Timelines of History_ The Ultimate Visual Guide To The Events That Shaped The World

,, 1742–43

…TOWARD THE NORTH, FROM THERE
SHONE FREDERICK, THE NORTH STAR,
AROUND WHOM GERMANY, EUROPE, EVEN

,,THE WORLD SEEMED TO TURN.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German writer (1749–1832), on Frederick the Great

Poppelsdorf Castle, Germany, exemplifies Rococo style, which became popular
during the 18th century, particularly in France, Germany, Bohemia, and Austria.

and the Czech Republic—seized of Katanga in the present-day 4,000 70,000 THE OPPORTUNISTIC Celsius thermometer
the territory from Habsburg, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Britain North America SEIZING OF SILESIA by This 18th-century French
Austria, and made it a Prussian Frederick II of Prussia instrument, intended
province. It was later incorporated Meanwhile, the War of the 16,500 (see 1740–41) proved a for measuring outdoor
into the German Empire, in 1871. Austrian Succession was having Europe successful gambit. temperatures, features
repercussions in the north. The Austrian army had Celsius’s scale, with a range
In Asia, the Mon kingdom Sweden, still bridling at losing its The Ulster diaspora challenged the Prussians of –15 to +45 degrees.
centered in Pegu, Burma Baltic territories after the Great Between 1680 and 1750, 70,000 but had been defeated in
(Myanmar), rebelled in 1740 Northern War (see 1721–22), Scottish–Irish emigrants left Ulster the Battle of Mollwitz In India, the struggle for
against the northern Burmese deployed troops on the Russian for North America, 4,000 moved to in 1741. In 1742, Maria power continued between
Toungoo kingdom that had first border and declared the Russo– Britain, and 16,500 left for Europe. Theresa of Austria and the Maratha people (see
subjugated it in 1539. After the Swedish War (1741–43). The the victorious Prussians 1720) and the nizam of
rebellion, a Burmese monk with threat to St. Petersburg pushed Church, most of whom were signed the Treaty of Hyderabad, the semi-
Toungoo royal heritage was made forward a planned coup d’état descendents of families who had Berlin, by which a large independent representative
king of Pegu. The independent in Russia, but the new tsarina, colonized the Irish north in the part of Silesia was ceded of the Mughal Empire.
kingdom lasted until 1757. Elizabeth Petrovna (1709–62), 17th century. Ireland’s English to Prussia. The treaty The Marathas seized
continued with the war rather overlords distrusted the Scottish– brought an end to Trichinopoly, leaving
Also in 1740, a major expansion than cede the Baltic territories to Irish colony, which supported the First Silesian War Murrarao Ghorpade as
of the Lunda kingdom of Central Sweden, as had been promised. Scottish interests. Presbyterian (1740–42), though the governor of the town, and
Africa began when a party ministers were fined or wider European conflict refused to pay tribute to
exploring to the west established In Ulster (Northern Ireland), incarcerated, and economic known as the War of the the nizam. In 1743, the
the kingdom of Kazembe. For the emigration to North America activities of the Scottish Austrian Succession nizam, determined to
next hundred years, an aggressive increased dramatically. Those Presbyterians were curtailed, continued until 1748. regain control of the area,
policy of annexation increased leaving included many members causing poverty and famine. had 80,000 men besiege the town.
Kazembe’s size to cover most of the Scottish Presbyterian In the early 18th century, this In 1742, Swedish astronomer Defeated, Murrarao accepted
discrimination worsened; they Anders Celsius (1701–44) payment to change allegiance.
DENMARK SWEDEN were forced to pay tithes in developed the Celsius, or The Russo–Swedish War
Flensborg support of the Church of England centigrade, thermometer. (1741–43) was ended by the
North Baltic Sea Memel and excluded from important Celsius actually set the melting Treaty of Abo in 1743. Intent on
Sea office. A severe famine in 1741–42 point of ice at 100 degrees and the reducing the Swedish threat to St.
resulted in about 12,000 annually boiling point of water at zero Petersburg, Russia had occupied
Kiel Stralsund EAOSMTEERRANNIA Königsberg EAST leaving for the New World. These degrees, an arrangement that Finland, and the treaty moved the
Lübeck Danzig PRUSSIA Scottish–Irish emigrants, was reversed in 1744 by Swedish Swedish border north. Most of
EAST resentful of their treatment by the botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–78). Finland was returned to the
FRISIA WESTERN SERREY English, later gave fierce support Swedes, who in exchange accepted
Bremen POMERANIA to the cause of American In Spanish Peru, a new leader Adolf-Frederick of Holstein-
HERLANDS WEST independence from Britain of the native people, Juan Santos Gotthorp (1710–1771), a client of
P in the 1770s and 1780s. Atahualpa, a Jesuit-educated Empress Elizabeth of Russia, as
NET CLEVES MINDEN BRANDENBURG PRUSSIA man claiming to be a direct heir to the Swedish throne.
Posen descendant of the murdered Inca In North America, South Dakota
Brandenburg Berlin king Atahualpa (1497–1533), was first explored by Europeans
began a rebellion in Quisopango in 1743, when the French de La
Magdeburg Potsdam in 1742. The Spanish mounted a Vérendrye brothers returned west
military campaign against him in after being the first Europeans to
MARK Warsaw 1742, and again in 1743, 1746, and see the Rockies during their
POLAND 1750, but never defeated him in attempt to reach the Pacific.
SAXONY Kalisch his home territory in the Andes.

GERMAN Dresden

Mainz STATES SILESIA

Frankfurt
am Main

Prague

FRANCE LIMPURG BOHEMIA HABSBURG EMPIRE
BAVARIA
MORAVIA

Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia

In the late 17th and 18th centuries,
successive leaders enhanced the power KEY

and territory of Brandenburg–Prussia Brandenburg 1648

through military and political means. Acquisitions 1648–1786

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249

1450–1749 REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

THE STORY OF

AGRICULTURE

FROM HUNTER-GATHERERS AND DOMESTICATION TO CULTIVATION AND GENETIC MANIPULATION

No other activity has made a greater impact on both human society and the
environment than agriculture. Its discovery and use first allowed small,
previously nomadic, hunter-gathering societies to settle in one place,
transform the landscape, form communities, and establish civilizations.

Most archaeologists agree that the earliest plants TOOLS OF THE TRADE Middle Ages, when the heavy horse-drawn plow and a
were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent region Neolithic farmers used digging sticks—long, flat three-field system of crop rotation revolutionized
of the Middle East around 10,000 BCE. While the blades with rounded points—to scrape shallow agriculture and greatly increased food supplies.
fig is thought to be the first truly cultivated food, depressions in the earth, into which they dropped Voyages to Asia and the discovery of the New World in
emmer wheat, barley, lentils, chickpeas, and flax seeds. They also cleared areas of woodland using the 15th century had a profound impact on agriculture
were also common early crops. The first animals axes as well as fire to make space for crops and worldwide, as crops and animals were exchanged
to be domesticated were sheep and goats, followed animal enclosures. However, sophisticated farming between Europe, Asia, and the Americas. This changed
by small breeds of cattle. techniques such as irrigation and large-scale agriculture on a scale not seen again until engine-
monocropping were practiced in Sumeria as early driven farm machinery and mass-production
On the other side of the world, in what is now as 5000 BCE, while in Egypt, farmers made use techniques, including the use of chemical fertilizers
South and Central America, squash and corn were of plows and sickles, and boasted a range of and pesticides, became the norm in the 20th century.
being planted, joined by beans; these three plants crops and livestock.
became known as the “Three Sisters” crops and
represented an early knowledge of nutrition: The light scratch plow used by Mediterranean
planting them together not only retained soil countries dominated farming in Europe until the
nutrients but provided essential vitamin and
minerals needed for human health.

attachment point

coulter cuts thin share cuts deep
vertical strips of turf horizontal slices

of earth

c.10,700–9000 BCE c. 5000 BCE Sumerian 1st century
Domestication of plants Sumerians develop plow Roman trade
In the Middle East, figs core agriculture Foods such as olives, olive oil, and wine are
are among the first Large-scale cultivation, traded across the Roman Empire, where
crops to be cultivated monocropping, irrigation, agriculture is an important business.
actively by man. and the use of a specialized
agricultural labor force
allows the Sumerian culture
to flourish and expand.

c.8000–2000 BCE Teosinte 2500–1500 BCE
The Three Sisters corn cob Egypt cultivates the Nile
The planting together
of squash, teosinte The Egyptians use a
(a primitive form of sophisticated system of
corn), and beans in planting and harvesting
the Americas shows a crops that is dependent
knowledge of companion
planting techniques. on the annual flooding
of the Nile Delta.

Green figs Egyptian harvest Roman millstone

250

Small’s wooden plow
Scottish inventor James Small was a major contributor
to the development of the plow. In the mid-1700s, he
significantly redesigned the single-furrow horse plow
and remodelled the mouldboard, which was now made of
iron, making it stronger and more efficient at turning soil.

handle

1950

3,400,000

1907

600

US 20th-century tractor usage
Tractors became more widespread as their
design improved. They became smaller and
mass production made them more affordable.

moldboard turned THE AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
soil to one side
From the end of the 16th century in Europe,
landowners began to take a more scientific
approach to farming. This entailed following such
practices as crop rotation to ensure that soil fertility
was not depleted, using more efficient machinery
such as improved plows, and cross-breeding
livestock to avoid genetic weaknesses. While the
success of these practices resulted in more food,
it came at a cost: the need for farm laborers was
greatly reduced, and land enclosures dispossessed
many peasants who had nowhere to go.

1050–1300 Wooden Late 18th century 1890s–early 1900s The Ivel tractor
The Middle Ages plow The cast-iron plow Gasoline-powered vehicles
The heavy plow, pulled first The invention of first a
by teams of oxen then draft cast-iron moldboard, then The internal-combustion
horses, changes the shape a cast-iron plowshare engine-powered agricultural
of fields, gives bigger yields, greatly improves plowing
and greatly improves the way efficiency in both Old and tractor signals the end of
medieval Europe feeds itself. New World agriculture. horse-drawn farming.

By World War I, tractors
become common parts of
farm machinery in the US.

1492 Tobacco 1800–40 McCormick’s reaping machine 1970s 2000–present
Columbian exchange leaves The mechanical reaper Move to sustainability Urban farming
Columbus’s discovery Although still horse-drawn, In a countermovement As world populations
of the New World the mechanical reaper to the high-impact and rise, the search for
results in an environmentally damaging new ways to feed more
unprecedented cultural is the first step in the chemical practices of the people increases. Vertical
exchange of animals mechanization of farming, mid-20th century, green hydroponic farms in
and plants, including harvesting crops in much and sustainable practices urban spaces have
tobacco and corn. begin to be developed. proved successful.
less time than could be
achieved by hand.

251

1744–47

This 18th-century, hand-colored copperplate engraving shows disciplined ranks of red-coated Hanoverian troops
falling upon Jacobite Highlanders at the Battle of Culloden, the last battle of the Jacobite uprising.

THE EAST AFRICAN PORT OF Frederick II’s sovereignty in Deadly Coehorn mortar shogun. The retiring shogun’s fortified British headquarters in
MOMBASA was used in the 18th Silesia by signing the Treaty of The Hanoverian army at Culloden eldest son was poor in health, southern India, 100 miles (160 km)
century for trade in gold, ivory, Dresden at the end of the year; had six short-barreled Coehorn defective in speech, and had little south of Madras, but this time he
and slaves. Mombasa was held in return, Prussia recognized her mortars; easily portable, they were interest in government affairs, was unsuccessful. However, the
for 200 years by the Portuguese, husband, Francis, as Holy Roman deadly weapons on the battlefield. but his father demanded his French remained in occupation
until a native rebellion drove them Emperor. This left only France succession as primogeniture of Madras until the Treaty of
out in 1729. The Arabs of Oman prosecuting the War of the the Scottish force was overcome dictated. Natural disasters and Aix-la-Chapelle (see 1748)
took over, and in 1744, with a new Austrian Succession (1740–48). by a Hanoverian force at the famine characterized his reign, returned the port to the British
dynasty installed in Oman, the Battle of Culloden. The hounding and as the power of the in exchange for Louisbourg in
new governor of Mombasa seized In 1744, France attempted a and killing of fleeing and wounded mercantile class grew, his own Nova Scotia.
power there from the Omanis. major invasion of Britain in Highlanders earned the authority declined, the result of
He was killed by Omani assassins support of Prince Charles Edward Hanoverian commander, William poor decisions and delegation In China, during the reign of the
in 1745, but his brother, ‘Ali ibn Stuart (1720–88)—grandson of the Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, of power to subordinates. Qianlong Emperor (r. 1736–99),
Athman (r. 1746–55) stirred up a deposed Stuart King James II and notoriety as the “Butcher of Christians were subjected to
rebellion and the assassins were the“Young Pretender” to the Culloden.” The battle ended the Meanwhile, France was still at renewed persecution from 1746
executed. ‘Ali ibn Athman Hanoverian throne of Britain. But Second Jacobite Rebellion and war with Austria and its allies. In to 1748 as a matter of imperial
proclaimed himself Sultan of the invasion foundered due to wiped out Jacobite hopes of 1746 a French force, authorized policy. In 1715, Pope Clement XII
Mombasa, thereby securing the terrible weather. In 1745, “Bonnie regaining power in Britain. by Governor-General Joseph had criticized idolatrous elements
port’s independence from Oman. Prince Charlie,” as Charles Francois Dupleix (1697–1763), in Chinese religious practices, and
became known, crossed to In 1745, an English farmer took the British-held Indian port the Qianlong Emperor realized
Meanwhile, Prussia’s war with Scotland and rallied the Jacobite began experiments in selective of Madras. In 1747, Dupleix that Chinese Christians felt
Austria (see 1740) continued. chiefs of several Scottish animal breeding that were to followed this with an attack greater loyalty to foreign powers
In the Second Silesian War Highland clans to march on revolutionize animal husbandry. on Fort St. David, the strongly than to him. As a result,
(1744–45), the Austrians tried to England. The Scots defeated a The principle of mating animals
regain Silesia, but the Prussians Hanoverian force in the Battle with desired traits was already Selectively bred sheep
eventually defeated the forces of of Prestonpans and eventually known, but the methods developed This 1842 engraving depicts a New Leicester ram, a breed
Empress Maria Theresa in 1745 in reached Derby but then retreated, by farmer Robert Bakewell were developed by Robert Bakewell’s new breeding methods at
the battles of Hohenfriedberg, having gained little support from better than earlier ones. His work his Leicestershire farm.
Soor, and Kesselsdorf. Maria the English or the French. Military resulted in the New Leicester
Theresa finally recognized successes followed on their breed of sheep and New
return to Scotland, but in 1746 Longhorn cattle breed, both of
9,000 which are still widely influential
in animal breeding today.
AUSTRIANS
AND SAXONS In Japan, the hold of the
Tokugawa dynasty on power was
5,000 weakening. In 1745, Tokugawa
Ieshige (1712–61) was elected as
PRUSSIANS
Losses at
Hohenfriedberg
In this battle the victorious
Prussians had significantly fewer
casualties than the Austrians and
their allies from Saxony.

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252

,, 1748–49

THE MOST SUDDEN AND VISIBLE
GOOD EFFECTS WERE…FROM

,,ORANGES AND LEMONS.

James Lind, British surgeon, from Treatise of the Scurvy, 1753

A fireworks display on the Thames River on May 15, 1749, organized by the
Duke of Richmond to celebrate the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.

evangelization was banned, and Invented by the Dutch scientist Map of Madras THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN Unrefined platinum ore
Chinese Christians were forced Pieter van Musschenbroek of the This 1750 engraving SUCCESSION (see 1740) was Platinum was discovered in South
to go into hiding. Wherever University of Leiden, this device, depicts the Indian port of concluded by the signing of the America by Spanish conquerors. The
missionaries were discovered an early type of capacitor, Madras, together with its Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle name is derived from the Spanish
flouting the law by preaching, demonstrated that electricity British Fort of St. George, (present-day Aachen) in 1748. term platina, meaning “little silver.”
the persecution of Christians both captured by a French Prussia’s conquest of Silesia
was intensified. could be stored. From this naval expedition in 1746. was recognized, France kept the British settlement
developed the idea of a regained some of its constantly under attack.
Another scientific battery, originally a group resulting weakness of colonies in exchange
breakthrough in 1745 was of Leyden jars combined to the Persian Empire, for withdrawing from the In Pennsylvania, the first
the Leyden jar, probably generate a more powerful elected Nader’s Afghan Netherlands, and Britain’s Lutheran Synod was founded
the most important lieutenant, Ahmad Asiento contract with Spain in 1748 by Henry Melchior
18th-century electric charge. Khan Abdali, (also (see 1713) was renewed. Mühlenburg (1711–87). German
development in In 1747, the powerful known as Ahmad Shah Lutherans had first arrived in
the understanding Persian overlord Durrani, 1722–73) as Nader Shah’s lucrative sacking Pennsylvania in 1683, but it was
of electricity. Nader Shah head and founder of of Delhi (see 1739) became the the creation of the Synod that
(b. 1688), who had the modern state of incentive for a second attack, this unified the Lutheran community.
Early capacitor become paranoid Afghanistan. Abdali time on the Punjab by Ahmad
The Leyden jar could and mercilessly was to unify the country Khan Abdali (see 1747). His army South America’s gold and silver
store electric charge, cruel, was under his rule and of 12,000 horsemen was met had long been valued in Europe,
which was created murdered by his develop a large empire, in the Battle of Manupur by a but it was not until 1748, with a
by an electrostatic bodyguards. A including parts of present-day defensive Mughal force of 60,000. report from Spanish explorer
generator and grand assembly Iran, Pakistan, and India. Abdali’s Afghans held their own Antonio de Ulloa (1716–95), that
conducted into the jar in Kandahar, In West Africa, the Yoruba until 1,000 of them were killed by the value of South America’s
through its metal rod. Afghanistan, people, occupying territory from an exploding gunpowder store; platinum was realized. A dense,
recognizing the eastern present-day Benin to devastated, they fled. Meanwhile, corrosion-resistant metal, it was
southern Nigeria, invaded the a rising power in the south was mined in the Cordillera Occidental
Kingdom of Dahomey in 1747. the Kingdom of Mysore under of Colombia and in central Peru.
The kingdom was rich from trade the control of Hyder Ali (1720–82),
in slaves and commodities such father of the famous Tipu Sultan Another Spaniard, Giacobbo
as palm oil, and was forced to pay (1750–99). Under Hyder Ali, the Rodríguez Pereire (1715–80),
tribute to the Yoruba Empire of Mysore Empire seized territory made history in 1749 when he
Oyo, an arrangement that lasted from the Marathas, Hyderabad, took a pupil to the Paris Academy
until 1818. and neighboring kingdoms. of Sciences to demonstrate his
1747 also saw a development new sign language for deaf-
that was to improve the lives of In North America, the British mutes in which the sign alphabet
sailors. In a pioneering study, presence in Nova Scotia was required the use of only one hand.
James Lind, a surgeon of the consolidated with the
Royal Navy, proved that scurvy, a establishment of Halifax in 1749;
sometimes fatal disease common the area capital was transferred
during long voyages, could be there from Annapolis Royal. In
treated by eating citrus fruit. violation of a previous treaty,
However, only in 1795 did the Lieutenant General Edward
Royal Navy begin to use lemon Cornwallis (1713–76) arrived with
juice to prevent and treat scurvy. transport ships containing 2,500
settlers, sparking a war in which
the French and native Mi’kmaq

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1747 DuintMcvhuesnsPstcicsieehLtneeetnryisbvdtraeonnekjar JuNnPaeedr1es0rima,S1u(hbb7rad.o4h1ed76ryoe8gfd8u)abryds LAuutohfg1eP7ur4esan8tnn1FSs6iyyr,lsnfvtooardnmiaed JuCnoern2Hw1aa,ll1ilf7ias4xe9,sNEtadobvwlaiasSrhdceostia

253

6

THE AGE OF
REVOLUTION

1750–1913

Often dramatic, war-torn, and violent, this period was also
a time of remarkable technological advances in medicine,
communication, and transportation—ushering in the
beginnings of the modern world.

1750 1751 1752

José I of Portugal’s coat of arms on A detail from engraver William Hogarth's 1751 work Gin Lane depicts the This Buddha statue is in the Sulamani Pahto temple in Bagan, Burma, which
the ceiling of Coimbra University. public drunkenness and social problems caused by cheap gin. was built in 1181 but contains images and frescos from the Konbaung period.

THE COLONIAL BOUNDARY Enlightenment (see 1763). Many BURMA (MYANMAR) HAD LONG ,, ENERGY AND
BETWEEN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL influential French thinkers – such BEEN DIVIDED among warring
in the New World was settled by as Montesquieu (1689–1755), factions until a chief, Alaungpaya ,,PERSISTENCE
the Treaty of Madrid, signed on Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1714–60), began to unite the
13 January, which significantly (1712–78), and Voltaire (1694– country through a series of CONQUER ALL
amended the Treaty of 1778) – contributed to tens of military victories, and established THINGS.
thousands of articles in the work, the Konbaung dynasty. Not only
17Tordesillas (1494). The previous which attempted to catalogue the did he have to bring disparate Attributed to Benjamin Franklin,
agreement stipulated that the THE NUMBER depths of human knowledge in groups together, he also faced the American inventor, politician,
Portuguese empire extend no science, philosophy, politics, and challenge of troops from Britain and diplomat
religion. With its emphasis on and France, who were eager to
further than 370 leagues west of reason, the volumes were banned gain territory in Burma and who had made the decision to change
in some countries, such as Spain, were willing to arm Alaungpaya’s from the Julian calendar to the
OF VOLUMESthe Azores (around 46 degrees where the Catholic Inquisition enemies. But for the next seven Gregorian one, joining the other
objected to its content. years, Alaungpaya resisted both western European countries that
OF THEwest), but the new treaty took into threats, and British and French had made the change hundreds of
Halfway across the world, China troops were driven out. Under years before. This calendar was
account the extent of Portuguese was extending its power in the successive kings, the unified introduced in 1582 by Pope Gregory
Dzungaria and Tarim basin by kingdom continued to become XIII, who chose to make the
ENCYCLOPÉDIEsettlement in Brazil. Spain hoped fighting the Mongolian tribes stronger, and over the following change when it became clear that
for control to this key part of the decades it went so far as to make the old Julian calendar put around
PUBLISHEDthat by allowing Portugal some steppes. The basin’s importance incursions into Siam (Thailand). 11 extra days between vernal
lay in its proximity to the Silk equinoxes, making the celebration
concessions it would discourage Road (see pages 100–01), the In Britain, the public went to bed of Easter arrive earlier each year.
vital trade route between China on 2 September and woke up on
any further Portuguese territorial BETWEEN 1751 and the West. 14 September. The government In British North America,
scientific discoveries were making
expansion in the region. AND 1765 ROCOCO their own leap forward. Inventor,
politician, and diplomat Benjamin
MARQUIS OF POMBAL ENGLAND WAS EXPERIENCING AN This 18th-century painting on Franklin (1706–90) invented the
(1699–1782) ALCOHOL CRISIS, fuelled by the the ceiling of a Bavarian lightning conductor. Before the
popularity of cheap gin, as church exemplifies the work advent of Franklin's lightning rod,
The Marquis of Pombal was illustrated by the darkly satirical of the Rococo movement that buildings were often destroyed by
a controversial political engraving Gin Lane by William dominated European fires started by lightning. Franklin
figure, appointed prime Hogarth (1697–1764), issued in decorative arts, architecture, thought there was a relationship
minister of Portugal in 1750, 1751. Gin production had been painting, and sculpture. between lightning and electricity
the year José I (1714–77) took refined over the previous 50 years, Rococo evolved out of and was said to have flown a kite
the throne. His 27 years in and the spirit proved hugely Baroque (see 1626), but its in a lightning storm to prove his
power saw economic and popular – by the year Hogarth's details and flourishes were theory. The rod, developed after
social reform, and the print was completed, the British even more ornate and often this experiment, attracts
expulsion of the Jesuits. were drinking more than two playful. The period is often lightning, which is conducted into
gallons of gin per capita a year. associated with French the ground, bypassing the building
Public outcry over the social design during the reigns and keeping it safe from a
effects of gin led to the Gin Act of of Louis XV (r. 1715–54) lightning strike.
1751, which attempted to limit the and Louis XVI (r. 1774–92).
amount that could be bought.

In France, intellectuals led by
the writer and philosopher Denis
Diderot (1713–84) began the
publication of the Encyclopédie, ou
dictionnaire raisonné des sciences,
des arts et des métiers. Known as
the Encyclopédie, it became one
of the defining works of the

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Toifbet

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256

1753 1754 1755

Based on the work of the botanist Carl Linnaeus, this This scene shows troops mounted on A painting depicts the desperate search for survivors in Lisbon
botanical drawing of blackberries is by J. Miller.
elephants during the Carnatic War. after the city was heavily damaged by an earthquake in November.

BY THE TIME SIR HANS SLOANE exchange, he wanted a payment THE SECOND CARNATIC WAR ,, I AM NOT SO LOST IN
(1660–1753), an Irish-born of £20,000 to his estate – well (1749–54) and the French and
physician and collector, died, he below the value of the collection. Indian War (1754–63) were both ,,LEXICOGRAPHY AS TO
had amassed 71,000 different The English Parliament approved precursors to the larger Seven
objects, ranging from samples of the deal and passed an act Years’ War (1756–63). However, FORGET THAT WORDS ARE
flora and fauna from all over the establishing the British Museum. the theatre of these Anglo-French THE DAUGHTERS OF EARTH.
world, to books and manuscripts Parts of the collection were put on disputes was not Europe. The
about a wide range of subjects. public display a few years later.
Like other intellectuals and INDIA Samuel Johnson, English writer, from the preface of his Dictionary
scientists across Europe, he was Sloane's contemporaries across Hughli of the English Language, 1755
part of wider Enlightenment Europe were engaged in collecting
intellectual currents, and he Surat Chandernagar Chinsura AN EARTHQUAKE KILLED TENS OF London printers. It took him
had realized the scholarly and other scientific pursuits. Calcutta THOUSANDS OF PEOPLE in Lisbon, eight years and six assistants
value of his collection, which In the same year, Swedish Diu Daman Portugal, when it shook the city to finish it. Although it was not
he bequeathed to Britain. In botanist Carl Linnaeus Bassein Bombay Vizagapatam on the morning of 1 November. It the first English dictionary, it
(1707–78) published his was later estimated by scientists quickly became the most
Golden collection Goa Yanam to be around an 8.7 magnitude celebrated and authoritative.
Used for determining Species Plantarum, which Masulipatam event. Estimates of the number Some of its more notorious
positions of stars, this classified more than 7,000 of deaths range from 10,000 to definitions include “patron:
gold astrolabe, was species of plants by Cannanore Pulicat 100,000 in a population of 200,000. commonly a wretch who supports
part of Hans putting each genus Mahe Madras The earthquake also triggered a with insolence, and is paid with
Sloane's into a class and Pondicherry tsunami that destroyed flattery” and “oats: a grain,
collection. order, a system Calicut Karikal settlements further south in the which in England is generally
that is still Cochin Nagapatam Algarve region. The disaster had given to horses, but in Scotland
used today. Jaffna a profound effect across Europe supports the people”.
KEY Colombo Trincomale – Voltaire (1694–1778) was
Galle inspired to write his Poème sur le English by definition
Matara désastre de Lisbonne about the This is the front cover of the first
event, and German philosopher edition of Samuel Johnson’s
Portuguese French Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) wrote Dictionary of the English Language.
settlements settlements a series of essays about it. The
Marquis of Pombal (see panel,
British Dutch left) immediately took action,
settlements settlements making sure fires were put out
and the dead were quickly buried.
Europe in India He then began the rebuilding of
By the mid-18th century, European the city, including the construction
powers held territories and of buildings meant to withstand
established settlements in India. another earthquake.

French and Indian War Earlier in the year, in England,
ranged from Virginia in the the writer Samuel Johnson
south to Nova Scotia in the (1709–84) had completed the
north of North America. commission he had received
Battles of the Second for a Dictionary of the English
Carnatic War took place Language from a syndicate of
in South India. The Treaty
of Pondicherry temporarily
halted tensions between
France and Britain, whose
troops were technically
employed by corporations –
the East India companies.
The treaty recognized the

British-backed Mohammad Ali
as the new Nawab of Carnatic,
which had been a key factor
behind the dispute.

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publisChaersl LhiinsPnSlaapeneutcasierusm 257

1756

This detail taken from an engraving by Paul Revere depicts the British capture of the French fort in Louisbourg, Nova Scotia. The fort was built to protect France’s
interests in the region and became a target for the British when war was declared in 1756. The town was attacked by land and sea, falling to the British in 1758.

THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR (1756–63) alliances, these situations Men at arms RUSSIA AUSTRIA FRANCE
was fought in theaters from India escalated into what became The sizes of the armies
to North America to Europe, known as the Seven Years’ War. involved in the Seven 333,000 201,000 200,000 PRUSSIA BRITAIN
making it a truly global conflict. Years’ War are shown 145,000 90,000
Its roots, however, were European. By 1756, some key incidents had here. Although some of
The earlier War of Austrian made the battle lines clear. In the important battles
Succession (see 1740) left many April, France invaded Minorca in were at sea, most of the
territorial issues unresolved. The the Mediterranean, which Britain fighting was done by
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) had taken from Spain in 1708. The army soldiers.
did not settle the dispute between French sent 15,000 troops to the
Prussia and Austria over the island, where the British had only Saxony, between Prussia and out of India and North America; local rulers in India, leading to an
province of Silesia, located in around 2,500. Britain formally Russia. They outnumbered those Austria and Prussia both wanted infamous incident—the Black
southeast Prussia and bordering declared war on France. The in Saxony by more than 3:1, but Silesia. Russia wanted to curb Hole of Calcutta. The Nawab of
Austria. At the same time, British conflict brought in the Electorate Austria’s leader, Maria Theresa Frederick II’s growing powers and Bengal, Siraj-ud-Dawlah
and French tensions continued to of Hanover, in northwest (1717–80), was quick to send assist Austria and France. (1733–57), who France supported,
simmer. Because of complicated Germany, which was willing to more troops. The war had begun. attacked the British in Calcutta
send the British extra troops. The European conflict had been and imprisoned many of them
Britain and Prussia formed an preceded by skirmishes in in a small cell in Fort William.
Prussia’s Frederick II (1712– alliance against France, Russia, colonial territories: the British Estimates of the captives range
86), meanwhile, was increasingly Austria, Sweden, Saxony, and and French had been fighting in from 60 to 150. Overnight,
suspicious of the alliance between eventually Spain. But each country North America, as well as in India. between 40 and 123 of them died
France and Russia. In May, his was also pursuing its own Anglo–French tensions had due to overcrowding and heat.
troops entered the Electorate of interests: Britain wanted France spilled over into disputes with

Zorndorf 1758 SWEDEN
Minden 1759
Krefeld 1758

BRITAIN RUSSIAN EMPIRE

Kolín 1757 PRUSSIA
Rossbach 1757
EUROPE

Quebec Quiberon Bay 1759 FRANCE Bohemia
1759
NORTH HOLY ROMAN
AMERICA NEW EMPIRE
FRANCE
FREDERICK II (1712–86) PORTUGAL Minorca 1756 ASIA
SPAIN
Known as “Frederick the
Great,” the Prussian King AT L A N T I C
Frederick II ruled for 46 OCEAN
years. With his interest in
culture and philosophy, Havana AFRICA INDIA
Frederick’s reign was 1762
marked by a liberal spirit. Wandiwash
But it was his military Cuba 1760
prowess that earned
Frederick II his reputation, Guadeloupe 1759 Pondicherry
as he transformed the small Martinique 1762 1761
kingdom of Prussia into a
European power. PACIFIC SOUTH INDIAN
OCEAN AMERICA OCEAN

The Seven Years’ War KEY Austria
The battlefields of this conflict spanned the globe, stretching from Britain France
Canada to India to Europe, making it the first global war. The colored Prussia
crosses show the victors in the key battles. Anglo–German alliance

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258

1757 1758 1759

Barbary pirates in an engagement Frederick II leads his soldiers to Spain’s new king, Charles III, would rule for nearly 30 years. Luis Paret y Alcázar
with the Venetian navy. victory at the Battle of Zorndorf. (1746–99) depicts palace life in his painting Charles III Eating Before his Court.
,,
THE BRITISH-PRUSSIAN ALLIANCE AS THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR ,,ALL IS FOR THE BEST
(see 1756) received a number of CONTINUED, the British won key
boosts during 1757. Robert Clive victories over France by taking IN THE BEST OF ALL
(1725–74) recovered Calcutta for Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg in POSSIBLE WORLDS.
the East India Company (see 1600) North America and Pondicherry
and Britain by defeating the in India (see map, opposite), and Voltaire, French writer, from Candide, 1759
Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of by claiming Senegal in West
Plassey. The Holy Roman Africa. In Europe, Britain and FOR THE BRITISH, THE SEVEN Germany, followed in November ABOLITIONISM
Emperor Francis I—who was Prussia defeated the French near YEARS’ WAR reached a turning by further defeat by the Austrians
married to Austria’s Maria the banks of the Rhine at Krefeld point. They took the French West in the Battle of Maxen in Saxony. The image of a kneeling
Theresa—officially declared war in June and Russia at the battle Indian island of Guadeloupe in slave and the inscription “Am
on Prussia. King Frederick II of Zorndorf, on Prussian soil, May, Canadian territory in July, In Spain, the throne was taken I not a man and a brother?”
then attacked Bohemia, though he in August. and Quebec in September. They by the Bourbon Charles III became a famous symbol of
was defeated by Austrian troops. also defeated French naval forces (1716–88), who would become the British abolitionist
Although Prussia defeated Meanwhile, in India, warfare was off Portugal at Lagos Bay in known for his reforming zeal. movement and was later
Austro-French forces in Rossbach breaking out on a different front— August and at Quiberon Bay, in adopted by the American
in November, they lost to Austrian between Afghans and Marathas. the west of France, in November. Portugal, meanwhile, had grown Anti-Slavery Society, founded
troops in Leuthan in December. Territorial disputes were behind Anglo-Prussian troops defeated suspicious of the activities of the in 1833. The seal was made
the Afghan–Maratha War (which the French at the Battle of Minden Catholic Jesuit order (see 1533), by Josiah Wedgwood for the
In Morocco, Muhammad III continued until 1861). After the in Germany in early August, expelling it from its territories. Society for Effecting the
(c. 1710–90) brought stability to death of Nader Shah (1688–1747), although less than two weeks Abolition of the Slave Trade.
the country as sultan after 30 his Persian empire began to later Prussia faced a humiliating Cultural developments included After decades of pressure,
years of unrest. Muhammad was disintegrate and Afghanistan surrender at Kunersdorf, in the publication by the Frenchman the British slave trade ended
known for curbing the power of emerged independent under the François Marie Arouet in 1807. Abolitionist groups
the Barbary pirates, who raided rule of Ahmad Shah Durrani (c. de Voltaire of Candide, a satire were also established in
towns across the Mediterranean. 1722–73) who wanted to gain about mindless optimism. other countries involved in
control of the nearby territories slavery, such as the French
Robert Clive of the Punjab and the Upper Société des Amis des Noirs.
Calcutta was recaptured for the Ganges. Durrani had sacked the
British by Major General Robert Clive Mughal city of Delhi the previous Wedgwood pottery
at the Battle of Plassey. The victory year. The neighboring Marathas, Born into a family of English potters,
secured Clive’s control over Bengal. who felt they should rule over the Josiah Wedgwood transformed his
territory, then went to war against craft with his style and technique.
the Afghans. He set up his own business in 1759
and became potter to Queen
In the Arabian Peninsula, Charlotte. His “creamware” dishes
significant—though not violent— were hugely popular.
political change was taking place
as the chieftains of the Utub
confederation elected Sabah bin
Jaber (Sabah I) (c. 1652–1762)
emir of an emerging territory that
would soon become known
as Kuwait. His family,
the al-Sabah dynasty,
continues to rule Kuwait
to the present day.

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259

1760 1761

A caricature of George III and his wife Queen Charlotte. King George III Hyder Ali, the ruler of the Indian kingdom of Mysore, who
was born in Britain, which he ruled for nearly 60 years. became an enemy of British East India Company troops.

WHEN GEORGE III (1738–1820) 117 57 135 54 AS THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR Halfway across the world,
TOOK THE THRONE OF ENGLAND INTENSIFIED within Europe, it also British and French troops were
in 1760, he was the first king from 1755 1760 reached a climax in the colonial fighting in the Caribbean.
the German royal dynasty, the possessions. The British effectively The British used the island of
Hanoverians, to be born in Britain. 74 31 115 27 destroyed French power in India Guadeloupe, which they had
Unlike his German-speaking when they seized Pondicherry captured two years earlier (see
grandfather, George II (1683–1760), Fleet size in the Seven Years’ War KEY French Navy (see map, below). The port had map, 1756), as a base from
English was his first language. The Many important battles were at sea, British Royal Navy battleships been settled by the French East which to take Dominica from
crown skipped a generation owing and British naval strength became cruisers India Company in 1674 and had the French. The following year
to the death of George’s father, even more superior to that of France. battleships become one of France’s main they stormed Martinique.
Frederick Lewis (1707–51). Before cruisers bases of operations for trade as
his death, he left instructions for (see 1756). Most significant in this well as ongoing fights against To complicate matters further,
the 12-year-old George to separate period is George III’s desire to The British island of Jamaica the British East India Company. Spain had entered the conflict,
the Electorate of Hanover from have the war come to an end, as had become a large sugar This victory followed another and Britain’s naval fleet was
England and reduce the national well as have Britain distance itself producer and seen a rapid rise one against the French the making preparations to attack
debt, when he took the throne. from Prussia. These wishes were in the importation of slaves, many previous year in Wandiwash, Spanish ships. However, the
made manifest when Bute of whom ran away or rebelled. in southeast India. attack plans would go beyond
After the death of his father, became prime minster in 1762. A rebellion took place on Easter naval skirmishes, as British
George fell under the influence of Sunday in 1760, when a revolt led At the same time in India, the troops managed to not only
John Stuart, Third Earl of Bute While George III was embroiled by a slave named Tacky began in fighting between Afghans and invade and occupy the Cuban
(1713–92), who was his tutor and in British and European politics, St. Mary’s parish. It spread from Marathas (see 1758) came to a port of Havana the following
adviser. During the early years of his dominions in the Caribbean there, and some 30,000 slaves head in the battle of Panipat, in year, they also used ships
George III’s reign, Bute held much had undergone a transformation. participated before it was the north of the territory, on stationed in India to mount
sway. This was especially evident They were no longer imperial suppressed the following year. January 14. The battle was bloody, a similar attack on Manila,
in the souring of relations with outposts, but wealthy sugar with high casualty rates—some the capital of the Spanish
William Pitt the Elder (1708–78) colonies. However, these riches Meanwhile, in Qing China, the 75,000 Marathas were killed colony of the Philippines.
and the Newcastle–Pitt coalition, depended on the use of thousands ongoing revolts in the northwest and 30,000 captured. However,
which governed Britain during the of African slaves to work on the frontier by Mongol tribes, which Ahmad Shah Durrani, who led Panipat
height of the Seven Years’ War plantations. The population of started around 1755, had finally the Afghans, was forced by his
British America had reached two been suppressed. The conflict had troops to return to the throne in INDIA
PRICE IN POUNDS STERLING 50 million by 1760, and of this, more begun after the Mongols refused Afghanistan. This outcome meant
than 300,000 were slaves. Similarly, to pay the annual tribute the that the Marathas and British
40 the slave population in France’s Chinese government had began to divide the former Mughal
Caribbean colonies would reach demanded—indeed, the Mongols territory among themselves. The
30 379,000 by the end of the decade. went so far as to kill the Chinese war contributed to the weakening
In the Spanish sugar islands, revenue collectors. However, of the Maratha Confederacy and
20 however, Cuba had fewer than China was eventually able to the further decentralization of its Wandiwash
40,000 slaves, but its sugar boom overpower the Mongols and power, leading to the breakup of Pondicherry
would come later. bring their territory under their its kingdoms and subsequent Mysore
dominion by 1760. battles over territory with Britain.
10
Farther south, in Mysore,
0 1758 1775 another future enemy of Britain,
1748 Hyder Ali (1720–82), was building
up his army and consolidating his
Price of a male slave power base in order to take Conflicts in India
As British Caribbean colonies began control of the territory. India was the site of important
to increase sugar production, they battles in 1761, not only for Britain
had to bring in more African slaves and France, but also in the fight
as labor, as did the French. between Marathas and Afghans.

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260

1762 1763 1764

,, I SHALL BE AN AUTOCRAT,

,,THAT’S MY TRADE; AND THE

GOOD LORD WILL FORGIVE ME,
THAT’S HIS.

Attributed to Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia

A print of a fireworks display in London celebrating the Peace of Paris, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, age 8, around
which ended the Seven Years’ War. the time he visited Britain.

RUSSIA SAW THE ARRIVAL OF Catherine the Great OUT OF MONEY AND EXHAUSTED, exchange British troops left IN AN ATTEMPT TO FILL THE
TWO RULERS over the course of The German-born empress of THE EUROPEAN POWERS fighting Havana and Manila. In Europe, COFFERS DEPLETED BY WAR,
1762, first with the ascension of Russia, who reigned from 1762 until the Seven Years’ War brought the France agreed to evacuate the British government brought
Peter III (1728–62) and later 1796, oversaw the territorial conflict to a close with the Treaty German territories. in the Sugar Act, which clamped
Catherine II (1729–96), who expansion of her adopted country. of Paris (also known as the down on tax avoidance on
became known as Catherine the Peace of Paris) and the Treaty of Under the Treaty of imported molasses in North
Great. When Peter III became North America, which stretched Hubertusburg. The cost had been Hubertusburg, the borders of America, a move that angered
emperor, he made clear his west of the Mississippi River. The enormous—the lives of hundreds 1756 were reinstated, so Austria traders and colonists.
support of Prussia in the Seven treaty was partly to thank Spanish of thousands of soldiers, and retreated from Silesia and Prussia
Years’ War and then pulled Russia Bourbons for their support of mountains of money. Britain’s left Saxony, and Europe reverted to At this time, the musical prodigy
out of the conflict. His views were French forces, and also to get rid national debt rose from £75 million its former boundaries. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
deeply unpopular with ministers of a potential drain on resources. to £133 million; Prussia raised (1756–91) was on a three-year
and the public. A conspiracy Spain also benefited from the deal taxes and debased the taler three In the Ohio River valley territory, tour of Europe with his family. He
against him was quickly because it would block British times. For Austria it cost 392 million Pontiac (1720–69), a chief of the visited Munich, Brussels, Paris,
organized, leading to his arrest. expansion toward Spanish gulden (the original estimate was Ottawa people, was angered by and London, where his father
His wife, Catherine, was installed territory, especially nearby Mexico. 28 million) and French national debt the deal, which would put the land Leopold presented him to play at
as empress of Russia. Peter III rose from 1,360 million livres in under British rule. In what became the royal courts. While in London
was imprisoned, where he died in In France, the philosopher and 1753 to 2,350 million livres in 1764. known as Pontiac’s Rebellion, he he met the German composer
dubious circumstances. Catherine writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau led attacks against settlements, a Johann Christian Bach
the Great’s reign was marked by (1712–78) published his influential The Treaty of Paris involved situation that lasted until a deal (1735–82), who became an
Russian aggression and treatise, The Social Contract (Du Britain, France, and Spain. The between the Ottawa and British important musical mentor.
territorial expansion. She Contrat Social) in which he French faced the largest losses: was reached in 1766.
introduced wide-ranging reforms examined the relationship they ceded to Britain their
in agriculture, industry, and between governments and the territories in present-day Canada, ENLIGHTENMENT IN EUROPE
education. She also relaxed governed, and the question of with the exception of the islands
Russia’s censorship laws and was freedom in the face of political of St. Pierre and Miquelon; their The Enlightenment was a time of questioning many established
known for her love of literature authority. It was immediately territories in present-day US beliefs in Europe—a change in ideas reflected in the writings and
and particular fondness for banned by French authorities. east of the Mississippi River; the other cultural output from around the mid-18th century. It is also
French philosophers and writers— Caribbean islands of Grenada, marked by scientific curiosity and advancement. This painting by
including Voltaire, with whom she Dominica, St. Vincent and the Luke Howard (1772–1864) shows a fascination with weather that
corresponded for 15 years. Grenadines, and Tobago; Minorca led him to classify and name many cloud types.
in the Mediterranean; and
As the Seven Years’ War Senegal in West Africa. They also
continued, Spain became further formalized their cessation of the
drawn into events as the British Louisiana territory to Spain. In
occupied its key Caribbean port of exchange, Britain returned to
Havana. In addition to this, Britain France the valuable Caribbean
was able to use troops in India to sugar islands of Martinique and
occupy Manila, in the Philippines, Guadeloupe; Belle Island, off
which was also a Spanish colony. the coast of Brittany; and the
At the same time, Spain and slave-trading island of Gorée in
France entered a secret West Africa. France also regained
agreement known as the Treaty its Indian factories, but they were
of Fontainebleau. Under the not allowed to fortify them. The
terms of the treaty, Spain received Spanish were forced to give their
France’s Louisiana territory in Florida territory to Britain, but in

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1750–1913 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

EUROPEAN SCOTLAND

NATION STATES BRITAIN

PLANNING PEACE FOR A CONTINENT AT WAR Edinburgh

IRELAND

1822–29: Dublin
Catholic
Europe at the dawn of the 19th century bore little resemblance to the Emancipation
peaceful political unit of cooperative countries that it has become in the campaign
21st century. Indeed, prior to 1815, the power balances and political
alliances were constantly shifting, leading to near-continual confrontation. ENGLAND

1830–32: First WALES
Reform Act crisis London

1840s:
Chartist agitation

The Napoleonic Wars had seen Europe in a cycle of torn Europe apart and a spirit of conservatism AT L A N T I C 1830:
almost constant conflict for more than a decade and restoration prevailed—though not all deposed OCEAN revolution
and left Europe in a state of imbalance. To address rulers were restored, and not all possessions lost
the questions of how to reorganize the war-ravaged in the Napoleonic Wars were regained. Bay of Paris
continent, a congress was called at Vienna in 1814. Biscay
Decisions were made on what to do with the new The national boundaries resulting from the 1831:
states that Napoleon had created, such as the Treaty of Vienna in 1815 stayed in place for more Vendean
Grand Duchy of Warsaw (see map below), and the than four decades. Fear of revolution led to a desire uprising
regions of Germany, Italy, and the Low Countries among Europe's statesmen to maintain the status
that had been annexed to France. The peacemakers quo. Although there were threats from liberal and FRANCE
aimed to avoid a repetition of the conflicts that had nationalist elements, the Vienna system survived
and disputes were largely settled by diplomacy. Bordeaux

NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE 1815 The Congress of Oporto 1820: revolution in
When Napoleon became First Consul of France in 1799, Vienna's reorganization Portugal against British
he soon made clear his imperial ambitions by crowning of Europe led to the PORTUGALcontrol of country ANDORRA
himself emperor of France in 1804 and mounting military creation of the German
campaigns throughout Europe. Confederation. The 1833–39: Barcelona
growth of liberalism and First Carlist War Balearic
nationalism in Europe Islands
saw uprisings across the Lisbon 1820: Madrid
continent but the Vienna revolution
system held firm until
the revolutions of 1848. SPAIN

NTIC OCEAN KEY 1846–48:
Second Carlist War
Threat to Vienna system
Edinburgh Stockholm
Internal frontiers 1815
ATLA North Sea SWEDEN GIBRALTAR
Dublin altic Sea German confederation to Britain
DENMARK
Copenhagen B Riga
Tilsit
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
BRITAIN
PRO
London Hamburg ILLYRIAN
Berlin PRUSSIA

Brussels Hanover GRAND DUCHY

Paris CONFEDERATION OF WARSAW Population chart
At the beginning of
Corunna F R E N C H OF THE RHINE Prague Prussia Napoleon's rule,
E M P I R E Zurich AUSTRIAN EMPIRE France had a far larger
Bordeaux England population than the
HELVETIA Munich surrounding states.
Lyon KINGDOM Vienna Habsburg This chart shows
Empire population figures
PORTUGAL Toulouse OF ITALY France c. 1800.

SPAIN Belgrade

Lisbon Madrid Marseille VINCES
Tangier
CATALONIA Sofia
Rome
OTTOMAN
Gibraltar Naples
KINGDOM EMPIRE 200

OF SARDINIA KINGDOM THE NUMBER
Mediterranean Sea
OF NAPLES Corfu 0 10 20 30 40 OF STATES
Palermo POPULATION IN 1800 (MILLIONS) REPRESENTED
AT THE VIENNA
Tunis Athens CONGRESS

KINGDOM Crete
MALTA OF SICILY

1812 Since coming to power in 1799, KEY 2,000,000 1,000,000 French forces
Napoleon had managed to extend France's CASUALTIES Over the course of the
power in Europe dramatically, controlling the French territory NATIVE FRENCH Napoleonic Wars,
Low Countries, parts of Germany and Italy, ruled directly SOLDIERS 1804–15 soldiers from all over
Spain, and Poland, although his attempts to from Paris 1812 the French Empire
encroach on Russia were met with a 1804–15 fought, and died,
humiliating defeat in 1812. Dependent in Napoleon's army. At
state 1812 its height, it comprised
nearly 600,000 men.

262

NORWAY FINLAND A RETURN TO WAR
Many of the ongoing tensions between countries that
1814: Denmark 1808–09: Russia invades, arose in the 19th century gained momentum in the 20th.
forced to cede then annexes Finland The assassination of the Austrian archduke Franz
Ferdinand by Serbian nationalists in 1914 sparked World
Norway Helsingfors War I, a global conflict that would reshape Europe.
to Sweden

SWEDEN

Stockholm St Petersburg

North Copenhagen

UNENITTHEEDRLANDSSea Balt Riga ATLANTIC
OCEAN
ic SeaDENMARKBornholm
SCHLESWIG- North
ltic SeaSea
HOLSTEIN

Amsterdam Ba

Hamburg Danzig RUSSIAN
HANOVER EMPIRE
EAST
in personal union PRUSSIA Brest-Litovsk

with Britain 1817–31: Posen 1847: peasant
uprising
Hanover German student protests
Berlin GALICIA

PRUSSIA PRUSSIA Warsaw

Brussels Cologne POLAND

1831: SAXONY 1830–31: Mediterranean Sea
Belgium gains Prague national revolt
independence from
BAVARIA United Netherlands Cracow

PRINCIPALITY Stuttgart REP. OF
CRACOW
OF WURTTEMBERG 1847: to Austria

NEUCHATEL BAVARIA
BADEN

Munich Vienna

Geneva AUSTRIAN EMPIRE MOLDAVIA 1914 The Vienna system was swept away by the wave of
SWITZERLAND nationalism that crossed Europe from the mid-19th century.
Buda Pest Countries such as Italy and Germany were unified by the
Lyon time Europe sat on the brink of war in 1914. However, at
Versailles in 1919, the map would be redrawn yet again.
SARDINIA Milan Venice ILLYRIAN KINGDOM HUNGARY

1821: LOMBARDY- TRANSYLVANIA
Piedmontese
VENETIA
revolution
MONACO PARMA
Marseille KEY
MODENA German Empire
WALLACHIA Austro–Hungarian Empire Montenegro
MASSA AND SAN 1807–33: Belgrade Russian Empire Portugal
CARRARA Serbian revolts SERBIA Bucharest Netherlands Romania
LUCCA TUSCANY MARINO 1821: revolts France Italy
BOSNIA in Wallachia United Kingdom Greece
Corsica PAPAL and Moldavia Norway Ottoman Empire
Spain Albania
STATES BULGARIA Switzerland Luxembourg
Sweden Denmark
MONTENEGRO Belgium Serbia
Bulgaria
Rome DALMATIA OTTOMAN RUMELIA

1820: EMPIRE THRACE
revolution
Salonica
SARDINIA Naples ALBANIA

KINGDOM OF THE

TWO SICILIES Corfu GREECE
1815: to Britain
M 1821:

e revolution Palermo

dite Ionian Smyrna 5.4 million
Islands Crete
r 1815: to Britain Athens

ra n e 1821–33:
War of Independence
Malta
a n
1800: to Britain 3.5
Sea
MILLION

,, ANY PLAN CONCEIVED 13:6 Rival KEY
IN MODERATION MUST FAIL populations
WHEN THE CIRCUMSTANCES The population Allied Powers: Russia,
of the Allied countries at the France, Britain, Belgium,
,,ARE SET IN THE EXTREMES. outset of World War I was more and Serbia
than double the population of
Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773–1859), Austrian foreign minister the Central Powers. Germany and Austria–Hungary

Troop numbers
The Allied Powers had far greater
forces to mobilize in 1914 than
the armies of the Central Powers.

263

1765 1766

A cartoon about the Stamp Act shows the Treasury Secretary, George Grenville, with Jacobites toast Charles Stuart—“Bonnie Prince Charlie”—in Edinburgh.
a child’s coffin bearing the words “Miss Ame-Stamp, born in 1765, died 1766”. Many of his supporters were Scottish.

THIS YEAR WOULD BE ONE OF playing cards would carry the on the ground. He realised that JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART Bonnie Prince
GROWING DISCONTENT with duty. The colonists feared the tax by creating a machine that was DIED IN 1766 at the Palazzo Muti in Charlie’s star and garter
colonial rule within British and represented a form of press horizontal, more spindles could Rome, having failed in his mission The star and garter worn by Charles
Spanish colonies in the Americas. censorship. They also resented be added. The spinning jenny to be restored to the British Stuart indicated he was the son of a
In May, the residents of the the tax’s introduction, not so enabled cloth production to thrones as James III. His birth legitimate sovereign. It was awarded
Andean city of Quito (in today’s much because of the cost, but increase by eightfold, and other in 1688 had initiated the Glorious while the family was in exile.
Ecuador) protested against the because the Crown was beginning inventors continued to modify Revolution, forcing his father
imposition of a new system of to look at internal American Hargreave’s design to make the James II (1633–1701) to take his the Stuart throne, the battle that
tax administration aimed at commerce and not just external machine even more efficient. family to France to had consumed both their lives
increasing revenues for Spain’s trade for additional revenue, live in exile. At the had been lost, though admiration
depleted treasury. The rioters something not done before. In In Germany, Joseph II (1741–90) heart of the matter for the cause continued.
drove out the royal officials, addition, Britain was imposing became Holy Roman Emperor was the Stuart
installing in their place a taxes without the consent of the and also co-ruler of the Habsburg faith: Catholicism. In Denmark, Christian VII
government that controlled the colonists, who responded with family lands with his mother After the royal family had (1749–1808) became king shortly
city until troops arrived a year protests, and the act was Maria Theresa until her death fled, the English Parliament before his seventeenth birthday.
later to reestablish royal control. repealed the following year. in 1780. Joseph later began a passed the Act of Settlement Later that year, he married
program of reform that included of 1689, barring any Roman Caroline Matilda, one of the
Farther to the north, Britain’s Meanwhile, in Lancashire, the emancipation of serfs and Catholics from succession to the sisters of Britain’s George III. His
American colonists were growing England, a weaver and carpenter improvement of the education throne. The Stuarts, however, had reign was marked by his mental
angry at similar revenue-raising named James Hargreaves system, a reflection of the many supporters in England, instability and debauchery.
exercises. Following the (1720–78) had completed work Enlightenment works he read. Scotland, and Ireland. They were During his early days of rule, the
unpopular Sugar Act (see 1764) on an invention known as the He was considered to be known as Jacobites after German doctor Johann Freidrich
was the Stamp Act. This piece of spinning jenny. The device was an “enlightened despot”. “Jacobus,” the Latin for James. Struensee (1737–72) infiltrated
legislation stipulated that all an improvement on the spinning the court and exercised much
American colonists would have wheel because it could power Dawn of the machine age Several attempts were made influence over the weak king,
to pay a tax on every piece of multiple spindles. Hargreaves A woman working at a spinning to return James III, or the “Old eventually enacting policy and
printed paper they used. This supposedly came up with the idea jenny in an early 19th-century mill. Pretender” as he became known, having an affair with the queen.
meant that products from legal for the device after observing a James Hargreaves’ invention to the throne, the most notable Struensee was finally arrested
documents to newspapers and spinning wheel lying overturned revolutionized cloth production. being the risings of 1715 and and executed. The later years of
1745. All proved unsuccessful. Christian’s reign were in name
,, IF OUR Over the course of the Old only, and from 1784 his son,
TRADE BE Pretender’s exile his son, Charles Frederick VI (1768–1839), acted
TAXED, WHY Edward Stuart (1720–88)—known as regent.
NOT OUR as “Bonnie Prince Charlie” or the
LANDS, OR “Young Pretender”—also took up
PRODUCE, his father’s fight, but to little avail.
IN SHORT, Charles never recovered from his
EVERYTHING WE defeat at the Battle of Culloden
(the last clash of the 1745
,,POSSESS?… rising—see 1744–47), although
he made later efforts to secure
Samuel Adams, American support from France and the
politician, on the Sugar Act, 1764 Holy Roman Empire for further
uprisings. By the time the Old
Pretender died and Charles
became the official claimant to

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264

1767 1768 1769

A depiction of the Jesuits being Captain James Cook and his crew at the watering place Detail of the bell tower at the Mission
of San Diego de Alcalá in California.
expelled from the kingdom of Spain. in the Bay of Good Success, Tierra del Fuego.

102 CAPTAIN JAMES COOK (1728–79) As Cook was sailing the Pacific, The Endeavour THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH
made his name in the Royal Navy other changes were afoot in A model of the ship that AMERICA showed no sign of
NEW SPAIN with his excellent navigational Britain. Reflecting the growing took Captain James abating, though its inhabitants
skills and cartography of desire for knowledge (the Cook to the Southern still knew very little about the vast
78 Canadian waters during the Enlightenment), the first volume Hemisphere. western territory. In 1769, an
Seven Years’ War (1756–63). These of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, American named Daniel Boone
PERU accomplishments paved the way was published in Edinburgh. It clowns to provide entertainment (1734–1820) set off for a hunting
for his next assignment—an was “compiled upon a new plan in during the interludes, and the expedition in present-day
42 expedition to the South Pacific. which the different Sciences and modern circus was born. Kentucky, an area virtually
NEW The mission was organized by Arts are digested into distinct unknown to white settlers. Along
GRANADA the Royal Society, with the Treatises or Systems.” It soon In Russia, events had taken a the way he worked out a better
Admiralty providing the sold out and by 1771 a three- serious turn. Tensions with the route along the Cumberland Gap,
Jesuit settlements ship. The Endeavour set volume set was completed. Ottoman Empire had pushed the a plateau in the Appalachian
in the New World off from Plymouth on two into the Russo–Turkish War
The Society of Jesus was August 25 and arrived Meanwhile, in London, former of 1768–74. The root cause was mountains. This became part
instrumental in the settlement of in Tahiti—via Madeira, Rio de soldier Philip Astley (1742–1814) Catherine the Great’s refusal to of the Wilderness Road, a
territory in the Americas and by Janeiro, and Cape Horn—on opened a riding school in 1768 comply with the treaty ending the trail blazed by Boone and
1767 had extensive missions. April 13, 1769. Cook then headed called Halfpenny Hatch based in previous war with the Ottomans
further south encountering the Lambeth, where he performed (1736–39), as well as her the Transylvania Company,
LIKE THE PORTUGUESE NEARLY island later known as New tricks on horseback in a ring. He interventions in Poland. The and later used by settlers to
A DECADE EARLIER, the Spanish Zealand. He eventually sailed added musicians, acrobats, and Ottomans declared war after cross the mountains and reach
Crown grew concerned about the from there to the unknown Russia sacked a Turkish town. the Kentucky territory. Boone
Jesuits and the order’s activities eastern coast of Australia where and his family moved to Kentucky
in the American colonies. One of he landed in what became known Further east, Prithvi Narayan in 1775 and established one of the
the underlying causes for concern as Botany Bay. The Endeavour Shah (1723–75) brought together first towns, Boonesborough. He
had been Jesuit resistance to returned to England in 1771 and kingdoms in the Kathmandu spent the rest of his life working
paying tithes to the Crown, and Captain Cook’s expedition was Valley to create the kingdom as a hunter and explorer.
this reluctance was symptomatic hailed a success. of Nepal. The Spanish, too, were looking
of longer-running struggles to expand their territory in North
between the order and the king. 96 America. They had claimed a
At issue was the Jesuits’ growing region in present-day southern
influence and wealth in Spanish THE NUMBER California that Charles III was
America through their schools, OF CREW AND eager to populate with Spanish
extensive landholding, and CIVILIANS WHO settlers after rumors that Russia
agricultural success. Claiming SET OFF WITH was planning to move into
he was “moved by weighty CAPTAIN COOK the area. To this end he sent
reasons,” Charles III decided to Franciscan friars to establish
expel the Jesuits from his realm. missions in the region. Spanish
This enabled the Crown to Franciscan Junípero Serra
confiscate valuable Jesuit land (1713–84) began work on a series
and property. Thousands of the of missions throughout Spain’s
order’s members fled to the California territory. The first one,
Papal States and Corsica. established in 1769, was San
Diego de Alcalá, and over the
course of the next 54 years a
chain of 20 further missions was
built along the California coast.

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265

1770 1771 1772

An engraving depicting the violence of the The Cromford Mill set up by Richard A engraving showing the assassination of Gustavus III of Sweden (bottom),
Boston Massacre. Arkwright in Derbyshire. whose constitution and reforms angered the nobility and led to his death.

AFTER THE FAILURE OF THE THE BIRTH OF THE INDUSTRIAL SWEDEN RUSSIAN KEY
STAMP ACT (see 1765) the REVOLUTION came a step closer
British government was still Sea Riga EMPIRE Poland
left with the question of how to
raise money in the colonies. when Englishman Richard Baltic To Austria
The answer came in a Arkwright (1732–92) worked with To Prussia
series of acts formulated
by the Chancellor of the clockmaker John Kay to develop Vilna Smolensk To Russia
Exchequer, Charles a spinning frame. By 1771 they
Townshend (1725–67). Danzig Minsk
The legislation
included duties on Grodno
paint, paper, glass,
lead, and tea imported had decided to use a waterwheel
to the American
colonies, as well as a to power it—hence the name Posen POLAND
reorganization of “water frame” and built a PRUSSIA Cracow
customs to cut down on factory—Cromford Mill—
smuggling. In addition, in northern England, Kiev Partition of
another act suspended the Poland
New York legislature making this the first Vienna OTTOMAN Russia, Austria,
because it refused to comply water-powered textile HABSBURG EMPIRE EMPIRE and Prussia
with the Quartering Act, which mill. The venture was a recieved parts of
demanded that colonial success and the textile Poland in the first
assemblies provide basic factories became profitable, partition.
necessities for British soldiers
in the territories. On March 5, a leading Arkwright to open
group of dock workers began to
a series of factories in POLAND FACED the first of three by the Polish legislature (Sejm)—
14
THE AGE AT Engand and Scotland. partitions of its territory. This depriving Poland of a third of its
WHICH MARIE
ANTOINETTE Arkwright’s inventions are resulted from Russia’s defeats of land, of which all three powers
MARRIED
LOUIS XVI considered an important part of the Ottoman Turks in the Russo– took a share.

the Industrial Revolution, which Turkish War (see 1768), which had In Sweden, Gustavus III

transformed Britain from an alarmed Austria and Prussia. (1746–92) took the throne, though

Marie Antoinette miniature agricultural economy to a Frederick II aimed to shift Russian the monarchy had been weakened
A cameo of Marie Antoinette, who
would become one of the most manufacturing one. The mills expansion from Turkish territory by a government faction wishing
infamous queens of France.
saw the development of the to the Polish–Lithuanian Union, to limit the Crown’s power. In
harass some British soldiers on
patrol near a customs house in mass-production factory system which was weakened by civil war. response, Gustavus staged a coup
Boston, and a crowd formed. More
soldiers arrived and opened fire which would be adopted all On August 5, Russia, Prussia, and and issued a new constitution. He
on the colonists—the majority of
whom were unarmed—killing five over the world. Austria signed a treaty—ratified introduced judicial reforms and
and wounding a further six. This
episode became known as the strengthened Sweden’s navy.
Boston Massacre and fuelled
resentment between Britain INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION However, he was unpopular with
and its American colonies.
the nobility, of whom he was
In Europe, the Dauphin of
France, the future Louis XVI The Industrial Revolution was an economic transformation that critical, and was denounced for
(1754–93), married the daughter
of Maria Theresa of Austria, Marie took place in Europe during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, his expenditure of public funds.
Antoinette. They were 15 and 14
years old, respectively, at the time.   changing rural, agrarian economies to ones based on manufactured He was assassinated in 1792.

goods, which were often made in cities. This transformation In England, a legal case was

began in England, and was facilitated by the arrival of inventions mounted over a slave, James

such as the spinning jenny (see 1765) and the use of steam power Somersett, who had been brought

(see 1775), which led to the growth of industries such as textiles from Jamaica to England in 1771

in cities like Manchester. New technologies soon spread and was due to be sent back. The

throughout Europe, and other countries such as France, Germany, Lord Chief Justice, Lord Mansfield,

and Belgium were seeing similar economic shifts as agricultural ruled Somersett must be freed.

workers left the countryside for jobs in growing urban centers, or This set a precedent that people

to work in the coal mines that powered the urban factories. could not be taken out of England

against their will.

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266

1773 1774

This painting by Vasily Perov shows Cossack leader, Emelyan Pugachev, The funeral procession of Louis XV (1710–74), whose nickname had been “the 
holding court and passing judgment on his enemies. well-beloved.” Louis XV ruled France for almost 60 years.

BRITAIN’S AMERICAN COLONISTS their contraband goods. They put the Great’s army, his troops were IN THE AMERICAN COLONIES, Louis XVI
were becoming increasingly pressure on East India ships to eventually overpowered. He was representatives from each of the The king of France, Louis XVI,
agitated by the number of not dock in American ports. The executed on January 10, 1775. 13 colonies except Georgia met in wearing his coronation robes. He
restrictions being placed on Dartmouth, however, proceeded Philadelphia to discuss what to do came to power at just 17 years old.
them—even if some had to anchor in Boston. On December The Ottoman Empire was facing about a slew of legislation that
unexpected benefits, such as a 16, angry traders took 342 chests upheaval in Egypt. Ali Bey became known as the In France, Louis XVI became the
reduction in the price of tea. of tea worth £10,000 from the al-Kabir (1728–73) had been Intolerable Acts. These acts king at the age of 17 after the
Indeed, because of the Tea Act of Dartmouth and tipped it into the Egypt’s de facto ruler, but in 1769 were issued in retaliation for the death of his grandfather, Louis XV.
1773, which allowed direct city’s harbor. This was heralded as he deposed the Ottoman governor dumping of tea in Boston harbor
exportation from India to North a key moment of resistance to of Egypt and tried to make the (see 1773) and growing American Meanwhile, fighting between
America, as well as having it taxed British governance. country independent. He also sent rebellion. They stipulated that Russia and the Ottoman Empire
at source rather than upon arrival, troops into the territories of Boston harbor must be closed to came to an end. They signed the
American colonists would pay less Russia also was experiencing Palestine and Syria, but by 1773 all but British ships; that the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji in July,
than anyone in Britain for their unrest, led by a Cossack called he was defeated by Ottoman colonists must house British which granted Russia the right of
tea. However, there were many Emelyan Pugachev (1742–75). forces and died from his wounds troops if necessary; that British free navigation in the Black Sea
colonial merchants who dealt in Pugachev served in the Seven while in prison in Cairo. officials would not be tried for and recognized the Crimean
smuggled tea and so faced ruin if Years’ War, though he deserted in crimes in the colonies but in Peninsula as independent,
legal tea became cheaper than 1762. He traveled around Russia, On his ship in the South Atlantic, Britain instead, allowing them meaning Crimea was free from
claiming to be the deposed Captain James Cook crossed the to act with impunity; and self- Ottoman rule. The region soon
Boston Tea Party emperor Peter III, and promising Antarctic Circle. He had set government in Boston was to be aligned itself with Russia.
Merchants dump chests of tea worth to abolish serfdom. Through his out on another mission the year stopped. Also included was the
£10,000 from an East India Company travels he managed to rally about before, in a ship called the Quebec Act, which enlarged the The Ottomans faced further
ship into Boston harbor. 25,000 willing troops. Despite Resolution, determined to explore boundaries of the Canadian disruption with the death in
early victories against Catherine the vast and unknown areas of the province, permitted a degree of October of Sultan Mustafa III
southern hemisphere. self-rule through a governor and (1717–74), succeeded by his
appointed councillors, guaranteed brother, Abdul Hamid I
religious freedom for the many (r. 1774–89). When Mustafa
Catholic settlers, and allowed the became ruler, the empire was in
continuation of French civil law in decline, as earlier economic
conjunction with British criminal growth had faltered. The situation
law. This act added insult to injury was exacerbated by the costly and
for many American settlers. They disastrous war with Russia.
objected to the expansion
of Quebec into territory they
believed was theirs, and many
were suspicious of the type of
government that had been
installed there. The Continental
Congress—a group of delegates
drawn from each of the thirteen
colonies—decided to take action,
and agreed to boycott British
goods and trade, sending a strong
message to the English king,
George III.

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1775

,, ,,LET JUSTICE BE DONE

THOUGH THE HEAVENS
SHOULD FALL.

John Adams, American statesman, December 5. 1777

The opening shots of war between the British troops (in red) and the American colonial militia (in the
foreground) on Lexington Common in Massachusetts, by English artist William Barnes Wollen (1857–1936).

THE ANGRY RECEPTION GIVEN TO Concord, just outside of Boston. organizers that British troops Continental soldier’s hat who owned an engineering works.
LEGISLATION and discontent over Aware that the British might were on the march. Minutemen This style of tricorne was worn by Watt had improved the Newcomen
the issue of “taxation without execute such a plan, the colonists (militia who were ready to fight American colonists fighting for steam engine, which had been
representation” in the 13 had set up a system of alerts “at a minute’s notice”) grabbed the Continental army. around since the turn of the
American colonies had begun should any event come to pass. their guns and waited for the century. He developed a separate
to worry British officials and Once news was received of the arrival of the redcoats. as territorial boundaries, stood a condensing chamber for the
they feared an armed rebellion. planned raid on Concord, Boston better chance of being protected engine, which made it lose less
On April 18, General Thomas silversmith and engraver Paul On the morning of April 19 the by Britain. For slaves, the incentive steam and be more efficient. In
Revere (1735–1818) set off from “shot heard around the world” was to side with the British Crown was partnership with Boulton, Watt
Gage (1721–87), who the city that night to warn fellow fired and battle ensued between the possibility of emancipation— began to manufacture these
was also Governor of colonists and British troops in they had been told they would engines in 1775. At this point
Massachusetts, sent four-way Lexington and nearby Concord. be freed if they fought for the steam engines were used mostly
British soldiers (known as valve The American Revolutionary king. Some residents, such as to pump water from mines,
“redcoats”) to seize the controls War had begun. the Quakers, opposed warfare. but Watt saw more potential
guns and ammunition admission Many others simply wanted to uses for steam and continued
being stored by the and release Fighting continued through the avoid participation in either side working on engines for the rest
colonists in the town of of steam summer. Colonial forces, under of the conflict. of his life. His inventions allowed
the command of General George later engineers to revolutionize
spent steam Washington (1732–99) captured Halfway around the world, transportation and he thereby
escapes via key points near Lake Champlain, British East India Company troops effectively laid the foundations of
smokestack but the British defeated them at were embroiled in the domestic modern industry.
the Battle of Bunker Hill on June troubles of the Marathas (see
17, despite losing half their troops 1758). The First Anglo-Maratha THOMAS PAINE
in the process. War (1775–82) was the result of
the East India Company’s Thomas Paine (1737–1809)
Within the colonies the war was intervention into the Maratha was born in Norfolk, England.
divisive. Not all colonists were Confederacy, a union of five clans He emigrated to America and
willing to fight against Britain and that came to power after the advocated independence. He
soon people were divided into collapse of the kingdom of returned to England and
patriots and loyalists. Some 20 Maharashtra. This war left many wrote Rights of Man, defending
percent of the population of the 13 issues unresolved and tensions the French Revolution, which
colonies were estimated to have would rise again between the cemented his reputation as
supported the Crown. Within this British and Marathas, leading to a radical propagandist.
number were American Indians two further wars (see 1803).
and slaves. In the case of the
former, some tribes sided with the In Britain, Scottish inventor
British because they were valued and engineer James Watt
(1736–1819) had struck up a
trading partners. Many also business partnership with
thought their interests, such Matthew Boulton (1728–1809),

Steam power
James Watt’s work on
steam engines allowed
for the development of
steam-powered trains.

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1776 1777 1778 1779

Ecstatic colonists tear down a statue of King George III in New York in A colonial map of the city Colonia A view of the opulent interior of La A Xhosa family, from a painting by
celebration of the signing of the Declaration of Independence. del Sacramento in Uruguay. Scala opera house in Milan. French naturalist Pierre Sonnerat.

,, WE HOLD THESE TRUTHS TO BE IN BAVARIA, there was unrest over THE RELOCATION OF THE BOERS
SELF-EVIDENT, THAT ALL MEN ARE the succession to the throne. (Dutch-speaking settlers) to
CREATED EQUAL, THAT THEY ARE Elector Maximilian III Joseph Clubs used against Cook remote regions hundred of miles
ENDOWED BY THEIR CREATOR (1727–77), last of the Wittelsbach Traditional Hawaiian clubs north of Cape Town was causing
WITH CERTAIN UNALIENABLE line, died, and Charles Theodore like these may have been problems for the Xhosa people.
(1724–99), Elector Palatine was used in the attack that These tribes had settled in the
,,RIGHTS, THAT AMONG THESE ARE crowned. Charles had no caused James Cook’s death. territory long before the Boers’
legitimate heir but several arrival. Both groups were cattle
LIFE, LIBERTY AND THE PURSUIT bastards for whom he sought WITH TWO SUCCESSFUL VOYAGES farmers and competed for rich
OF HAPPINESS. land. He signed a treaty with TO HIS NAME, Captain James Cook pasture land for their herds.
Joseph II of Austria to cede Lower (see 1773) set out for a third in
US Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776 Bavaria to Austria in exchange 1776, this time to search for the Attempts were made to establish
for part of the Austrian Northwest Passage, a fabled a border between the Fish and
AS THE AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY the establishment of a republican Netherlands. This angered Arctic shortcut that was supposed Sundays Rivers, although both
WAR WAS GAINING MOMENTUM, government. The pamphlet, Frederick II of Prussia and to connect the Atlantic and Pacific groups violated any agreement.
on July 4 the First Continental initially published anonymously, in 1778, the War of the Oceans. By 1778 he had made the Tension turned to violence, with
Congress issued a Declaration of was hugely influential both Bavarian Succession broke first European contact with the the Xhosa raiding Boer cattle
Independence, formally nationally and internationally out, ending in 1779. Hawaiian islands. He continued and murdering some herdsmen,
announcing the separation of the and had a significant role in on to the Arctic circle, but failed to possibly in retaliation for the death
North American colonies from furthering the cause. In Britain, Spain and Portugal finally settled find the passage. He later sailed
British rule and calling this Scottish philosopher Adam ongoing disputes in the Río de la back to Hawaii, where a dispute Boer house
collective the United States. The Smith (1723–90) published An Plata region with the First Treaty over a missing boat led to his Dutch settlers in South Africa moved
document outlined reasons for Enquiry into the the Nature and of San Ildefonso. Spain ceded being killed by Hawaiians in 1779. away from Cape Town, deep into rural
the decision to separate from Causes of the Wealth of Nations, territory in the Amazon basin in areas where they raised livestock.
Britain while asserting certain which outlined the advantages return for control over the Banda In Milan, a grand opera house
natural rights. The ideas put forth of a system of free trade, Oriental (in present-day Uruguay). was opened—La Scala. It was of a tribesman. The Boers then
in this declaration—that all men changing the way politicians founded under the patronage of attacked and captured more than
were created equal and had the and the public thought about Charles Theodor Maria Theresa of Austria (the city 5,000 head of cattle.
right to “life, liberty and the economic expansion. The Elector Palatine, Charles was under Austrian rule) to replace
pursuit of happiness”—would not, Theodore, had no legitimate heirs a theater that had been destroyed These skirmishes, amounting to
however, apply to everyone. Also in this year, the first volume but he had several illegitimate ones. in a fire. The new theater was built the first Xhosa War, did not resolve
Enslaved Africans—some of of The History of the Decline and He proved an unpopular king. on the site of the church of Santa the root cause of the dispute—
whom had been fighting on the Fall of the Roman Empire by Maria alla Scala and financed by access to grazing lands and water.
Americans’ side—were excluded. English historian Edward Gibbon wealthy patrons. It opened on Intermittent battle continued for
(1737–94) was published. The August 3 with a performance of almost a century.
The year 1776 also witnessed work struck a chord and was a L’Europa riconosciuta, an opera
the publication of many influential success. It was also noteworthy by Antonio Salieri (1750–1825).
works. In January, the writer and for Gibbon’s methodology, which
radical thinker Thomas Paine was objective and meticulous
(see panel, opposite), who had in his use of reference material,
been living only a short time in making it the yardstick for
Philadelphia, issued a pamphlet future historians. A further five
entitled Common Sense, calling volumes were published over
for American independence and the following decade.

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269

1780 1781

A mural from Daria Daulat Bagh, the summer palace belonging to Tipu Lord Cornwallis, left, surrenders his sword to George Washington,
Sultan, ruler of the southwestern Indian kingdom of Mysore from 1782–99. right, after the British defeat at the Battle of Yorktown.

AS BRITAIN’S EAST INDIA Dutch maintained Britain should THE ONGOING WAR between Britain The politics of the American American riflemen
COMPANY attempted to extend its respect their neutrality, but the and North American colonists took colonies was changing. The This cartoon depicts an American
reach outside of Bengal, it often British did not agree. a decisive turn at the battle of Articles of Confederation had rifleman as worn out and badly
met resistance from Indian Yorktown, Virginia, on October 19. been ratified earlier in the year, equipped. However, these soldiers
princely states. This was especially The North American colonists The Continental Army had on March 1. The process of defeated British regular troops.
true of the southwestern kingdom were not alone in their struggle, received a boost from French ratification had started in 1777
of Mysore, which was under the as their southern neighbors in support the previous year, and the under the Second Continental alcohol in what became known
rule of the powerful Haidar Ali Peru took up arms in the Túpac Comte de Rochambeau (1725– Congress. The agreement set up as the Comunero Rebellion.
Khan (1722–82). Disputes over Amaru revolt (1780–82), which 1807) led troops alongside the a “firm league of friendship” for Plans to march on Bogotá were
territory and had led to the First was prompted by dissatisfaction American General George what were to be known as the abandoned after a deal was
Mysore War (1767–69), which was with the Spanish colonial regime. Washington (1732–99). Their United States of America, while reached over taxes but the
soon followed by the Second Some 75,000 Indians and Creoles combined force of ground soldiers outlining what the responsibilities Spanish viceroy then attacked
Mysore War (1780–84). The (those born in Peru but of Spanish meant that when rebel forces took of the central government would the comuneros and killed two
fighting did not completely settle descent) rose up in protest at their be. The document would of their leaders.
the conflict between them, which treatment. The leader Túpac 20 600 eventually be replaced with the
continued until 1799. Amaru II (see box, below) was American British US Constitution (see 1787). Revolution of an intellectual kind
captured and killed in 1781, but was taking place in Prussia with
Unrest in India was not the only it took another year and 60,000 52 In Europe, tensions between the the publication of the Critique of
military preoccupation for Britain, Spanish troops to quell the unrest. French Dutch and British led to a convoy Pure Reason by the philosopher
which was now fighting on many of British ships setting off from Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). His
fronts. In addition to the ongoing In Africa, the kingdom of Deaths at the Battle of Yorktown India on August 9 with orders work challenged existing notions
war in North America, dispute Buganda, located on the northern Yorktown took a high toll on British to destroy Dutch settlements about the nature of knowledge.
broke out with the Dutch. The shore of Lake Ukerewe (Lake troops and proved decisive in the in Sumatra. When the British
Fourth Anglo–Dutch War Victoria), emerged as a regional quest to end British rule in America. arrived, the small Dutch
(1780–84), which saw no actual power as it expanded its territory. population in the outposts
fighting, was a direct consequence Around the same time, the Masai, their positions on September 28 surrendered immediately
of the conflict in America. The who occupied the southeastern General Charles Cornwallis and all the Dutch factories and
Dutch were supplying arms to side of the lake, were also (1738–1805) was outnumbered by warehouses in Padang were
the rebelling colonists, and a becoming a significant presence more than two to one, and his turned over to the British crown.
dispute erupted over Britain’s in the region and were moving reinforcements failed to arrive in
seizure of Dutch ships. The farther south and east—helped by time. That, along with a French Meanwhile, colonial subjects
their large, organized warrior class. naval blockade, gave Cornwallis in the Viceroyalty of New
no option but to surrender. Granada—which comprised
TUPAC AMARU II (c. 1742–81) Although this was the last major present-day Colombia, Venezuela,
battle of the Revolutionary War, Panama, and Ecuador—were
Born José Gabriel official recognition of American discontent with the Spanish
Condorcanqui in Cuzco, Peru, independence would not come regime. They revolted over
around 1742, Túpac Amaru II until later. mounting taxes on tobacco and
renamed himself after the last
Inca leader, who ruled the ,, ,,SCIENCE IS ORGANIZED
Incan Empire from 1545–72.
Of mestizo (Indian and Spanish) KNOWLEDGE. WISDOM IS
heritage, he fought against the ORGANIZED LIFE.
colonial regime to gain better
conditions for the indigenous Immanuel Kant, German philosopher, from Critique of Pure Reason, 1781
population of Peru.

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270

1782 1783 1784

Chakri Mahaprasad Hall in Bangkok This bronze frieze depicts the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, in which Britain A cartoon depicts the political
was built under Rama I. recognized the independence of its former American colonies. implications of the India Act.

WHILE THE VICTORIOUS FORMER NEARLY TWO YEARS AFTER THE KEY BRITISH BECAUSE THE BRITISH PRESENCE
COLONIES OF NORTH AMERICA SURRENDER at Yorktown, the Western Territory NORTH AMERICA IN INDIA had evolved through the
entered into complicated and Treaty of Paris, which formally United States East India Company (EIC), the
protracted negotiations with ended the Revolutionary NEW YORK NEW HAMPSHIRE 18th century saw a growing
Britain over their official War, was finally signed on States of the PENNSYLVANIA MASSACHUSETTS tension between the EIC and the
recognition and their future, September 3 between Britain and Union RHODE ISLAND British government. The India Act
Ireland found that it was also in a its former American colony, This map shows VIRGINIA CONNECTICUT 1773 had already brought the
position to receive a new political calling for them to “forget all past the 13 original NEW JERSEY company under tighter control,
settlement from the British misunderstanding and United States as DELAWARE but its demands for government
government. The Declaratory Act differences.” The document gave recognized by the MARYLAND money to cover the cost of its
of 1720 and Poynings’ Law of 1494 formal recognition to the United Treaty of Paris. many battles had prompted
were repealed. These laws had States and established the US borders were NORTH CAROLINA further action. The India Act
been designed to place Ireland boundaries of the 13 states that extended to the 1784, which was ushered in
under the rule of the English it comprised. Although the Mississippi River SOUTH CAROLINA under the government of British
Parliament. With many of the settlement saw the establishment under the treaty. prime minister William Pitt the
restrictions in these Acts lifted, of the United States, there was GEORGIA Younger (1759–1806), placed the
Ireland was able to establish still a significant European EIC under even more scrutiny by
some degree of legislative presence, with Spain holding AT L A N T I C establishing a Board of Control to
independence. Despite the new large territories to the west. OCEAN look after civil, military, and
freedoms, however, political
participation was only open to Another treaty was signed Gulf of Mexico EVERY RUPEE
Protestants, and the unrest this between Britain, France, and OF PROFIT
arrangement eventually prompted Spain, in which Britain retaining Minorca—which it had aviation history. On June 4, ,,MADE BY AN
in the largely Catholic territory surrendered Tobago and regained the year before—and Joseph (1740–1810) and Etienne
meant that self-rule had a Senegal to France and its territories in Florida. Montgolfier (1745–99) had the ,,ENGLISHMAN IS
short life span. agreed to Spain first public trial of a hot air
In a small village called balloon officially recorded. Only LOST FOR EVER
In Siam (Thailand), a new ruling Annonay, in the southeast of a couple of months later, and after TO INDIA.
dynasty was established—the France, two brothers some design modifications, they
Chakri—after a power struggle were about to make gave a demonstration of their Edmund Burke, British politician,
following the demise of the balloon in front of Louis XVI and on the East India Company, 1783
previous ruler, King Taksin, who Marie Antoinette at Versailles. In
had left no heir. The Chakri remains the September 19 flight—one of financial affairs, which would
Thailand’s ruling house. It was several flights made in 1783— include members of the British
established by Rama I (1737– they put a sheep, a duck, and a government. The Act also
1809), who had been the chief rooster in the balloon’s basket stipulated that trade and
commander in the army and had to see how the animals would territorial rule were to be two
won loyal support fighting against fare at a high altitude. The first separate activities. Legislation
the Burmese. Rama I spent much manned free flight, when the that followed in the 19th century
of his reign on the reconstruction balloon was not tethered to the went even further, abolishing
of Siam after years of warfare, ground, took place on November the EIC’s monopoly and opening
building extensively, including a 21 of the same year. up trade, as well as allowing
royal palace and Buddhist temples, the settlement of Christian
though he remained a strong Balloon ride missionaries in the region.
military leader, and repelled five This engraving shows a later
further invasions from Burma. Montgolfier balloon, named
Le Flesselles, ascending over Lyon
with seven passengers, on January
19, 1784. One of those on board was
Joseph Montgolfier.

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271

1785 1786 1787

The power loom transformed Frederick II of Prussia was feared and admired throughout Europe This 19th-century engraving depicts the coastal settlement
the textile industry. for his military prowess. of Sierra Leone, West Africa.

IN 1784, EDMUND CARTWRIGHT THE US WAS EXPERIENCING First steamboat AFTER THE RULING IN THE AFRICA
(1743–1823), an English AN ERA OF TECHNOLOGICAL John Fitch managed to take SOMERSETT CASE (see 1772),
clergyman, paid a visit to a innovation. In Philadelphia, steam-engine technology and apply which established that slaves who SIERRA LEONE
cotton-spinning mill established Pennsylvania, inventor John it to boats. However, commercial arrived in Britain were free, many
by Richard Arkwright (see 1771). Fitch (1743–1798) had set up the success was some way off. slaves were abandoned by their ATLANTIC
What he saw inspired him to Steamboat Company with the aim masters and the “black poor” of OCEAN
invent similar machines to weave of designing a steam-powered Shipping still had its perils and London were left with no means
textiles. By 1785 he had patented boat. Fitch found success ahead pirate raids were common. US of support. Abolitionist Granville Slave settlement
his first power loom. Cartwright’s of his rivals in August 1787 when merchants wishing to trade in the Sharp (1735–1813) arranged for a Sierra Leone is located on the west
loom became an integral part of the Perseverance successfully Mediterranean markets risked free settlement to be established coast of Africa. Previously a trading
the textile industry in Britain. The sailed on the Delaware River. By attack and the Barbary corsairs in Sierra Leone, West Africa. The post for slavery it became a place
design was later improved by the 1790, a fledgling steamer service were particularly feared. On ship Nautilus returned some 400 of settlement for freed slaves.
American businessman Francis was running between Philadelphia July 23, the US signed a treaty former slaves to Africa. These
Cabot Lowell, who had seen the and Trenton, New Jersey, but with Morocco which assured safe initial settlers were later joined instead, the delegates drew up a
looms in operation on a visit to Fitch struggled as he had trouble passage for US ships in exchange by slaves from Nova Scotia, new system of government. They
Britain, and its use was widespread attracting investors. It would take for trading on equal terms. Canada, who had fought for created a bicameral legislature
on both sides of the Atlantic the more advanced boat designs the British in the American in which all states would be
after 1820. and superior business acumen of In Europe, Prussia mourned the Revolutionary War. At the same equally represented in the Senate
Robert Fulton (1765–1815) before death of Frederick II. He had time, West Africa was still rife and proportionally based on
In Burma, the Konbaung steamboat travel became a viable turned Prussia into a formidable with other European slavers. population in the House of
dynasty’s King Bodawpaya commercial enterprise. power, and reshaped Europe’s Representatives.
(1745–1819) had captured the political balance. In the US, there was a growing
coastal kingdom of Arakan the call for a stronger central In Russia, designs on Ottoman
previous year. Bolstered by this government and, from May to territory led to the Russo–Turkish
victory, he decided to move to the September, the Constitutional War, lasting until 1792.
east and invade the kingdom of Convention met, ostensibly in
Siam (Thailand), but was defeated. order to amend the Articles of The US Constitution is the
Confederation (see 1781). But oldest written constitution in
the world still in use. It was
US CONSTITUTION adopted on September 17,
1787 and has been amended
Round-the-world expedition ,, ,,AN EDUCATED 27 times to deal with issues
Jean-François de Galaup, the comte such as freedom of speech.
de Lapérouse, was sent by Louis XVI PEOPLE CAN BE George Washington (left) led
on an expedition to map out the EASILY GOVERNED. the Constitutional Convention
uncharted waters of the Pacific. and became the first US
Attributed to Frederick II, king of Prussia president in 1789. During his
presidency, the first ten
amendments, known as the
Bill of Rights, were ratified.

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1788

35 MILLION PESOS
THE AMOUNT OF MONEY SPAIN
RECEIVED ANNUALLY
FROM ITS COLONIES AT THE
TIME OF CHARLES III’S DEATH

A portrait of Charles IV (center right) and his family by Spanish painter
Francisco Goya (1746–1828).

AFTER ALMOST 30 YEARS ON Arrival in Port Jackson tax system, and had already In Britain, Royal Navy Captain than 1,400 people, with convicts
THE SPANISH THRONE, the Colonists arrive in the bay that would abolished serfdom. By the time of Arthur Phillip (1738–1814) had set making up 778 passengers. The
“enlightened despot” Charles III later become Sydney, Australia. his death in 1790, the Magyars sail on May 13, 1787 with 11 ships fleet arrived in Botany Bay in
died, and his son, Charles IV Native women are shown watching were on the brink of a rebellion, full of convicts destined for 1788, but Phillip soon decided
(1748–1819), inherited the crown. them on the shore. and even appealed to Prussia to settlement at Botany Bay in the site was not suitable for
Unlike his father, Charles IV was support them. However, their Australia. Captain James Cook permanent settlement and the
not a strong leader. His wife, up the Société des Amis des discontent did not escalate to (see 1768) had first come across colony moved farther inland to
Maria Luisa of Parma (1751– Noirs (Society of the Friends of armed conflict due to the the bay in1770, and the British Port Jackson, which would later
1819), and her political protégé the Blacks), which called not only intervention of Leopold II (1747– government was eager to settle become known as Sydney.
Manuel de Godoy (1767–1851), for the abolition of the slave trade 92), who succeeded his brother the territory. At the same time, Although the early days of
who eventually became prime and slavery, but also urged and promised to rescind the the shipping of convicts to settlement were difficult, a
minister, ran the country and the equality for people of mixed race, previous reforms. He swore to Australia presented a way of stream of ships continued to
empire, leading it into disaster. the treatment of whom was a treat Hungary as an independent relieving Britain’s overcrowded bring felons, and less than 50
This period was marked by growing issue in the French kingdom and allow for it to be prisons. Known as the First years later there were nearly
constant warfare with France, Caribbean sugar colonies. administered under its own laws. Fleet, these ships carried more 60,000 settlers in Australia.
culminating in an occupation in
1808, when Charles was forced to Meanwhile, in Sweden, Gustav
abdicate (see 1808). III was trying to realize his
imperial ambitions by declaring
In France, as in Britain, there war against Russia without the
was growing public support for approval of parliament. He hoped
the abolition of slavery. The to capture Finnish territory while
Committee for the Abolition of the the Russians were occupied with
Slave Trade had been established their war against Turkey.
in Britain in May 1787 with the aim Gustav’s efforts failed initially due
of ending the slave trade. Shortly to a conspiracy by aristocrats and
afterward, in February 1788, a officers angry at the expansion of
group of Parisian men met to set the Crown’s power at the expense
of the Riksdag (parliament) and
1,487 the nobility. Officers attempted to
negotiate with Catherine the Great
PEOPLE ON FIRST FLEET of Russia without Gustav’s prior
knowledge. Denmark later joined
778 the Russo–Swedish War (to1790)
as an ally of Russia, and laid siege
CONVICTS to the key port of Gothenburg, in
the southwest of Sweden.
First Fleet
Despite its reputation, only about In the neighboring Habsburg
half of those on the First Fleet were Empire, the Magyar (Hungarian)
convicts. The remainder included nobles were unhappy about
marines, crew, and their families. Joseph II’s reforms (see 1765), in
particular the introduction of
German as the official language
of government and secondary
education. Joseph was also
planning to restructure the land

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273

Beam engine beam goes connecting
The engine developed by Thomas back and rod
Newcomen and improved by forth
James Watt works by the beam large flywheel
at the top rocking back and forth, piston rod rotates
which transfers power from a moves up
piston that moves up and down and down
in a cylinder.

steam
condensed in

cylinder

crankshaft
connects
to piston

1679 1698 1765 1801–04
The high-pressure steam engine James Watt’s engine Trevithick’s engine
The first boiler In England, Thomas Savery uses Scottish inventor James Watt English mine engineer
steam power to create “The makes improvements to the Richard Trevithick develops
French inventor Denis Papin Miner’s Friend” to pump water Newcomen engine by adding a smaller, lighter steam engine
out of coal mines, although it a condenser, and develops an and puts it on wheels, creating
designs a device that can was not a success. engine that rotates a shaft a “road locomotive.”
instead of pumping.
convert liquid to vapor, Papin’s

making it the first steam

pressure cooker. digester

1st century CE The Hero 1712 1769–70 1802–07
Hero’s engine engine Newcomen’s engine The steam car The steamboat
The Greek scientist Thomas Savery joins In France, Nicholas Cugot invents In the US, Robert Fulton applies
Hero describes an forces with Thomas a road vehicle that can run on steam power to a passenger
aeolipile, which has a Newcomen and steam by converting it into piston boat, and it proves a success
rotating ball that is they create the action and rotary motion. in sailing against currents.
spun by jets of steam. much-improved
atmospheric steam
pumping engine. Newcomen’s
atmospheric engine

274

THE STORY OF STEAM POWER

THE STORY OF

STEAM POWER

HOW WATER VAPOR WAS UTILIZED TO DRIVE THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Although the power of steam was not harnessed until the 17th century,
scientists had understood its potential for hundreds of years. As far back as
the 1st century CE, the Greek scientist Hero of Alexandria had discussed a
device—the aeolipile—that illustrated the possibilities of water vapor.

The aeolipile worked by heating water in a mounted issue in light of the growing demand for coal Richard Trevithick
sphere that had two bent nozzles. When steam was in Europe during the Industrial Revolution. In addition to developing
released through the nozzles, the sphere would Scientists soon realized that steam could also be the world’s first steam
rotate. Although it had no practical use at the time, used to power engines. Thomas Newcomen had railroad locomotive,
invented a steam engine in 1712, but it was the the English engineer
this was the first indication of experiments with improvements made by James Watt that made Richard Trevithick also
steam power. More dramatic developments took the device more efficient. Watt’s key innovation adapted his high-
place in the 17th century, when the first boiler consisted of condensing steam, so that the engine pressure engine for
was invented. Although it was little more than did not need to heat and cool the cylinder, making use in iron mills and
a pressure cooker, from this point onward, a it far more efficient. Soon, steam power was being steam-powered barges.
steady stream of innovations followed. used to fuel ships and locomotives, enabling them
to travel farther and faster. By the 19th century, it
POWERING INDUSTRY was being used to produce electricity, something
By the 18th century, engineers had realized that continues to the present day, using much of the
how steam-powered devices could be used technology developed over the preceding centuries.
to pump water out of mines—an important

,, IN THE WHOLE HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY
IT WOULD BE DIFFICULT TO FIND A GREATER

,,SINGLE ADVANCE THAN THIS.

L. T. C. Rolt, English writer and engineer, Thomas Newcomen: The Prehistory of Steam, 1963

1819 Savannah 1867 Early 20th century
Crossing the Atlantic steamship The water-tube boiler Geothermal power
The US vessel Savannah In the US, George Babcock Scientists in Lardarello,
becomes the first ship and Stephen Wilcox Babcock and Wilcox Italy, discover Geothermal power station
to cross the Atlantic invent the water-tube steam boiler “geothermal,” or
using steam power as boiler, in which “dry steam,” energy
well as sails. The era of water circulates in and build the first
sails ends soon after. tubes. It is used to power station of its
make electricity in 1882. kind in 1911.

1829 Stephenson’s 1884–97 20th century
Stephenson’s “Rocket” “Rocket” The steam turbine Steam turbines
English engineer Sir Charles Algernon Parsons and nuclear power
George Stephenson develops a steam turbine The Titanic powered by Parson’s Controlled nuclear chain
applies steam power generator, which produces steam turbine reactions create heat in
to locomotives, and his huge amounts of electricity. reactors, which boils water
“Rocket” becomes a It is used to power large to produce steam and drive
commercial success. ships, such as the Titanic. a steam turbine in order to
produce electricity.

275

1789 ,,

,,LIBERTÉ,

EGALITÉ,
FRATERNITÉ!
“Liberty, Equality, Fraternity!”
Rallying cry of the French Revolution, 1789

Representatives of France’s “Third Estate”—the people—swore the “Tennis Court Oath”
not to separate until they had established a constitution in France.

BY 1789, FRANCE’S LOUIS XVI was frustrated Third Estate declared 600 During late July and early August, followed on August 26 by the
facing multiple crises: he was itself a National Assembly and rumors spread throughout the publication of the Declaration
bankrupt from endless warfare, decided to proceed without the THE NUMBER French countryside, which was of the Rights of Man and of the
there was popular unrest, and the nobles and clergy. This prompted OF PEOPLE already in a state of unrest due to Citizen, which proclaimed that
failure of the 1788 grain crop officials to lock them out of their WHO STORMED grain shortages. There were fears “men are born free and remain
meant riots over bread. The usual meeting place, so they THE BASTILLE of bandits sweeping the land and free and equal in rights” and that
decision was made to summon occupied Louis XVI’s indoor tennis stories of crops being burned. “the source of all sovereignty lies
the Estates-General, France’s court and swore an oath on June Storming of the Bastille During this period, known as the essentially in the Nation.”
representative assembly. It had 20 to remain united until they The crowd of around 600 people that Great Fear, panic set in among
not met since 1614, so between produced a constitution for gathered outside the prison calling many peasants, who armed Throughout this period of
January and April elections were France, a pledge that became for its surrender was peaceful at themselves and attacked nobles upheaval, uncensored newspapers
held to select deputies. The known as the Tennis Court Oath. first, but violence soon broke out. and their châteaux. reported events and political
Estates-General was composed of All but one of the 577 deputies clubs formed where people could
three “estates” or orders: the signed; Joseph Martin Dauch By August 4, the National voice their opinions. Despite the
from Castelnaudary refused to Constituent Assembly sought onslaught of new freedoms and
The three estates endorse it because it was not to control the situation and monumental social reform, the
These figures (from left to right) sanctioned by the king. so decreed the abolition of Revolution was in its infancy—
symbolize each of the estates feudalism and the tithe. This was France’s future was far from clear.
representing France: the nobility, Louis XVI felt he had no option
the people, and the clergy. but to give in to the demands of
the Third Estate and urged the
First Estate (the clergy); the nobility and clergy to join what, by
Second Estate (the nobility); and July 9, was named the National
the Third Estate—the people. Constituent Assembly (though
The assembly met at Versailles on it continued to be called the
May 5. The immediate issue was National Assembly).
how much voting power to give
the Third Estate; the First and A few days later, Paris was
Second Estates wanted voting to awash with rumors, including that
be by estate rather than a vote per troops were on their way into the
head, so that they would not be city to disperse the National
outnumbered by the public’s Assembly. In response, on the
representatives. By June 17 the afternoon of July 14, some 600
people armed with weapons
seized from the Hôtel des
Invalides attacked the Bastille,
a medieval fortress used as a
prison. The Bastille held only
seven prisoners at the time of
the attack, but it symbolized the
despotism of the monarchy and
contained ammunition the people
wanted to seize. The uprising, in
which a whole garrison and 98
attackers died, became a defining
moment of the French Revolution,
which was now underway.

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276

1790 1791

General Josiah Harmar met with defeat when he mounted a campaign Plantations go up in flames in Le Cap in the north of Saint-Domingue
against a coalition of American Indians in the Northwest Territory. (Haiti) during the slave rebellion.

NEWS OF THE EVENTS IN PARIS Revolutionary cartoon IN JANUARY, VINCENT OGÉ and 500,000 15 times the population of whites.
spread to French colonies. As the This illustration shows a version of Jean-Baptiste Chavannes Unlike previous revolts, this one
National Assembly knew, slavery the French Revolutionary emblem (c. 1748–1791), who had helped SLAVES would prove unstoppable.
did not sit well with the ideas issuing the famous call for liberty, Ogé organize the 1790 revolt, were
espoused in the Declaration of the equality, and fraternity or death. in hiding in the Spanish colony, 30,000 In France, Louis XVI and his
Rights of Man. Neither did the Santo Domingo. They were, Settlers family had tried to flee to the
inequity that free people of color In the US, General Josiah however, returned by the Spanish Slaves vs. settlers royalist stronghold of Montmédy
faced in France and its empire. Harmar (1753–1813) had been to Saint-Domingue, where their The high number of slaves imported on the eastern border. They
ambushed by a coalition of bones were broken on a wheel to Saint-Domingue to work in the reached Varennes, in the
Part of the French Empire was American Indians. The attack near and their heads placed on sugar industry became a liability northeast of the country, before
Saint-Domingue (Haiti), half of the the Maumee River (Ohio) in the stakes. This was met with outrage when they launched a rebellion. being stopped and forcibly
the island of Hispaniola—the Northwest Territory was led by in France, and by May political returned to Paris. After this failed
other half of the island, Santo Chief Little Turtle (1752–1812). rights were granted to free people speaks in all of us.” A week later, attempt at escape, Louis lost all
Domingo (Dominican Republic), Harmar was ordered to lead an of color, if born of two free parents. Boukman and his followers credibility as a monarch.
belonged to Spain. In 1790, two expedition against the Indians, but launched a massive revolt in the
wealthy mixed-race planters from his force of 1,100 militiamen and Slaves in Saint-Domingue had north of the island. They attacked VOODOO AND
Saint-Domingue, Vincent Ogé 320 troops was forced to retreat. also been hearing a mixture of estates, killed slave owners, SAINT-DOMINGUE
(1750–91) and Julien Raimond news and rumors about events in destroyed tools, and torched cane
(1744–1801) were in Paris, where Paris and begun to hope they fields. They had numbers on their Haitian Voodoo (or Voudou) is
they argued that because they would see abolition. In the end, side: the slave population in Saint- a religion that was born out
were property owners, they ought they decided not to wait for France Domingue was more than of slavery. It draws on a
to be given full rights. Ogé was to grant it to them. range of African traditions,
frustrated by the Assembly’s especially those of Benin, the
failure to confront white planters One hot August evening, a slave former home of many slaves.
on this issue and continued his leader named Dutty Boukman It also incorporates
protest back in Saint-Domingue. (?–1791) gathered slaves at a Catholicism, the religion
He led a revolt of some 200 religious voodoo ceremony in forced on the slaves by their
supporters in the town of Grande- Bois-Caïman and told them to captors, and may also have
Rivière. It was quickly suppressed, “listen to the voice of liberty that links to the practices of the
and Ogé fled to Santo Domingo. indigenous Arawak people.
Tortuga Fort Liberté ATLANTIC OCEAN The Catholic practices slaves
Throughout 1790, the National Port-de-Paix Le Cap (Fort Dauphin) adopted enabled them to
Assembly continued working on a Santiago disguise their true religion
constitution, pushing through the from their masters, with
official ban on the nobility and San Francisco de Macorís Catholic saints standing in
suppressing the religious orders. for Loa (spirits) worshiped
Gonâve SAINT SANTO in Voodoo. This new system
DOMINGUE DOMINGO of belief allowed slaves to
form their own identity and
Hispaniola also provided a way of
organizing resistance, as in
,, Jérémie Port-au-Prince Saint-Domingue.

Santo Domingo

MEN ARE BORN AND REMAIN Cayes
FREE AND IN EQUAL RIGHTS.
SOCIAL DISTINCTIONS MAY Caribbean Sea KEY
BE FOUNDED ONLY UPON THE
Haitian revolution 1791: original centre
,,GENERAL GOOD. The slave revolt in French Saint- of the slave revolt
Domingue later become an
Article 1, Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 1789 international conflict when Britain 1790: border between
and Spain went to war with France. Saint Domingue (French)
and Santo Domingo (Spanish)

1820: border between
the Republic of Haiti and
Santo Domingo (Spanish)

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277

1792 1793

A detail from the painting Battle of Valmy, by French artist This image shows the execution of Louis XVI by guillotine in the Place de la
Emile-Jean-Horace Vernet, shows Prussia’s defeat by France. Révolution, Paris. His wife Marie Antionette was executed a few months later.

EVENTS IN FRANCE TOOK A growing, and on September 2 142.5 ON JANUARY 18, THE NATIONAL of Suspects was passed, which
DRAMATIC TURN on April 20, 1792 an armed group of Parisians CONVENTION OF FRANCE established Revolutionary
when the National Assembly attacked and killed some MILLION condemned Louis XVI to death. On Tribunals. Anyone suspected of
declared war on the Holy Roman prisoners who were being January 21 he was taken to the being an enemy of the Revolution
Empire, perceiving it as a threat. transferred to a different jail. This 1783–84 285 Place de la Révolution, Paris, was tried and if deemed guilty
Emperor Leopold II had signed set off a wave of action, known as where he was guillotined. His received a death sentence.
the Declaration of Pilnitz with the September Massacres, in MILLION wife, Marie Antoinette, remained The activities of hundreds of
Frederick William II of Prussia, which angry mobs in Paris and in prison until October, when she thousands of people were
swearing to defend Louis XVI and elsewhere took suspects from 1792–93 appeared before a Revolutionary monitored, and many were
destroy Paris should anything prison and executed them. tribunal. She met the same fate arrested. The Committee of
befall him. Provoked by the Around 1,200 people were killed Tea export as her husband on October 16. Public Safety, led by Maximilien
French call to war, Austrian and in five days. The British public’s taste for tea
Prussian troops set off for France. became evident, as the pounds of Marie Antoinette’s death Eli Whitney’s cotton gin
The war began with setbacks for tea the East India Company exported occurred during the Reign of This machine separated cotton
News of this enraged the French France, but by September 20, the from China doubled. Terror, which was the result of a seeds from the plant’s fiber more
people, who thought they had French successfully held off the decree on September 5 that made quickly than if done by hand, which
been betrayed by their king and Prussians at the Battle of Valmy, By this point the rest of Europe “terror” the means of governance. increased cotton production greatly.
the aristocracy, and on August 10 in northeastern France, then was concerned about events A couple of weeks later the Law
a group of revolutionaries found attacked the Austrian Netherlands within France and its boldness
Louis XVI when they stormed the winning a victory at Jemappes in beyond its borders, so Holland,
Tuileries Palace. The king and what is now Belgium. In Paris, a Spain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia
the rest of the royal family were new ruling body, the National established the First Coalition,
jailed in the Temple prison. Convention, met and the with Britain joining in 1793. They
following day abolished the fought against France throughout
By early September, fears that constitutional monarchy in favor the following six years during the
royalist prisoners were organizing of establishing a republic. War of the First Coalition.
a counter-revolutionary plot were
Meanwhile, halfway across the
MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1759–97) world, the East India Company
had found that supplying the
Mary Wollstonecraft was an British with Chinese tea—for
English writer and early which they were paying China in
advocate for women’s rights. opium produced in Bengal—was
Deeply influenced by events proving a profitable trade. Exports
in France and subsequent doubled in a decade as the hot
debates in Britain, she drink became popular in Britain
published, A Vindication on the and North America. Conducting
Rights of Woman, in 1792. The business with China, however,
work, calling for the education was complicated for the Company.
system to allow girls the same It was only allowed commercial
advantages as boys, was access through one port, Canton
controversial. It would be many (Guangzhou), as the Chinese kept
years before any changes were strict controls on the entry of
enacted, but the book has foreigners to the rest of the country.
endured as a work of early
feminist philosophy.

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278

1794

MY PEOPLE,

,,I DIE INNOCENT!

Louis XVI of France, before his execution
,,
This detail from a fresco depicts the battle of Raclawice on April 4, 1794, when
,, Polish troops led by General Tadeusz Kosciuszko defeated the Russians.

Robespierre (1758–94), was, 17,000 THE REIGN OF TERROR in France In Saint-Domingue, the former
in effect, in control of the eliminated the enemies of the slave turned military leader,
government. Members of the Committee of Public Safety on General Toussaint Louverture,
same political club as the left and right by 1794. was persuaded to leave the
However, the committee felt Spanish and join French
Robespierre—the Jacobins— THE NUMBER the need to go further and Commissioner Léger-Félicité
also become involved in the suspended a suspect’s Sonthonax (1763–1813) to lead
right to public trial and French Republican troops—though
surveillance of potential suspects. OF PEOPLE legal assistance, with juries he later broke with the French
In Saint-Domingue (Haiti), EXECUTED instructed to issue either (see 1803). Sonthonax was posted
DURING “THE acquittal or death. This to Saint-Domingue in 1792 to keep
fighting on the island was measure was passed in June, the island under control after the
complicated by the arrival of but little more than a month slave rebellion, and to enforce the
later a revolt in the National National Convention’s ruling that
British troops. Prompted by the TERROR” Convention ended the reign of free people of color were to have
French declaration of war in 1792, Robespierre. Known as the equality. However, France’s
Thermidorian Reaction, it refers declaration of war against Britain
Britain hoped to seize control of to 9 Thermidor Year II (July 27, had complicated the situation, and
1794), the date in the French Spain and Britain fought alongside
the island and add it to their other Britain and Spain averted a war Revolutionary Calendar. This the former slaves. This prompted
change to the calendar system Sonthonax to look to existing
Caribbean sugar islands, such over the Nootka Sound in the began in 1792 and lasted until Revolutionary coin slaves as possible troops. In 1793
1806. The calendar began on the The French king Louis XVI was he promised slaves in the north of
as Jamaica. The struggle lasted Pacific, northwest of the American year of the anniversary of the replaced on the country’s coinage by the island freedom if they fought
the figure of Hercules, flanked by for the French cause, and by that
for five years. territory, by signing the Second Maximilien Robespierre Liberty and Equality. August he decreed the abolition
The head of the Committee of Public of slavery, ratified by the National
In the US, Eli Whitney (1765– Nootka Sound Convention. Safety tried to eliminate his proclamation of the Republic Convention on February 4, 1794.
enemies, but he ended up dying (September 21, also the autumn
1825) perfected a machine called Another agreement was signed on the guillotine. equinox). Each month was 30 days Meanwhile, in Poland, anger
long, and was divided into had mounted over the devastating
the cotton gin, which he patented the following year in which Spain “decades” of 10 days. partition the previous year, and
patriots organized the Polish
the following year. Many planters capitulated to British demands. On July 27, Robespierre was Rebellion of 1794. Despite an
arrested and he and another 100 initial victory in Russian-held
wanted to diversify into the cotton The diplomatic standoff—which supporters faced the same Warsaw, the Poles were crushed
guillotine used on their enemies. by Russia’s forces.
trade, but the long-staple variety eventually involved the European
This was a turning point in the
of cotton grown—which yields allies of both sides—had started French Revolution, as the National
Convention asserted its strength,
long, silky fibers—could only be in 1789 when Spain seized three but the Terror had exacted a high
price—some 17,000 people were
cultivated near the coast. Heavily British ships sailing nearby. This officially executed and hundreds
of thousands arrested.
seeded short-staple cotton— escalated into a battle of words

producing shorter fibers—was the over who had the right to settle

only other option, but removing in that territory.

the seeds was a laborious and In China, East India Company

time-consuming task. Whitney’s officer George Macartney (1737–

machine, however, combed cotton 1806) had arrived in Beijing

very quickly, and it led to the (Peking) in 1792 with a party of

development of the cotton 94 people and a range of British

industry in the American South. goods. He was finally presented to

Back in Europe, Poland faced a the emperor Quinlong (1735–99)

second partition, this time with in September 1793. The British

Prussia and Russia taking some government and the East India ,,I WAS BORN A SLAVE,

115,000 square miles (300,000sq Company were eager to expand BUT NATURE GAVE ME A
SOUL OF A FREE MAN…
km), leaving Poland a fraction of trade between Britain and China,
Toussaint Louverture, former slave and military leader
its former size. Poland ceded but Qing officials were not

eastern provinces from Livonia to interested and they refused to

Moldavia to Russia, while Prussia negotiate a treaty.

was given Great Poland, Torun,

and the port city of Gdansk.

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279

1795 1796 1797

A view of the island of Penang, north of the Dutch settlement of Malacca. The One of a series of portraits depicting the Persian Shah’s family and harem. A painting of Marquis Wellesley
Strait of Malacca remains a key trade route linking Europe and Africa to China. It was commissioned by Fat’h Ali Shah, the second Qajar ruler. viewing an elephant fight.

THE SECOND PARTITION OF 300,000 OVER A YEAR AFTER SETTING OUT Austria recognized the French A PERIOD OF AGGRESSIVE
POLAND had sparked an uprising to find the Niger River, Mungo puppet state, the Cisalpine EXPANSION of Britain’s territorial
in 1794 led by Polish officer THE NUMBER Park (1771–1806), a Scottish Republic, and ceded the Austrian claims in Bengal began when
Tadeusz Kościuszko (1746–1817). OF NEWSPAPERS surgeon and explorer, finally Netherlands (Belgium) to France. Irish nobleman Richard Wellesley
After eight months of fighting, SOLD EACH located it. He had been sent on (1760–1842) was appointed
a Prussian–Russian alliance DAY IN the expedition by the Association In Persia, a new dynasty—the Governor-General of Bengal
defeated the Poles, and the Third REVOLUTIONARY for Promoting the Discovery of Qajar—was established. The in 1797. He left for Calcutta in
Partition of 1795 occurred. This FRANCE the Interior Parts of Africa, in leader, Agha Mohammad Khan November and set about
saw the remaining Polish territory AROUND 1795 order to “ascertain the course” (1742–97), had spent the past increasing British territory
divided among Russia, Prussia, of this large African river. He decade attempting to unite through both military and
and Austria. After this final the whole island of Hispaniola, embarked from the River Gambia disparate factions in the region, diplomatic channels.
partition, Poland ceased to exist. although the fighting that had in 1795, and on July 20, after eventually asserting his authority
begun in Saint-Domingue showed prolonged illness and four months over territory as far as Georgia in During his term as governor
Elsewhere in Europe, the War of few signs of abating. spent captive, he reached Ségou the Caucasus mountains. He (1797–1805), some of the most
the First Coalition was drawing to (in present-day Mali), which lies declared himself shah (king) in powerful rulers in India were
a close, negotiated partially with In Jamaica, the peace that had on the river. 1796, but died the next year. His defeated—including Tipu Sultan,
three treaties under the Peace of been established in 1739 between family continued to rule until 1925. who was known as the Tiger of
Basel. These agreements gave the British and former runaway The first documented Mysore (see 1761 and 1799).
German lands west of the Rhine slaves, known as maroons (from inoculation was completed by Farther east, China was in the This period also saw efforts to
River to France, and ended the Spanish word for runaways, British physician Edward Jenner throes of a rebellion. The White professionalize the East India
Franco–Spanish fighting around cimarrón) ended. Maroons had (1749–1823) on May 14. In an Lotus, a secret Buddhist sect, Company. These included setting
the Pyrenees mountains through initially invaded and raided attempt to prevent the deadly sought to overthrow their Manchu up a college in order to teach
Spain’s cessation of Santo colonists but, on signing a treaty smallpox virus, which had killed rulers and restore the previous junior clerks subjects such as
Domingo to France. This meant that granted them land and thousands across Europe, Jenner ruling dynasty, the Ming. The Indian languages, though some of
the French now had control of autonomy, had largely desisted. experimented by using cowpox, a White Lotus attracted much these measures were considered
However, in 1795, an incident in similar but less lethal virus often support, but ultimately failed after controversial at the time.
Maroon colony, Jamaica which the British severely whipped contracted by milking infected eight years of fighting.
This engraving shows a maroon two maroons for stealing pigs animals. His experiment entailed
settlement in Jamaica. Maroons triggered a revolt. Fearful that the inoculating eight-year-old James NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1769–1821)
were former runaway slaves who island could follow the example of Phipps with cowpox taken from
had established their own autonomy. Saint-Domingue, the governor Sarah Nelmes, a dairymaid. The Napoleon Bonaparte was
brought in troops to suppress it. early success of this experiment born in Corsica and educated
Upon surrender, some maroons led to the development of the in France, where he became
were shipped to Nova Scotia. modern vaccine. an army officer in 1785. His
successful campaign in Italy
Farther afield, the Dutch- In Europe, French army (1796–97) was followed by
controlled Cape of Good Hope in commander Napoleon further military and political
South Africa and the port of Bonaparte (see panel, right) took victories. In 1804, he was
Malacca in the Strait of Malacca, charge of the French army in declared emperor and led
which connects the Indian and northern Italy in March. He was France on to more battles,
Pacific Oceans, were seized given orders to seize Lombardy, though with diminishing
by the British. and went on to win many victories success, draining the nation’s
over the Austrian army, resources and ultimately
subsequently forcing Austria into leading to his downfall. He died
peace negotiations. The result in exile on the remote island of
was the Treaty of Campo Formio, St. Helena, in the South Atlantic.
signed the following year, in which

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280

1798 1799
,,
,,THE REVOLUTION

IS OVER. I AM THE
REVOLUTION.

Napoleon Bonaparte, 1799

This painting shows the destruction of the French flagship L’Orient during the
Battle of the Nile, Egypt, where Britain’s Royal Navy destroyed France’s fleet.

DESPITE THE TERMINATION OF 10–25 named the island off India’s coast ONCE NAPOLEON BONAPARTE had While in Egypt, French soldiers
the War of the First Coalition in Ceylon, and ran its administration returned to France from Egypt, had unearthed an object that
1795, France still considered THOUSAND from Madras. By 1798, the British he began to focus on his political transformed the understanding of
Britain an enemy. The French had begun to realize the strategic future, and was soon plotting a the ancient world. A block of black
mooted the idea of a possible ESTIMATED importance of the island, and coup d’état that involved granite inscribed with strange
invasion, but it was ultimately NUMBER Frederick North (1766–1827) was dissolving the Directory, the body writing, it was named the Rosetta
rejected due to Britain’s superior OF IRISH sent there as the colony’s first that had been governing the Stone after the town where it
sea power and naval defenses. DEAD AFTER governor. Not all of Ceylon was country since 1795. The outcome was found. It fell into British
Seeking a way to get around the THE REBELLION under British control, however. of the 18 Brumaire Coup of possession by 1801, although
Royal Navy—as well as disrupt The kingdom of Kandy, whose November 9 was that the it took years of study before
valuable trade—Napoleon French forces were completely subjects occupied the interior of Directory was replaced with the anyone was able to translate it.
proposed to attack the British on destroyed by the British navy, the island, remained independent. Consulate, and Napoleon took Eventually scholars established
the colonial front in India, via under the command of Horatio Their autonomy would become a charge of France as First Consul. a relationship between the
Egypt, which he also hoped to Nelson (1758–1805), at the Battle cause for concern for British three scripts on the stone:
conquer. Setting off from France, of the Nile. Napoleon and his governors in Ceylon. The Rosetta Stone hieroglyphics, demotic script
he took 35,000 troops, capturing troops were left stranded in Egypt, The translations between three
the Mediterranean island of Malta but the defeat and humiliation At the same time, in Ireland, different scripts on this large piece (Egyptian handwriting used
along the way. Upon reaching did little to hamper the French resentment at British rule had of granite unlocked the world of in everyday life), and Greek.
Alexandria in July, Napoleon commander’s imperial ambitions. turned to rebellion, led by hieroglyphics and ancient Egypt. It became clear that this
quickly defeated Mameluke nationalists called the
troops at the Battle of the In 1796, the British had taken Society of United discovery would permit
Pyramids. However, on August 1, advantage of warfare in Europe to Irishmen. Headed by the transcription of
wrest the island of Sri Lanka from Theobald Wolfe Tone
Irish Revolt Dutch control, meeting with very (1763–98) and James hieroglyphics, a type of
Protestant prisoners, suspected of little resistance. The British Napier Tandy (1740– communication not used
being loyal to British rule, were 1803), the group had since the 4th century CE.
executed by Irish nationalists in made numerous Deciphering the stone
Wexford during the revolt. attempts to enlist provided a window into
the support of Egyptian antiquity.
Revolutionary France, In India, soldiers
but the British, for the East India
learning of these Company emerged
plots, had forced the victorious from a
rebels to change their violent battle with the
plans. They decided fearsome Tipu Sultan
to rise up, although (1750–99), the ruler of
lacking French Mysore. Tipu had
reinforcements, and made alliances with
managed to seize French troops in India,
control of County and on this pretext the
Wexford. A French
expeditionary force sent British Governor-General
to assist them was intercepted by Richard Wellesley (see 1797)
British troops and the revolt soon authorized the Fourth Mysore
collapsed. Tone committed suicide War, intent on driving out the
while awaiting his execution. French and annexing the territory.
Tipu was killed in battle, and the
East India Company took half
of his territory.

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281

1750–1913 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

THE STORY OF

MEDICINE

ANCIENT BELIEFS GIVE WAY TO SCIENTIFIC ADVANCES, TRANSFORMING HUMAN HEALTH

Understanding of the human body and disease made important advances
during the 18th and 19th centuries, laying the foundation for modern
medical care. Ancient practices, such as bloodletting to cure illness, were
replaced with ones that were born of a more rigorous scientific approach.

People have attempted to treat disease since the introduction of antiseptic techniques and paper tube
prehistoric times, but until the 18th century anesthetics, and the use of X-rays to image the
medicine was based largely on superstition, body. Around 1900, pharmacology began to make wooden unit
natural remedies, and unscientific practices and great progress, with the invention of aspirin in 1897 tube housing
theories, such as the theory that the body had four and the first synthetic antibacterial drug in 1908. sound
fluids (humors) that needed to be in balance for During the 20th century, more vaccines and drugs sensor
health. There had been progress in anatomy and were developed, such as antibiotics and anticancer
surgery, but overall, medicine remained primitive. drugs. Surgical techniques also became more Monaural Electronic
sophisticated; successful organ transplants were stethoscope stethoscope
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN MEDICINE performed, and keyhole surgery became routine. In
In the 18th century, medicine started to become diagnosis, scanning techniques were invented, and THE STETHOSCOPE
more scientifically rigorous, and significant screening became widely used. From the late 20th
advances were made, such as the development of a century, genetics also began to have a significant The stethoscope was invented in 1816 by French
vaccine for smallpox in 1796. The 19th century saw impact on medicine as genetic causes of diseases physician René Laennec, who used a simple tube
the establishment of the germ theory of disease, were discovered and genetic testing was developed. (a monaural stethoscope) to listen to a woman’s
chest. In 1851, British physician Arthur Leared
,, THE DEVIATION OF MAN FROM THE invented the binaural stethoscope, with an earpiece
STATE IN WHICH HE WAS ORIGINALLY PLACED for each ear, and, in the 1940s, Americans Maurice
BY NATURE SEEMS TO HAVE PROVED TO HIM Rappaport and Howard Sprague developed the
modern acoustic stethoscope, which has two
,,A PROLIFIC SOURCE OF DISEASES. “bells,” one for listening to the heart, the other for
listening to the lungs. The latest development is
Edward Jenner, English surgeon, An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae, or Cow-Pox, 1798 the electronic stethoscope, which uses an
electronic sound sensor and amplifier.

c. 5100–4900 BCE Trepanned c. 420 BCE 1543 De Humani Corporis Fabrica 1818
Neolithic trepanation skull Hippocrates develops Andreas Vesalius First blood transfusion
Trepanation, which diagnostics The Brussels-born British obstetrician
involves drilling holes Hippocrates, the Greek surgeon writes his James Blundell performs
in the skull, is used physician considered to influential anatomical the first successful
as far back as the be the father of modern work, with accurate human-to-human blood
Neolithic period to medicine, moves health diagrams of human transfusion, using a
treat a variety of away from religion and anatomy based on many syringe to transfer blood
health problems. into the realm of science. dissections and operations. between the patients.

c. 1550–700 BCE c. 1000–1300 1796
Arab medical advances Vaccination
Ancient Egyptian surgery The Arab world adds to medical British scientist Edward
progress with the development Jenner develops a vaccine
Medical and especially of pharmacists, who work for smallpox. It is the
with plants and use them first vaccine created
surgical knowledge to find new cures. for any disease, and
Jenner’s work saves
advances due to Arabic medical manuscript countless lives.

the practice of

mummification, which

gives doctors greater Jenner’s
inoculation point
insight into anatomy. Egyptian knives and curettes

282

switch THE STORY OF MEDICINE
for fan
roller
clockwork motor gears for
powering fan

crank for winding
clockwork motor

housing of fan

outlet for hammer to tap Antiseptic machine
antiseptic antiseptic powder Patented by British surgeon Anthony Bell in 1879,
container this device was used to make the air in operating
spray rooms free of disease-causing microorganisms.
container for Using a clockwork-powered fan, the machine blows
antiseptic powder antiseptic powder and carbolic acid into the air.

1865–67 1881 Blood pressure 1954 Late 20th century 21st century Robotic suturing
Antisepsis Blood pressure apparatus Organ transplant Keyhole surgery Robotic surgery
British surgeon Joseph The first successful organ Developments in
Lister pioneers measurement transplant between living Laparoscopic (keyhole) robotics allow for
antiseptic surgery by Samuel von Basch patients (a kidney transplant surgery becomes widely more precise, less
using a solution of invents a noninvasive between identical twins) is invasive surgery,
carbolic acid to kill way of measuring blood carried out in Boston by a team used after the first with faster healing
infectious organisms pressure using a bulb led by Joseph Murray, J. Hartwell laparoscopic appendix and less pain for
during operations. Harrison, and John P. Merrill.
connected to an removal using a the patient.
anaeroid manometer. microchip camera is

performed in 1981.

1846–47 1901 Blood 1971 and 1977 MRI scan
Practical anesthesia Blood types identified bag CT and MRI scans
In 1846, US dentist Henry Morgan US scientist Karl
publicly uses ether for Landsteiner publishes his British scientist
anesthesia. In 1847, Scottish discovery of the four main Godfrey Hounsfield
doctor James Simpson human blood groups (A, B,
uses chloroform. AB, O), which allows for invents the first
more successful commercial CT scanner
Chloroform inhaler transfusions.
in 1971. The first MRI
scan of a human is
carried out in 1977.

283

1800 1801 1802 1803

The Battle of Marengo was a victory An engraving depicting peace celebrations in Milan, Italy, after the Treaty of The mausoleum of emperor and Jean-Jacques Dessalines who fought
for France over Austria. for Haitian independence.
Lunéville, in which Austria was forced to recognize France’s growing borders. Nguyen dynasty founder, Gia Long.

AS A NEW CENTURY BEGAN, unrest IN THE AFTERMATH OF THE IRISH THOMAS JEFFERSON AFTER 30 YEARS OF CIVIL WAR, IN SAINT-DOMINGUE (HAITI), THE
in Europe continued. Despite REBELLION (see 1798), British (1743–1826) Vietnam was united under the ONGOING WAR TOOK A DECISIVE
previous treaties, French military prime minister William Pitt the leadership of Nguyen Phuc Anh turn with the capture and exile of
action increased in aggression. Younger concluded that the Virginia-born planter and (1762–1820), a powerful general General Toussaint Louverture
Mistrust of France prompted the solution to the “Irish question” slave-owner Thomas who, with the help of French in 1803. He had joined the French
formation of the Second Coalition was a political union. In 1800 a bill Jefferson was a leading mercenaries, was able to defeat Republican cause ten years
in 1798; by 1799, it comprised outlining these plans was republican and one of the the rival Trinh family. Nguyen Anh earlier (see 1793) and drove out
Austria, Britain, Russia, Portugal, presented to the Irish parliament. primary authors of the declared himself emperor, the remaining British forces on
Naples, and the Ottoman Empire. After much controversy, the bill United State’s Declaration of taking the name Gia Long, and the island, before taking up the
On 14 June, Napoleon scored a was passed. The Act of Union, Independence. He remained reestablished the Nguyen family title of governor in 1801.
significant victory against Austria also approved by the British politically powerful all as the ruling dynasty. Napoleon was, however,
in the Battle of Marengo, the Government, came into effect on through his life, serving as displeased with Louverture’s
result of which was French control 1 January 1801. It saw the Irish vice-president (1797–1801) Ongoing warfare in Europe successes and was infuriated
of northern Italy. parliament closed down and and president (1801–09). Yet and further afield came to when he defied orders, riding into
representation moved to London, for all the influence of his an end with the Treaty of Santo Domingo – then under
Spain, meanwhile, had done where 32 Irish peers were put in writings on issues like liberty, Amiens. Signatories included French control – and freeing the
little to develop its Louisiana the House of Lords and 100 MPs he did not free his own slaves Britain, France, Spain, and the slaves. In 1802, Napoleon
territory in North America, lacking in the House of Commons. Pitt during his lifetime. Netherlands (which was known reinstated slavery and sent
the resources to settle it. So when had hoped the move would allow as the Batavian Republic from 25,000 troops to reclaim the
Napoleon put pressure on Charles the granting of concessions to In Vienna, composer Ludwig 1795 until 1806). island. After months of fighting,
IV to return Louisiana, the Spanish Catholics, but the bill maintained a van Beethoven (1770–1827) Louverture was invited to
monarch obliged. Under the terms ban on their holding public office. finished composing his Piano Under the terms of the treaty, negotiate a settlement. He was
of the secret Treaty of San Sonata 14 in C-sharp Minor Op. 27 Britain kept the colonies of then seized and exiled. The battle
Ildefonso, Napoleon agreed In Europe, Austria’s defeat at No 2, known as the “Moonlight Trinidad, which had been taken for abolition then fell to his deputy
not to give the land to Marengo in 1800 forced them to Sonata”, which became one of his from Spain, and Ceylon, which Jean-Jacques Dessalines.
a third power. accept the Treaty of Lunéville, most famous works and is had been captured from the
which recognized France’s frontiers thought to be dedicated to his Dutch. Egypt was restored to the With most of Napoleon’s troops
Napoleon’s to the Rhine, Alps, and Pyrenees. pupil, the Countess Giulietta Ottoman Empire, and France in Saint-Domingue killed on the
sabre used at Gucciardi, who did not return agreed to relinquish Malta. This battlefield or ravaged by yellow
Marengo Russia, meanwhile, was his affections. state of affairs was short-lived. fever, Dessalines’ men drove out
Sabres were much expanding to the south, the remaining soldiers. French
in use during encroaching on the kingdoms of The United States saw the France and Britain at the table reinforcements were held up by a
Napoleon’s wars and Kartalinia-Kakhetia (present- election of Thomas Jefferson A political cartoon of Britain’s British blockade of French ports
were carried by both day eastern Georgia). In a 1783 (see panel, above) as the country’s William Pitt and France’s Napoleon as part of the ongoing war, and
cavalry and infantry. third president. Bonaparte carving up the globe France abandoned the island.
treaty, the ruling Bagratid around the Peace of Amiens.
dynasty agreed to Russian The cost of fighting in Haiti had
put further strain on France’s
protection, in return for troubled finances and it occurred
assurances that its territorial to Napoleon that he could raise
integrity would be revenue by selling the large and
mostly undeveloped land
preserved. However, controlled by France in North
Russian emperor Paul I America. The US had become
(1754–1801), who had interested in the Louisiana
territory, especially the port of
succeeded Catherine the New Orleans as more people
Great upon her death in
1796, decided to
formally annex
the territory.

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284

1804 1805

FREEDOM,,

,,OR DEATH!

Inscription from Haiti’s Act of
Independence and on Haitian flag

A sketch of an evergreen shrub leaf from William Clark’s diary. He and This painting shows the aftermath of the Battle of Trafalgar, in which France
Meriwether Lewis spent years exploring the vast Louisiana territory. and Spain suffered heavy losses at the hands of Britain’s Royal Navy.

Fort Canoe Fort Mandan AFTER FINALLY and William Clark (1770–1838) FRANCE’S DEFEAT IN THE UK
Clatsop Camp DRIVING THE FRENCH —set off on an expedition through CARIBBEAN at Saint-Domingue Dead
LOUISIANA TE OUT of Saint- the newly acquired Louisiana was soon overshadowed by victory
Camp Fortunate Domingue, Territory (see map, left). They against Russia and Austria, which UK
Jean-Jacques were under instructions from had been pulled back into war. Wounded
RRITORY St Louis Dessalines declared the President Thomas Jefferson to Napoleon had also declared
independence of the new find the Missouri River, establish himself the king of Italy, then France
KEY republic of Haiti on 1 relations with the indigenous comprising Venice and northern Dead
January 1804. The name people of the region, and find the Italian kingdoms. This act
Territory gained was based partly on the fabled Northwest Passage. They provoked the formation of a Third France
by US from original indigenous name for made detailed maps and recorded Coalition against France, with Wounded
France in 1803 the island. It was the first— the flora and fauna of the region. Britain, Austria, Russia, and
and only—former slave colony to The two explorers finally returned Sweden as members. Deciding Spain
Onward route of Lewis and Clark throw off colonial rule and slavery. to St. Louis in 1806. against an invasion of Britain, Dead
Despite this, its birth was met Bonaparte sent forces to Ulm,
Territory gained by the US with a wary reception—some in In West Africa, Usman dan Bavaria (September 25–October Spain
The massive Louisiana territory the slave-owning US did not Fodio (1754–1817), a Muslim 20), where he was victorious. Wounded
almost doubled the size of the US. want Haiti setting an example to scholar and teacher, began a However, the day after the Battle
The following year it was extended the southern states, a concern four-year jihad (holy war) of Ulm ended, France suffered a 0 1000 2000
south to include New Orleans. shared by Britain, whose slave that resulted in the creation of the humiliating naval defeat at the
colony of Jamaica was also in Sokoto Caliphate in 1808 and hands of the British in the Battle CASUALTIES
settling further west came to close proximity. the Fulani empire in Hausaland of Trafalgar, under the command
depend on trade along the The defeat in the Caribbean (in present-day northern Nigeria). Casualties of Trafalgar
Mississippi River. On May 2 a deal, did little to weaken Napoleon’s influenced by Roman law, and This sea battle saw heavy losses for
the Louisiana Purchase, was stranglehold on power in NAPOLEONIC CODE declared all men equal, ending France and Spain, though British
signed in which the United States Europe. In 1804, he made any hereditary nobility. Women Admiral Horatio Nelson was among
bought the territory stretching France a hereditary empire, One of Napoleon Bonaparte’s fared less well, as they were the dead.
from the Gulf of Mexico to the ostensibly to ward off any most far-reaching reforms was put under male control.
Rocky Mountains—an area of assassination attempts, to codify French law. Enacted The laws also dealt with of Napoleon’s old enemy, Horatio
829,000 square miles (2,147,000 but also to showcase his in 1804, the Napoleonic Code issues such as property rights, Nelson (see 1798). The battle,
square kilometres). The price own might. The coronation (Code Napoléon) was a civil marriage, and civil rights. The fought near Cape Trafalgar,
agreed was $15,000,000, but, ceremony on December 2 code created with the intention Napoleonic Code was between Cadiz, Spain, and the
including interest, the total paid was remarkable as of breaking from the disseminated throughout Strait of Gibraltar, saw the
was closer to $27,000,000. Napoleon was not institutions of the past. Based French-controlled territory in meeting of 18 French and 15
crowned by Pope Pius VII on reason, it was also heavily Europe and beyond, making it Spanish ships against 27 British
Napoleon faced further (1742–1823) who officated, but highly influential – an adapted vessels. Britain was victorious,
challenges in Europe as Britain placed the crown on his own head, version is still in force in the capturing or destroying 18 ships,
declared war on France, crowning himself Napoleon I. In Dominican Republic today. but Nelson, fatally wounded in
beginning the Napoleonic Wars. this year he also made sweeping It was also later adopted by action, died before the end of the
Meanwhile, British East India reforms to the legal system in some of the new Latin battle. Napoleon decided to
Company troops were waging France and French territories, American republics, change tactics and turned to
another war involving the internal known as the Napoleonic Code including Bolivia and Chile. Europe, occupying Vienna and
politics of the Maratha (see panel, right). defeating Russia and Austria
Confederacy, the Second Maratha In the US, two explorers— at the Battle of Austerliz on
War (to 1805). The Company’s Meriwether Lewis (1774–1809) December 2.
attempt to gain control of the
territory in India only laid the In Egypt, the Macedonian-born
ground for further conflict. soldier Muhammad Ali (1769–
1849) was named viceroy, or
pasha, to the Ottoman sultan.
Ali had arrived in Egypt in 1801
as part of a regiment sent to
drive out the French.

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285

1806 1807 1808 1809

,, YOU MAY CHOOSE TO LOOK

,,THE OTHER WAY BUT YOU CAN

NEVER SAY AGAIN THAT YOU
DID NOT KNOW.

William Wilberforce, to the English parliament prior
to the vote on the Abolition Bill, 1789

Napoleon after his victory at the Francisco Goya’s painting The Third of May depicts the French troops
Battle of Jena in Saxony. executing Spanish insurgents involved in the Madrid uprising.

PRUSSIA SUFFERED A THE LONG BATTLE LED BY English Elite force ALREADY IN CONTROL OF MOST of LONG-STANDING ENEMIES, Spain
DEVASTATING defeat against abolitionist and politician William A Janissary, left, in Cairo. Initially western and central Europe, and Britain now fought alongside
France at the Battle of Jena on Wilberforce (1759–1833)—and the bodyguards of the sultan, the Napoleon now turned toward the each other as they united against
October 14. Fought in Jena and the thousands of members of the Jannissaries became the elite Iberian Peninsula. Enraged by the France. British troops met early
Auserstädt in Saxony (southeast British public who supported his troops of the Ottoman Empire army. Portuguese refusal to back a defeat at the Battle of La Coruña,
Germany), 122,000 French troops campaign—finally came to fruition French boycott against Britain, he northwest Spain, fighting French
and 114,000 Prussians met in in 1807 as the bill to abolish the the Treaties of Tilsit on July 7, sent troops into Portugal via troops under Napoleon’s direct
combat. As a result, Frederick slave trade was passed with an while Prussia signed the other northern Spain. The presence of command. Britain was
William III (1770–1840) decided overwhelming majority. The on July 9. Under the terms of French troops, as well as previous subsequently victorious at the
that internal reform in Prussia legislation, however, only ended the treaties, France and Russia unpopular concessions to France, Battle of Talavera (July 27–28),
was necessary in order to bolster the trade in Britain. It did not end formed an alliance, while the provoked the Spanish people to southwest of Madrid, under the
the country’s flagging fortunes. the practice of slavery. territories of Austria and Prussia rise up, calling for the abdication leadership of Arthur Wellesley
Among the numerous measures were significantly reduced. of their monarch, Charles IV, in (1769–1852), later known as the
taken, serfdom was abolished. Russia, alongside Prussia, had favor of his son, Ferdinand VII Duke of Wellington.
Although the transition later proved reentered the hostilities against In the Ottoman Empire, (1784–1833). Ferdinand took the
profitable for agriculture, it took France with the Battle of Eylau auxiliary troops called Yamaks throne, but it was to be very The Spaniards, while fighting the
years to implement the changes. (February 7–8) in eastern Prussia. erupted into a revolt over short-lived. French, had also been establishing
The battle was inconclusive and attempts to introduce European- provincial bodies, called juntas, in
In addition to his other resulted in a stalemate, with both style reforms to the military. Lured to Bayonne, France, by order to organize their resistance.
conquests, Napoleon wanted sides losing more than 20,000 They were soon joined by the Napoleon’s offer to mediate, The central junta in Spain had
control of the Holy Roman troops. After a decisive Russian elite Janissary soldiers. The Ferdinand VII was forced to also issued a decree declaring the
Empire, which would expand his defeat at the later Battle of unrest culminated in the abdicate. As Charles VII had American territories to be more
territory in Germany. Emperor Friedland, Russia signed one of assassination of Selim III already abdicated, Napoleon was than just colonies, but still a part
Francis II (1768–1835) was in (1761–1808). now able to declare his brother, of the monarchy. Across the
no position to challenge France Joseph Bonaparte (1768–1844), Atlantic it was obvious that there
and abdicated, officially ending the new king of Spain, triggering was a crisis of legitimacy in
the empire, of which France the Peninsular War. When news Spanish rule—without a king, to
took possession. of these events reached Spain’s whom did allegiance lie? While
colonies, there were furious debates about this were underway,
In the Middle East, the Islamic outbursts. In Santo Domingo, similar American juntas were set
holy pilgrimage site of Mecca was loyalists mounted the War of up, and it soon it became clear that
invaded by members of the Reconquest (to 1809), driving out not all the colonies would stay on
Arabian Saudi dynasty who the occupying French troops and the path of loyalty to the Crown.
practiced a strict version of the declaring the island once more
religion known as Wahhabi. In under Spanish control. Pistol from Peninsular War
1805, they had captured Medina, Flintlock pistols were widely used in
which, like Mecca, was under the hammer this period. The term “guerrilla” also
control of the Ottoman Empire. arose, named for Spanish tactics.
They also made incursions into
the Arabian Peninsula, sacking ramrod
the city of Karbala, in Iraq (also
under Ottoman rule), and
extending their influence south
to Yemen, a cause for concern
among Ottoman officials.

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1810 1811 1812

A mural by José Clemente Orozco (1883–1949) depicting Miguel Hidalgo, A caricature compares the Luddites When Napoleon Bonaparte’s troops arrived in Moscow, they found the city
whose anticolonial document sparked the Mexican War of Independence. to mobs of the French Revolution. ablaze, as portrayed by this painting by Jean-Charles Langlois (1789–1870).

KEY ON JULY 5, THE SOUTH AMERICAN RUSSIA, LIKE PORTUGAL, DECIDED humiliating retreat in December.
TERRITORY of Venezuela joined to resist Napoleon’s Continental Only around 30,000 French
Spanish territory New Granada (see map, left) and System, measures intended to soldiers survived.
Mexico in declaring independence damage the economy of Britain.
Portuguese territory UNITED STATES from Spain. One of the rebels Russia had withdrawn from it in In North America, merchants
involved in the deliberations for 1810, and Napoleon resolved to prospered in their trade with
VICEROYALTY ATL A NTI C independence, Simón Bolívar mount an invasion in retaliation. France, claiming to be a neutral
OF NEW SPAIN OCEAN (see panel, below), had recently He sent more than 500,000 party in the dispute between the
returned from England, where troops to Russia in June and won British and the French. Britain
Latin America on the Havana CUBA he had tried to elicit British early victories at the battles of refused to recognize this
Mexico City Santo support for their cause, but he Smolensk on August 17 and neutrality and began to seize
Domingo was unsuccessful. Borodino on September 7, American ships, often capturing
arriving with his forces in Moscow the American sailors and pressing
eve of independence Guatemala City Caracas BRITISH GUIANA Bolívar’s trip was confined on September 14. There they them into service with the British
Spain and Portugal still Cartagena FRENCH GUIANA to London, but had he traveled found the city gutted, and its Royal Navy. This triggered the
controlled the majority farther north, he would have inhabitants gone. Russian troops War of 1812 (to 1814), which also
of Central and South Panama seen rebels of another kind: the held off any further advance, and included battles on the mainland
Bogotá group known as the Luddites, as the brutal Russian winter set where Britain persuaded
who were attacking textile mills in, Napoleon’s troops began to American Indians loyal to the
VICEROYALTY OF Quito in the industrial north of England. falter. The Grand Armée was Crown to attack settlements in
NEW GRANADA The Luddites aimed to destroy the running short on food and the Northwest Territory.
new machinery in the mills. They many soldiers, unaccustomed
America during the PACIFIC VICEROYALTY feared the machines would to such extreme cold, died. In Spain, the Cortes had finally
early days of the OCEAN eventually replace them, thereby Napoleon had no other option produced a constitution. It limited
Peninsular War. Lima OF BRAZIL Salvador forcing them into unemployment but to make a the power of the monarchy—
Cuzco and poverty. although Ferdinand VII was still in
exile—and did not provide any
La Paz special representation in the
Cortes for the nobility or the
Potosí Rio de Janeiro clergy. Its liberal ideas provoked
an angry reaction among some
VICEROYALTY supporters of the Crown and

OF PERU VICEROYALTY OF THE Church, and triggered
a long-running fight
USING THE EXISTING POLITICAL Santiago RÍO DE LA PLATA between liberals
CHAOS as an opportunity for and conservatives,
reform, Spanish politicians called Buenos Montevideo
which would continue
Aires for decades.
In Egypt, Muhammad
a congress, known as a Cortes, Ali was ordered on a
campaign to reestablish
on September 24 in the port of Ottoman rule in the holy
city of Mecca, and drive
Cadiz. Deputies numbered 104, out the Wahhabis, who had
seized much of Arabia. His troops
with 30 representing the colonial took Medina in 1812 , and Jeddah
and Mecca the following year.
territories, although more arrived document calling for the end of

later. The Cortes declared itself Spanish rule, while advocating

the source of national sovereignty racial equality and land

and began to draw up a redistribution, an act known as

constitution, although Spaniards the Grito de Dolores (Cry of SIMON BOLIVAR (1783–1830)

were divided as to the extent they Dolores). Thousands responded to

wished the government to be his call and set off for Mexico City, Simón Bolívar was born in
Caracas to a wealthy family.
restructured. There was also the where they were put down by He was sent to Europe at 16,
where he was inspired by the
question of how much political loyalist troops the following year. writings of Enlightenment
thinkers on the issue of
representation to allow overseas But Hidalgo’s actions had sparked liberty. Soon after returning
to South America in 1807,
territories. The colonies the Mexican struggle for freedom. he became involved in
independence conspiracies.
represented a population far In other Spanish colonies, Later known as El Libertador,
he led much of northern South
greater than Spain’s, meaning similar upheavals took place. The America to independence from
Spain. He also ruled Gran
they could, in theory, dominate the viceroyalty of New Granada also Colombia, but the political
union ultimately failed.
Cortes. The peninsular politicians declared its independence on July

wished to avoid this, yet needed 20, and there had been uprisings

the colonies’ continued support. in Quito and Buenos Aires.

Some members of the public in Meanwhile, on the Hawaiian

the colonies began taking matters islands in the Pacific Ocean, King

into their own hands. In Dolores, Kamehameha I (1758–1819)

Mexico, a parish priest named became the first ruler of a united

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla Hawaii, helping the islands

(1753–1811) distributed a withstand European incursions.

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287

1813 1814 1815 1816

,, THE BULLET

,,THAT WILL KILL

ME IS NOT YET
CAST.

Napoleon Bonaparte, statement at
Montereau, February 17, 1814

An engraving of a palanquin (litter) A painting depicts the 17th-century Temple of Tooth, located in the kingdom of A native inhabitant in Alaska,
being carried in Mauritius.
Kandy, where one of Buddha’s teeth is preserved. territory which Russia had claimed.

NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, AFTER ALLIED TROOPS PURSUED ALTHOUGH HE WAS EXILED FROM year. Napoleon had been on the A RUSSIAN ORTHODOX PRIEST,
HIS HUMILIATING RETREAT IN Napoleon to Paris, where he was FRANCE, Napoleon rallied enough verge of victory, but the arrival of Father Sokoloff, was sent to Sitka,
Russia (see 1812), began to captured. He abdicated on April 6 supporters to help him mount his Prussian reinforcements secured in the Alaska territory, to build a
experience the rapid decline of and was exiled to the island of return, and he entered Paris on his defeat. Napoleon was forced to church in the town as part of
his military might. This was driven Elba, off the Tuscan coast of Italy. March 20—just 11 months after abdicate once again, but this time Russia’s bid to colonize the region.
home by the decisive defeat at the To replace him, Louis XVIII his forced departure. Louis XVIII he was to be exiled much further Alaska had lingered as an outpost
Battle of Leipzig (also known as (1755–1824)—brother of the fled, and what became known away—the island of St. Helena, but settlements began to grow as
the Battle of the Nations) fought beheaded Louis XVI—was placed as the “Hundred Days” began. a British outpost in the South trade in sea otter furs flourished.
October 16–19. France had nearly on the French throne. Afterward, Once he had an army assembled, Atlantic, where he died in 1821.
185,000 troops, but the allies the European powers convened Napoleon mounted attacks In southern Africa, Shaka
outnumbered them with more the Congress of Vienna against his enemies, defeating At the same time, Britain’s (c. 1787–1828), a fierce
than 300,000 soldiers from (September 1814 to June 1815). Prussia at Ligny (in present-day troops in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) warrior, took over the
Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Part of the resulting settlement Belgium) on June 16. He fared had taken control of the kingdom rule of the Zulus. He
Sweden. Even after this loss, gave Prussia two-fifths of Saxony; much worse two days later at the of Kandy, which meant the entire reorganized the army,
Napoleon still refused to sign set up a German Confederation; Battle of Waterloo, against island was under British rule. leading his tribe to
a peace deal that would put and allowed Britain to retain British troops led by the Duke of military victory, and
France’s boundary back to the France’s Indian Ocean islands Wellington, who had brought the Battle of Waterloo incorporated
Rhine River and the Alps. of Mauritius and the Peninsular War (see This clash was the definitive defeat conquered
Seychelles, which it 1808) to an end of Napoleon Bonaparte, after which tribes into
While Russia was caught up in had captured. the previous the Zulu
the Napoleonic conflict, it was he was forced to abdicate and nation.
also entangled with territorial go into exile.
deals further east; Russia and
Persia signed the Treaty of
Gulistan, in which Russia was
given a large area of Persian
Caucasus territory. The deal
brought to an end the Russo–
Persian War (1804–13), which
had been triggered by Russia’s
annexation of Georgia and the
Karabakh (a region in present-
day Azerbaijan). The territories,
which had been a dominion of
Persia, had appealed to Persia’s
shah for help in resisting Russia.

In Venezuela, Simón Bolívar
(see 1811) had won an important
victory against the Spanish and
captured Caracas, though Spain’s
forces would later defeat him,
forcing him into exile for two
years. During this period he went
to Jamaica and Haiti to regroup
and enlist further support before
returning to Venezuela in 1816.

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288

1817 1818 1819

,, ,,LET US BE

FREE. THE REST
MATTERS NOT!

José de San Martín, revolutionary leader

Argentine general José de San Martín with his A depiction of the Peterloo Massacre in which a peaceful political protest
horse and officers. in Manchester, England, was attacked by armed cavalrymen.

121 1,100 THE BATTLE IN ARABIA, ongoing ON AUGUST 16, A POLITICAL 1819, he led his troops from
dead or dead or since 1811 between Egypt and the RALLY of around 60,000 people on Venezuela over the Andes to
injured injured Wahhabi sect of Islam, drew to a St. Peter’s Field in Manchester, launch an attack. The Spanish
close in 1818. Egyptian forces led England, turned from a protest were defeated at the Battle of
3,500 by Muhammad Ali recaptured the about high food prices and lack Boyacá on August 7 and Bolívar
holy cities of Mecca and Medina. of popular suffrage into the marched south to Santa Fé de
3,000 Wahhabi power had spread Peterloo Massacre. Magistrates, Bogotá, which secured the
quickly, and from their Arabian concerned about the size of the independence of New Granada.
2,500 base they had secured control crowd, ordered the Yeomanry Bolívar was named the president
of Mecca, Medina, and Jedda. (voluntary cavalry officers) to of the new Republic of Colombia.
FORCES 2,000 Syria was under threat when arrest the speakers, but they
Muhammad Ali received his attacked the crowd when they In a bid to challenge Dutch
1,500 orders to defeat the Wahhabi refused to make way. A regiment, dominance of trade routes
and return the cities to Ottoman the 15th Hussars, was then sent in, between China and India (see 1795)
1,000 rule. A final siege of the capital and an estimated 15 people were the British East India Company
Diriyah (in present-day Saudi killed and more than 500 injured. sought a new base in the Malay
500 Arabia) put a temporary end to peninsula. Stamford Raffles
Wahhabi ambitions. Upon his return from exile, arrived in Singapore, which was
0 Mary Shelley Venezuelan general Simón Bolívar then part of the Riau-Johor
Rebels Royalists In South America, the effort led The English novelist Mary Shelley had begun to make considerable empire. He negotiated a deal with
by José de San Martín at the published her first novel, headway against royalist forces. In the local ruler and founded a port.
Battle of Chacabuco Battle of Maipú on April 5 secured Frankenstein, in 1818, and it
A bold risk by rebel leader José de independence for Chile when remains a literary classic today.
San Martín resulted in a highly loyalist troops suffered a crushing
successful ambush against the defeat. With a small naval fleet of including Briton Denis Johnson
Spanish, who sustained heavy losses. seven ships under the command (c. 1759–1833), a coachmaker by
of British mercenary Lord Thomas training, who designed a
THE FIGHT AGAINST SPANISH rule Cochrane, the rebels also “pedestrian curricle,” later THE EAST INDIA COMPANIES
took a decisive turn when managed to break the Spanish known as a dandy horse.
Argentine-born General José de hold on the coastline. The East India Companies monopolized trade between Europe
San Martín (1778–1850) led In England, Mary Shelley and Southeast Asia, India, and the Far East from the early 17th
around 3,000 troops from Argentina In Paris, German inventor Baron (1797–1851), the daughter of century. However, the French Compagnie Française des Indes
into Chile through treacherous Karl von Drais de Sauerbrun was writer Mary Wollstonecraft (see Orientales ceased trading at the time of the French Revolution
passages in the Andes mountains, impressing crowds with a 1792) and wife of poet Percy (see 1789). The charter for the Dutch Vereenigde Oost-Indische
and launched a surprise attack on display of his draisienne, a Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822), Compagnie was revoked in 1799 when the government took
royalist forces on February 12— two-wheeled machine that was published the novel Frankenstein; control of it. Sweden’s Svenska Ostindiska Companiet folded in
the Battle of Chacabuco. He then the precursor to the modern or, The Modern Prometheus. The 1813, while Britain’s East India Company (above) traded until 1874.
moved on to take Santiago. He bicycle. Made of wood and novel concerns a scientist who
refused the offer of governorship propelled by pushing the feet artificially creates another human
of Chile, passing it instead to fellow along the ground, rather than by being, and the consequences
soldier Bernardo O’Higgins pedals, it was known in German they both suffer. The work was an
(c. 1776–1842), who became the as the Laufmaschine, or “running instant success, and is considered
territory’s “supreme director.” machine.” While testing the a classic work of Gothic literature
design the previous year, he had as well as one of the earliest
Serbia had also been fighting managed to ride it 9 miles (14km). examples of science fiction.
once more for independence, The idea was soon picked up
after being invaded by the Turks and modified by other inventors,
in 1813. The Second Serbian
Uprising was successful, and
most of their former rights were
regained by 1817.

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289

Necklace of trade beads
Late 19th century • ORIGIN UNKNOWN
This necklace has different types
of blue and yellow beads threaded
together into a design. Trade beads
were obtained from white traders.

decoration
on fur

beading

velvet

beaded tails intricate feather indicates
beading
Blue-beaded arm band success in
Late 19th century • SARCEE Glenary hat
This arm band from the Sarcee c. 1860 • IROQUOIS hunting or war
people, a nation of Plains Indians, Made of black velvet, this
is beaded into a pattern using blue, Iroquois hat has intricate horsehair
pink, black, and yellow polka dots. beadwork and a floral pattern
woven around the bottom. Chieftain’s headdress

c. 1930 • ARAPAHO

This headdress of Yellow Calf,

the last chief of the Arapaho, was

made with feathers and decorated

fur. It was worn close to the head.

AMERICAN INDIANS

ARTIFACTS FROM THE DIVERSE TRIBES WHO LIVE THROUGHOUT NORTH AMERICA

For thousands of years, millions of aboriginal people double-edged
lived in North America, but their world was shattered stone head
and their population declined drastically when the
Europeans arrived, bringing new diseases and weapons.

European explorers encountered diverse cultures in the North American head made detailed
continent, ranging from the Arctic world of the Aleut, Innu, and Inuit to the hot, of iron beadwork
dry home of the Hopi in the southwest. Trade was one way Europeans exerted
their influence on native populations, and tribes such as the Sioux, Blackfoot, War club
Sarcee, and Arapaho in the Great Plains, and the Iroquois and Mohawk of Late 19th century
the Great Lakes were soon in regular contact with the European settlers. • PLAINS INDIANS
Apart from war clubs,
pelt pouch to wooden handle Plains Indian raiding leather cover
hold needles parties were often on handle
Hide-working tool armed with bows and
Sewing kit c. 1890 • ALEUT arrows, shields, lances, rawhide Pipe bag
c. 1880 • INNU AND INUIT Skinning and butchering and scalping knives. tassel Late 19th century • SIOUX
This sewing kit consists of was usually a woman’s American Indians smoked
tools made by carving bones task. This hide-working wooden rawhide tobacco in pipes. The
and a pouch made from seal tool scrapes the hides handle straps tobacco was believed to
skin and animal fur. of sea otters and whales have special powers and
metallic blade hunted by the Aleut. Tomahawk was used to please spirits.
290 Late 19th century
sewing carved wood • PLAINS INDIANS
implement used as hook Used in warfare
and ceremonies, this
Fish hook tomahawk has an iron feather used
19th century • ALEUT head, a wooden handle, as ceremonial
Wood, bone, and fiber and a feather for decoration. decoration
were used to make this
fishhook. The wood is carved
into a U-shape, with points
of bone at both the ends.

AMERICAN INDIANS

beading Wooden bears
on leather Early 20th century • INUIT
These wooden polar bears were
Beaded moccasins made by the Inuit people, who
Late 19th century • SIOUX live in the Arctic and subarctic
Leather moccasins with decorative regions of North America.
beading were worn by Sioux hunters
tribal and traders. The sole extends over
symbol the toes.

inner fur lining

Jacket buckskin
c. 1890 • SIOUX exterior
This jacket is made of buckskin
and decorated with beads, which carved
were brought in by white traders. from wood

seal or reindeer painted with
skin on the exterior bright colors

Sashes fur-lined hood
Mid-19th century for warmth
• MOHAWK
These sashes display Kachina figure
intricate beadwork. The 20th century • HOPI
one on the left has a Hopi kachina figures of this type
floral motif, which was were used to teach children
often copied from white about the world of spirits.
settlers in the area.
Mukluks
intricate Early 20th century • INUIT
beadwork These boots for children have seal
or reindeer skin on the outside and
Winter coat fur on the inner lining.
Late 19th century • INNU
Anoraks were winter coats, carved tooth
typically loose at the bottom
to allow the wearer to draw skin is waterproof Carved and pierced teeth
in cold air if ventilation
was needed. 19th century • INUIT

seal skin Used by shamans—or medicine
insulates body
men—in their practices, these
from cold
horn teeth, some shaped into birds,
are strung together along a ring.

cavities stuffed
with sage and
grass were an
offering to
the buffalo

Buffalo skull
19th century • BLACKFOOT
Used in the Sun Dance ritual of
the Plains Indians, this Blackfoot
buffalo skull has horns and is
decorated with polka dots.

291

1820 1821 1822

Egyptian Mameluke soldiers were former slaves. By invading A woodcut illustrates the battle A depiction of the coronation of Pedro I as emperor of Brazil. Pedro, the
Sudan, Egypt hoped to add Sudanese captives to their ranks. for independence in Mexico. son of the king of Portugal, had declared the colony’s independence.

AS THE UNITED STATES began the 10,200 IN GREECE, A FIGHT FOR 12THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
settlement of western territories, Missouri INDEPENDENCE FROM THE TURKS
the issue of slavery could not be began. Resentful at years of living PORTUGAL AND BRAZIL had been
ignored. Most of the northern 1,538,022 under oppression, people from fundamentally affected when the
states had abolished the practice, Southern states across Greek society—including Portuguese court, fleeing
but the southern states had the Orthodox Church—began to Napoleon, arrived in Brazil in
become increasingly dependent Slave population plot their liberation. Some rebel 1808. After John VI (1769–1826)
on slave labor. When the Missouri Although the slave population was groups had been organizing returned to Portugal in 1821, he
territory petitioned for statehood small in Missouri, the question of through secret patriotic societies left his son, Dom Pedro (1798– THOUSAND
in 1817, it caused a political crisis permitting slavery in the state such as the Philikí Etaireía 1834), in charge of the kingdom of
over whether the federal caused a political crisis in the US. (Society of Friends). These Brazil, as Prince Regent. Dom THE NUMBER
government had the right to organizations involved people Pedro, frustrated by the attempt
restrict slavery in this territory. had been restored to the throne living on the islands, but also had
The solution was the Missouri (see 1815)—sent in troops to significant support from the large of the Portuguese Cortes to OF FREED
Compromise, which allowed “free” Ferdinand. These soldiers Greek diaspora. reduce Brazil to its pre-1808 SLAVES
slavery in Missouri, but not in any toppled the liberal regime, and colonial status, issued his Grito RELOCATED TO
new state north of 36º30’ latitude. returned Ferdinand to power. At the same time, rebels in the de Ipiranga (Cry of Ipiranga)
Americas were able to take declaring Brazil’s independence
Much of Europe, meanwhile, Egypt invaded its southern advantage of Spain’s internal
was convulsed by political unrest, neighbor, Sudan. Pasha crisis and weakness to make the and crowning himself Emperor LIBERIA FROM
with revolts in the Italian states, Muhammad Ali wanted Sudanese final push for independence. Pedro I. 1822 TO 1862
Portugal, France, and the Low gold and slaves for his army. By Mexico managed to secure its
Countries. In Spain, Ferdinand VII 1821, Sudan had fallen and the liberation after Mexican royalists, Even the loyalist Santo
had returned to the throne in 1814, Egyptian Empire extended down upon hearing the news of events
rejecting the new constitution (see the Nile to what is now Uganda. in Spain (see 1820), decided that Domingo, on the island of
1812) and arresting liberal leaders. self-rule was the only way to
Following public unrest, Ferdinand avoid a liberal regime as had Hispaniola, was swept up in the now poorly guarded ports in Santo
was forced to accept the 1812 happened in Spain. On August 24,
Constitution, marking the start of a treaty was signed recognizing revolutionary spirit of the time, Domingo and launch an attack to
the Trienio Liberal—three years Mexican independence, and on
of a liberal regime (1820–23). In May 19 the former royalist Agustín declaring independence in 1821, recolonize and re-enslave the
1823, France’s Louis XVIII—who de Iturbide (1783–1824) crowned
himself emperor Agustín I. though it failed to realize a plan island. With this pretext—and the

Farther south, the Congress of to join Gran Colombia. Santo fact that slavery still persisted in
Cúcuta was formed and formally
established Gran Colombia, Domingo’s neighbor, Haiti Santo Domingo—Haiti’s president,
consisting of present-day
Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, (previously Saint-Domingue), Jean-Pierre Boyer (in office
and Ecuador. Simón Bolívar was
named president and Bogotá was grew concerned that France or 1818–50), arrived in Santo
made the capital.
Britain might sneak through the Domingo with his forces. The
In Peru, José de San Martín
led his troops into Lima and provisional government turned
declared Peru independent,
though fighting to secure its control over to Boyer, who united
freedom continued.
AFRICA both sides of the island under

,, Haitian rule.

....THIS MOMENTOUS LIBERIA The issue of slavery remained
QUESTION, LIKE A FIRE contentious in the US, and there
BELL IN THE NIGHT,
AWAKENED AND FILLED arose the additional question of

,,ME WITH TERROR. how to treat freed slaves. The

Thomas Jefferson, third president of the US, on the implications ATLANTIC American Colonization Society,
of the Missouri Compromise in a letter to John Holmes, April 22, 1820 OCEAN founded in 1816, advocated they

be returned to Africa. The society

Liberia secured agreements with local
Located on the West Coast of Africa, rulers in West Africa, near Cape
alongside slaving ports, a colony for Mesurado, establishing a
freed slaves was established by the settlement that would become

American Colonization Society. known as Liberia.

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1823 1824 1825

The Alaungpaya dynasty’s invasion of northern India led to Britain declaring This print depicts the Ottoman siege of Missolonghi, where the Greeks had
war and eventually capturing the coastal city of Rangoon, pictured. established a provisional government during their war for independence.

IN HIS ANNUAL MESSAGE TO THE America, which was composed Lord Byron THE TERRITORY OF UPPER PERU Technological innovations in the
US Congress on December 2, of Guatemala, El Salvador, The Romantic poet Lord Byron was received a much-needed boost use of steam (see 1775 and 1786)
President James Monroe (see Nicaragua, Honduras, and inspired by the Greek struggle for with the arrival of Simón Bolívar to power engines had led to
panel, below) outlined a new Costa Rica. They had achieved independence from the Ottoman (see 1811) and Antonio José de the development of railroad
diplomatic policy: the Monroe independence from Spain in 1821, Empire, and went to Greece to fight. Sucre (1785–1830), whose troops locomotives, such as the one
Doctrine. Concerned about the but were joined to the empire of helped to defeat the Spanish. designed by English inventor
possibility of European incursion Mexico. The local leaders decided AS THE FIGHT FOR GREEK Bolívar wanted this territory to John Blenkinsop in 1812.
into the new republics of Latin to break away and establish a INDEPENDENCE INTENSIFIED, unite with the rest of Peru, but George Stephenson (1781–1848),
America, Monroe attempted to federal republic, with the capital it attracted the public’s attention Sucre had already agreed with a colliery mechanic, improved
set boundaries between Europe in Guatemala City. across Europe, especially among the rebel leaders that it would on that design and caught the
and the Americas. The doctrine writers and artists. One such become a separate republic. In attention of a group of investors
stated that the US would not The Alaungpaya Dynasty of person was the English Romantic honor of Bolívar’s help, the rebels wishing to link the towns of
interfere in the internal affairs or Burma (present-day Myanmar, poet Lord Byron (1788–1824), named the new nation Bolivia, Stockton and Darlington.
wars of European powers, nor in see 1752), had been making famed for his poem Don Juan. and they invited Sucre to be its Darlington was in the middle
any colonies in the Americas, but incursions into the northern Byron had arrived in Greece the first president, which he accepted. of a coal mining region and the
likewise declared the western Indian state of Assam, bringing previous year to help fight in the With the creation of Bolivia, all the Pennine mountains made
hemisphere now closed to any them into contact with the British, struggle. However, while he was former Spanish colonies—with transportation difficult. The
further European attempts at who were occupying the region. In abroad, he contracted a serious the exception of Cuba, Puerto 25-mile (40-km) line opened the
colonization. Interference with an effort to protect their interests illness and died on April 19 in Rico, and the Philippines—had way for further rail development.
territories in the Americas would in India, Britain launched the First Missolonghi. become independent nations.
now be viewed as hostile acts Anglo–Burmese War the Crowd puller
against the US. following year (1824–26). This In Peru, a decisive victory at the In England, there was great The opening of the Stockton to
resulted in the British capture of Battle of Ayacucho, December 9, excitement over the opening, on Darlington rail line marked the first
Earlier in the year, another much of the territory of Burma, meant the end of Spanish rule, September 27, of the Stockton to time that a locomotive was used to
republic had joined the Americas: including Rangoon, which was though to the north, in the Darlington railroad line, in the pull a passenger train.
the United Provinces of Central taken in 1825. territory known as Upper Peru, industrial north of the country.
loyalist forces were still holding
US ISOLATIONISM out against rebel troops, in one of
the last bastions of fighting.
James Monroe (1758–1831, see
right) was the fifth president of
the United States, serving from
1817–25. His time in office was
a period during which the US
began to emerge as a serious
global power. This period was
known as the “era of good
feelings,” and was marked by
significant economic growth
and general public optimism.
With its aversion to interference
in other nations’ affairs set out
in the Monroe Doctrine, the US
began to pursue a policy of
isolationism.

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293

1826 1827 1828 1829 1830

18 MILES PER
HOUR
THE TOP SPEED
OF THE FIRST
US STEAM
LOCOMOTIVE

The signing ceremony at the Treaty of Turkmanchai, in which Persia A depiction of the uprising that led
returned contested land in the Caucasus region to Russia. to the Belgian independence.

TENSIONS BETWEEN RUSSIA AND AS GREECE'S BATTLE AGAINST José Gervasio Artigas DEBATE OVER IRELAND HAD EUROPE HAD SCARCELY
Persia restarted (see 1813) over the Ottoman Empire continued, Artigas was the father of the intensified after the Act of Union RECOVERED from the unrest of the
the Caucasus region, with the neighboring powers began to call Uruguayan independence movement, (see 1801). Daniel O’Connell, a previous decade (see 1820) when
Persians attempting to take back for an end to the conflict. Britain, but had been in exile for several Catholic lawyer, called for England France was convulsed by the July
the territory of Georgia in 1825. France, and Russia joined years when it was finally liberated. to repeal its anti-Catholic laws, Revolution, an insurrection that
However, a crushing defeat at the together to sign the Treaty of arguing that it could not claim to forced the abdication of Charles X
Battle of Ganja on September 26, London on July 6, which THE TREATY OF MONTEVIDEO be representing the people of (r. 1824–30), who was replaced by
1826 halted the Persian advance. demanded the establishment RECOGNIZED the independence of Ireland. In addition, he staged Louis-Philippe, duke of Orléans
Russian troops then marched into of an independent Greek state. Uruguay in August 1828. The area, mass meetings about the issue of (r. 1830–48). The rebellion had
Persia, eventually taking Tehran, The Ottomans refused, confident then known as the Banda Oriental, Catholic emancipation. In 1828, been triggered by Charles’s
leaving the Persians no option but they had the land and sea power was disputed between Brazil and O’Connell stood for parliament and attempt to enforce repressive
to accept defeat. They negotiated to defeat the Greeks. Argentina. It had been under won, though he was not allowed ordinances, such as suspending
the Treaty of Turkmanchai, Spanish control but during the to sit in government because the freedom of the press and
which put the Russian border By autumn, the Ottoman wars of independence in South of his Catholicism. His victory, modifying electoral law so many
at the Aras River, returning the resources were put to the test as America, under the leadership of however, attracted the attention of people lost their right to vote.
Caucasus territory to Russia. a Turkish–Egyptian fleet went up José Gervasio Artigas (1764– the British prime minister, Arthur
against a naval force comprising 1850), the territory established Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington Louis-Philippe's succession to
In Hawaii, US missionaries had British, French, and Russian ships its independence from Spain and (see 1815), who was Irish though the throne signaled the arrival of
started to settle on the islands at the Battle of Navarino on Argentina in 1815. However, the not Catholic. He oversaw the power for the bourgeoisie, who
and America had become one October 20. The Russo–European following year, Brazil invaded and Catholic Relief Act 1829, which were his chief support, rather
of the kingdom’s largest trading ships sunk three-quarters of occupied it. This led to a further allowed Catholics in Ireland than the aristocracy, and he
partners. The US was looking the Ottoman fleet, and this war, led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja and England to take seats in remained in power until 1848.
to protect its growing interests humiliating defeat led to the (1784–1853) and his group known Parliament and hold public office.
there by formalizing trade eventual withdrawal of Turkish as the “thirty-three immortals.” Around the same time, revolts
arrangements in the face of troops from Greece, which won Lavalleja, with Argentinian support, Elsewhere in England, inventor were taking place in the Italian
possible European competition, independence in 1832. defeated Brazilian troops and George Stephenson (see 1825) and German kingdoms; in the
so it convinced the regency founded an independent Uruguay. unveiled a new locomotive engine, Netherlands; and in Russia, as
government of King A one-sided battle known as the Rocket, which the Polish living under Russian
Kamehameha III (1813–54) to A Turkish warship burns fiercely at Territorial disputes were reached speeds of about 36 miles rule rose up against the czar.
sign the Hawaii–United States the Battle of Navarino, in which the also behind another conflict (58km) per hour. He had entered
Treaty of 1826. The treaty Ottoman fleet was devastated but between the Ottoman Empire the Liverpool and Manchester 16,000
stipulated that there would be not a single allied ship was lost. and Russia, with the Russians Railway competition for best new
peaceful and friendly political and capturing Vidin and Varna engine. The Rocket was the victor. TOTAL POPULATION
trading relations between the two. (in present-day Bulgaria).
This year also saw progress of 8,000
In France, inventor Joseph- the railroad in the US, with the
Nicéphore Niépce (1765–1833) first American-built steam PEOPLE DEAD
took the world’s first photograph, locomotive, Tom Thumb. In 1830,
known as View from the Window a race was staged against a Cherokee deaths on Trail of Tears
at Le Gras, which was of horse-drawn cart to prove the Thousands of American Indians
a barnyard in France. His superiority of steam power. were forcibly relocated from the
technique involved making an Although the horse won on this Southeast US, traveling a route later
eight-hour exposure onto a occasion due to a techinal fault called the Trail of Tears.
pewter plate using a camera with the train, the point was made
obscura, which was a dark box and the owners of the Baltimore
with a tiny hole—a forerunner and Ohio Railroad agreed to
of the modern camera. switch to steam trains.

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294

1831 ,,1832

NO MINISTER
EVER STOOD, OR

,,COULD STAND,

AGAINST PUBLIC
OPINION.

Robert Peel, British politician,
on the Reform Act, 1834

Also during this period, French blockade of Algiers, matters the era of the wagon train. THE KINGDOM OF The English Reform Act
troops arrived in Algiers, with escalated. By July 5, the French Settlers, traveling in groups of THE NETHERLANDS A cartoon shows the reformers’
the intention of taking control. had raised their flag over the horse-drawn wagons carrying was caught up in attack on the "Old Rotten Tree,"
A few years earlier, in 1827, the kasbah in Algiers and this marked all of their possessions, headed the turmoil across which symbolizes the corrupt "rotten"
provincial Ottoman ruler, or dey, the start of French control over out to unknown territory to set Europe. The boroughs. They wanted a fairer
Husayn (r. 1818–38), had struck a this North African territory. up farms and settle the land. Congress of Vienna distribution of parliamentary seats.
French consul with a fly whisk, (see 1815) had
giving the French a pretext for In South America, political Meanwhile, to facilitate forced the Belgian BRITAIN ALSO SAW UPHEAVAL
war. The source of the tension was alliances were also fragile. Before settlement in the east, the US territories, which AND SOCIAL CHANGE in the 1830s.
an unpaid debt between France his death in 1830, Simón Bolívar government passed the Indian had been under There had been growing public
and the dey. During a French (see 1811) had witnessed the Removal Act in 1830. This French control, discontent over the outdated
secession of Venezuela and stripped American Indians of legal to unite with the voting system (see 1819).
Liberty leading the people Ecuador from Gran Colombia, rights, and forced them to leave Dutch, thereby A bill was drafted, aimed
This famous painting by French which ended his dream of political their desirable territory in the creating a buffer at transferring votes and
artist Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) unity among the new republics. southeast of the country and between Russia and France. redistributing seats from small
was inspired by the July Revolution, relocate to sparsely populated This move proved unpopular “rotten” boroughs controlled by
and depicts "Liberty" as a woman. Farther north, more settlers land west of the Mississippi. The and tensions grew over the the nobility to the more populous
in the US were making their way moves resulted in many deaths. intervening years. industrial towns. The first
west, and this was known as Reform Bill failed to be passed
By August 1830, inspired by in parliament. This caused
events in France, the Belgian serious riots in many cities, as
Revolution had begun. The well as a political crisis with the
result was a clear break from the prime minister, Charles Grey
kingdom of the Netherlands. (1764–1845), who threatened to
Later that year a constitution step down over the matter. The
was issued, which created a bill finally became law on June 4,
constitutional monarchy and 1832. This legislation allowed
a parliamentary system. On more middle-class men the vote,
January 20, 1831, the new state of but the working class and
Belgium was officially recognized women were still excluded.
by Britain and France, though not
the Netherlands. The Belgians
were forced to choose a monarch
with no direct connection to other
major European powers. They
finally elected Leopold of
Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld—the uncle
of Britain’s Queen Victoria—and
he ruled as Leopold I until 1865.

The same year, Syria was
annexed by Egypt until 1840,
when the latter was finally
forced to return the region
to the Ottomans.

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295

1833–34 1835 1836 1837

This engraving shows children working in an English mill. The size of the first A Galápagos cactus finch, one of the The Alamo, the site of a key battle A painting of Queen Victoria’s
cotton spinning machines meant they were best operated by children. species noted by Charles Darwin. for Texan independence. coronation in Westminster Abbey.

48THE MAXIMUM IN THE PACIFIC OCEAN, almost AS SETTLERS IN THE US MOVED
HOURS PER WEEK 600 miles (1,000km) from WEST, many decided to live in
CHILDREN AGED the coastline of South America, the Texas territory, which was
9–12 COULD WORK English naturalist Charles Darwin part of Mexico. However, Mexican
IN ENGLISH MILLS (1809–82) took extensive notes on authorities wanted tighter control
IN BRITAIN, INDUSTRIAL the able-bodied. The Poor Law the nature of the Galápagos over this large territory and the
development and urban growth Amendment Act of 1834 ,,Islands. Darwin had accepted a settlers rebelled in October 1835, Long-distance communicator
progressed rapidly. Laws were stipulated that the poor could only post on a scientific voyage aboard launching the Texas War of This is a single-needle electric
introduced to address exploitation receive assistance if they went to the Beagle, which left England on Independence. The following telegraph machine, which later
of labour and the growing cost of workhouses, which were to be December 27, 1831, arriving in the March, after months of unrest, developed into double-needle and
providing for the poor. The 1833 built in every parish. Conditions in Galápagos in September 1835 General Antonio López de Santa four-needle instruments.
Factory Act appointed inspectors the workhouses were deliberately (see also 1839). It was in the Anna (1794–1876) marched into
to monitor factories and limited harsh and the legislation Galápagos where Darwin first Texas with 5,000 Mexican troops EXPERIMENTS had been taking
the hours that children could work. immediately proved unpopular. noticed the difference in the Although massively outnumbered, place for decades over the
species of wildlife on the island the rebels managed to hold them question of how to transmit
In England, local parishes In China, British merchants compared with mainland South off during a battle at a San electric current through wires.
provided some relief for the elderly, were granted permission to America. This discovery laid the Antonio fortress, called the In 1837, two British inventors,
ill, and impoverished. Out of this engage in trade after legislation foundation for his later scientific Alamo. The rebels were eventually William Fothergill Cooke and
grew a system of workhouses, ended the East India Company’s work on the evolution of different defeated but the Alamo proved a Charles Wheatstone, made
aiming to give employment to monopoly. Although there had species (see 1859). rallying point for Texans bent on a breakthrough and secured a
been private traders in Canton revenge. Soon after, General patent for an electric telegraph
Commemorative coin before the act, now more were In Britain, the National Samuel Houston (1793–1863) device that allowed for
The Slave Emancipation Act outlawed allowed to sell their wares and Colonisation Society had been set led a Texan army with the communication through wires and
the buying or selling of people, set up to facilitate the settlement in battle cry “Remember the had needles that could point to
free young children, and compensated export Chinese goods, such Australia of people who were not Alamo!” and beat Santa Anna specific letters and numbers.
planters in most of the British Empire. as tea, the imports of which convicts. Founder Edward Gibbon at the Battle of Jacinto on April At the same time in the US,
rose 40 per cent after the Wakefield (1796–1862)—who had 21, forcing Mexico to recognize the Samuel Morse received a patent
beginning of free trade. served time in prison—came up new republic of Texas. on an electromagnetic transmitter
In 1832, Egypt invaded with a scheme for populating that could transfer information
Syria. Muhammad Ali, the colonies based on the sale of land 5,000
pasha, was angered by a and a tax on the price, which
failed promise from the would pay for the transportation MEXICANS
Ottoman sultan to give him to the colony. A fleet set off for
the territory. Ali took Gaza South Australia, where the city 182
and Jerusalem in the First of Melbourne was established in
Turko–Egyptian War, and by 1835, and Adelaide a year later. Texans

1833 the Ottoman government IT SEEMS TO Battle of the Alamo
begged Russia for help, and Texans were vastly outnumbered by
18,000 troops were sent to ,,BE A LITTLE Mexican forces in the battle fought
Constantinople. Britain and between 23 February and 6 March
France got involved, demanding WORLD WITHIN and there were very few survivors.
a settlement, in which Egypt was ITSELF.
given Syria, and Russia withdrew.
Charles Darwin, from Journal of
Researches, September 1835

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1838 1839

,, ,,HE’LL HAVE US GOING

TO THE MOON YET.

Great Western Railway director, on Isambard Kingdom Brunel

The East India Company’s steamer, Nemesis, attacks Chinese war junks in
Anson’s Bay, at the mouth of the Pearl River, China, during the First Opium War.

using dots and dashes. Morse’s WHILE BRITISH TRADE IN CHINA growing influence over the Afghan
telegraph was far simpler than
the Cooke Wheatstone design, CONTINUED TO EXPAND, so too emir, Dost Muhammad Khan
and soon became the standard
instrument worldwide, did the Chinese opium problem. (1793-1863), Britain attempted to
revolutionizing the global
movement of information. Decades earlier, the East India replace him with an emir more

When Britain’s King William IV Company had started exporting sympathetic to British interests
died on 20 June, he had no
surviving legitimate heir, so the the drug, produced from poppies in northern India, including the
crown passed to Victoria, his
niece (see panel, below). She was grown in Bengal, to China in order protection of overland trade routes
the daughter of Edward, Duke of
Kent, and granddaughter of to trade it for tea, which it then through the region.
George III. Her reign was viewed
as a time of growing prosperity, sent to Britain. Despite numerous In England, naturalist Charles
technological innovation, and
colonial expansion. attempts to ban the importation of Darwin (see 1835) published an

In Japan, Tokugawa Ieyoshi the substance, British ships account of the diary he kept while
(1793–1853) became shogun.
At the time of his rule Japan continued to import it. On on the Beagle. The journey had
was experiencing social and
economic decline. He introduced March 30, 1839, one frustrated taken Darwin around the world.
measures known as the Tempo
Reforms, restricting migration Chinese commissioner ordered He had set off from Plymouth in
to urban areas and instigating
price controls—but they failed. Brunel’s Great Western British warehouses and ships in 1831 for the Cape Verde Islands,
The Great Western steamship
TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGY shown off the west coast of England. Canton to be destroyed. Britain then Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay,
was rapidly changing. Along with The sails helped to propel the ship
the expansion in rail transport, and keep it on an even keel. sent warships in retaliation, and Tierra del Fuego. He then
travel by sea was also being
revolutionized by many arrived in New York 15 days later; attacking China’s coastline in the sailed north along the Pacific
innovations. The power of steam the paddle-wheeled steamship
was finally harnessed in an had cut the voyage time in half First Opium War. Coast of South America, stopping
efficient way that allowed for and arrived with fuel to spare. The
much quicker sea crossings (see ship had been designed by leading Meanwhile, tensions between at the Galápagos Islands, before
1786). On 8 April 1838, the Great British civil engineer Isambard
Western left Bristol for its Kingdom Brunel (1806–59), who Egypt and the Ottoman sultan going onward to Tahiti, New
maiden transatlantic voyage, and had also been involved in other
engineering projects, including erupted again in the Second Zealand, Australia, Mauritius, and
the Great Western Railway. The
idea for the steamship started as Turko–Egyptian War. This time finally back to England, arriving in
a suggestion by Brunel to Great
Western Railway directors that it was triggered by an Ottoman October 1836. Darwin’s account
the train line could be extended to
New York by way of a regular attempt to invade Syria, which helped make his name in science.
transatlantic service. Soon after,
the Great Western Steamship it had previously ceded to Egypt
Company was set up to facilitate
the construction of the ship. (see 1833).
In the Americas, Guatemala,
Honduras, and Nicaragua At the same time, Galapagos
became independent nations. British political Islands

QUEEN VICTORIA (1819–1901) S Amazon
ANDE
Ruling for 63 years and 216 meddling in Afghanistan to SOUTH
days, Queen Victoria remains Tahiti AMERICA
the longest-reigning monarch
of Britain. In 1840, she married triggered the First Planalto de
her cousin, Albert of Saxe- Mato Grosso
Coburg and Gotha (1819–61). Afghan War (to 1842). Callao Bahia
She adored him and they had Lima
nine children together. The
Victorian era contrasted Worried about Russia’s
sharply with the excesses of
previous Hanoverian rulers, PACIFIC Iquique Rio de Janeiro
and Victoria’s domestic life was OCEAN Copiapó
held up as the model for DARWIN’S JOURNEY ANDE S
families in this period. Feb 1832 Sep 1835

Valparaíso Santa Fe

Darwin’s Beagle Concepción Santiago Buenos Aires
voyages Bahía Montevideo
Charles Darwin’s five-year Isla de Chiloé
voyage (1831–36) on Chonos Blanca AT L A N T I C
the Beagle, a warship Valdivia OCEAN
carrying ten cannons, led Archipelago El Carmen
him to consider scientific
evidence in new ways. Port
Desire

Strait of Magellan Falkland Islands

Beagle Channel South
Cape Horn Georgia

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297

1750–1913 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

THE STORY OF

ELECTRICITY

HARNESSING THE FORCE THAT BUILT THE MODERN WORLD

When Thales, a mathematician and philosopher in ancient Greece,
experimented with a piece of amber—known as “elektron” in Greek—little
could he have known that his initial observations would still hold a significant
place in science more than 2,000 years later.

What Thales noticed was that if he rubbed a piece this form of electricity, as well as magnets and
of amber against fur it would attract bits of dust magnetism. By the 17th and 18th centuries,
and feathers lying nearby—although he did not technological leaps had been made, although
know it, he had stumbled on what we know today the connection between electricity and
as static electricity. Over the following centuries, magnets would not be clear until the
scientists all over the world experimented with 19th century (see panel, right).

metal brushes POWER TO THE PEOPLE
move charges As the 1800s progressed, understanding about
electricity rapidly increased, and new innovations
metal foil sectors were rolled out in quick succession. By the dawn
produce a charge of the 20th century, many of the technologies
were in place that are still with us today—such
as batteries and light bulbs—though they have
since been further adapted and refined. Today, the
scientific challenge is to find ways of generating
electricity that do not cause pollution.

static electricity Wimshurst machine Edison’s screw-in light bulb
is stored in The English inventor James Wimshurst developed Although US inventor Thomas Edison is
Leyden jars a device that could generate static electricity and often credited with inventing the light bulb,
store it in a vessel called a Leyden jar. For many what he really did was improve an existing
years, scientists studying electricity used idea (see below). He spent years working
Wimshurst machines to produce electric charge. out a way—using incandescent bulbs—to
make electric lighting practical and safe
for public use.

600 BCE Amber 1700–10 1799–1800 1820s–30s
Amber Electrostatic generator The first voltaic pile Faraday experiments
Thales of Miletus rubs a English inventor Francis Voltaic The Italian inventor English scientist Faraday’s
piece of amber against Hauksbee develops a pile Michael Faraday induction ring
fur and notes that it device that can generate Alessandro Volta further illustrates the
attracts bits of nearby static electricity by creates the first relationship between
feathers. using a glass globe battery, known as electricity and
and wool threads. the voltaic pile—the magnetism with
1600 unit “volt” is later his induction ring.
Gilbert’s De Magnete named after him.
English physician
William Gilbert 1745–46 1752 1820
publishes his The Leyden jar Lightning conductor Electromagnetism discovered
famous work on Pieter van Musschenbroe US scientist Benjamin Franklin Danish physicist Hans Christian
magnetism. and Ewald Georg von Kleist flies a kite during a storm, with Ørsted notices that a magnet
independently invent a a key tied to the string, and is affected by a nearby wire
device that allows static proves that lightning is a connected to a battery, and
electricity to be stored. discovers the relationship between
form of electricity. magnets and electricity.

Leyden Jar

298