triggered an earthquake
white-minority regime. On April 18, dramatic siege on April 30, when raid by the Special Air Service railway station in Bologna, Italy, measuring 5.2 on the Richter
Rhodesia became Zimbabwe. (SAS). Nineteen hostages were on August 2, killing 85 people and scale; the north face of the
30% set free, but one died and two injuring hundreds in one of the mountain collapsed, and
Parts of Africa suffered extreme were injured in the cross-fire. worst terrorist attacks in Italian 57 people died.
deprivation due to famine in 1980. DIED history. Right-wing extremists
Drought, cattle raiding, and a On September 22, Iraq invaded were thought to be responsible. Ronald Reagan, a former
breakdown in civil order caused 70% Iran sparking a bitter eight-year Hollywood actor and Republican
a food shortage. The famine in war, which destabilized the whole Poland experienced a turning governor of California, won the
Uganda is regarded as one of the SURVIVED region. By the end of October, point with the Gdansk shipyard US presidential election on
worst in history—21 percent of Khorramshahr, the largest port strike: the first political mass November 4, beating Jimmy
the population died. Smallpox eradication in Iran, fell to Iraqi forces. movement to emerge in the Soviet Carter in a landslide victory. He
A global vaccination campaign led to bloc. On August 30, the Polish would go on to serve two terms.
Smallpox was declared extinct WHO declaring smallpox eradicated Under President Tito’s grip (see government reached an agreement
on May 8 by the World Health in 1980. Smallpox was a devastating 1943), Yugoslavia had achieved with striking shipyard workers, Iran–Iraq War
Organization, 21 years after the illness, with a mortality rate of 30%. internal peace. Tito’s death, on led by Lech Walesa. It authorized An Iraqi soldier watches an oil
global eradication program had May 4, combined with the decline the establishment of Solidarity, refinery burn during the Iran–Iraq
begun. The last natural case of of communist ideology, led to a new trade union free of war. Oil fields and refineries were
smallpox was in Somalia in the weakening of Yugoslavia’s communist control. Membership heavily targeted by both sides.
October 1977. Around 300 million unifying factors. Ethnic and rapidly swelled to over 10 million.

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437

1981 1982

Demonstrators carry a banner reading Solidarność, or “Solidarity,” The frigate HMS Antelope exploded
the name of the first noncommunist Polish trade union. on May 23, during the Falklands War.

FORMER ACTOR RONALD REAGAN ,, IF WE RESIGN TODAY WE WILL He was 36 years old. Bob Marley ARGENTINA INVADED THE BRITISH
BECAME THE 40TH PRESIDENT BURY OUR HOPES FOR FREEDOM and the Wailers was the world’s TERRITORY of the Falkland
of the US on January 20. Two most recognized reggae band. Islands in the South Atlantic on
months later he survived an ,,FOR MANY YEARS TO COME. SEVERAL April 2. The sovereignty of the
assassination attempt by John AIDS (see panel, below) came to islands had long been disputed.
Hinckley, who was obsessed with THOUSAND PEOPLE CANNOT the fore in June after the deaths British prime minister Margaret
actress Jodie Foster, and believed OVERCOME TEN MILLION. of five men in Los Angeles. Thatcher (b. 1925) sent a naval
an assassination of the president Previously, no cases had been task force to liberate the islands.
would impress her. Solidarity, trade union, message to the people of Poland, December 1981 reported outside the gay The subsequent conflict cost the
community; it became clear that lives of hundreds of Argentine and
Pope John Paul II survived On January 20, Iran finally the Spanish parliament along with the disease affected other groups. British servicemen, many of them
being shot four times on May 13 agreed to release 52 American 200 soldiers. Armed forces put The unknown condition came to through missile attacks on navy
as he travlled through crowds in hostages, who had been held for down the coup on February 23. be named Acquired Immune warships. The conflict ended on
his “popemobile” in St. Peter’s 444 days. This followed a guarantee Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). June 14, when the commander of
Square, Rome. Police arrested from the US that it would release Israel shocked the world by the Argentine garrison at Port
Mehmet Ali Hagca, a Turkish Iranian assets that had been frozen blowing up a nuclear plant near HIV VIRUS Stanley surrendered to the British.
citizen, who was sentenced to life in American banks since the US Baghdad, Iraq, on June 7. They
imprisonment in July. embassy was seized in Tehran. claimed it had the capability of HIV is a virus that causes Iran launched Operation
making nuclear weapons to Acquired Immune Deficiency Undeniable Victory in March, as
A state of emergency was Iran also saw renewed political destroy Israel – Iraq denied this. Syndrome (AIDS), a disease part of its war against Iraq (see
declared in Egypt after President terrorism this year. The Mujahidin, of the immune system. 1980). This marked a major turning
Anwar Sadat was assassinated a group of muslim fighters, In the face of union protests, the The HIV virus was discovered point, and Iran forced the Iraqis
at a military parade. A group mounted waves of bombings and Polish government declared in May 1983 by doctors at to retreat. Within a week, Iran
calling itself the Independent assassinations. In August, both a state of emergency on the Pasteur Institute in succeeded in destroying a large
Organization for the Liberation the new president Ali Rajai December 13, and placed leaders France. The isolation of the
of Egypt said it carried out the and the prime minister Javad of the Solidarity trade union HIV virus made it possible
attack. Vice-President Hosni Bahonar were killed. In October, under arrest. In response, to develop drugs that could
Mubarak succeeded President members of Solidarity called for dramatically extend the life
Sadat as head of state. Ali Khamenei was a national strike (see 1982). expectancy of those with
elected president in a AIDS, athough no vaccine
landslide victory. Brixton, south London, erupted has yet been found. At least
into riots on April 11 after a black 28 million people worldwide
Spain was in turmoil man was arrested by police. The have died from the disease;
after an attempted violence spread to other cities Africa has been the worst
right wing coup, led where there had been unrest due affected area.
by Lieutenant Colonel to poor relations between black
Antonio Tejero Molina communities and the police.
(b.1932), who stormed
Columbia became the first
Spanish coup shuttle to fly into space on
Colonel Antonio Tejero April 12. The maiden flight was
stormed the Spanish piloted by veteran US astronauts
parliament, firing shots John Young (b. 1930) and Robert
into the air as he Crippen (b. 1937), and heralded a
announced a military new era in space exploration.
coup. The coup
collapsed within hours. Bob Marley (b. 1945), the
international face of reggae
music, died of cancer on May 11.

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438

1983,,

,,A FLAGRANT

VIOLATION OF
INTERNATIONAL LAW.

UN Security Council, on the US invasion of Grenada in 1983

2:5 Falklands casualties Israel invaded Lebanon on King of pop ON JANUARY 17, NIGERIA Secret hunger
During the Falklands June 6, in an attempt to wipe out The dominant pop ANNOUNCED that it would expel A mother holds her child during the
War, which lasted guerrilla positions on Israel’s star of the 80s, all resident aliens. Over a million Ethiopian famine. The Ethiopian
74 days, 255 British and 649 northern border. By September 15, Michael Jackson foreigners were forced out. The government initially hid the famine
Argentine soldiers were killed. the Israeli army occupied West released the album move was condemned abroad, but from the rest of the world.
More than 11,000 Argentine Beirut. On September 16–18, the Thriller in 1982. It appeared popular in Nigeria.
soldiers were taken prisoner. Phalangists, loyal to Israel, killed became, and remains, July 23. These followed a deadly
hundreds of Palestinians in the best-selling album Drought struck Ethiopia this ambush by Tamil Tigers, which
part of three Iraqi divisions. Iranian refugee camps. Defense minister of all time. year. Harvests failed and there killed 13 Sri Lankan soldiers. The
president Ali Khamenei (b. 1939) Ariel Sharon resigned after an were massive food shortages. The year marked the start of civil war.
rejected an Iraqi offer of a ceasefire Israeli inquiry stated he had failed Solidarity (see crisis was exacerbated by the
and sent thousands of young to act to prevent the massacre. 1981), the Polish communist government’s military The Soviets were accused of
Iranians to their death in Trade Union spending and censorship of the shooting down a Korean airliner
“human-wave” attacks that The IRA continued their Movement, was emerging crisis. on September 1. They claimed the
cleared the way for Iranian tanks. campaign against British rule in banned by the Polish airliner flew into their airspace and
However, by the year’s end, Iraq Northern Ireland by exploding government on The US embassy in Beirut did not respond to communication.
had been resupplied with new two bombs in London parks. The October 8. This was hit by a suicide bomber on
Soviet arms, and the ground war first, at Hyde Park, killed four was greeted by April 19. The US government President Reagan had
entered a new phase (see 1983). soldiers from the Household international condemnation and believed the attack was carried out spearheaded a strategy to support
Cavalry. Horses were also slain. street protests. US President by Hezbollah, a militant Islamic anticommunist insurgencies
The second, placed underneath Ronald Reagan put pressure on group. Later in the year, terrorists bent on overthrowing Marxist
the bandstand in Regents Park, Poland by imposing economic bombed the French and American regimes. In May, Reagan openly
killed seven soldiers. sanctions. Lech Walesa (b. 1943), peacekeeping headquarters in expressed support for the Contras,
the Solidarity leader, was released Beirut, with extensive loss of life. the Nicaraguan opposition to
Israel attacks Lebanon on November 12, after 11 months Communist Sandinista rule. In
Many cities were bombarded by of internment. In the Iraq–Iran War, Iraq had October, the US overthrew the
heavy artillery during the Israeli Leonid Brezhnev (b. 1906), begun using chemical weapons Marxist government of Grenada.
invasion of Lebanon – an attempt leader of the Soviet Union, died on —the blister agent mustard gas
to drive out the PLO. November 10. He had served as was deployed as Iraq fought back On March 23, President Reagan
general secretary for 18 years. He against attacks from the “human launched his Strategic Defence
was succeeded by Yuri Andropov waves” of Iranian troops. Initiative (SDI), an ambitious
(1914–84). During his leadership, scheme to combat nuclear
Brezhnev had pushed for better Vicious attacks were carried weapons in space. Reagan’s SDI
relations with the West, and out against members of the Tamil became known as “Star Wars.”
increased Soviet military and ethnic group in Sri Lanka on
industrial strength, but living
standards remained poor. $20
The world’s first test tube twins
were born in Manchester, BILLION
England, on April 28. The twins
were conceived outside the womb THE PROPOSED
after their mother underwent COST OF
in-vitro fertilization (IVF). “STAR WARS”

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439

1984 1985

Arthur Scargill, leader of the National Union of Miners (NUM), confronts a battalion Two billion viewers in 60 countries
of police during the British miners’ strike, which lasted a year. watched the Live Aid concerts.

BRITISH COAL MINERS WENT ON Red ribbon TANCREDO NEVES (1910–85) WAS
STRIKE from March 12 over pay A symbol of ELECTED PRESIDENT OF BRAZIL on
and mine closures. The dispute solidarity for those 15 January, after 21 years of
lasted an entire year. suffering from military rule. Democracy also
HIV/AIDS, the Red returned to Uruguay, in March,
Police constable Yvonne Fletcher Ribbon Foundation and to Bolivia, in August.
was killed outside the Libyan was formed in
Embassy in London during a 1993 to promote On 25 May, hundreds died in
awareness about attacks on Palestinian strongholds
demonstration on April 17. the disease. in Beirut by Syrian-backed Shi’ite
Her death led to a police troops. Prime minister Shimon
siege of the building. October 12, targeting the British Peres (b.1923) withdrew Israeli
Subsequently, the UK cabinet who had gathered for the troops from Lebanon, but Israel
Conservative Party conference. held a 12 mile- (19km-) wide
expelled Libyan diplomats Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher security zone in the south.
from the country. (b. 1925) had a narrow escape. Later in the year, on October 7,
On December 19, Palestinian Liberation Organization
China and Britain Major General Mohammed (PLO) militants hijacked an Italian
signed a treaty to Buhari (b. 1942) seized power in cruise liner, the Achille Lauro,
transfer Hong Kong, a Nigeria in a bloodless military demanding the release of 50
British colony, to Chinese coup on January 1, citing the Palestinian prisoners held in
government’s corruption record. Israel. The crisis ended after they
rule in 1997.
An IRA bomb went off at Indira Gandhi (b. 1917), the 30
the Grand Hotel, Brighton, on prime minister of India, was
assassinated on October 31. The SIZE (MILLIONS SQ KM) 20
55,000 killing was carried out by Sikh
extremists in response to an 10
15,000 attack on the Sikh shrine, the
Golden Temple of Amritsar. 0 1990 1995
3,000 Ghandi ordered the attack, known 1985
have died since as Operation Blue Star, to remove
Sikh separatists, who were thought Hole in the ozone layer
died within weeks to be amassing weapons at the This graph shows the average size
temple. The operation resulted of the hole in the ozone layer in each
Bhopal gas victims in up to 1,000 deaths. year from 1985–95. As a comparison,
The Bhopal tragedy injured many the area of Europe is about 4 million sq
thousands and killed 3,000 people On December 3, a poison-gas miles (10 million sq km).
within weeks. At least 15,000 are leak at the US-owned Union
thought to have died subsequently. Carbide pesticide plant near
Bhopal, India, became one of the
Free in space worst industrial accidents in history.
US astronaut Bruce McCandless
floats free in space. He used a jet The US president Ronald
pack to fly nearly 300 feet (91m) Reagan (1911–2004) declared the
away from the shuttle Challenger. withdrawal of peacekeeping
troops from the Lebanese capital
of Beirut, on February 7, following
increased terrorist attacks.

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440

1986

The Russian space station Mir (peace) provides a home for visiting
astronauts. The first crew arrived on March 15.

killed a passenger, on October 10, KEY Reykjavik The Soviet Union admitted to
when the hijackers abandoned the Highly an accident at a nuclear power
liner in exchange for safe conduct. contaminated area Oslo station in Chernobyl, Ukraine, on
Broad range of Helsinki April 26. The accident was the
The Siege of Gibraltar ended radiation Moscow worst disaster in the history of
after 16 years, when the Spanish nuclear power. It released a high
government opened the border, Nuclear fallout London Warsaw Chernobyl level of radioactive contamination,
on February 4. The dispute over Following the nuclear Paris Munich which spread to Europe.
the island’s sovereignty continued. power plant accident
at Chernobyl, radiation Madrid Rome Istanbul Mir, the Soviet space station,
British scientists discovered a spread across Europe was launched on February 20,
hole in the ozone layer over as far as Paris. Athens Ankara as part of a space city to house
Antarctica. Their findings, cosmonauts. The first crew
published in the May issue of WITH THE IRAN–IRAQ WAR IN ITS by Islamic terrorists in Beirut, on arrived on board the space station SWEDISH DEMOCRATS
Nature, rallied environmentalists. SIXTH YEAR, Iran launched a April 17. On the same day, three on March 15.
surprise assault and captured British hostages were killed in Olof Palme led the Swedish
Live Aid rocked the world in July the abandoned Iraqi oil port of retaliation for Britain’s support of On June 12, South Africa Social Democratic Party
with two huge concerts held Faw in February. Iraq was the US bombing of Libya (see 1991). imposed a state of emergency from 1969. As prime minister
simultaneously in London and accused of using mustard gas in before the 10th anniversary of the he initiated major reforms
Philadelphia to raise money for its efforts to hold off the attack. Yemen experienced turmoil in black student uprising in Soweto. and was an avid supporter of
famine relief in Ethiopia. January as power struggles within The government enforced curfews women’s rights, healthcare,
“Irangate,” a scandal involving the Yemen Socialist Party (YSP) and banned television cameras and welfare standards. His
MIKHAIL GORBACHEV US president Ronald Reagan, led to a brutal war between the from filming “unrest.” party was also a forerunner
(1931–) came to light in October in the north and south. Britain’s Royal of green politics. He was
US. The Reagan administration yacht, Britannia, helped evacuate Ferdinand Marcos (1917–89) accused of being pro-Soviet,
Mikhail Gorbachev became had been selling arms to Iran to British citizens. was forced to quit as dictator of which some thought led to
leader of the Soviet Union on secure the release of US hostages the Philippines on February 25, his death in 1986.
March 11, 1985. He was the in Lebanon. The profits of the deal Challenger badge after the military and a tide of
architect of glasnost (openness) were used to fund Contra rebels On January 28, the American space world opinion turned against him. Students all across China held
and perestroika (restructuring). fighting the Marxist regime in shuttle Challenger broke apart 72 Corazon Aquino (1933–2009), the demonstrations in major cities,
He built bridges with the Nicaragua. Reagan survived, but seconds after take off, causing the first female leader of the country, demanding democratic reforms.
West and renounced Stalinist his chief of staff, Donald Regan, death of all seven crew members. was sworn in as his successor.
ideas. He won the Nobel and national security adviser, Spain and Portugal joined
Peace Prize in 1990, but his John Poindexter, resigned. Nearly 50,000 students the European Union (EU) on
policies led to the implosion gathered in Shanghai’s People’s January 1, taking its membership
of the Soviet Union. US planes bombed military Square on 21 December, urging to 12. A new flag was also adopted
targets in Tripoli, Libya, on for more social freedom. as the official symbol of Europe.
April 15. President Reagan cited
self-defence to justify the move. 50,000 The Australia Act, signed on
Days earlier, US soldiers had died March 3, made Australian law
in a bomb attack at the La Belle THE NUMBER OF independent of the British legal
disco in West Berlin, believed to STUDENTS WHO system. It also transferred control
have been ordered by Libya. MARCHED IN of Australian constitutional
SHANGHAI FOR documents into Australian hands.
John McCarthy (b. 1956), a DEMOCRACY
British journalist, was kidnapped

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441

NORWAY E D E N
SW
N D Barents Laptev
Tallinn Sea Sea
N L A

F I

St Petersburg Kara
Sea
(Leningrad)

Riga Arkhangel’sk
Kaliningrad
Plesetsk
LITHUANIA Vilnius ESTONIA S I AMou n t a i n s
LATVIA RU
Minsk S Si ber ia
Moscow
BELARUS F EDE R T

Chernobyl Caspian N Tomsk Krasnoyarsk Lake A
Ural Novosibirsk Baikal
Tula Nizhny Novgorod

MOLDOVA Kiev Ryazan’ Yashkar Ola West
UKRAINE Siberian
Kazan Perm’
Plain
Odessa Voronezh
Dnipropetrovs’k
Samara Yekaterinburg

Donets’k Ufa Tyumen’
Chelyabinsk

Black Rostov Volgograd Omsk
Sea (Stalingrad)

Groznyy Sea KAZAKHSTAN Akmola Irkutsk
Karaganda
GEORGIA Altai Mo MONGOLIA
Baku Aral KISTAN Lake untains
T‘bilisi Sea Balkash Collapse of the USSR
Yerevan After the collapse of the USSR, the
UZBE former empire split into 15 new states.
ARMENIA The independent governments formed
Dashkhovuz a loose union: the Commonwealth of
AZERBAIJAN Independent States (CIS).
TURKMENISTAN Bishkek Almaty

Ashgabat Bukhara Tashkent
Samarkand

Dushanbe KYRGYZSTAN

IRAN

TAJIKISTAN KEY
Russian Federation
AFGHANISTAN Former USSR

BEFORE Communist regimes could be found across the AFTER Today, there are only five communist countries
world at the high point of communist influence. After Soviet in the world. China remains one of the most prominent,
triumph in World War II, communism was embraced by while Laos, Vietnam, North Korea, and Cuba also have
one-third of the world's population. Fear that it would communist regimes. Communist parties still exist in
spread further dominated the conduct of the Cold War. many democratic nations.

442

COLLAPSE OF THE SOVIET UNION

COLLAPSE OF THE

SOVIET UNION

THE RAPID DISINTEGRATION OF THE SOVIET STATE SHOCKED THE WORLD

IO N Magadan In March 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of a stagnating Soviet
Union. He realized that the Soviet Bloc needed radical reforms, and tried to
Yakutsk Sea of modernize socialism. The result was the total disintegration of the USSR,
Okhotsk which transformed the map of Europe and brought about a new world order.

Svobodnyy Mikhail Gorbachev was a popular choice for leader. To outsiders, Gorbachev was a hero. He won a
Blagoveshchensk He introduced two new concepts, glasnost and Nobel Peace Prize and was feted by foreign
perestroika—"openness" and "restructuring"— leaders. But at home, living standards fell and he
Vladivostok and championed a more liberal, dynamic society. wrestled with deep economic problems. Gorbachev
Although Gorbachev’s popularity was affirmed struggled to hold the empire together as his
CHINA Sea of Japan when he withdrew troops from Afghanistan, ministers deserted him and the clamor for
(East non-Russian minority groups throughout the USSR independence in the Baltic States became
agitated for independence. In July 1989, Gorbachev overwhelming. In July 1991, Boris Yeltsin was
China Sea) announced that countries within the Warsaw Pact elected president of Russia and emerged as a
(see 1955) could determine their own futures in champion of reform when he saved Gorbachev
openly contested elections. from a coup by hard-line opponents in August. That
same month, Yeltsin ordered the Soviet Communist
East and Central Europe responded to Party to cease its activities in Russia. The Soviet
Gorbachev’s greater freedoms: in 1989 Poland Union faced oblivion when Ukraine, Russia, and
elected to end communist rule; Hungary opened Belarus secretly planned to form a new union.
its borders with the West; and the Berlin Wall was His position untenable, on Christmas Day 1991,
torn down. When Gorbachev did not respond with Gorbachev resigned as Soviet president. Of the 15
force, Czechoslovakia and Romania broke free, remaining Soviet republics, 12 became sovereign
followed by Ukraine and Armenia in 1990, and then states, and the USSR passed into history.
Turkmenistan and Tajikistan in 1991.

Lithuania Estonia Azerbaijan Armenia
25,174 mi² 17,463 mi² 33,437 mi² 11,484 mi²

Latvia Moldova
333,820 mi² 13,068 mi²

THE RISE AND FALL OF COMMUNISM ,, Georgia K A Z A K HSTA N
Communism was one of the most 26,911 mi²
powerful political movements of the 1,055,950 mi²
modern world, inspiring great thinkers UPON THE Ukraine
and guerrilla fighters alike. It was 233,062 mi² Belarus Turkmenistan Tajikistan
supposed to offer ordinary people freedom 80,153 mi²
from want and oppression, and it united SUCCESS OF 188,456 mi² 55,251 mi²
Western critics of the capitalist system. Uzbekistan
,,PERESTROIKA 172,742 mi² Kyrgyzstan
The great experiment, which began 77,182 mi²
with the seizure of the Winter Palace in DEPENDS THE
Petrograd in 1917, ended in 1989–91, as FUTURE OF RUSSIAN FEDERATION
the Berlin Wall was torn down and the PEACE.
empire of the USSR came apart. China, 6,592,850 mi²
Cuba, Vietnam, and North Korea still Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet statesman, 1987
call themselves communist, yet the Soviet dissolution
consensus is that, without the Soviet Territory that once belonged to the Soviet Union now
Union to hold it together, communism forms a number of new states. By far the largest is
is at a dead end. the Russian Federation.

443

1987

500BILLION DOLLARS
THE DECLINE IN THE
VALUE OF QUOTED
SHARES ON BLACK
MONDAY

The New York Stock Exchange crash on “Black Monday”
saw the Dow Jones drop more than 500 points.

5 Terry Waite (b. 1939), special $6.5 Payment in Stock markets around the globe
envoy to the Archbishop of return for also plummeted. The crash was
BILLION Canterbury, traveled to Lebanon, MILLION agents triggered by fears about the weak
in January, to seek the release of dollar and the US trade deficit. It
THE WORLD hostages from Western countries, 1986 was aggravated by news of the US
POPULATION including the journalist John retaliating against Iranian attacks
IN 1987 McCarthy (see 1986). However, he $8.6 in the Persian Gulf by bombing an
himself was captured by militants oil rig. “Black Monday,” as it
IN JULY, THE WORLD POPULATION and held in Beirut (see 1991). MILLION came to be known, was almost
REACHED FIVE BILLION. This was twice as bad as the crash of
double what it was in 1950, and In May, France was forced to Payment to 1987 October 29, 1929.
a billion higher than in 1974. pay $8.6 million to Greenpeace Greenpeace
The population of the world was for the sinking of their flagship, Margaret Thatcher (b. 1925)
growing at a rate of 220,000 Rainbow Warrior. The vessel, French compensation visited Moscow in March. It was
people a day. Much of the growth which was to lead a Greenpeace France paid New Zealand $6.5 million the first official visit by a British
was seen in parts of the world flotilla protesting against French to return its agents. It also paid $8.6 prime minister in 12 years, and
least able to sustain it. The concern nuclear testing in the Pacific, had million to Greenpeace for the sinking marked the normalization of
about the social and economic been sunk by an explosion on of its ship, Rainbow Warrior. British–Soviet ties. During
impact of population growth led to July 10, 1985, in Auckland harbor, the talks, Mikhail Gorbachev
July 11 being known as the Day of New Zealand. A photographer, On March 20, the drug (b. 1931), the Soviet premier,
Five Billion. Thereafter, July 11 Fernando Pereira, was killed in azidothymidine (AZT) was condemned the Brezhnev doctrine
became World Population Day. the blast. The incident provoked approved by the US Food and and called the “Iron Curtain”
an international scandal and led Drug Administration. It was the archaic, suggesting more liberal
to the cooling of relations between first antiretroviral drug made policies toward Eastern Europe.
New Zealand and France. Two specifically to combat HIV/AIDS. The next month, Gorbachev visited
French secret agents, implicated While AZT could not cure AIDS, it Prague, Czechoslovakia, and
in the bombing, were imprisoned. proved that the disease could be implied that the Eastern Bloc
France paid $6.5 million to managed, and that HIV was not countries could be independent.
New Zealand as compensation a death sentence.
and for returning its agents to In December, the leaders of the
French jurisdiction. On October 19, the Dow-Jones USSR and US signed a treaty to
average in the US declined by reduce the size of their ground-
22.6 percent—the largest based nuclear arsenal. Known as
single-day percentage drop in its the Intermediate-range Nuclear
history. The next day, the London Forces (INF) Treaty, its aim was
Stock Exchange saw £50 billion to reverse the nuclear arms race
wiped off its share values. by destroying all medium- and
short-range nuclear weapons in
Negotiating freedom Europe, capable of hitting targets
Terry Waite became a familiar figure at ranges of 300–3,000 miles
in Lebanon. As a church envoy, he (500–5,500km). This was the first
made many missions to negotiate time the superpowers had agreed
the release of hostages held by to reduce their massive nuclear
Islamic militant organizations. arsenals.

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,,1988

,,READ MY LIPS: NO

NEW TAXES.

George Bush, accepting the Republican presidential nomination
in New Orleans, August 18, 1988

THREE MEMBERS OF THE IRISH Liberation Organization (PLO) George Bush (b.1924) became
REPUBLICAN ARMY (IRA) were shot accepted the “two-state the first US vice president since
dead by the Secret Air Service solution” (see 1947), officially 1836 to win the presidential
(SAS) in Gibraltar, on 6 March. The recognizing Israel’s right to exist. election. On 8 November, he
IRA was planning to detonate a claimed a comfortable victory over
bomb during a “change of guard” On 2 December, Benazir Bhutto democrat Michael Dukakis.
ceremony in the British territory. (see panel, below) was sworn in
The event was to be attended by as Pakistan’s first female prime South Africa’s border war with
the 1st Battalion Royal Anglian minister. At 35, she also became Namibia and Angola had been
Regiment, following a tour of the youngest leader of a world ongoing since 1966. South Africa
Northern Ireland. The incident led nation (see 2007). was under intense pressure from
to a wave of violence in Belfast. the international community to
Mikhail Gorbachev’s perestroika grant Namibia independence.
This year saw the first (economic and political reforms), They agreed to do this, but only if
documented use of chemical and glasnost (open debate), played Cuba removed its troops from
weapons in the Iran–Iraq war, when a key role in ending the Cold War Angola. Initially the UN rejected
Iraq dropped bombs containing (see 1948). In a dramatic speech to this proposal, but on 22 December
mustard gas and nerve agents the UN, on 7 December, Gorbachev the participants met in New York
on the Kurdish city of Halabja in announced unilateral arms and where a bilateral agreement was
Iraq, in March. Between 3,000 and troop reductions, and withdrawal signed by Cuba and Angola, and a
5,000 civilians died, and many of forces from Eastern Europe. tripartite accord, by Angola,
more suffered long-term health Cuba, and South Africa.
problems. The massacre is known On 21 December, Pan Am flight
as “Bloody Friday” (see 2010). 103 crashed at Lockerbie, In April, Stephen Hawking
Scotland, killing all 259 passengers (b.1942) published A Brief History
On 8 August, a UN-arranged and crew, and 11 on the ground. of Time, a story of the Universe
ceasefire ended the Iran–Iraq Evidence of a bomb instigated a from the “Big Bang”. The most
war (see 1980). Lasting eight huge investigation. Two Libyan popular science book ever, it was
years, the war resulted in more intelligence agents were linked to translated into 40 languages and
than 1 million casualties. the bombing, although it took over sold more than 10 million copies.
11 years to bring them to trial.
Throughout 1988, Palestinian
Arabs of the Gaza Strip and West BENAZIR BHUTTO (1953–2007)
Bank continued a mass uprising
against Israeli occupation of Benazir Bhutto set up the
Palestinian territories. Known Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) in
as “intifada”, it took the form of London after her father, Zulfikar
general strikes, boycott of Israeli Ali Bhutto, was assassinated in
products, demonstrations, and 1979. She returned to Pakistan
use of petrol bombs. On in 1986 and served as prime
14 November, the Palestine minister from 1988–90 and
1993–96. Benazir was exiled in
Horsehead nebula 1999 on corruption charges,
The resumption of shuttle flights, but returned in 2007 for fresh
in 1988, meant that NASA’s Hubble elections. Two months later,
Space Telescope programme was she was assassinated in a
back on track. Hubble would produce suicide attack.
stunning images of the universe.

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1989

Thousands gather during the Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia, a bloodless uprising
that saw the overthrow of the communist government on December 29.

IN SOUTH AFRICA, F.W. DE KLERK war was truly over and that Khmer Making a stand 100,000 November 28, the Czechoslovak
(B. 1936) WAS ELECTED LEADER of Rouge leader Pol Pot (see 1973) The figure of a lone man in front of communist regime surrendered
the National Party on February 2. would never be allowed to return army tanks in Tiananmen Square, PROTEST to the people. A month later,
The party had governed the country to power again. China, became a poignant symbol Václav Havel became President
since 1948 on the principle of of the protests. 3,000 killed of the Czechoslovak Republic in
apartheid. However, De Klerk In China, a demonstration held the nonviolent Velvet Revolution.
was more willing than his in Tiananmen Square, Beijing, and civil war continued as the Tiananmen Square massacre In Romania, the incumbent
predecessors to modernize the ended in bloodshed on June 4, Mujahideen (Persian for "warriors") The Chinese Army shot dead nearly president, Nicolae Ceausescu
political system. On August 15, the after civilians were killed by the pushed to overthrow President 3,000 of the 100,000 demonstrators was removed from office and shot
incumbent president, P.W. Botha People’s Liberation Army. Tanks Najibullah’s Soviet-backed who protested in Tiananmen in December.
(1916–2006) suffered a stroke and were lined up in the streets government (see 1992). Square in Beijing.
De Klerk took over. Klerk began to confront protestors, mainly Erich Honecker, leader of the
releasing prominent black students, who had been stationed On April 17, Solidarity, Poland’s September 12, Tadeusz Mazowiecki German Democratic Republic,
leaders who had been imprisoned, there for seven weeks. The free trade union movement, was became prime minister. entered 1989 confident that the
including Walter Sisulu, a close crowds, which swelled to more legalized after a ban of seven reforms in neighboring countries
friend of Nelson Mandela (b. 1918), than 100,000, called for economic years. It grew into a political By the start of 1989, communist would not affect his country, but
one of the the leaders of the and political reform in the country. movement, and in elections held regimes had ruled Eastern Europe protests grew. The Hungarian
African National Congress (ANC). on June 5, Solidarity won for 45 years. By the end of the government demolished the
Almost a decade after they had an overwhelming majority. After year they had all been routed by electric fence along the Austrian
On February 14, Ayatollah stormed the country, Soviet troops 45 years, communist rule in extraordinary public uprisings. frontier, part of the Iron Curtain—
Khomeini (1902–89), the spiritual withdrew from Afghanistan in Poland ended. Solidarity formed Following the election of Solidarity the heavily guarded border
leader of Iran, issued a fatwa, or February. They left the economy a new noncommunist government in Poland, Hungary’s rulers between the countries of the
decree, calling for the death of in ruins. Many Afghans had fled, in the former Eastern Bloc. On published a plan for independence. Eastern Bloc and the rest of
author Salman Rushdie (b. 1947) A coup in Bulgaria brought down Europe. By September, when the
and the publishers of his book, party leader Todor Zhivkov. On border controls were lifted,
The Satanic Verses. The book was 60,000 East Germans were in
considered to be a blasphemy Hungary waiting to pour through
against Islam. Rushdie was to the West. On October 2, a huge
forced into hiding, under armed protest calling for reform
guard, to protect his life (see 1998). gathered in Leipzig, and decided

Later in the year, on June 3, COLD WAR ESPIONAGE
Khomeini died in Tehran. His
death was mourned by millions. Espionage epitomized the Cold
Eight people were killed in the War. Intelligence gathered by
stampede and hundreds more electronic devices, satellites,
injured while approaching the and spies was used for military
body to pay obeisance. The information and technology. The
incumbent president, Ali Khamenei US Central Intelligence Agency
became Supreme Leader of Iran. (CIA), the Soviet KGB, and East
German secret police, or Stasi
Vietnam promised to withdraw (see badge, right), spent decades
its troops from Cambodia by the spying on the enemy and
end of September, a decade after undermining rivals through
invading the country (see 1979). covert action.
In a declaration made on April 5,
Vietnam also urged the world to
ensure that the Cambodian civil

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,, WE HAVE BEEN TOO LONG
IN DARKNESS. ONCE ALREADY
WE HAVE BEEN IN THE LIGHT,

,,AND WE WANT IT AGAIN.

Alexander Dubcek, Czechoslovakian leader, 1989

Huge crowds demonstrate for the end of communist rule in Hungary. The Republic
of Hungary was proclaimed on October 23, marking a new era in Europe.

to keep meeting every Monday radioisotope low-gain
until their demands were met. thermoelectric antenna
On October 9, the army refused to generator (RTG)
fire on the crowds. Honecker was high-gain
ousted from office on October 18. Jupiter antenna
atmospheric
After the fall of Honecker’s probe Galileo space probe
regime, the leader of the East Named after astronomer Galilei
Berlin communist party, Günter ethnic tension between Serbs Galileo, the probe travelled a
Schabowski, announced on and Albanians for control of the distance of more than 4.5 billion
November 9 that the border with province. Serbs argued that they km (nearly 3 billion miles),
West Berlin would be opened were being persecuted by the circling Jupiter 34 times.
for “private trips abroad.” That majority Albanians. When
night, 50,000 East Berliners Slobodan Milosevic became Jones industrial average, a stock
rushed to the Berlin Wall (see president of Serbia on May 8, he market index, in history, and
1961). The guards let them used this alleged persecution as a became known as the “Friday-
pass. The crowds were justification for stripping Kosovo the-13th mini-crash.”
met by ecstatic West of its autonomy and became a
Berliners on the other side. champion of Serbian nationalism. The US launched Galileo, an
The next morning, they started unmanned probe to Jupiter and
bringing the wall down. On December 20, US troops its moons, aboard the space
invaded Panama in a bid to oust shuttle Atlantis on October 18.
On December 3, the US and the dictator Manuel Noriega. Over 200 At a cost of $1.5 billion, Galileo
USSR met in Malta and declared civilians died in the fighting. reached its final destination in
the end of the Cold War. At a joint A new government, headed by 1994 after taking detailed images
news conference held on board Guillermo Endara, was installed. of Venus and the asteroid belt
the Soviet cruise ship, Maxim on the way.
Gorky, President George Bush In New York, Wall Street
(b. 1924) and President Mikhail suffered a crash on Friday
Gorbachev (b. 1931) announced October, as a failed buyout of
plans for substantial reductions United Airlines caused share
in weapons in Europe. Praised values to plummet. It was the
by those outside the USSR, second largest drop of the Dow
internally it placed Gorbachev’s
position as Soviet leader at risk
(see pp.442–43).

Kosovo, an autonomous
province of Serbia, had been
clamoring for independence
since the death of Josip Tito
(see 1980). There was increasing

The Wall falls
An East German border guard peers
through a hole in the Berlin Wall,
brought down in 1989, a potent
symbol of the end of communism.

AuNgoTunasecdtloee2muc4tsmezduMninaiszPtoolwelaaiendcdekSr,ie,dpeTtmeoawmognnabs,ientSrrsoat1uta3itophMnaArainftsrhsiCecaiadp, e OcHtooEnbaeesctrkG1ee8rrEmoruaiscntheledOacdaHtesuornbgearr2ia3nBRiretphuobflic NopvoBeuemrrtblhinerroWu1ag0lhlEtcaohsWet cBekseptrolBiinneertrlaisnt Nodvedememmobnaesntrdr1ain8tgioMrneasfsoisnrmBDueldgceatechrmlieaabrUeeSdrSo3RvCeorlbdyWthaer US aDnedScaekmhabreorv,1S4oDveieatthphoyfsAicnisdtre(bi. 1D9e2trc1oNe)omoprbsieeignrav2ae1dveUadSPeasncaamDpetaouc;froeNefmiRcbooelmarea2nC5ieaEa(xube.sc1eu9st1ciou8n), leader

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1990 1991

,, I GREET YOU
IN THE NAME
OF PEACE,
DEMOCRACY,

,,AND FREEDOM.

Nelson Mandela, ANC leader

Nelson Mandela and his wife Winnie punch the air in a victory salute after A man tries to put out a fire at an oil well in Burhan, Kuwait. Iraqi troops had
his release from Victor Verster prison. He was held in captivity for 27 years. set alight more than 600 oil fields during their occupation of the country.

THE 30-YEAR BAN ON THE AFRICAN (b. 1929) became the first female LECH WALESA (1943–) MILITARY LOSSES (IN THOUSANDS)ON JANUARY 13, SOVIET TROOPSCommunist Party of the Soviet
NATIONAL CONGRESS (ANC) president of Nicaragua. STORMED INTO LITHUANIA to Union to end its rule in Russia.
in South Africa was lifted by One of the founding members suppress dissident nationalists. In
President De Klerk on February 2. In the Persian Gulf, Iraq of Poland’s Solidarity trade the crackdown, 14 people were The USSR disintegrated into
This started the long process invaded Kuwait on August 2. The union movement, Lech killed and more than 500 injured. 15 separate countries as the
of dismantling the apartheid invasion was preceded by border Walesa was awarded the Protestors had gathered to protect world looked on in amazement.
system. In sweeping reforms, disputes between the two Nobel Peace Prize in 1983. a TV station after a broadcast On December 8, heads of three
De Klerk also announced that the countries, and Iraq’s inability to In 1990, he became Poland’s called for people to defend of the Soviet Union’s 15 republics,
outlawed South African Communist repay money borrowed from first post-communist government buildings from the Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus,
Party and the Pan-Africanist Kuwait during the Iraq–Iran War president. He failed to gain a Soviet troops. met to disband the Soviet Union
Congress would be allowed to (1980–88). On August 8, Iraqi second term in office, as he and form a new union, the
resume legal political activities. leader Saddam Hussein (1937– had alienated voters with his On June 13, Boris Yeltsin Commonwealth of Independent
2006) announced that Kuwait had erratic leadership style. (1931–2007) became the first States. On December 21, eight
Nine days later, Nelson Mandela become a part of Iraq. World popularly elected president of others joined it. After four days,
(b. 1918), the leader of the ANC, leaders condemned the invasion. next day, thousands of Azerbaijanis Russia, inflicting a heavy defeat on Mikhail Gorbachev announced he
walked free after spending 27 Soon after, allied forces led by the set fire to their Communist Party the Communist Party. The win gave was resigning as Soviet president;
years in jail. US were sent to the Gulf (see 1991). membership cards. him a power base to challenge the the USSR was no more.
incumbent leader of the Soviet
Neighboring Namibia became On August 23, Saddam Hussein Germany was reunited on Union, Mikhail Gorbachev (b. 1931). Yugoslavia was also breaking
the 47th African country to gain appeared on television with October 3, nearly a year after the up—Slovenia and Croatia
independence after 25 years of Western hostages, mostly of fall of the Berlin Wall (see 1989). A military coup attempted to declared independence in June.
struggle against South African British origin, captured in Iraq. He Helmut Kohl (b. 1930) was elected remove Gorbachev from power Serban president Slobodan
rule. Sam Nujoma was elected as denied accusations that he was as the first chancellor of the when he was on holiday in August. Milosevic sent troops to both
the first president in March. using these hostages as “human reunified nation. Yeltsin organized a resistance and regions to stop them from
shields” against a potential US-led the coup collapsed on August 21. seceding. The city of Vukovar in
In Central America, free coalition attack. On December 1, the Channel Subsequently, Yeltsin ordered the eastern Croatia was devastated
elections were held in Nicaragua Tunnel, the world’s longest after a three-month siege by
on February 25. National Farther north, Soviet troops were undersea railroad tunnel linking 24 Serbs, which ended in November.
Opposition Union, a coalition of ordered into Baku, Azerbaijan, on Britain with France, came a
political parties backed by US the evening of January 19 to put step closer to completion. The 20 In Northern Ireland, the main
funding, defeated the left-wing down a separatist movement by construction workers drilled political parties held an historic
Sandinistas. Violeta Chamorro Azerbaijani nationalists. The through the final section of rock to 16 meeting on June 18 to discuss
join the two halves of the tunnel. the future of the province.
Warbah IRAN 12 Northern Ireland had suffered
‘Abdali years of sectarian violence and
8 there was an overwhelming public
IRAQ desire to end bloodshed.
4
Bubiyan Peace talks were also held on
0 the Middle East between Arabs
Qasr as Sabiyah Persian War zone Iraq Coalition and Israelis in Spain, on October
Gulf Kuwait, a small forces 30. It was the first time in over
KUWAIT oil-rich Arab nation, 40 years that Israel had sat down
was annexed by Iraq–Kuwait war casualties with all its Arab neighbours to
Al-Jahrah Kuwait City neighboring Iraq. The superiority of coalition forces discuss peace.
Ash Shuwaykh The seven-month- is starkly illustrated by the
long occupation disproportionately heavy losses Elsewhere, the United Nations
Mina’ al Ahmadi ended after military inflicted on the Iraqi military. (UN) issued an ultimatum to
Ash-Shuaybah intervention by US-led Saddam Hussein to withdraw Iraqi
forces in Operation troops from Kuwait by January 15
Mina’ ‘Abd Allah Desert Storm, a
largely air offensive.
SAUDI Mina’ Su’ud
ARABIA
Al Wafrah
Qasr

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