Timelines of History_ The Ultimate Visual Guide To The Events That Shaped The World

1291–95 1296–1300

The Eleanor Cross in Geddington, Northamptonshire, England, features an William Wallace was outlawed for killing one of Edward’s sheriffs in 1296.
ogee arch, marking a milestone for the English Gothic style. He was one of the first men to be hanged, drawn, and quartered.

Battle of Campaldino, heralding IN 1291, AFTER A DESPERATE THE EXTINCTION OF THE CANMORE
the start of a period of Florentine DYNASTY, followed by dissent
dominance in Tuscany. Among SIX-WEEK SIEGE, the Mamluks among the Scottish nobles, had
those battling on the Florentine allowed Edward I to exercise
side was the poet Dante Alighieri took Acre, the last major Crusader increasing dominance over the
(see 1311–17). Scots, and in 1292 he awarded the
stronghold in Palestine, and a crown to John Balliol. However, in
The line of Slave Kings of Delhi 1295, Balliol made an alliance
came to an end in 1290 with the few months later they took Beirut, with England’s enemy, France.
seizure of power by Firuz of the The following year Edward
Khalji Turks—a tribe living in the last remnant of the Crusader launched a campaign to subdue
Afghanistan—thus founding the the Scots, defeating them at
Khalji dynasty. Firuz is best kingdom known as Outremer Dunbar, and taking the Stone of 1:4 Battle of
remembered for releasing into Destiny—the Scottish coronation Stirling Bridge
Bengal 1,000 Thugs or Thuggees, (see 1181–85). After nearly 200 stone—back to London. In 1297, Under William Wallace,
cult followers of the goddess Kali the Scottish nationalist William an estimated 2,500 Scots defeated a
devoted to murder and robbery years, Christian presence in the Wallace (c. 1272–1305) led a much larger force of English soldiers
in her name. revolt against English dominance, (numbering up to 10,000) at the
Holy Land was extinguished, and overcoming a larger English army Battle of Stirling Bridge.
Ornate Mughal screen at Stirling Bridge, but he was
This screen from the main gateway the Mamluks plundered the defeated at Falkirk in 1298 and The Genoese–Venetian naval
of the Qutb complex in Delhi was forced into years of guerrilla conflict continued, with battles in
built by the Khalji sultan Ala-ud-din, region to deter future Crusades. warfare and overseas fundraising. the Black Sea and the Greek
murderer and successor of Firuz. islands. At the Battle of Curzola,
To limit the risk of disastrous in 1298, the Genoese fleet inflicted
a disastrous defeat on the
fires, Venice moved its glass- Venetians, destroying all but a few
of their ships and killing up to
making industry to the island 7,000 men.

of Murano in 1291. Venetian Murano glass
glassmakers were the only ones This Murano glass vessel dates to
in Europe to master the art of around 1330. As well as increasing
producing clear glass. Their fire safety, concentrating the glass
expertise in working with glass industry on an island helped to

had earlier borne fruit in the regulate it and guard its secrets.

invention of spectacles (see 1284).

Edward I of England (r. 1272– underway. Capable of carrying

1307) had married Eleanor more cargo and a larger crew, the

of Castile in 1254. Though construction of the first of the great North
Sea
unpopular with the English, she galleys in 1294 heralded a distinct c Sea
Balti
and Edward enjoyed a happy advantage for the Venetians. ENGLAND Danzig

marriage, and he was devastated Southampton London EUROPE
AT L A N T I C Bruges
when she died in 1290. The
following year he ordered the OCEAN Paris Frankfurt
erection of 12 so-called Eleanor
crosses to mark the passage of Bay of FRANCE Tana
her funeral cortege to London. Biscay

The contest for mastery of the Venice HUNGARY Moncastro Kaffa

165Mediterranean between Genoa CASTILE Genoa Varna Black Sea
Lisbon Marseille Dubrovnik
Trebizond
Valencia Bastia Constantinople
Rome
Cadiz Murcia
Naples

and Venice continued, with a Málaga

Genoese fleet defeating the Honein Bougie Trapani Phocaea
Palermo
THE NUMBERVenetians off Laiazzo in 1294. The
Bône Tunis Syracuse Rhodes

OF GALLEYSfollowing year, Genoa put together AFRICA M e d i t Crete Cyprus Famagusta
anea Beirut
a huge fleet, with the aim of e r r
n Sea

IN THE 1295landing a killer blow. However, Genoese trade routes KEY
The Genoese opened a lucrative trade route to the Trade routes
despite a formal challenge being North Sea, and competed with Venice to dominate
trade with the Byzantines and the East.
made, it was not engaged. FLEET OF
Developments in Venetian GENOA
shipbuilding, however, were

12P8u7nMjaobnhgaollteindvaatsiLoanhoo1fr2eM8a9Tmripluolkis take 12t9a1kCerMiunAascPmaradelleue;rks1etsk2nimin9dne1ogovdfVeoesmnteostiManurgalansos indust1r2yn9o2kmiEnSigndcaowottafetirSssdchJooootfhlpEanpnnoBdgs1aliiatn2linlo9ifdona4lcKeausobflai Khan (b1. 21I9l2k15thh5Gaoe)nfhds,taithemazesataenIklrkbeeheslaicgInosimoalanteems 12f9o6uonfCodnhfeeiLadwananTgshNMcaaaai pikiitnagl1d2Go9me7tnhVmoeee GiansnseeestnthpiaoaeocenrrBsseteyisVnzraeaaCcnnvkretaiitgmniaeeenCEamrm;e1ept2reiacr9taeh8BnaSdnactttsoltetiosfhFnaaltkioirnkalists d1e2fV9eea8MnteeGantdteeitbagneenoootstewiVsaaeiettseecCdnsoeutnafrhetzpeiaoettlawac;oeptroewaetyrs

Ciasmdpo1aml2di8nin9aonB;taFitnltolTerueosnfcc1ae2nt9hy0e FKoihfrauthlzjeifodSuyunnltdaoassfntDayteelhi C1ro2bs9us1iledEssdinwElaEernadgnIloartn1rda2Kv9eu2lbsMlataoi rKJchaoavPano’swloifltheet 1295toMItaarlyc,oaPnbodyloisthrceeatGuptreunnrsoeedse bu1il2d9m5aGsesnivoeeflseeet 129W7 iSllciaoSmtwstii,nrWulBinanldagletatBrcleer,iod1fg2e97cSounlqtaunerosfGDuejlahriat 1298 FisrsptinmneinngtiownheoEfeularionpe13co0n0trForlaonfcFeltaankdeesrs

149

1301–10 1311–17

,, LET EVIL SWIFTLY BEFALL

,,THOSE WHO HAVE WRONGLY

CONDEMNED US—GOD
WILL AVENGE US.

Jacques de Molay, the Grand Master of the Knights
Templar, cursing King Philip and Pope Clement V, 1314

Domenico di Michelino’s painting The Comedy Illuminating Florence, depicts The torture of Jacques de Molay, Grand
Dante, the city of Florence, and scenes from the Divine Comedy. Master of the Knights Templar.

ALTHOUGH THE GHIBELLINES HAD including representatives of the FROM THEIR HUMBLE BEGINNINGS, Red Sea cathedrals and the richness of
BEEN EXPELLED FROM FLORENCE towns and clergy—and received WHEN THEY HAD BEEN SO POOR their accessories. At Hereford
(see 1286–90), factionalism still their backing. Boniface that two knights sometimes had Hereford Mappa Mundi Cathedral a huge Mappa Mundi
plagued the city, with a drawn-out excommunicated Philip and to share a horse, the Knights The world is shown as a disk, with (map of the world) was created
power struggle between the old Philip called for the Pope to face Templar had risen to Jerusalem at the center. Trade and in around 1300 (its creation is
aristocratic nobility, the new criminal charges. In 1303, agents dizzying heights. With the pilgrimage routes are illustrated, variously dated to 1285 and 1314)
mercantile nobles, and the acting for Philip forced their way backing of Cistercian together with places of interest. and used as an altarpiece; it is the
powerful guilds. The Guelph into the papal apartments in abbot Bernard of largest mappa mundi in existence.
faction split into Black (extreme) Anagni and arrested the Pope, Clairvaux (1090–1153), years around 60 Templars were Such maps encapsulated the
and White (moderate) parties. who died soon after. Facing and subsequently the executed. Elsewhere in Europe, medieval world view on the eve
In 1301, the Whites expelled the tumultuous conditions in Italy, in Pope, they had won some arrests were made, but of the Age of Discovery.
Blacks, only for them to return 1303 the cardinals elected the exemption from secular there was much less appetite for
when Charles, count of Valois, archbishop of Bordeaux as Pope jurisdiction and taxation, condemning the order. At the At the Battle of Bannockburn
entered the city. The following Clement V. Although hoping to and thrived as donations Council of Vienne (1311–12), in 1314, Robert the Bruce, king
year the Black Guelphs sentenced establish himself in Italy when of land and money poured Philip forced Pope Clement to of Scotland (r.1306–29), finally
the Whites to death or exile— the violence subsided, Clement in. By the 13th century dissolve the Templars, and in 1314 expelled the English from Scotland.
among them the poet Dante remained in southern France, they had become de facto the last Grand Master, Jacques de
Alighieri (see panel, right). finally settling in Avignon in 1309, bankers to much of Molay, was burned at the stake. DANTE ALIGHIERI
then owned by the king of Naples. Europe, able to direct a (1265–1321)
In 1301, Pope Boniface VIII This temporary arrangement for large fleet and maintain the Hereford, in England, was an
(c. 1235–1303) supposedly issued the papacy would last until 1378. primary Crusader army in important center for the wool Dante is the greatest Italian
a bull asserting papal supremacy Outremer. Templar knights rose trade—one of the main sources poet to have lived and one of
over France. In fact, the bull was a Palais des Papes to prominence all over Europe, of wealth in medieval England. the most important writers
forgery, put out by the French king Situated on a rocky outcrop, the especially in England, where the Foreign buyers flocked to the in European literature. He is
Philip IV the Fair (r. 1285–1314) to papal palace in Avignon is one of the Master of the Temple was the country to buy wool for export to best known for his epic poem
stir up animosity against the pope. largest and most important medieval first baron of the realm. In the the textile industries of Flanders the Divine Comedy, and for
Philip “responded” by calling one Gothic buildings in Europe. early 13th century, then Master and Italy, and the wool trade was his tragic love for Beatrice,
of the first Estates General— William Marshal ruled the described as “the jewel in the who married another and
country as regent for the young realm.” The wealth of places died young. Exiled from his
king Henry III (1207–72). However, such as Hereford was expressed native Florence for political
after the fall of Outremer, the in the magnificence of their reasons, Dante spent much
Templars were struggling to stay of his life traveling from one
afloat, and presented an easy city to another. He died in
target for their enemy, Philip IV of Ravenna in 1321.
France. Philip coveted the Templar
lands and cooked up charges of
heresy in which to indict them. On
October 13, 1307, Philip’s officials
simultaneously arrested every
Templar in France. They were
accused of a variety of crimes,
including sexual and occult
outrages and worshipping an idol.
The use of torture obtained lurid
confessions, and over the next few

13G0u1BelWFlaplchouhkirnsteGedeneuxcrepelCe,plhwhahsrolfertoshmeonf Vraeltouirsn 13G0r4oafnChmdaaOtleCtatrstolcoamaemndnpvaaaanrnnieTycsuerokfs 13F0a7oirfPtohhriedliepKrnsIViagt1rhh3rteDes0se7ATtoelHgamii-rnupdpdluaa-yrdksiinntrgoibfouDfteelhtoi 13C1o1mCpaatanlyasneGizreasndA1th3oe1fn2atsthFCeinoKaunlnisgcuihlptopsfrTeVesimesinponlnaer 13a13mprWoevasasnbgilneC-Chtyhepinneadper1vini3sEt1ein4nsggBliashttleexpoef lBleadnnfroocmkbSucront:l1a3nM1d4usMliammDluoknsgoels1at3ar1be5LlciosuShgdwnwiisizgsedICVobonyffEBemdaevparearri1toai3orb1nr7routdlhe’EerrssstienelFeecrteradrra

1 5 0130F2leMma1itsFi3nhr0esr3nPeocFvofhorpBeloetrncuaBccgghoueanpksiinai:fnstaigtcoenPhViIlIiIpaI1rVr3eh0sa6tseRdobcerrotwthneedBSkr1iucn3ocg0hetl7ioasfnDDdaivnitwneehbiCleeogmiinnesedxyile reloca1te3s09to(PuAanvptiaiglcn1yo3n78) bEam1tc3tprl1oee2wrtooKnreianidsngsHteIHhtoraeetllynicmarRonyinodVctmsriIttoIayoln-fosvataetres 1313 DocaciuVpieietsECmhpaimr1eicmp3laa1pi4merWaianaltrscbrteootwwthneeeaGnfoteferrirHvmadelaennarythVII1314 HereMfournddMi cEa1rupe3rpa1ota6epdeFafomlliontwehesincprWroeepvsioftaeuirslunyreeMarubaan1rn3ae1kx7,essQuHulttianbnd-auodfk-DiDonefignlDdheoi,omgir

1318–25 1326–39

The earliest European illustration of a cannon, from a book by Walter de The gilded bronze doors on the Baptistry in Florence, sculpted and cast by Andrea
Milemete, presented to the future Edward III of England in 1326. Pisano, took six years to make after he won the commission in 1329.

GUNPOWDER WAS SLOWLY BUT 25 FLORENCE IN THE 1320s AND south, led a revolt that resulted in Flanders, which triggered a
STEADILY CHANGING THE FACE OF 1330s WAS HOME TO ARTISTS the establishment of the last great revolt there against French
WARFARE. Arabs and Moors had THE PERCENTAGE including Giotto di Bondone Hindu empire in India, centered domination. In 1337, Philip VI
probably gained knowledge of OF TIMBUKTU’S (c. 1267–1337) and Andrea on the city of Vijayanagar. of France declared Edward’s
gunpowder from the Chinese, POPULATION AT Pisano (c. 1290–1349)—both seen French territories forfeit, while
using cannons in Spain as early as SANKORE as forerunners of the Italian Edward II of England invested Edward claimed the French
1284. The Mamluks are believed UNIVERSITY Renaissance (see pp.208–09). power in favorites, especially crown, triggering the start of
to have used handguns at Ain Giotto painted naturalistic frescoes Piers Gaveston (murdered by the Hundred Years’ War.
Jalut, while the Mongols acquired passage through Cairo that he on the walls of the Basilica of resentful barons in 1312) and the
the technology on conquering destabilized the economy. On Santa Croce in around 1325, and Despenser family. He also Vijayanagar sculpture
China. Europeans probably picked his return, he employed an in 1334 was put in charge of the alienated his wife, Isabella of Lord Hanuman, the Hindu monkey
it up from Spain and contact with Andalusian architect to build a construction of the Duomo France, who was sent to France god, is shown carved on a rock
the Mongols. The first record of new palace at Timbuktu, which (cathedral). Greatly influenced by in 1325 to arrange the marriage of surface in Vijayanagar, the heart
cannons forged from iron comes became a centrer for Islamic Giotto, Pisano won a commission their son. While there, she of the last great Hindu empire.
from Metz in 1324; later that year scholarship. Mali was later to craft a set of bronze doors for became the lover of Roger
an English fortress in Gascony visited by the Moroccan scholar the Baptistry of Florence, Mortimer, and when
was bombarded for a month. Ibn Battuta (c. 1304–69), who first finishing them in 1336. they returned, in
set out on his travels in 1325. 1326, they led a
The Mali Empire of West Africa The Tughluk dynasty of the revolt against
reached its height under Mansa Delhi sultanate had expanded the king. The
Musa (r. 1312–37), extending from the reach of the Muslim state, Despensers were
the Atlantic to Nigeria, and from reducing neighboring Hindu hanged, Edward
the Sahara to the rain forest. His kingdoms to vassal status, and was forced to
great wealth was based on Mali’s repelling a series of Mongol abdicate in favor of
gold, and when he traveled on incursions. In 1325, Muhammad his teenage son,
pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324–25, Tughluk (c. 1300–51) murdered and Roger and
he dispensed so much gold on his his father and took the throne, Isabella ruled as
and established a reputation for regents. Eight
Moscow Bulgar CHAGATAI cruelty. In 1327, he transferred the months later,
KHANATE OF THE capital from Delhi to Daulatabad Edward II was
for defensive reasons, forcing the horribly murdered.
Kiev New Sarai GOLDEN HORDE KHANATE population to relocate. In 1336, The regents ceded
EUROPE ASIA Harihara I and his brother Bukka Gascony to France
of the Sangama dynasty in the and acknowledged
Astrakhan EMPIRE OF THE Robert the Bruce
GREAT KHAN THE FIRST as king of an
Constantinople KING AFTER THE independent
Granada Antioch Tabriz Samarkand Scotland. In 1330,
,,CONQUEST WHO Edward III (r.1327–
Tangier IL-KHANATE Balkh H i m CHIN A 77) had Mortimer
Marrakesh Fez Multan yas WAS NOT A MAN hanged and began
Acre Baghdad a l a Hangzhou OF BUSINESS. his own rule. Rising
tension with France
Cairo Jerusalem Hormuz Delhi Quanzhou William Stubbs, English historian, was exacerbated by
MAMLUKS describing Edward II, 1875 Edward’s embargo on
,, wool exports to
Sahara Mecca Arabian Guangzhou
Timbuktu Aden Sea
South
MALI Jenne INDIA China
Niani Sea
Calicut

AFRICA

Mogadishu

Malindi INDIAN OCEAN
KEY
Zanzibar
Kilwa

The travels of Ibn Battuta Route of
Ibn Battuta
Ibn Battuta’s first journey was the Hajj (pilgrimage) 1325–1345

to Mecca. He made seven further journeys, visiting Silk road

almost every corner of the Muslim world.

13d2ie1sDiannRtea1vA3eDl2nieg3nalhnahSidie(ubarrl.teni1apn2nue6lxT5seu)esgshTtelhuleiqnMgoafonnagols 13a2c4AcvuWtishgieFenldrlobiaanoanmfnfcohnisoreecfrsdaeOun“scpSsykppahoitraritmtiunagl” 13T2e5noAczhtetcitsláfnound 13c2a6MptEomurdrutweirmddaeerbdrry,eIRtdIhoetghneerdfeoplloosweidnganyedar 13k3il0l tSheerbBsuldgeafreiaatnacnzdar 13r3e2puNlseegsusanofIsAla1bm3yss3tisca3irnaBtisslasaiancukCltDhienaath13e3s6EtamAbplHiisrihneedisuntrsheoebueVtlhiljeiao1rynn3ai3nnIns6FatdlgPaoialairlsereandncooen’sbtadhpoetoisrstry

1324 CathnenoSniesguesoefdMaettz 13M2a4li,Maunsnae,xeems pTeimrobruokftupil1g3r2im4–a2ge5 tMouMsae’csc1a32I5bTnhBeattrtauvtealsbeogfin 1 5 1P1h3i2ll8ipA1Vc3Ikc,2ienfi8sgrssLiotoufVndFaworloafiginsHcoeoflByaRvoamriaaEn1cn3rgEo3lmwa0nnpEdeeddrbwoeragridnsIIrI1eo3ifg3n1 OttOomrk1ah3na3enl2cectaMaldekoesesriscaGosNwhtiiaccbzaaeilecac1oa3mp3iet3asIlncoivJfialRdpaueansfndse,iaaEtsmtphee1r3Hor3oA6jGosoChrdiiekvagia1ilegg3wnoa3cac7yrlaFinnleJtmaabkpyiseaEhsnnr;pgetolhbiwseehellriwonootrl1ieg3mg3e7bfrraeoPrdmthghioeltihpHesueEnindzgerlesisdGhYa;essactroasnr’tyWofar

1340–44 1345–49 1350–55

,, ,,WHATEVER THE WORLD

FINDS PLEASING, IS BUT
A BRIEF DREAM.

Petrarch, Florentine scholar and poet, from Canzoniere Number 1 (c. 1352)

The Strait of Gibraltar, where Marinid An illustration from Froissart’s Chronicle, of 1346, depicts the Battle of Crécy,
forces destroyed the Castilian fleet. at which the English used mobile artillery for the first time.

THE BATTLE OF RIO SALADO IS HAVING GAINED MASTERY OF THE THE BLACK DEATH THE PAPACY WAS REFORMING ITS
CONSIDERED, BY SOME, to be the ENGLISH CHANNEL at the naval BUREAUCRACY and improving its
defining battle of the Reconquista, battle of Sluys in 1340, Edward III The effects of the Black Death finances under the Avignon popes.
ending forever the threat of was free to invade France. He are best recorded in Europe, In 1348, Clement VI (1291–1352)
Islamic incursion into the Iberian landed in Normandy in 1346 and where it had profound bought Avignon from Joanne of
Peninsula from Africa. The Marinid took Caen, but retreated in the consequences. It depopulated Naples, and work continued on
dynasty of Morocco, which had face of a huge French army. At the land, depressed the its papal palace. Scholars and
overthrown the Almohads in the bay, on the borders of the forest economy, checked intellectual artists were attracted to the
mid-13th century, gathered a vast of Crécy, Edward took up a and artistic progress, changed papal city, briefly among them the
force and destroyed the Castilian defensive position and inflicted a the social order, contributed Florentine Francesco Petrarch
fleet in the Strait of Gibraltar. crushing defeat on the forces of to the end of feudalism, and (1304–74), who had been crowned
The Marinids then marched inland Philip VI. This was largely thanks triggered a wave of anti- poet laureate in Rome in 1341. In
to the Salado River, where they to the indiscipline and arrogance Semitic pogroms on Jews, 1351, Petrarch started to arrange
were defeated by the Christian of the French knights and the who were blamed for the his poems in sonnet form. He was
kings Alfonso XI of Castile effectiveness of the Welsh and pestilence, forcing many to also a scholar, whose translation
(r. 1312–50) and Afonso IV of English longbowmen. At the cost migrate to Eastern Europe. and popularization of Classical
Portugal (r. 1325–57). of a handful of casualties, the literature contributed to the
English killed tens of thousands, which fell in 1347, after a emergence of humanism, a new
800,000 including the kings of Bohemia protracted siege. school of philosophy that would
and Majorca, the duke of Lorraine, help to trigger the Renaissance.
THE AMOUNT the count of Flanders, the count of Also in 1347, the Black Death
IN FLORINS Blois, eight other counts, and arrived in Europe. It is thought to In 1354, the Nasrid king of
OWED BY three archbishops. The English have been carried initially by Granada, Yusuf I, was murdered
EDWARD III use of combined aristocratic and Genoese returning from the by his son Mohammed V (1338–
yeoman forces had produced a Crimea, where they had been 91) who took the throne. Under
powerful new form of army. They exposed to it by infected Mongols. Mohammed, the Alhambra—the
would go on to besiege Calais, Transmitted by fleas that were fortress-palace of Granada—was
carried by rats, the plague was further developed, becoming a
To finance his expensive war in TOTAL spread by ship to the principal treasure of Islamic architecture.
France, Edward III of England POPULATION ports, and then to every corner of
(r. 1327–77) had taken out huge Europe and Western Asia. A large The Ottomans were invited to
loans from Florentine bankers, 45% proportion of the population died. Gallipoli, on the Dardanelles
especially the Peruzzi family. (the straits separating Asia from
When the money ran out, Edward KILLED Europe), by John Cantacuzenus
renounced his loan in 1342. (c. 1292–1383), claimant to the
With the king of Naples also Plague deaths Byzantine throne, to help in his
defaulting on loans, the Peruzzi It is estimated that up to 45 percent attempt to gain power. Led by
were bankrupted, throwing of the total population of Europe was Orhan, the Turkish dynasty soon
Florence into economic chaos. killed by the various waves of the seized the peninsula, securing
Walter de Brienne, the mercenary Black Death plague. themselves a foothold in Europe.
duke of Athens, was called in
to take power in Florence but, Architectural jewel
eventually, a mercantile The Court of the Lions is at the heart
oligarchy took over. of the Alhambra palace, built by
Mohammed V as the winter
residence of the royal family.

13R4i0o BSaaltatldeoof fuusrendacines1B3feto4alrgkt4hiieurAesomeTnSgumerakynsrnCarfursoamde 13c4r6owSnteepdheamnpDeur1so3hr4ao6nf BtIhVaettSleerobfsCrécy13S4u6flotRuannebadteaeltlioioofnnDoaefglKhaiianlseshatmdthsiretiokingdom 13K4n8LiigTtphherutiunsatcondenieasifnceaattKovno 13F5l1orWenarcestaanrdtsM1bi3elkta5iwn1negSedenocmonfdorSmiaemdese 13b5e1tchoAemcAaezmsteakcpinsicghotfli 13t5o3frreoCgmhaaiDnmatpieaVrribei1tat3otsr5tely4eizsOetGtoamlliapnosli
13s4m0eBltliansgt

re1n3o4uP2necEreudszwzdaierbdbatInsIIkteors de1f3ea4an4tdeMdHobunynggPoaolrsleiasns 134E7nTgrliuscheabn1ed3twF4r7eeeEnnnchgl1is3h4t7GaBkeenMlaoCacarak,sNlCDaeaoiielspnlaleset,htsCa,snyatptWnrirnidkeuoessrptsa,leveara,nngdeAssia 1348 BlhFairtcsaknaTDcnueeds,acEStahnpngay,ilna,nd 1351 dPeevteralorpchh1iss3tas5ro1tnsBntoeoctscacchioiscDomecpalme1t3See5rwso1fionsZlsluoCrwiocenhdfejbodyineoBsrtaehttrheineornac,nitdies 1t3ri5b4unCeolaaRnDodmidRieci,etadnateznopordo,oksfeildled

152

1356–65 1366–72

To many people, Petrarch is known This mural features Timur Leng, who rose from humble beginnings to found Constructed of brick and timber, the Bell Tower of Xi’an was built during the
as the “father of humanism.” the Timurid dynasty after outmatching the conquests of Genghis Khan. early Ming dynasty, in the reign of Zhu Yuanzhang, the first Ming emperor.

BOHEMIA HAD EMERGED AS A dissolution in 1806. The Bull EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, HAD 276
POWERFUL STATE under the established Bohemia as first BEEN MADE PRINCE OF GASCONY
Premyslid dynasty in the 13th among the electors and AND AQUITAINE in 1362, moving to THE SPAN, IN
century. Under the Luxembourg guaranteed its independence. Bordeaux and becoming a major YEARS, OF THE
dynasty, it became the central player in continental affairs. In MING DYNASTY
force in German imperial Timur Leng (1336–1405)—also 1367, he intervened in a dynastic
geopolitics, while its ruler known as Tamerlane—rose from dispute in Castile, where French Under Murad I (r. 1362–89), the
Charles I (Charles IV as Holy modest beginnings to become ally Henry of Trastamara (1334– Ottoman Turks extended their
Roman Emperor) sought to leader of a Turkic-Mongol 79) had deposed English ally control deep into the Balkans.
modernize the imperial Chagatai tribe in Transoxiana, Pedro I, thereby placing control In 1371, Murad defeated an
institution and advance the Central Asia, in around 1362. of the Castilian navy in the alliance of Serbs, Byzantines, and
fortunes of Bohemia. In 1348, he Despite having a limp, and the French camp. Edward defeated Bulgars, and held control over
had enlarged the kingdom by fact that he was not of Chinggid Henry at Nájera but was forced to much of Thrace, Macedonia,
granting it territories such descent (directly descended from withdraw owing to illness. Bulgaria, and Serbia. He also
as Moravia and Silesia, and Genghis Khan—only Chinggids Subsequently, Henry regained the created the janissaries, a
refounded Prague to become one could become khans), he was Castilian throne. In 1372—after slave-warrior corps that became
of the foremost cities in Europe, destined to become one of the Charles V of France (r. 1364–80) the mainstay of Ottoman armies.
with a major university. In 1356, greatest conquerors in history. had fomented a Gascon
Charles IV issued the Golden rebellion, restarting the Hundred 70,000
Bull, which regularized the Edward of Woodstock, eldest son Years’ War—the Castilian navy
election of the emperor to a of Edward III, also known as the proved instrumental in defeating an 60,000 7,000 dead
majority vote of seven electoral Black Prince (1330–76), had won English fleet at La Rochelle. 50,000
princes, most of which were his spurs at the Battle of Crécy at NUMBER OF TROOPS
hereditary; the papacy would have age 16. He went on to become one China was reunited by conquest
no role. This, in turn, allowed the of the most effective English from the south, as a native
electoral principalities to develop commanders. When hostilities rebellion drove out the Mongol
sovereign states, and set the renewed between England and Yuan dynasty. In 1368, rebels
constitutional basis of the Holy France in 1355, he invaded under Zhu Yuanzhang
Roman Empire until its final France, winning a great victory (1328–98)—a former peasant
near Poitiers in 1356, in which he turned Buddhist monk then
Golden Bull captured King John of France.
Edicts issued with general—struck north from
golden seals were their base in Nanjing, 40,000
called Golden displacing the Yuan from
Bulls. That of Beijing. Taking the imperial 30,000 100 dead
Emperor Charles name Hongwu, Yuanzhang 20,000
IV sought to established the Ming
prevent future dynasty, setting up a strong, 10,000
imperial elections centralized government,
from descending in which the position of 0 French
into conflict. emperor was strengthened, English
but so was access to the
bureaucracy. In 1372, he Battle of Nájera
passed an edict attempting Outnumbered by almost three to
to ban maritime trade and one, the English–Gascon army
thus limit contact with defeated the French–Castilian forces
foreigners. with the loss of only around 100 men.

13fl5e4aetVtPedonereftetoiaatLnsoGnegno1o3eb5see4GcroMtahmnoeehaAsdalamkhiaamnnmgedboddrfVeavpealolapcse 13o5f6PPrBJoinoiatchtietenlrecosaf;ptFthruearneBcsleaKc1ikn3gE5m6pGeorlodreCnhBaurllel sofIV 13L6i3MthAohunilasBggnlitoareilacdrsrkadaitseSnofedoreaifaeetxssttetohneds 136173YB6ua8MatnZtinlhedguyodnYfyauNnsaáatnyjseztahrynaadnfgouenxpdesls 13Y6e9raerHsstu’anWrdtasrred

1355kSinthegipsohefemSnepDrirbuedisaishs,tiadnanirtee,tssg;rtoate 1M3o5n5grNeovlaotrpiulotalneacageglaaiisnitnthCsethrisna 1356CAhninsti1ee-3Misz5eeo9nrNeCgaboivnGeliEjlloisanwldsgateernrinnHoEthruedre1oi,3pn6eF0raEndcwaeat,rtadhneIdIITacrgearmaetepysaoitfgeCnrmsalsaci.sl e1a3ed6me2reTrinigmeTsurarCansLesnetornt1xrigbia3aal6nlA4as,Ciaaosf iPmsocilrhaonthodelfaoGturCnedraastcaow ind1e3p6en8dTeibnecYetuarfeongllcaooiwnllsianpgse co1n3q6u9erTsimSaumr aLreknagnd 1369 HansepaetaickLoef1ait3gs7up1eCoBhawetaertrtnloemofen b1av3itcta7ltneo2droFifroreuLecnsaociRvnheornacarPheveoalitlliee,rs

153

600–1449 TRADE AND INVENTION

THE STORY OF

PRINTING

A REVOLUTION IN HUMAN COMMUNICATION CHANGES THE WORLD FOREVER

By making it possible to communicate and disseminate information at a bar to lower platen
speed and scale previously unthinkable, printing wrought changes that
are still unfolding today, from triggering religious mania, to scientific paper is pressed
and political revolutions—even changing language itself. against form to
produce imprint
Printing is the impression of marks on a medium— eastern Asia but perfected by German printer
most commonly ink on paper. The earliest writing, Johannes Gutenberg (see 1454–55). His printing form, or frame, for
cuneiform, was a form of printing composed of press was so advanced that, except for refinements setting Gutenberg’s
indentations made by a stylus in clay. Printing in the such as new typefaces and mechanization of the
modern sense of the word first arose in 8th-century presses and paper handling, the basic process special type
China with the development of block printing. remained unchanged until the 19th century. wooden coffin,
Blocks of wood carved into bas-relief were used as
stamps to reproduce multiple copies of a single text, In the 1880s, the development of linotype allowed which slides
complete with images, such as the Diamond Sutra, a typesetter to compose lines of type using a under platen
the earliest datable printed book (see 861–70). keyboard, rather than by hand. Stereotyping made
it possible to duplicate complete pages for multiple
MECHANICAL PRINTING printing. In the 20th century, filmsetting enabled
Block printing was laborious and slow, as each block rapid photographic creation of printing plates. By
was specific to one page. Movable type was a major the end of the century, computers allowed every
advance (see panel, opposite), first achieved in aspect of printing, from typesetting and graphics
to inking and drying, to be done on one machine.

,, HE WHO FIRST SHORTENED THE LABOUR OF COPYISTS

,,BY DEVICE OF MOVABLE TYPES WAS … CREATING A

WHOLE NEW DEMOCRATIC WORLD; HE HAD INVENTED
THE ART OF PRINTING.

Thomas Carlyle, Scottish essayist and historian, 1759–1881

c. 2291–2254 BCE Sumerian cuneiform 868 The Diamond Sutra 1377 Early Korean book
Sumerian cuneiform Block printed book Movable metal type
Stamping cuneiform The earliest dated The first metal
inscriptions, rather book (entire movable type is
than drawing them by manuscript) is cast in bronze in
hand, is introduced. the Diamond Sutra, Korea and is used
Stamps are pressed a Buddhist text to produce the
into soft clay bricks, found in a cave in Jikji Simche Yojeol,
which are then fired. Dunhuang, China. a Buddhist scripture.

8th century Japanese c. 1275–1313 c. 1455–56 1790s–1820s
Block printing dharani Movable type The printing press Metal presses
Printing using carved scroll Invented in China in the Gutenberg prints the The all-metal
wooden blocks and ink 11th century, movable first book in Europe—the Columbian printing
is known as xylography; the type is refined by Gutenberg or 42-Line Bible press is the first to
earliest surviving xylographic Wang Shen, who uses (because of the number of replace the screw with
fragment is a Buddhist over 60,000 wooden lines on each page). levers and weights.
dharani scroll from Korea. types in his treatise.
Gutenberg’s printing press Columbian metal press

154

THE STORY OF PRINTING

screw, or spindle, MOVABLE TYPE
adapted from
wine press The key technology in the printing revolution was
movable type, in which each character in a script
square sleeve, had a corresponding single, small block, or type,
or socket allowing lines of type to be assembled, and then
reordered for different texts. The first book, printed
by movable type cast in bronze, was published in
Korea in the late 14th century. Gutenberg improved
upon this technology by developing a technique that
enabled rapid, precision casting of metal type.

heavy ink impression raised
platen, or on paper movable type

printing Letterpress printing with movable type
plate
sturdy construction Gutenberg’s press
leather for industrial-scale Gutenberg created a screw
ink balls production press for pressing inked
stuffed with type, set on a wooden frame,
horsehair against a sheet of paper. This
was a dramatic improvement
1886 on the traditional method
Linotype of taking impressions by
A linotype machine allows a means of rubbing.
typesetter to make up entire lines
of type, using a typewriter-like Laser printer Late 20th
keyboard, rather than hand- century–present
compositing letter-by-letter.
Desktop printing
Linotype typesetter The laser printer
offers technology
that would once

have filled an
entire workshop.

1903 Early 1949
Offset printing photocopier Photocopying
In offset printing, the inked image Developed by American Chester
is transferred (or offset) from the Carlson at the Xerox Corporation
printing plate to the paper via a in the US, the photocopier
rubber sheet, achieving smooth, uses electrostatic distribution of
precise transfer and reducing powder ink or toner, rather than
wear on the plate. wet ink, to create an exact copy.

155

1373–80 1381–85

A 16th-century painting captures the triumphant return of the An illustration from Froissart’s Chronicle depicts the Peasants’ Revolt, the first great popular
Doge to Venice after victory over the Genoese. rebellion in English history, led by Wat Tyler, who was executed by the mayor of London.

THE WAR OF CHIOGGIA, BETWEEN THE BLACK DEATH AND marched on London and hundreds of Noh plays and
VENICE AND GENOA, was triggered SUBSEQUENT LABOUR SHORTAGES siezed the Tower, burning the developed the highly stylized and
by the continuing contest for contributed to rising social palace of John of Gaunt and killing symbolic performances.
control of the trade routes tension in England. Around 1362, Archbishop Sudbury, who was
through the Dardanelles, along for instance, the poor country blamed for the poll taxes. Richard Castilian influence in Portugal
which flowed the lucrative trade priest William Langland had II cleverly appeased the rebels; in the 1380s threatened the
of the Byzantine Empire and the written Piers Plowman, a poem in Tyler was executed and the revolt independence of the kingdom and
Silk Road beyond it. In 1376, English sympathizing with the was brutally suppressed. sparked resentment among the
the Byzantine emperor John V plight of the poor peasant. Portuguese. An uprising
Palaeologus (r. 1341–76) granted Churchman and scholar John Japanese Noh drama developed triggered by a nun resulted in
to Venice the Aegean island of Wycliffe (or Wiclif) had caused a in the 14th century, mainly under Joäo (1358–1453), illegitimate son
Tenedos, key to the Dardanelles. stir with writings that prefigured the aegis of Kanami Kiyotsugo of Pedro I, seizing control of the
Meanwhile, his son and rival Protestantism, and a popular (1333–84) and his son Zeami country. In 1384, John I of Castile
Andronicus IV (1348–85) granted Biblical egalitarian sect, known as Motokiyo (1363–1443), who wrote (1358–90) invaded Portugal, but
it to Genoa. In the ensuing war, the Lollards, partially inspired Joäo was elected king by the
,,the Genoans defeated the Executioner of Cesena by Wycliffe, was winning
Venetians at Pola and, in 1379, The anti-pope Clement VII was widespread support. In Portuguese parliament and, with
seized Chioggia in Italy and known as the “executioner of 1377, the so-called Bad English help, defeated
blockaded Venice. Under Vittorio Cesena” for his brutal suppression Parliament, dominated Castile at the Battle of
Pisano, the Venetians counter- of a rebellion in the Papal States by the king’s son John Aljubarrota, in 1385.
blockaded the Genoese fleet, while acting as a papal legate. of Gaunt, Earl of In doing so, he freed
starving it into submission. Lancaster and Portugal from Castilian
Genoese maritime power was after. The Roman mob pressured soon-to-be regent to influence and, after
broken and Venice now controlled the conclave of cardinals to choose his infant nephew marrying the daughter
the Levantine trade. an Italian pope, and Urban VI Richard II (1367– of John of Gaunt,
(c. 1318–89) was duly elected. 1400), introduced a founded the Anglo-
NOTHING French cardinals, meanwhile, poll tax; subsequent Portuguese Avis
GREAT IS EVER elected Robert of Geneva parliaments dynasty.
ACHIEVED (1342–94) as anti-pope Clement extended it, causing In 1384, Philip the
WITHOUT MUCH VII. The French king, Charles V, widespread Bold of Burgundy
threw his weight behind Clement, grievance. In 1381, inherited the county
,,ENDURING. while Richard II of England allied attempts to of Flanders, adding
with the Holy Roman Emperor reintroduce serfdom to his extensive
St. Catherine of Siena, (1347–80) Charles IV in supporting the triggered the territories. France,
Roman candidate. Thus began the Peasants’ Revolt, ruled by the young
In 1376, Dominican mystic and Western, or Great Schism, which which saw peasants and mentally ill
miracle worker Catherine of Siena saw rival popes installed in Rome rising against landlords, Charles VI, was now
travelled to Avignon to convince and Avignon until 1417. burning manors, and dominated by rivalry
Gregory XI (c. 1336–78) to return destroying records. Up between the houses of
the papacy to Rome. A few to 100,000 men, under Burgundy and Orléans.
months later, Gregory went to Jack Straw and Wat Tyler,
Rome to attempt to restore order Noh mask
in the Papal States, and died soon mask usually made In Noh drama, which involves
of wood or clay music, singing, speech, and mime,
masks are used by the principal
character, and by female and
elderly characters.

13W73dheiJtfeoehaCntotmHhaepwaMnkiwylaomnoeedsr’esce1n3ain7rv5ieaMsdeamArlmukesn1i3ar7e7tuPrnaspatocyRome 13(7pr8seuAsbeyjuungtt-tahdtaaeyysaTShuakiolat1hn3adD8i)m0deiRHtfreuoiasrItdsIIiteahonaeftsMGKuoounlslddcikeeoonrwvo 13R8e1vTohlteinPeEansgalanntsd’ 13c8o2amnMpdlieentxgeptceaolkntehtreoMl oofnCghoilnsa 13r8is4eJoofhLnoWllayrcdlisffe dies; 13o8f4cBoPuuhrngitluiopnf dtFhyleabnBedcoeolrdms es 13S8o5fiOattomans take

1(3b.7173E1d2w)c;raRorwidcnhIIeaIdrddikEeIisnnI ggisloafnd riv1a3l 7p8opSecashnaidstmARvooimgfneon 1378 VWebanerigcoeinf esCnh(dtioossg1uGg3pei8rane1om):aancy L1eo3nv8ge0rbrTeuignminPusertrosia 138s2acGkroesladMsesonesrHcotosovwercdroaeRnntudrsoslia c1o3n8q2uTeirms uKrhLoeransgan 1384dKraamndtahaemvteieasilttoKewpriymhionoetsJsnuahtpgaoaopfn,eN,dodhies Aljubar1ro3t8a5eBsiPnataodtbtreltlpeuisegohnufedesesnece

156

1386–90 1391–1400

Traveling pilgrims are shown in an illustration from the Canterbury Tales. This unfinished poem by Geoffrey Chaucer, A miniature from the Topkapi Museum in Istanbul, shows the Battle of
17,000 lines long, vividly illustrates the medieval world view on social, religious, and moral matters. Nicopolis, at which the Ottomans destroyed a crusading army.

JAGIELLO OF LITHUANIA CHRISTIANIZATION OF EUROPE THE START OF THE MING DYNASTY Courts). During this period, the
(C. 1362–1434), THE LAST PAGAN IN CHINA TRIGGERED CHANGE IN line of the emperor Godaigo—
KOREA, which was considered driven out of the capital, Kyoto, by
RULER in Europe, was crowned a client state by the Ming. The the Ashikaga shogun Takauji, in
Koryo empire had supported the 1336—had maintained a rival
king of Poland and converted to In Europe, the medieval period new Chinese dynasty, but this did court in the mountainous
not prevent the Ming from Yoshino region south of Nara.
Christianity in 1386. Marriage to saw the vigorous advance threatening to invade. In 1388, Yi Japan was wracked by civil war
Songgye (1335–1408), a leading until the shogun Ashikaga
Jadwiga of Poland united the two of Christianity until it general who favored the Chinese, Yoshimitsu (1358–1408)
seized power in Korea. In 1392, negotiated a reunification
kingdoms, and brought Lithuania encompassed the entire region as King Taejo, he founded the and brought Ashikaga power
Yi dynasty, also known as the to its apogee.
into the Catholic Church, although (with just a few exceptions). Choson (or Joseon), a name
taken from an ancient Korean The Nicopolis Crusade of
pagan traditions lingered on. The spectacular success in kingdom. Taejo restructured his 1396—intended to roll back the
government on the Chinese Ottoman advance in the
Timur Leng (see 1356–65) converting Europe posed model, and instituted wide- Balkans—saw a Franco-
ranging land reforms to Hungarian expedition led by
completed his conquest of Persia extreme challenges to the redistribute estates from the Sigismund of Hungary
hands of the oligarchy, replacing humiliatingly crushed at the
in 1386 and raided deep into the Church, as it struggled to them with a new class of Bulgarian town of Nicopolis on
technocrats known as the the Danube. A huge army,
Caucasus, sacking Tbilisi in reconcile temporal and yangban. Neo-Confucianism featuring volunteers from most
was adopted as the state religion, of the Christian states, proved
Georgia and capturing the Georgian spiritual power. Internal and a new capital was founded at ill-disciplined. The failure of this
Hanseong (Seoul). The Yi dynasty adventure proved that Christian
king. However, when the army of forces would continue to lasted until 1910. Europe had to look to its defense.

the Golden Horde attacked his revolutionize the religion. In Japan, the union of
the northern and
Central Asian territories, in 1387, southern imperial
courts in 1392 brought
he was forced to turn back and to an end the Yoshino
period (also known
meet them. It took another nine Member of Parliament. He was Canterbury Tales, partially as the Period of
Northern and Southern
years for him to destroy the threat. instrumental in the development modeled on Italian author Giovanni
Gyeongbokgung Palace
Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1340– of Middle English—a combination Boccaccio’s Decameron, tells the This colossal palace, built
by King Taejo (Yi Songgye)
1400) was a soldier, scholar, writer, of Old English and French story of pilgrims on the road to the in 1395, is also known as
the “Palace of Shining
diplomat, government official, and influences. His greatest work, the shrine of Thomas Becket (see Happiness” and the
“Palace Greatly Blessed
1170); it was begun in 1387. by Heaven.”

Yelets KHANATE OF THE At the Battle of Kosovo, in 1389,
GOLDEN HORDE the Ottomans defeated the Serbs
New Sarai and Bosnians, smashing the
Serbian empire and absorbing
Kaffa Astrakhan Aral CHAGATAI most of its territories. The Ottoman
Black Sea Sea Ottar KHANATE leader, Murad, was killed in the
battle but his son Bayezid the
Ankara Urgench Samarkand Thunderbolt (1360–1403) took over.
Caspian Sea News of Murad’s death prompted
Constantinople Derbent Bukhara the Ottoman vassals in Europe and
Anatolia to revolt, but Bayezid
Smyria Siras swiftly reduced most of them,
Konya bringing their territories under
Balkh direct Ottoman rule. The Ottomans
now controlled most of Anatolia and
Mediterranean Tarsus Aleppo Alamut Nishapur Kabul
Alexandria Herat
Antioch Mosul Qum PERSIA Multan
Sea Damascus
Acre Kandahar
Baghdad Isfahan Delhi

Cairo Jerusalem IL-KHANATE

MAMLUK P ersian Shiraz
SULTANATE Arabian Penin Hormuz

EGYPT Red Sea Gulf
Aswan
Medina Arabian
Mecca sula Sea

The Timurid Empire KEY the Balkans south of the Danube.
Established by Timur Leng, the Campaigns of Timur Bayezid introduced the devshirme
Timurid Empire eventually reached Extent of Timur’s empire —the levy of Christian children
a greater extent even than that of who were converted to Islam and
Genghis Khan, but it would not long used in the administration and

survive Timur’s death. Janissary corps.

13L8i6tphaJcugaraaaognnnwiiedarnlu,lecotlodehnorekfviilennargsEtstoufrtooPpoCelha,rnisdtianity 13G8e7boeEfCgfnraiengnysltiesCtrohhbawwuurrrcyiitteeTerartlhees 13G8a8PleaMindaiuzlnazaoontr,oVtuhiosnetcrdhoneenrrIttGaic,oliayandnqdusests 13k8in9RgoWgmoeefnanBencoreEahsmlelapmpseeiaaIrVcoae,rn,idennHGaoeclrtyemdaany 13F9l2oarnLtedoenFaocegepru,prBeoasoroelafoMBjgonoiilnalao,ntgoPngaaed:tuhae,r 13d9y2naYsit(yCbheogsionns)in Kore1a3t9h5deeTGsiopmloduielrsnLtHheeonirgrdrkeohauantn1sda3itn9ev8aanTddiemtsaukInredLsieaDn,eglhi

138c6oancTnoqidmmuesupsalrtecLotkeefssnPGtgehereosriagia 1T3i8m7uWr aLGreonblgedtaewnnedeHtnohrede 1E3lan8thtg8eelriJsBovheihbrtnlrsteahiWonepnysuLclibalosiltflikiflsoeanhnr’osedowd’sf;nBaaisble 1389abBsaottrSlbeeerodbfibaKynoOsetomtvopomi;raens 1 5 71392NEonrdthpoCeefrortnuhioreadtnsYidonasSrJheoa1iunrp3etoa9hun3etn;hriTnteeimcdoun1rq3Lu9ee6nsgBt oacroftetmIlpleKepohllefatthNneeasictCoerpuoslaisd;eOrtctoamm13apna9is9gRnHicehnarrydIIVI idneEpnogsle1as3nO9dw9aWinleeGlasledhnsrduaorlWeewbreeelrlslhion

1401–03 1404–07 1408–10

,, WE HAVE SET

,,EYES ON...

REGIONS... FAR
AWAY...

Zheng He, Chinese explorer

The wall of skulls at the Templo Mayor archaeological site in Mexico City is made from skulls carved in stone, Wladyslaw II Jagiello of Poland prepares
covered with stucco; the Aztecs practised human sacrifice at the vast temples in the centre of Tenochtitlan. for the Battle of Tannenberg.

FOUNDED BY THE AZTECS IN 1325, Meanwhile, they expanded their HAVING CONQUERED AS FAR AS THE RELENTLESS ADVANCE OF
RUSSIA in the East, Timur Leng THE ORDER OF TEUTONIC KNIGHTS
the city of Tenochtitlan—existing political territory through (see 1386–90) set his sights on the (see 1236–40) had brought
greatest empire—China. In 1405, Prussia and much of the Baltic
on the apparently unpromising marriages, alliances, and he embarked on a campaign, but coast under their control, cutting
died en route to China and was Poland off from the sea. The union
site of a marshy island in a conquest. After a flood, buried at his capital, Samarkand. of Poland and Lithuania under
Despite his possibly exaggerated King Wladyslaw II Jagiello
partially brackish lake—reached Tenochtitlan was laid out on a reputation for cruelty, Timur was (c. 1362–1434) posed a new threat
a devout Muslim and a patron of to the Order, and the Great
its height at the beginning of the grid pattern, with quarters the arts and architecture. His Northern War ensued. At the
enormous empire did not long Battle of Tannenberg in 1410—
15th century. Tenochtitlan means arranged around a central survive him, quickly breaking one of the greatest cavalry
down into a Timurid state ruled by confrontations of the age—a huge
“Place of the Fruit of the sacred district, regarded as his son Shah Rukh (1377–1447), Polish–Lithuanian army of up to
which soon fragmented further. 16,500, including Bohemian
Cactus”—a reference to the vision the center of the world. A huge mercenaries, Russians, and even
In 1404, John the Fearless Tatars (Turkic Mongols), defeated
that supposedly informed the population of up to 200,000 (1371–1419) became duke of
Burgundy, leading opposition to
choice of location. In this vision, was supported by intensive the regency of Louis, duke of
Orleans (1372–1407), brother of
the tossed heart of a conquered agriculture and extensive the mad king, Charles VI of France
(1368–1422). In 1407, John
enemy landed on the island where networks of trade and tribute. ordered the assassination of
Louis, triggering civil war
an eagle wrestled with a snake on The African Songhay kingdom between the Burgundians and the
Armagnacs (named for the count
a cactus growing out of a rock— was centered on the trading Songhay gold coin of Armagnac, the father-in-law of
This coin from the Songhay Empire Charles, the new duke of Orleans).
as depicted on the present- metropolis of Gao, in the Niger is from the Songhay city of Gao; rich The Burgundians, who favored
and powerful, the city provided the peace with the English, were
day Mexican flag. The Aztecs Bend area of West Africa. Gao basis for building the empire. popular in Paris and the north,
while the Armagnacs, who were
drained the island, reclaiming had long been a prosperous city 15th century, Mali declined and anti-English and pro-war, had the
Gao won its independence, support of Queen Isabeau of
surrounding land, and joined the thanks to interregional and beginning the growth of a Bavaria, the great nobles, and
Songhay Empire that would the south of the country.
land together with causeways. trans-Saharan trade with the eclipse the other two largest
empires of the late Iron Age in In 1404, Zheng He (1371–1435)
Tenayuca VALLEY OF Islamic world, especially West Africa—Ghana and Mali. —a Muslim captured from Yunnan
MEXICO in salt, gold, slaves, and in China as a boy, castrated, and
ivory. In the mid-13th In 1398, Timur Leng (see pressed into military service—was
1356–65) had invaded northern named grand, or high-ranking,
century, because of the India and destroyed the Delhi eunuch at the imperial court. The
sultanate with astonishing speed following year he led the first of
allure of its riches, it and terrifying cruelty. Marching seven epic voyages of discovery.
160 miles (260km) in two days, he
Pantlaco Atepehuacán Atzacualco became an eastern captured and massacred 100,000
Tepeyacac province of the Mali fugitives outside Delhi before
Coltonco Dyke of Netzahualcoyotl Empire (see 1231–35). sacking the city, supposedly
Azcapotzalco However, in the early building a huge pyramid from the
skulls of his victims. In 1401,
Tacuba Altepetlac Timur massacred the population
of Baghdad and launched an
Popotlan Tlatelolco invasion of Syria. He then moved
against the Ottomans (see
Chapultepec Lake Map of Tenochtitlan 1286–90), occupying Anatolia and
Texcoco Causeways connected restoring the old Turkoman
TENOCHTITLAN Tenochtitlan to other principalities.
Mixiucan settlements on the lake
Tlacateco Acachinanco and the mainland. The
Zacatlalmanco city and its emperor
Xola-Xalac dominated the Valley
Tepetlatzinco of Mexico.

Coyoacán Lake Mexicatzincgo KEY
Xochimilco
Huitzilopochco street
aqueduct
causeway
dyke

c.o1f4TA0ez0ntseoccHhcetiiitgtylhaotnf 141041p0o5Tp)imumlauatrsios(1na3co3rfe6Bs–aghdad 14A0n2ckaBaOprattatuto;trlmTeeisaomnfusrultan 14V0is5VceBVonenrierctoiaendksaoue,mpiazaoneifdsnsPV;iandcuean,1za4T0im5fraDuTgriemma(btueh.rn1iotd3fa3Et6imo);npiorfe 14N0i9ccocDmmoolaopnsladetetiteerBlpsleioehttcidosei B, Daradviid
1c4o0m2mILtaioslrisdaeiononnozareorsdcGhothofitiFebdcleBeotrsartiepigntnicsetry ParmS1eu4sl0vta3arnMaaateelsatoyafbrMulilsaehlraecsca 1405exFpilrosrtevroZyhaFegrneagno1acHf4gee0ap7initCsstiAvBirlumwrgaaugrnnidanciasns Pis1a4r0ep9saCuploatusl ncinclaitlihmorfeaents
SEoxWcpn.age1nhs4sta0iAyo0fnErsmiocfapnire

158

1411–15 1416–20

This later depiction of the Battle of Agincourt shows cavalry engaged in This illustration from the Chronicle of Ulrich von Richental shows the papal
conflict; around 10,000 French troops were killed or captured. electors taking their leave from Emperor Sigismund at the Council of Constance.

the forces of the Teutonic Knights IN 1413, HENRY IV OF ENGLAND convene a general council—the THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE (1361–1419), sparked a Hussite
who were around 11,000 strong. DIED and his son, Henry V Council of Constance—to resolve ENDED THE GREAT SCHISM in 1417 uprising in Bohemia. This
The Order was crushed, but (1386–1422), came to the throne. the split in the Catholic Church by trying and deposing the last combined a religious tussle
Jagiello was unable to keep the In 1415, Henry concluded an known as the Great Schism (see antipope, Benedict XIII, and between the papacy and
powerful Polish nobles in order alliance with Burgundy and 1373–80). In 1415, the Council electing Martin V (c. 1348–1431) antipapists, with a nationalist
and thus could not press home reasserted the English claim to deposed the existing claimants, as the sole true pope. struggle between Czechs
his advantage. The Peace of the French crown as a pretext for and condemned the Bohemian (Bohemians and Moravians) and
Thorn, concluded the following renewing the Hundred Years’ priest, religious reformer, and The burning at the stake of Germans. The Hussites, made
year, failed to secure Polish War (see panel, right). In October, philosopher Jan Huss, who was Bohemian religious reformer Jan up of moderate (Utraquist) and
access to the Baltic and enabled Henry inflicted a terrible defeat on executed the same year. Huss (see 1411–15), and the death extreme (Taborite) factions, united
the Teutonic Knights to regain a far superior French force at of Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia to face a crusading alliance led by
some of their advantage. Agincourt, taking the Duke of Wenceslaus’ brother, the emperor
Orleans prisoner, and going on to Sigismund. The Hussites defeated
Andrei Rublev (c. 1370–1430) conquer Normandy. the alliance outside Prague.
was a Russian monk and painter,
based at the St. Sergius monastery ...THE LIVING,, In 1411, peace was concluded
of the Holy Trinity in Moscow. FELL ON TOP OF between Portugal and Castile
He worked during a period of THE DEAD, AND (see 1381–85). Portugal now
monastic revival in Russia, when OTHERS FALLING began to look outward, winning
a foothold on the north coast of
the Eastern Orthodox ,,ON TOP OF THE Africa at Ceuta in 1415. Explorer
Church offered Henry the Navigator (1394–1460)
comfort in the face of LIVING WERE distinguished himself in the
internecine war and KILLED AS WELL. . expedition; his visit to Africa
the hated Mongol sparked an interest in exploration,
Yoke—the tribute From Gesta Henrici Quinti, c. 1416 and he may have set up the first
and service exacted school of navigation in Europe at
by the Golden Horde. During Chinese explorer Zheng THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR Sagres, in Portugal (see 1434).
Though inspired by He’s fourth and greatest
the great icon painter expedition in 1413, he visited The series of conflicts from 1337 to 1453, later known as the 45
Theophanes the Calicut in India, and reached Hundred Years’ War, was triggered by a combination of factors:
Greek, Rublev was Hormuz on the Persian Gulf, tensions over the status of the duchy of Guienne, which belonged THE NUMBER
celebrated for sending ships to explore down the to the kings of England but owed sovereignty to the French OF SESSIONS
pioneering a new, African coast as far as Malindi in crown; English claims to that crown, based on descent from the HELD AT THE
more serene and Kenya. The fleet included 63 ships Capetians; anxieties of influence on both sides; and the need of 42-MONTH-
symmetrical style. of up to 260ft (80m) long. English kings to use foreign adventures to shore up support at LONG COUNCIL
home. There should have been little contest between France, the OF CONSTANCE
The Holy Trinity In 1414, anti-pope John XXIII— most powerful nation in Europe, and smaller, poorer England, but
This detail from Andrei one of three men claiming to be the English used new tactics and weapons, especially the longbow,
Rublev’s greatest icon, pope—was expelled from Rome by to devastating effect. The war drained resources on both sides, but
painted around 1410, King Ladislas of Naples. John also forged a new degree of national identity for both countries.
shows the three angels sought refuge with the emperor,
who visited Abraham. Sigismund, who forced him to
Each angel represents
a different aspect of
the Trinity.

14L1i0tdhePuKfoeanTlaniiagstianhhTnnt–eseufonatorbtcnuBeircasgttle of 14T1h1boePrKtnewnLaieeigctneehhndtuossTafecanouniantdnoflPnifciooctrlicsehs1-4o1f3dEiHensegnl(abrn.yd1IV366) 14H1e3nArcycVesosfioEnngo1lfa4gn1rd3ZehaFetoenusgrttHehxeapneddition1o4Af1g5bienBatcanwotdeutleErentnofgFoflruiesgnhhcth 14A1m6duaNPkdoieeebudolesmfmSVoaaInIvntno,yaIt;maalenydnexes14C1o7GnrCseotaautnnSccecilheoinsfdms 14Y1o7CnoMgrnelieefninuxg(sc1atie3maitm6nu0sptc–yeea1ssrnt4oeco2rimn4vi),lfisxeersvice

KKa1na4na1jo0e,jDpdrei,eakstihennogN1tf-4oidg1fae0yriAXaInIBItima-pnaoktkpheienespFJMalooephrdaneilcnbicaenk Ja1m4u1r3luBainttSleeorbfia 14e1s4taKbdh(lyrii.snz1hra4esK1sthy4Sa–iann2y1Dy)iedlhi co1n4q1u5erPsoCrteuugtAaalfrinica Npaoovfsigns1aai4btv1oliyg9rasH(te1ieot3snn9r4uiyn–p1tPsh4coe6hr0to)uoglal 14H20usHZsuiitzsekHssaiutuedsnesWdifteeaearrctsJra;aunnstai-de

159

1421–22 1423–25 1426–30

Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan sits in state; having assassinated his brother to The Doge’s Palace, seat of the doge of Venice, is a masterpiece of 14th-century Joan of Arc leads troops into battle,

become duke of Milan, he restored Visconti hegemony over northern Italy. Gothic architecture, overlain with 15th, 16th, and 17th century additions. wielding a crossbow.

SULTAN MEHMED I Sultan Murad II IN THE 1420S, THE CULTURAL Although Florence was the Bodkin point
(1382–1421) had Murad defended and MOVEMENT known later as the heart of the Renaissance in the This type of arrowhead is an
successfully extended the Ottoman Italian or High Renaissance 15th century, the other great uncomplicated, squared, metal
restored the Empire, and was also gathered pace, particularly in the Italian power centers of Milan, spike, extensively used during the
Ottoman state a patron of poetry field of painting and the visual Rome, and Venice also fostered wars of the Middle Ages.
after the Timurid and learning, arts. In 1424, the sculptor artistic and architectural
invasion (see making his court Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378–1455) achievement. In Venice, the THE DAUGHTER OF A FARMER,
1401–03), a cultural center. completed the gilded bronze Doge’s Palace, which had been JOAN OF ARC (1412–31) was 16
although his navy doors for the Florence Baptistry evolving since its origins in the when in 1429 voices in her head
had come out between 1386 that he had been commissioned to 9th century, embodied many of commanded her to bear aid to the
worse in a conflict and 1400; and make in 1403; the following year the architectural high points French dauphin (see 1421–22).
with the Venetians threatened Florence he was commissioned for a of the previous six centuries. The The English under John, duke of
at the Battle of until his death in further set. Working at the same current building began to take Bedford (1389–1435), had made
Gallipoli in 1416, 1402. Strife between time as Ghiberti were a host of shape around 1340; work on the further gains against the forces of
forcing the Ottomans to his sons Gian Maria and other artists, including side overlooking the Piazzetta did
recognize Venetian claims in Filippo Maria saw this empire Brunelleschi, Jacopo della not begin until 1424, under Doge
Albania. In 1421, Mehmed died disintegrate, but when Filippo had Quercia, Masaccio, Donatello, Francesco Foscari (1373–1457).
and his son, Murad II (1404–51), Gian assassinated in 1412, he set Gentile da Fabriano, Jan van Eyck,
became sultan. Domestically, he about restoring it, regaining and many more. In 1424, Timur’s descendant,
restored the devshirme practice of Genoa in 1421. The Visconti Ulugh Beg (1394–1449)—
training Christian slaves for key patronized the arts and The Tribute Money astronomer and future Mongol
roles in government; externally, scholarship, helping to drive the Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone leader—built a great observatory
he pursued a policy of renewed Renaissance (see pp. 208–09). Masaccio died at just 27 years old, but in Samarkand. It was equipped
expansion, beginning with the The French had suffered great created some of the most influential with a 130-ft (40-m) sextant, and
first Ottoman siege of losses at Agincourt (see 1411– artworks of the Renaissance. Ulugh and his team of scholars
Constantinople. The siege was 15), and in 1420, at the prompting cataloged over a thousand stars.
unsuccessful and Mehmed was of the pro-English Burgundians,
distracted by an uprising led by Charles VI of France had accepted
the Sufi theologian and preacher the Treaty of Troyes and
Sheikh Bedreddin—it was acknowledged Henry V of England
suppressed, and the sheikh as his heir and immediate regent.
was executed. The agreement ceded all the
conquered lands up to the Loire
The Visconti family had ruled to the English and declared the
Milan since Archbishop Otto dauphin, Charles, to be
Visconti rose to power in 1277; illegitimate. The English now
their domain had spread to controlled northern France.
encompass much of northern In 1422, both Henry and Charles
Italy, reaching its height under died, and under the terms of the
Gian Galeazzo (1351–1402), sole Treaty, the infant Henry VI was
ruler from 1385. He had made acclaimed king of both England
marriage alliances with the chief and France. The dauphin, based at
monarchs of Europe; was made Bourges, refused to accept this,
hereditary duke in 1395; mastered and the Hundred Years’ War (see
Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Pisa, 1411–15) continued.
Siena, Assisi, and Perugia

14b2e1OctoMtmoumerasadn I1sIu4al2tu1artenoCpnzeoelmcsheocueossntgadotaveensrtfnio-mHrmueAsnsutH;igteesunucsrcrtycu3eVs1saos,dif1oeE4n2nog2flDaHneedantrihnyoFVfrIa(bn.c 1e3;871)4e2x2vpolCfoyrahroegimnreeZAbshrefreinincgagsHgeir’asf6feths back AuBgedudesCffotehr1aad7tr,s,lre1ses4ugap2etpn4oBtDroatuftektFrleesraooonfffcdVeae,urnpehuinil 14(2134S9aUo4mbl–usa1ger4hkr4va9Ban)te,dogr,ruyblueirldosf 14t2ak4AenOaStttmoolmyiarannas, 14u2n6GdrHetehruaiPrstdsr(icoat.ecn 1ost3pi-8iHu0us–s1tsh4ie3te144)ct2daruek7MsefVeialBeaadnnteee,rngtioaarmnthfooefrrrcnoemIstaly

1 6 0ann1e4dx2ee1fseMca1Got4iesul2anrS1ntowmaCi;shosvineessteCoiiFtmyorpabetirdBiadeleDijnienOagcthtoobfFeCrrah2na1cre,le1(sb4.2V 12I3o6f8) OttoCm1o4na2nst2saiFneitgrisnetoopfle 14mc2soe4unrcFcdceroeantetnaidecrseryrshcocioso(mlfeSapaftoadhrneezyrra),aoMsfialan 142G4hIitbaelirattoni cFaolromtriseptnleLctoeersBedanopzotoirsstry 1424PiRazeentotavaftaiocanPdbaeelogafcineDs,oVogenen’sice d1i4sc2o7veProNtrohtruetghAwu1zAie4notsrs2leae8insnL,tdiecepdeyrMnenldaaieesyvntey1cs4ein2sfir9VeoigJemeotnaCoanfhmOoinfralAeracns

1431–33 1434

,, WE READ THAT WE OUGHT TO

,,FORGIVE OUR ENEMIES; BUT WE

DO NOT READ THAT WE OUGHT
TO FORGIVE OUR FRIENDS.

Cosimo de Medici

The Arnolfini Marriage by Jan van Painting of the first Medici ruler
Eyck is noted for its detailed interior. of Florence, Cosimo.

the dauphin and were besieging FROM 1431 TO 1433, ZHENG HE SINCE THE 1380S, FLORENCE HAD Compact, and civil war broke out into the Atlantic had discovered
Orleans, while the dauphin had (see 1404–07) made a seventh and BEEN DOMINATED by the Albizzi between the factions, which the islands of Madeira and the
still not managed to secure his final expedition, returning to the family, who extended the city’s represented different classes as Azores. Henry personally
coronation. Joan succeeded in Persian Gulf. Despite this last control of Tuscany. The attempts well as religious ideals. In 1434, at oversaw the colonization of these
obtaining an interview with him at trip, China’s period of exploration of Visconti Milan (see 1421–22) to the Battle of Lipany, the upper- Atlantic outposts, successfully
Chinon, won him over, and was had come to an end with the death gain control over all of Tuscany class Utraquists vanquished the establishing them as centers of
provided with troops and the title of Emperor Yongle in 1424, after forced Florence into a ruinously Taborites, killing Prokops. agricultural production and
chef de guerre (“war leader”). She which the Ming dynasty returned expensive war, although alliance forward bases for Portuguese
successfully relieved Orleans, to its former isolationist policy. with Venice saw Milan defeated. The rising power of the exploration. Henry’s next target
going on to defeat the English Surrendering the lead in A leader of the peace party was Sukhothai kingdom of Thailand was to round Cape Bojador on the
twice more, and stood next to the exploration to Portugal and the wool merchant and banker had increasingly threatened the coast of West Africa, the farthest
dauphin at his coronation as Europeans would have profound Giovanni de Medici, possibly the Khmer Empire (see 1201–05) limit of Portuguese exploration;
Charles VII at Reims in 1429. Joan consequences for the Chinese and richest man in Europe. After his through the 14th century. Repeated contemporary European sailors’
failed to take Paris, however, and for world history. death in 1429 and a disastrous Thai raids, particularly an lore viewed the seas beyond as a
the following year, she was war with Lucca in Tuscany, the incursion in 1431, may have helped
captured by the Burgundians, SHIP LENGTHS Albizzi succeeded in having dangerous and terrifying
who ransomed her to their Giovanni’s son, Cosimo de Medici, The Windrose otherworld. Cape Bojador was
English allies (see 1431–33). 72ft COLUMBUS’S banished from Florence in 1433, The windrose mosaic at Sagres in finally rounded by Gil Eannes in
SHIP but new elections saw him Portugal—possibly a sundial—was 1434. The experiences of his
In 1428, Le Loi, leader of returned the following year, commissioned by Portuguese sailors on these voyages of
Vietnamese resistance to the 440ft ZHENG HE’S marking the start of Medici navigator Prince Henry. discovery convinced Henry that
Chinese occupation, expelled the SHIP domination of the city. Cosimo the traditional barca ships in use
Chinese and founded the Le combined business acumen with trigger the 1434 abandonment of were unsuitable, and he worked
dynasty of Dai Viet. On admitting Not all the great Renaissance political shrewdness, winning Angkor (see 1146–50) and the with shipwrights to design a new
Chinese authority, his dynasty was painters were Italian; Jan van popular support for his policies. transfer of the Khmer capital to type of vessel, the caravel. This
recognized by the Ming. Eyck (c. 1390–1441) was Flemish. Phnom Penh, farther south, was smaller, lighter, and swifter,
Celebrated for his mastery of All attempts by anti-Hussite although it is also possible that with a shallow draft for near-
realism and his perfection of oil forces under the emperor the new location offered better shore operations and more space
painting, van Eyck produced some Sigismund to dislodge the connections for foreign trade. for stores to allow the ships to
of his greatest masterpieces in Hussites and regain control of the stay at sea for longer.
the 1430s. In 1432, he and his Czech territories had failed Sponsored by Prince Henry the
brother Hubert completed their (see 1416–20). The superior Navigator (see 1416–20),
largest surviving work, the organization and tactics of the Portuguese explorers pushing out
altarpiece of St. Bavo’s Cathedral Hussites, first under Jan Zizka
in Ghent, Belgium. Later that year, and, after his death in 1424, under
in London, van Eyck painted Andrew Prokops, made them
the Portrait of an Unknown Man militarily powerful. In 1430, they
and the Man with the Red Turban; invaded Germany and raided as
possibly a self-portrait. far as Franconia. Negotiations
with the ecumenical Council of
In 1431, Joan of Arc was turned Basel in 1413 led to the Compact
over by the English to the French of Prague, or Compactacta, under
ecclesiastical authorities for trial. which moderate Hussites (the
She was found guilty of heresy, Utraquists) agreed to go back to
and was burned at the stake the Catholic Church. The extreme
in Rouen. anti-papist Taborites rejected the

JuClyoar1so7nC,ah1ta4ior2nle9osfVdIaI uo1pf 4hFSi3rnaa0VlneoOtcnnhetiietckoiearm,nidanaenvGmsarloteapnekoscewtereafrrtoinmg MaJoyba3un0rno, f1ed4A3rac1t (sbt1.a 41km4e311To2vhK)eahdimrfareoidrm,cSaA1opn4uictgt3aohk3MlneoqTaaruulsaietafErrtAemeTsrgiipmasirbeuktu, MaTayUb3ota0rrtaiPtqBeruasoitscdtotle–epfCeiouaafsttLhe(iodbpl.aibccny.ay 1lwl3i8ah0ne)creies killed JuJnaoegfi1eLlDiltoheau(btahonroianf aWcn. l1da3dk6yi2ns)gl,aGowfraPIInodlaDnudke KhtomSPeohrunctohampeaitsPatleAmnshoi,aves PorrotWuungedusteCsAaefpreeicxBapolojaredrosr,

MCaapytu2or3feB,Auo1rrf4cgJ3buo0ynadnthiaens arcm. 1o4Er3ui0nrtoFrpouedlalunpclekadnteifgohrts Ja1n4v3a2tnhFeEleyAcmdkoiscrhoaMPmtairyorpasntlgtieisou1cttfee4Lts3hae3mendCboHmv1uo4spy3saa3igcteetZshawisoenaonfdrlgsastHuiboesn’seolqafusCethnitna (1389–dC1o4om6si4inm)abonecdgeeininMs FeMdloeircdeiicnice AztecTTerxicpolecoACalelninadtnrTcaieal cAwomipthaenri,ca (1399–1Z4ka6inr8ga) boYefacE’qotumhbioepsia

161

1435–37 1438–40 1441–44

This manuscript illustration shows Founded by King Henry VI of England, construction of Eton college was Fresco by Domenico di Bartolo, (c. 1410-1461), of the Sienese school,
from Siena’s hospital of Santa Maria della Scala.
Charles VII entering Paris in triumph. halted when the king was deposed during the War of the Roses.

,, THE IN 1438, PACHACUTEC (C. 1438– Quito Amazon MACHU PICCHU (meaning “Old attempted to entrust his crown.
KINGDOM OF 1472) BECAME THE NINTH INCA Latacunga Basin Peak” in Quechua, the language of At Adrianople, Murad made a
FRANCE… KING, or Sapa Inca. His reign the Incas) is a mountaintop citadel 10-year truce with Albanian
WILL BE THUS heralded the beginning of a great Ingapirca about 43 miles (70km) northwest of military leader Hunyadi
RULED BY KING expansion of the Inca realm, Cuzco. Construction probably Skandebeg and other resistors of
CHARLES VII… which had been confined to the Piura Huancabamba began in the 1440s, under the Ottoman advance. However, with
HE WILL ENTER immediate area around Cuzco auspices of Pachacutec. The the pope preaching crusade, the
PARIS IN GOOD since its foundation (see 1201– ChiquitoyAndes maximum population of Machu resistors were absolved of their
1205). It began with invasion by Chan Chan Picchu was possibly only around oaths of peace and they launched
,,COMPANY. the rival Chancas, who besieged 1,000, and it is thought that it a new attack. Led by Hunyadi and
Cuzco, and were completely Huánuco served as a ceremonial center, Wladyslaw III of Poland and
Joan of Arc, Christian visionary defeated. Inca expansion was as well as being an impregnable Hungary (1424–1444), the
facilitated by the sophisticated Pachacamac Jauja stronghold for the Inca elite in crusading army—the last major
THOUGH ALLIED WITH THE nature of most of the kingdoms case of attack.
ENGLISH OCCUPATION OF FRANCE, and tribes they conquered; Vilcas Machu Picchu Machu Picchu
the Burgundians (see 1404–07) tight-knit, centralized Resistance to Ottoman High above the Urubamba
were increasingly concerned at administration focused on Nazca Cuzco occupation of the Balkans Valley in the Peruvian
English gains. With the Treaty of the emperor; a genius for Lake increased, and in 1443, a Andes, on an
Arras, the Burgundians and the organization and record-keeping PACIFIC crusading army defeated the inaccessible ridge,
French king, Charles VII, made (despite having no writing); and an OCEAN Titicaca Ottomans at Nis, in Bulgaria. The lies Machu Picchu,
peace but the English, unwilling to imperial road-building program Ottoman sultan, Murad II (see sacred citadel of
accept the terms, withdrew from rivalled only by the Roman Juli 1421–22), was forced out of the Inca
negotiations. The following year, Empire. Pomata retirement to take over from his kings.
the French alliance took Paris son, Mehmed II, to whom he had
from English control. In 1440, the young king of KEY
England founded a new Expansion by 1400
The 1430s saw increasing college at Eton. The King’s Expansion in the reign of Pachacutec
tension between the papacy and College of Our Lady of
the conciliar movement, which Eton near Windsor, now Inca expansion
held that the Church ought to be known as Eton College, The Inca Empire had expanded
governed by a Church council, was intended to be part of greatly between 1400 and the end of
rather than an individual pope. a large foundation Pachacutec’s reign. It would triple in
Pope Eugenius IV summoned a including a massive size by the 16th century.
General Council at Basel in church, an almshouse,
1431, but it was dominated by and 70 scholars who were to receive free education before
antipapal sentiment and, in going on to King’s College,
1437, he tried to transfer the Cambridge.
Council to Ferrara, where it would
be more amenable to his influence. With the Ottomans (see
Most of the delegates refused to 1286–90) occupying
leave Basel, resulting in two territories on all sides of the
concurrent councils. tiny remnants of the
Byzantine Empire, and
threatening Constantinople itself,
the embattled Byzantine emperor
John VIII Palaeologus (see
1448–49) arrived in Europe to
plead for help from the Council
of Ferrara in 1438.

Gold llama statuette
The Inca were so rich in gold that
emperor Atahualpa was able to offer

a ransom of 750 tons of it when
captured by conquistadors in 1532.

14a3ll5wiaiTatnhrgceaeCaihntoyasfrtoBlEefunsArggrV1ulrIi4Inasaohds3rf;i6DcaFhnuCrisotaoemnmccotpe,FleFiltliioporpneonocBfeIrtuanliaenlleschi’s 14e3m8PpaBCelayorhzeoueaornlnlpcJotioigalnhugoensaf1iFVan4eIrbsI3rrIeti8rgvOaeiEtnrstxasopamtuatonnasdsneeisoernkSoafpIancInacEa1m4Pd3pae9eicprlheoCeascocetususntaPceniocltpio-1efp4iBEon3pua9BegsOeeeFnnlbeiealnixIEEVwV;mupairree,tWakeesst pAofrwci.ceoa1rf4IMn4cb0aaecsghECiumnosPnpisicrtecrh,uuct,ion 14n4e1CgaFoVvrteiraaninaticecneseasaTbcnroeedtaSwMtfeyoileroaznfna 14I4tr2heeDuGnearitetehadtoG(fbeA.ol1re3gx8iaa6n),dwerho
1a4c3ti8nMFgirlfaaonnrceVesesencimoMceeSur1dfrco4eaerf3dnez9aaIaIrtO(sci1etot4son0mq4u–ae5ns1ts)uoblfetSa1gne4inr4sb0iaHenryCVoIl(flcoe.ug11ne34d,94sE8A0nE–zgt1Mteole4axonc6npc9deat)emnbzdepuscemodroamormIeasinndion 1441 MayandecsittyrCooeyfneMtdraainylaArpemávnoelrti,ca
1 6 2DecSDeiegmaistbhmeorufn9Ed,m1(4bp.3e117r43o6r387)Civ1il4Cw3e7aurtMain,oNoSrocsrotrthelatAanfkdreica

1445–47 1448–49

The rocky north coast between Paul and Ribeira Grande Illustration from a Muromachi period manuscript. The arts flourished in
in Santa Antao in the Cape Verde islands. Japan under Ashikaga patronage.

2:1 Battle of Varna HENRY THE NAVIGATOR’S (see 1421–22). There were IN 1449, ASHIKAGA YOSHIMASA PALAEOLOGUS
The Hungarian-led EXPENSIVE PROJECT to open up multiple claimants to the ducal (1435–90) BECAME SHOGUN, or (1404–53)
crusader army, with a the coast of Africa (see 1434) was throne, and eager to avoid military dictator, of Japan.
strength of 30,000, suffered heavy met with scepticism at home in domination by a foreigner, the Although his reign marked a Constantine XI Palaeologus
losses at the hands of the Ottoman Portugal, until in 1441, one of his Milanese powers immediately cultural highpoint of the Ashikaga, succeeded to the remnants
troops, who numbered 60,000. ships returned with gold dust and constituted the Aurea Repubblica or Muromachi period (1336–1573) of a once-great empire, left
slaves, prompting an acceleration Ambrosiana of Milan, or the it was also a period of increasing without the resources to
attempt to expel the Ottomans of activity. Between 1444 and Ambrosian Republic, but they civil strife. Repeated famines defend itself. He was the last
from the Balkans and relieve 1446, around 35 of Henry’s vessels faced insurmountable obstacles. triggered constant uprisings, emperor of Byzantium, a state
Constantinople—was decisively sailed for the West African coast. Riven by internal dissension and while the Ashikaga practice of that had lasted throughout the
crushed by Murad at the Battle of In 1445, sailing in one of Henry’s unwilling to lose control of the issuing tokuseirei or “acts of medieval period, providing a
Varna. Wladyslaw disappeared new caravels, explorer Dinis Dias other cities controlled by Milan, grace” to cancel debts, damaged unique bridge between east
in the battle and was presumed sighted the mouth of the Senegal they were soon forced to turn the economy. Despite this, and west, ancient and
River, which offered a trade route military control over to a Yoshimasa presided over a modern. He died on the walls
dead, despite rumors of his deep into the African interior, condotierre, or mercenary soldier- cultural flowering at his of Constantinople, having
miraculous survival. and rounded Cape Verde, the leader—the powerful Muzio Higashiyama estate. done everything in his power
westernmost point of Africa. Dias Attendolo, nicknamed Sforza to secure its defense.
returned the following year as meaning “exert” or “force.” The new pope, Nicholas V,
part of a fleet of caravels elected in 1447, was intent on them from the Balkans at the
intending to plant the Portuguese In the mid-15th century, the bringing an end to the schism second Battle of Kosovo in 1448,
flag and explore what Henry Shona kingdom of Mwene Mutapa, caused by his predecessor’s clash regaining control of Albania. It
believed might be the western also known as Great Zimbabwe with the Council of Basel (see was clear that there would be
branch of the Nile, while another (see 1106–10), was nearing the 1435–37), and on restoring peace no European rescue for the
of Henry’s captains, Nuño Tristão, end of its glory days. By this time, to Italy and achieving harmonious embattled Byzantines. The
sighted the Gambia River. the riches of the gold fields had relations with other rulers. At the Ottomans were closing in on
funded construction of the Great Concordat of Vienna in 1448, he Constantinople.
The marriage of Margaret of Enclosure, an elliptical space made concessions to Emperor
Anjou (c. 1430–82) to Henry VI of enclosed by a giant wall 800ft Frederick III and the other
England in 1445 was negotiated by (244m) around, and up to 36ft German princes, who in return
William de la Pole, chief advisor to (11m) high in places, built from abandoned the Council of Basel
the king and power behind the almost a million granite blocks. and recognized some papal
throne, whose aim was to stop the powers. The following year,
war in France (see 1435–37). At Population the Council of Basel finally
first, the match and the bride were of Great disbanded and the anti-pope,
popular in England, but in 1448, the Felix V, abdicated in return for a
territory of Maine in northern Zimbabwe cardinalship. This marked the
France was lost to Charles VII and final victory of the papacy over
the queen was blamed for her 50,000 20,000 the conciliar movement.
influence over the weak king.
Margaret would survive this, POPULATION Following the death of Byzantine
however, and become an important OF LONDON emperor John VIII, his brother
player in the Wars of the Roses Constantine XI Palaeologus (see
(see 1454–55). Golden age of Great Zimbabwe panel, right) acceded to the throne
In the mid-15th century, the in Constantinople—he would be
The death of Filippo Maria population of Great Zimbabwe was the last Byzantine emperor. The
Visconti in 1447 signaled the end just under half the size of the Ottomans had defeated another of
of the Visconti ducal line of Milan population of London. Jan Hunyadi’s crusades to clear

14(413o39fA6Nl–fa1op4nl5es8so)ocfroAwrangeodnking AporfHiMle2an3rrg,ya1Vr4Ie4ot5foEMf1nAa4gnDr4lrjiaoV5inaneuiPgdsrtedoDoreit,auWsgueroseutsneAdfersxicpCalaopreer 14R4a6eyxDaIpneIadIani(tadbh,e.tod1of4VDg2ire4jaev)yaawatenhsaotgheaaxrdtEen1mt4(p41ir47Le2iCtP,7hao–usl9aai2mnn)idiarreaIuVnndites 14b4uf8ioldPrWtoseorlsnattu1vAAge4ru-f4rgtei8rucsaaieCdnoinInsgclaonrdda, t of Vie1n4cn4raS8uesMacoudneradodfBIJaIatdtnelefH1e4ouaXf4ntIsK9ByPaoyAadzsclaioacanveettoosinsloeiogenumso,fptCehroeonrlsatsatnt1i4nr4ee9CbuhMiilnidnaigngdyGnraesattyWbeaglli,n
14(4a1g34a0Si5nAk–sal1btn4atd6hne8eira)ObnleetNrtagoeodmvvsoealmtnsbHesruun1lagt0raa,mnr1iyM4ana4ut-4rlBaeOdadtttIctoIlrmeruesoapafnedVlisanrgna
1d4Eea4tfhen5aidoZtpskaiiraslalus(l1Yts3aau9’nql9atua–tben14ooo6fffS8IAo)fadmcta.al1,li4a45ofLGasret agtoZldimenbaagbewe 1R44ep7uAbmlicbrfoosuininadMneidlan 1 6 314J(4co8.h1Ga3ne9mpnr8rme–oisn1nat4Geni6nyup8gttr)oepibnnrdotbeeeresvrrsreog,1lwoM4sp4a9ain(Cz1h4i2n7e–s6e4e)1mc4a4pp9eturRo(r1ure4ldeZ3hb5oe–yfMn9AM0guso)trhonmoingkmagoaralgkscashYiho1pes4eighr4hii9ostdaToc,mrfoJiutanahmcpeiadplinihasrsoomflupoatvipoeanmcoeyfnoCtvoowefuritBnhcaislel

5

REFORMATION
AND
EXPLORATION

1450–1749

The 16th and 17th centuries were determined by new horizons,
as new lands were explored and new ideas formulated.
Religious reform and conflict, global exploration, and a
scientific revolution laid the grounds of a new understanding.

1450–52 1453

A detail from Ghiberti’s Doors of Paradise for Florence Cathedral’s Baptistry. The This 16th-century fresco depicts the siege of Constantinople, which began on
second pair of doors he completed, they show scenes from the Old Testament. April 2, 1453 and ended when the Ottomans took the city on May 29.

THE GREAT ZIMBABWE into competing regional powers France. Bordeaux was 1:12 Siege of
CIVILIZATION of southeast Africa in the aftermath of Timur’s recaptured by the English, but Constantinople
(see 1106–10) was in decline by invasion of 1398. But in 1451, an attempt in July to relieve the Mehmed led
the mid-15th century. This the new Afghan Lodi dynasty English stronghold of Castillon, 80,000 men against only 7,000
coincided with the rise of the reasserted the sultanate’s former which was besieged by a large defenders during the siege of
Mutapa Empire in the fertile, dominance in the region, which French force, was a calamitous Constantinople, a disparity that
copper-rich uplands between lasted until it was ousted by the failure. In the first major made the city’s fall almost inevitable.
the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers Mughal Babur in 1526. European conflict to be decided
in present-day Zimbabwe and by artillery, the English lost 4,000 no match for destructive force on
Mozambique. Sustained by In Europe, Florentine goldsmith men; the French, scarcely 100. this scale, and the city fell to the
lucrative trade in copper, cattle, Lorenzo Ghiberti completed his Three months later, in October, Ottomans in May 1453.
ivory, slaves, and gold with second set of bronze doors for the Bordeaux itself fell again to the
Baptistry in Florence in 1452. French. This brought to an end Conscious of their destiny as
the Hundred Years’ War and left world conquerors in need of a
,, NO ART, HOWEVER MINOR, Calais on the Channel coast as suitably imposing capital, the
DEMANDS LESS THAN the only remaining English Ottomans were careful to
possession in France. For the preserve the city after they had
,,TOTAL DEDICATION. English, defeat provoked the first taken it: they needed it as a
of a series of descents into symbol of their own, newly gained
Leon Battista Alberti, Italian polymath (1404–72) English defeat at Castillon madness by the country’s hapless grandeur. Its imposing Christian
The Battle of Castillon decisively king, Henry VI. For the French, buildings were pressed into
Muslim coastal settlements, the The first door, begun in 1403, took ended the hopes of England’s French victory brought closer the goal service for Muslim worship, and
Mutapa Empire remained the him 21 years; the second, 27 Plantagenet kings to pursue their of a properly united kingdom the city itself remained a symbol
dominant regional power for more years. In the same year, Leon claim to the French throne. under a single monarch. of Ottoman military might for
than a century, when repeated Battista Alberti published De Re more than 450 years. The
Portuguese attempts to infiltrate Aedificatoria, (Ten Books of THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR, a In Western Asia and on the Ottoman conquest of
it finally succeeded (see 1629). Architecture). Both works were grimly drawn-out period of borders of Christendom, Constantinople—now renamed
masterpieces in their fields and Anglo–French conflict (see Constantinople, capital of the Istanbul—was the clearest
On the Indian subcontinent, the exemplified the self-confidence 1411–15), ended with absolute beleaguered Byzantine Empire, possible signal that the Turkish
Delhi sultanate had fractured French triumph in 1453. Any remained the center of Orthodox Ottomans were the most dynamic
and intellectual hopes England’s French Christian civilization. But it faced military and political force in the
daring of the Plantagenet kings had of an imminent threat from the region, and that they were an
Florentine asserting their rights to the Muslim Ottoman Empire. This unmistakable threat, not only to
Renaissance. French throne came to a final halt threat materialized when the what remained of Christian claims
at Castillon outside Bordeaux. Ottoman sultan, Mehmed II in Western Asia but also to Europe
Mosque pavilion in Two years earlier, Bordeaux, (“The Conqueror”), who believed as a whole.
Mehrauli which had been in English hands that only relentless conquest
The remains of a for 300 years, had fallen to the would guarantee continued
mosque in Mehrauli, French. This prompted a last, Ottoman supremacy, mustered
Delhi, built during desperate attempt by the English an army of 80,000 to attack
the reign of the Lodi to reassert themselves against Constantinople; the defenders of
dynasty (1451–1526), the forces of the French king, the city could call on fewer than
who were the last Charles VII, which were massing 7,000 troops. In addition, Mehmed
rulers of the Delhi in strength in the southwest of had the most formidable artillery
sultanate. in the world. The ancient,
crumbling walls of the city were

14d5y1ensaFtsairtbsy,ltitsAhhfegehdLaoandtiD, elhi 14O5t1toMmeahnmseudltIaInbecomes JuVnpgeuiv1fboi4nlri5gss2hrleaePsvloiegpDietuormNuasdiDceahiuvoetlharsosarsit,y ApMreCilho2mnOsettdatonIImtibnaeongpsinluesnideegre of JuElnyog1fl7CisaFhsrftaoinlrlccoeensdienfeBaatsttle

June 3c0a,p1t4u5re1frBoFomrrednEecnahgulxish1452 FlorecnLotominBrpeealnpgeztotioesldstGrsdhym,oibFoitelrhosrrtfeionrce 14L5Ae2oeIndtaiBfilicaapantuttboipslroitoisalafyhAmA(eTrlseabcnthDehireBtteoRicoetkusre) OtMtoamya2n9fMoCreochnemsstceaadnptIitIn’usoreple frorOtemhccteatohpHbetueuEnrrend1sgr9elBiFdsorhYra,deneeacnaredsu’ixnWgar

166

1454–55 1456–60
,,
IT IS A PRESS, CERTAINLY, BUT A
PRESS FROM WHICH SHALL FLOW IN
INEXHAUSTIBLE STREAMS…THROUGH

,,IT, GOD WILL SPREAD HIS WORD.

Johannes Gutenberg, German inventor and printer (c. 1398–1468)

A Turkish miniature painting showing Mehmed II’s forces attacking Belgrade,
which they tried unsuccessfully to take from Hungary in 1456.

THE COMPETING AMBITIONS OF King Henry VI seemed to have been won by the OTTOMAN EXPANSION CONTINUED In 1458, Matthias Corvinus,
ITALY’S CITY-STATES, which had This anonymous portrait is of King Yorkists. The wars continued until IN THE BALKANS AND GREECE as second son of Janos Hunyadi, the
led to almost a century of war, Henry VI, reputedly a peaceful, pious 1485, when Henry Tudor seized Mehmed II pressed ahead in his man who had led the successful
was ended by the Treaty of Lodi man who suffered from prolonged the throne (see 1483–85). determination to conquer the defence of Belgrade against
in 1454. Milan, Venice, Florence, bouts of severe mental illness. world for Islam. Mehmed Mehmed II’s Ottoman troops
the Papal States, and Naples were By the mid-15th century, attempted to take Belgrade in 1456, was elected king of
the signatories. The treaty had Prussia (conquered by the in 1456 but was repulsed by Hungary. His reign promised
been given additional impetus by Teutonic Knights two centuries Hungary. However, by 1459 the much: not only to draw the
the fall of Constantinople to the earlier) had become resentful of rest of Serbia was under Ottoman Hungarians into the wider
Ottomans a year earlier, when it its lowly status within the Baltic control. Simultaneously, the European Renaissance, but also
became clear there was a need to territories of the Teutonic Order. Ottomans conquered the to increase the reach and prestige
present a united Christian front. In 1454 the Prussian Estates Peloponnese in southern Greece, of his country.
revolted, and asked for Polish with Athens falling in 1456. Over
In 1454 or 1455, Johannes military support, beginning what the next two decades, Ottoman Corvinus was permanently
Gutenberg produced the first was to become the Thirteen control of the Balkans was distracted by the need to defend
major book to be printed with a Years’ War against the Teutonic consolidated with the conquest of Hungary against further Ottoman
movable type printing press: the Knights. The war ended in 1466 Bosnia and Herzegovina, and in incursions, but he had territorial
Gutenberg Bible. His method of with the division of Prussia into the Aegean, remaining Christian- ambitions to the west. He was
printing meant that thousands two territories: one in the east still held islands—which were chiefly successful in substantially
of copies of books could be made controlled by the Order, and Venetian and Genoan—were expanding Hungarian territory at
relatively easily. The result was an so-called Royal Prussia, now a clearly under threat. the expense of Bohemia, against
explosion in the spread of ideas vassal state of the kings of Poland. whose Hussite ruler, George of
and knowledge, above all Podebrady (r. 1458–71), he
because works appeared in obtained papal sanction in 1468
vernacular languages rather than to lead a crusade. During the
exclusively in Latin and Greek. crusade, Corvinus gained control
of Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia.
In England, on May 22, 1455, However, in the longer run his
armies belonging to the Duke actions destabilized both Hungary
of Somerset and Duke of York and Bohemia, and brought him
clashed in the Battle of St. Albans, into conflict with the Holy Roman
the opening conflict of the Wars Emperor, Frederick III. His actions
of the Roses. These were a series also sparked suspicion among
of civil wars between the rival Hungary’s nobles, who feared
Plantagenet houses of York and that their own positions would
Lancaster, both of which had be undermined.
claims to the throne. Henry VI, a
Lancastrian, was on the throne at Despite these initial territorial
the outbreak of the wars, but with gains engineered by Corvinus,
the victory and accession of the net result was that most of
Edward IV in 1461, the conflict Hungary fell victim to Ottoman
conquest in 1526, and Bohemia
Gutenberg Bible and the remaining part of
Johannes Gutenberg produced only Hungary came under direct
180 copies of his Gutenberg Bible, Habsburg control.
but it marked the start of the age of
the printed book.

AporfLiLloo9md, 1ib4sai5rgd4nye,TdIrteaianlyty Fe1b4pr5au5(ibanI.rtte1ayr3l1i9aF85nr,)adAiensgelico De1c4ge5om5GldhbFdsielibmoerersi1erthtn,itL(ibno.er1e3n7z8o) JuHlyuOn2togt1ofa–mBr2yea2dln,ges1rf4aea5dat t6eBsattle JaMnaubteatHcrhuoyiamn2sge0aCs,ro1kyr4ivan5itgn8auogsfe of 14 14t5ak8eOAtttohmenasns

1454bTehgiirntseabenendtYwTeeeauertnosn’PWioclaOaJrnorddhea1rn4n5e4s/G55utthGeenerbGmeurtagennppburebinrligtsehBreibsle Aprislu8cI,IcI1eb4eed5ci5onmgCaNelsiicxphtuoopslaesM, VEayng2l2is,h14th5r5oSntR.eiAvcallblaacWsnlhaasiir,mnssaBtoanfarttttshtilneteogRotfohsees AugusRItIoI2m(0b“ae,thn1ceoi4agml5Ie;mi6vgheepeisVssnalkbaldreiirdnsroug”eft)aDotolfritatyhceula 1459anOntetoxmSaenrbsia

167

1461–65 1466–69

Czar Ivan III, “Ivan the Great,” declared Moscow free of Tartar domination by tearing up Malbork Castle was the headquarters of the Teutonic Knights. It was
the deed (money demand) of Tartar Khan. Europe’s largest medieval brick castle and is in what is now Poland.

APTLY NAMED "THE SPIDER KING,” France was effectively also vast Novgorod Territory, which, THE THIRTEEN YEARS’ WAR The underlying political fragility
Louis XI acceded the French bankrupt. Yet by 1481, Louis had although sparsely populated, between Poland–Lithuania and of Japan and the relative
throne in July 1461, marking a not only seen off the last of the economically marginal, and the Teutonic Knights—a military impotence of the Ashikaga
critical point in the evolution of dukes of Burgundy, bringing imperfectly known, was rich in order founded in Palestine—ended shoguns, rulers of Japan since
the French state. The medieval Artois, Picardy, and Burgundy natural resources. In 1478, Ivan with the Second Treaty of Torun 1333, was made starkly clear by
monarchs of France, whatever itself under his rule, but by a simply annexed it. in 1466. The Teutonic Knights, the 11-year Onin War, which
their nominal power, were heavily combination of inheritance and powerful since the early 13th broke out in 1467. It left Japan
limited in their influence. They clever diplomacy had added However much it may have century (see 1236–40), were devastated and led to more than
exercised direct rule over only a Roussillon, Cerdagne, Maine, increased the stability and
limited area, chiefly in the north Provence, and Anjou. This prosperity of China, the Ming ,, THE CAPITAL THAT WE
and center, with the rest of the extension of centralizing royal dynasty faced a series of BELIEVED WOULD FLOURISH
country controlled by a series of authority was a crucial step in substantial internal threats to its
mostly hostile magnates, of whom the subsequent emergence of a authority as well as continuing ,,FOR TEN THOUSAND YEARS
the Duke of Burgundy (Charles unified, much more powerful conflict with the Mongols to the
the Bold) in 1461 was the most French state. In reality, relations north. If most revolts were the HAS NOW BECOME A LAIR
obviously threatening (see between the French monarchy product of famine, a number were FOR THE WOLVES.
1472–76). By the end of the and its most powerful subjects also the result of the increasingly
Hundred Years’ War in 1453, would remain fraught well into autocratic and rigid nature of Onin Ki, late 15th–mid 16th century account of the Onin War
the 17th century. As elsewhere, it Ming rule. In every case, they
Louis XI proved necessary both to assert were harshly suppressed. In obliged to cede much of the a century of turbulence—the
Crowned king of France in 1461, authority and to negotiate with 1464, the same year that the western half of their territory Sengoku jidai or Warring States
Louis XI extended his rule over an provincial and noble elites. This 16-year-old Emperor Chenghua to Prussia, and, in return for Period—as a series of regional
increasing number of territories dual process, central to the came to the throne, such a revolt Polish–Lithuanian aid in the war, magnates or daimyo attempted
during his 22-year reign. making of early modern France, broke out among the native Miao this territory became the property to eradicate their rivals. The war
led to friction and tension long and Yao people in the provinces of the Polish crown. began as a succession dispute
after the reign of Louis XI. of Huguang and then Guangxi in over who would replace the
south-central China. The revolt Samurai sword elderly and retiring Ashikaga
Expansion on an even more took two years to put down. In This 15th-century katana, with its Yoshimasa as shogun, the
dramatic scale also marked addition to the 160,000 troops scabbard, is typical of those used in Hosokawa clan supporting the
developments in Muscovy—the stationed in the south, a further the Onin war. It could deliver a claims of Yoshimasa’s brother,
Grand Duchy of Moscow—with the 30,000 were sent to the two sweeping cut in a single movement. the Yamana clan those of his
accession of Ivan III “the Great” provinces. No accurate estimate
in March 1462. The collapse of of the death toll is possible. The
Mongol rule over the 14th and revolt flared up again in 1467 and,
15th centuries, and the fall of on a larger scale, in 1475.
Constantinople (now Istanbul) in
1453, had opened the way for silk binding
Muscovy not merely to assert covers handle
leadership of the Orthodox world,
but to defy any last Mongol scabbard
attempts at overlordship. In the
process, it sparked a burst of
expansion that characterized
Russia well into the 19th century.

The most notable of these
extensions under Ivan was in the

MaHreBcnahortyf4tbltV,eeh1Iceo4dofRe6mTp1ooeoswsseestYod)o;nrfEko(diilsnlwottwakhriienndggWIVars AuOgtTtuorsemtb1aiz5no,sn1td4ak6e1 14c6o3nqOutteormBaonssnia 14r6u5bleeSMrgoSiatnnhulsgien,hrenSaanioyidAlnaslgrihgoiannygEmpire OcTtrobebeaectyormo9f,e1Tso4ar6ufi6neS,fePocrfouPnsodsliaand 14in67WJaOa(tprnoarin1inn4,Wg7in7aSi)rttiaabtteeingsginptsehreiod
1C4o6mo5mpLapoesonasagiWntuioeaenarolitsfsotteohLtceoruuaptisicXI 1467 sCGuhcoacoredDleeutdsokstebhPeoehcfioBlBimopulertdhgleausntdy 146K8aOrattmocmaenannitnrsastlaoTkuuetrhk-ey
LoJuuislykXi2nI2gb,eo1cf4oF6mr1aensce MtahrecGbhreD1ecu4aok6tme2(IeovIsavf anGMnrIoIaIs)ncdow o1u4t 6a4crRoessvoMltisnbg(rtCeoha1kin4a66)

168

,,1470–71

,,THE LANDLOCKED SEA IS GREEK

OR ROMAN, THE BOUNDLESS SEA
IS PORTUGUESE.

Fernando Pessoa, Portuguese poet and writer, 1885–1935

NAVARRE FRANCE state in early 16th-century BY ABOUT 1470, PORTUGUESE 2,500
Europe. Isabella was 17 years old exploration of the west coast of
PORTUGAL KINGDOM OF when she married Ferdinand. In Africa had reached as far as MILES
ARAGON choosing to marry him, she risked modern-day Sierra Leone. It had THE EXTENT
the wrath of her older half- been a hesitant process, limited OF THE INCA
KINGDOM OF brother Henry IV, who perceived by ship types, principally galleys EMPIRE
CASTILE her as a threat to his own power. and cogs, that were unsuited to
But the marriage, in the Spanish long-range exploration. Its goals
GRANADAMediterranean Sea city of Valladolid, was the were uncertain beyond a general
beginning of an important phase hope to trace the trans-Saharan
Castile and Aragon of Spanish history. Within eight gold trade to its source and to 2,000 miles (3,200 km) of coastline.
The two kingdoms of Aragon and years, Ferdinand and Isabella— exploit the West African slave Not only was Portugal able to lay
Castile became a composite Los Reyes Católicos, the Catholic trade. The death in 1460 of claim to a series of what would
monarchy through the marriage of Monarchs—were jointly ruling Prince Henry, “the Navigator,” prove immensely lucrative
Ferdinand and Isabella in 1469. Castile and Aragon, although the the early champion of Portuguese trading stations (see 1480–82) on
kingdoms were not formally exploration (see 1434), had made the West African coast, Gomes also
infant son. In the process, not unified. Administratively, further progress unlikely. opened the way to the Portuguese Portuguese explorers
only was Kyoto, the imperial politically, and financially, they However, in 1469 Portuguese king penetration of the South Atlantic. Fernão Gomes (right) continued the
capital, entirely destroyed, remained separate and, as such, Afonso V agreed—in exchange for age of exploration begun by Henry the
but the Hosokawa and Yamana were consistently bedeviled by an annual fee—to allow a Lisbon The Inca Empire, more short- Navigator (left) as depicted in the
themselves became victims of the competing priorities and rivalries. merchant, Fernão Gomes, to lived even than its Aztec neighbor Monument to the Discoveries, Lisbon.
conflict, their power and status continue to push Portuguese to the north, was formed in a
swept away as the increasingly Even at the height of Spanish efforts south along the West surge of conquest after 1438 from (4,000km). Topa Inca's principal
brutal fighting continued. power in the 16th and early 17th African coast. The results were its Andean heartlands in central contribution to Inca expansion
centuries, no Spanish monarch spectacular. Within five years Peru. Tupac Yupanqui (Topa Inca), came with his conquest from
The marriage in 1469 of was able to resolve the problem Gomes had explored a further who came to the Inca throne in about 1470 of the Peruvian
Isabella, heir to the Castilian satisfactorily. Nonetheless, kingdom of Chimor.
throne (which she inherited in Spain's potential to emerge as the 1471, had been
1474), and Ferdinand, heir to dominant force in Renaissance made head of the In southeast Asia, the kingdom
the throne of Aragon (which he Europe was unmistakable under Inca armies in 1463 of Champa (in modern-day
inherited in 1479), led directly Ferdinand and Isabella. It was a and had already Vietnam) had existed since the 7th
to the emergence of a unified, position that the tirelessly substantially century. But in 1471 it was
unbendingly Christian Spain. hard-headed Isabella and the enlarged Inca effectively destroyed by Viet
This resulted in the development politically astute Ferdinand were control to the north, troops who laid waste the Champa
of Spain as the most powerful well placed to exploit. well into modern- capital, Vijaya. What remained of
day Ecuador. The the kingdom would henceforth be
tempered point empire extended a vassal state of the Vietnamese.
about 2,500 miles

Inca ruler
This 18th-century
painting shows Tupac
Yupanqui (Topa Inca),
the fifth Inca of the
Hanan dynasty.

OcMtoaabrnCrediaarIsgs1tea9ilb,oee1fal4Flna6ed9rudAnirintaeagsnodn 14t6a9kbeeLcsgouicnrltoenunnirntzergooaladnoedpf’eiFMnrliteooeddrleliercnicicctheu,ainl thought OcHteoonbf reEyrnVg3Il0ar,en1gd4a(7itn0os1t4h7r1o)ne 14o7f0CIhnicmaocrokniqnugedsotm 14T7a1onfPgGioeurrtinuaegnauderseeagchainGulf 14r7e1YiguBnpeoagfninTqunupiina(gtcoo1f493)

Azats1es4cu6em9meApsxicraoeyna(ttcroaot1ll4o8f1) recap1t4u7re0NOetftrgoormmopaVonensnteice 147b0ePgionrttruGagodulidensgCeoonast 1470 FirpstreFsrsenSecsohtrabpborlniisnnhteien,dPgaatris HednAerppyorVsitIleimo1df1erfE,eo.1ngrE4gasd7liewan1cnsaodrtnhddrIoVne Ki1n4g7d1omCoo(lplfarCephsseaeVnmoitefp-tdnaaaym)

169

1472–76 1477–79

A carving of the central Aztec deity Quetzalcoatl in Teotihuacán
located near present-day Mexico City.

FOLLOWING THE OTTOMAN Christian powers, notably Venice, Expansion of Burgundy North IN JANUARY 1477, CHARLES THE
CONQUEST of Constantinople in in an attempt to enlist them in This map shows the Sea BOLD’S Burgundian forces
1453, its conqueror, Mehmed II, Christian struggles against territories held by Charles confronted the Swiss again, at
set out not merely to extend Ottoman expansion. The result the Bold, who pursued Calais DUCHY OF Nancy in Lorraine. They were
Ottoman rule in the Balkans, but of Uzun Hasan’s efforts was a an aggressive Bruges BRABANT comprehensively routed and the
also to reassert it in Anatolia, comprehensive defeat in 1473 at expansionist policy. body of the duke was discovered
where Ottoman strength had been the Battle of Otlukbeli, the light The duchies of COUNTY OF Antwerp face down in a frozen pond. While
significantly reduced in the wake cavalry of the Turcoman forces Bar and Lorraine FLANDERS Louis XI (see 1461) seized the
of Timur’s early 15th-century swept aside by the Ottomans’ gave Charles Burgundians’ French territories,
invasion (see 1401–03). It was now overwhelming firepower. an almost COUNTY OF Cologne those in the Low Countries
most obviously opposed in the continuous HAINAUT passed to the Habsburgs with the
region by a Turcoman people, the By the mid-1470s, the territories stretch of land H O LY marriage of Charles’s only child,
White Sheep Turcomans, under of Burgundy were at their height. by 1475. COUNTY OF DUCHY OF ROMAN Margaret, to the future Holy
the rule of Uzun Hasan. They had Their heartlands were the Duchy VERMANDOIS LUXEMBOURG EMPIRE Roman Emperor, Maximilian I.
been actively, if not particularly and County of Burgundy,
successfully, wooed by various awarded to the first duke of Paris Luxembourg William Caxton (c. 1420–92)
Burgundy, Philip the Bold, brother was an English merchant whose
FRANCE DUCHY continental travels introduced him
of King Charles V OF BAR to printing. He established the
of France, in first printing press in England in
1363. In 1369, DUCHY OF 1476, printing the first book a year
with his marriage LORRAINE later. He published 87 books,
to Margaret, the many also translated by him.
countess of KEY DUCHY OF
Flanders, Philip also Caxton’s printing press
acquired Flanders Territories BURGUNDY The first printing press in England,
and Artois—in held 1467 COUNTY OF established by William Caxton in
effect a significant Westminster, London, produced its
portion of modern- Territories COUNTY OF BURGUNDY first book in 1477.
day Belgium. To this added by 1475
constellation of CHAROLAIS Zurich
territories, Philip’s Border of Holy
grandson, Philip the Roman Empire COUNTY
Good, then added OF MÂCON
parts of northeast
France and much of being a single, continuous conquest—but to assert its
modern Holland. territory. Furthermore, as many independence as a separate
These holdings, of them were within the Holy kingdom. The Burgundians were
however imposing, Roman Empire, these were at inevitably opposed by the infinitely
were still far from least theoretically subject to the more calculating French king,
Holy Roman Emperor, just as Louis XI. In little more than four
Ottoman drums Burgundy’s French lands were months in1476, they suffered two
The Janissaries of the nominally subject to the king calamitous defeats by Swiss
Ottoman army parade of France. But their size and, mercenary armies in the pay of
with the drums that crucially, the fact that they held Louis—at Grandson and at Morat
were used to urge the many of the richest of the in modern northwest Switzerland.
soldiers into battle. burgeoning trading centres of
the Low Countries made the The rigidly hierarchical Aztec
Burgundians a formidable Empire (1428–1521) became
power. Philip the Good’s heir, a formidable military force,
Charles the Bold, inherited this imposing itself with brutal finality
state within states in 1467 and on its neighbors in central Mexico
determined not just to make it from Tenochtitlan, its capital.
a continuous territory—which by Axayacatl, who came to the
1472 he had succeeded in doing Aztec throne in 1469, added
through an audacious substantially to the empire, mainly
combination of purchase and with the conquest of the state of
Tlatelolco in 1473.

14d7is2FcePAorovfnreraitrcnuaidgsnoluacePnosodaesootfff We1s4tE7t2SymeFvioirllsloetg,pifieursbslotifcCaBhtiirsoihsnotoipafnItsheidenocryecloofpedAiauOgtTtuousomrtfka1Oon1tm,slu1adk4neb7sfee3alaittBattle 14H7a4rbeAocsufobsgSutnwrrgiiziassensfionLrdeceaepgdeutneodence 14g7r4manTiantrjsoeEraHnttagyrnaloasdfneinUdagttricaedcLvheatangtuagees MadreGcferhaa2tn,Bd1su4or7ng6u, SnSwdwiiiatsznsesrlaatnd JuSnwBeius2Mrs2go,dur1ean4ftde,7iaSa6tnwsitazet rland JaBnuuBraagCrtuhtynlae5drio,lae1fns4Ns7tahd7neecfBye:aodtlededa(btah.t1o4f33)
 1477inLSioetiuravitsiecsXecIRtoooomfysFamprleauPennodciscertaoatyliaolns
def1e4a7t 3anATdzltaaetncensleoxldcoes1t4ro7y3SVmetanykeretniaaCnyaspnrdus of Novgin1ot4roo7td4heiTneGcrorrraitpnooofdrrMiaDetsuuescdchoyvy euxnp1da4en7rs5iCohBnauarrtlgeiutssnthdheieaignBhotld 14s7o6uItnhccaosacsotnoqfuPeerru

170

1480–82

The Battle of Nancy was the final and decisive Burgundian War, which left Built in 1482 as São Jorge da Mina, Elmina Castle was one of the first
thousands dead, including the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold. Portuguese trading forts on the west coast of Africa (now Ghana).

,, ,,IT IS NOT NECESSARY TO BY ABOUT 1440, THREE SEPARATE sub-Saharan Africa, designed to
MOSSI KINGDOMS had become secure a Portuguese monopoly
HOPE IN ORDER TO UNDERTAKE, established in West Africa, roughly of the West African gold trade.
NOR TO SUCCEED IN ORDER TO in present-day Burkina Faso. It proved immensely lucrative.
PERSEVERE. These were Tengkodogo, Yatenga, By the early 16th century, 1,500lb
and Wogodogo. Making use of (680kg) of gold a year were passing
Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (1433–77) formidable cavalry, from about through Elmina.
1480 they exploited the gradual
The Ottomans continued their Joan, wife of King Afonso V of decline of Mali in the face of The second development was a Cão’s cross
expansion with the Treaty of Portugal, in part to disrupt Songhay expansion by raiding further series of voyages, led by Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão
Constantinople of 1479, which Castilian claims in the exploration deep into Mali territories. They Diogo Cão, southward along the marked his discoveries of the west
ended the intermittent Ottoman– of the West African coast. At its would remain an important West African coast. The voyages coast of Africa with a series of
Venetian war that had begun in heart was a dispute as to which presence until colonization by were sponsored by the new king imposing stone crosses.
1463. It confirmed the Ottomans country could lay claim to the France some 400 years later. of Portugal, John II, who came
as a naval power of growing Atlantic island groups—the to the throne in 1481 and who the Portuguese throne. Both
importance. It also brought with it Canaries, the Azores, and The year 1482 saw two crucial committed his country to a voyages were epics of tenacity,
Ottoman control of the Greek Madeira—successively colonized developments in the continuing deliberately aggressive policy of made in the face of consistently
island Negroponte (Euobea) and by Spain and Portugal since the Portuguese exploration and Portuguese expansion. On Cão’s unfavorable winds and currents.
of Lemnos in the north Aegean. early 15th century. The outcome settlement of West Africa. first voyage, in 1482, he This was a discouraging discovery.
Venice remained a major power was the 1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas, The first was the construction of reached—and claimed for Where sailing conditions around
in much of the region but it was confirming Castile’s claims to the São Jorge da Mina, now called Portugal—the mouth of the West Africa to the Gulf of Guinea
anxious not to jeopardize its Canaries and Portugal’s claims to Elmina Castle, on what was later Congo. On his second voyage, in were generally benign, aided by
lucrative Ottoman trading links. the Azores and Madeira, and known as the Gold Coast and is 1484–86, he penetrated almost a northeast trade winds and the
Portuguese rights in West Africa. today Ghana. It was a strongly farther 1,000 miles (1,600km) Guinea Current, to the south they
The accession of Isabella I to the fortified trading post, built on royal south to Walvis Bay (now in were much more arduous. Cão’s
throne of Castile in 1474 was THE SPANISH INQUISITION authority and the first permanent Namibia), once again imperiously achievement was impressive, but
challenged by her step-niece, European settlement in claiming the coast in the name of it emphasized that if a practical
route existed to the Indian Ocean
87 Founded by Ferdinand and and the East, it would be left to
Isabella in 1478, the goal of the later Portuguese navigators—
THE NUMBER Inquisition was to impose an notably Bartolomeu Dias in
overarching Christian Catholic 1487—to pioneer the new route,
OF BOOKS identity on all Spanish deep into the South Atlantic.
PUBLISHED BY territories. Tribunals were held
CAXTON’S in which heretics—which at this
PRESS time meant Jews and those
who had converted to
Christianity from Judaism—
were punished and expelled.
After the fall of Granada in
1492, it was also applied to
Muslims. The Inquisition was
finally disbanded in 1820.

14p7u7LboWlinsidhlloeiansmpfirrCisnattxbintoogonkprferosms JaonfucCeaAodrnleybssa2tLan5nei,amt1itn4ono7oOp9stltePao:nemVdaecacnenoiscaestal 14S8f0oofrLzMuaidlboaevncico(otmo 1e4s9r9e)gent MaMyeC3hoB,mn1aqe4yude8ez1IriIodD(rbIe;I.aa1tc4hc3eo2sf)s, itohneof 14v8o2byaeWggeienss(totofADf1r4iioc8ga6on) Cão

JanNuoavrgyo4r,o1d4, 7su8rCrteiotnyIdvoeafrnsIINI SopveanmisbherIn1q,u1if4soi7ut8inodned SeptemclbaiemProsA4rlit,cnu1áAgW4çtu7oleeav9ssnatTetsAircacefnroiasidnctlyaafiCnroaamdfnstdsgilrteohueps  1n4o8r0thCMivailywaasrtaintes 14w8e1akMeranalsiideisnmbfapycirMeeoosfsi 1482 Fir(EsfotlmrPtio,nrSatãu),ogWuJeeossrgteeAtrfdraaidciMan,gibnuailt DecAenmojfobAuerarrba2ss3o:,rB1bu4er8dg2iunTntrodeyFaartyanndce

171

1450–1749 REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

VOYAGES OF ARCTIC OCEAN
ASIA
EXPLORATION

SETTING SAIL AROUND THE GLOBE IN THE AGE OF DICOVERY

Christopher Columbus’s voyage across the Atlantic in 1492 sparked an JAPAN
unprecedented opening-up of the world—first by the Portuguese and Nagasaki
Spanish, then by the Dutch, English, and French. By 1700, European
explorers and colonizers had established themselves globally.

European explorers were motivated by glory, The Spanish went west. Theirs was a more dramatic Macao Philippine Loaisa 1526
Christian zeal, and—above all—gold, spices, and discovery: an unknown world, America. By the Islands
slaves. The goal was the East, source of legendary 1550s, they had conquered two empires—the
riches. With overland routes blocked by Muslim Aztecs and the Incas—and created a huge New Moluccas PACIFIC
states, maritime routes offered the prospect of World empire. By 1522, they had also completed New Guinea
outflanking them. By 1488, the Portuguese had the first circumnavigation of the globe. English and Magellan 1519–21
rounded southern Africa. Ten years later they French efforts were directed initially at finding a
reached India and, by 1512, the Spice Islands. way around North America. Though futile, this paved
There, they were later challenged by the Dutch. the way for two further European empires there.

,, I AND MY COMPANIONS SUFFER FROM AUSTRALIA
A DISEASE OF THE HEART WHICH CAN

,,BE CURED ONLY BY GOLD.

Hernán Cortés, Spanish explorer, on his quest to defeat the Aztecs, 1519

5 Major European voyages
This map shows the date and routes taken by the first
SHIPS IN 1519 European voyages of discovery and exploration: the
earliest Christopher Columbus in 1492, through to
Francis Drake in 1577–80. Ships sailed for months
at a time to cross the vast oceans, often with crude
systems for navigation.

1 COST AND IMPACT
European maritime exploration was
1:13 Survival ratio SHIP ASIA made possible by better ship types
of Magellan's IN 1522 and navigation. But journeys were
circumnavigation RICE, BANANAS, still arduous, and many ships simply
Magellan left Spain in September 1519 Ships commanded by Magellan YAMS, AND disappeared. The fate of Magellan’s
with 237 men. Just 18 men made it back Five ships set sail on Magellan’s SUGARCANE fleet in 1519–22 reflected these risks.
three years later. Magellan himself was cicumnavigation. Two were
killed in the Philippines, in April 1521. wrecked, one abandoned, and one AMERICA Relations with native peoples also
deserted. Only Victoria returned. proved fraught and almost invariably
ended violently. Europeans generally
EUROPE CORN, POTATOES, saw natives as a resource to be
TOMATOES, AND exploited and Christianized. But the
HORSES, CATTLE, CHILI PEPPERS startling death tolls in the New World
PIGS AND WHEAT were more the result of the dislocation
population in AFRICA of settled ways of life and of imported
millions European diseases than of deliberate
25 1565 population in Biological exchange policy. The sudden intermingling of
millions 1565 New foods—and new previously separate worlds had a
MILLION 11 diseases—passed dramatic impact in both directions,
CENTRAL AMERICA 1.5 Effect on populations between Europe and the with crops and animal types
MILLION The Spanish conquests New World as a direct introduced to new environments.
1519 2.5 PERU result of the voyages of
had a devastating impact discovery. The results
ESTIMATED NATIVE POPULATION 1519 were at times beneficial;
OF CENTRAL AMERICA on native populations. at others, fatal.
ESTIMATED NATIVE
POPULATION OF PERU African slaves were taken

over to replace them.

172

VOYAGES OF EXPLORATION

ARCTIC OCEAN

Baffin Islan Greenland SpitsbergenWilloug
Novaya
Iceland Zemlya
Frobisher 1576
Cort1e5-0R0eal Barents 1596–97
hby 1553
rador
Archangel
d
Lab ENGLAND
Panama
NORTH Hochelaga Cabot 1497 SPAIN FRANCE NETHERLANDS ASIA
AMERICA (Montreal)
Cartier EUROPE
1534–36

Azores JAPAN

ke 1577–80 AT L A N T I C Canary PORTUGAL Nagasaki
OCEAN Islands

Dra Cuba Bahamas MING Philippine
Acapulco Columbus 1492 CHINA Islands
Columbus 1502–04 Goa INDIA Macao

Cape Tiburón Hainan
AFRICA ANNAM Magellan 1519–21
Lima S O U T H 6
AMERICA
Magellan 1519–21 Cabr15 00 al Calicut 1515–1 L sa 1526
Drake 1577–80 da14G9a7m–9a8 Drake
Cape Sierra Leone Malacca o ai 1577–80

OCEAN Panama Loaisa 1526 Mogadishu Pires
Cabral 1500 Malindi Borneo
Sumatra Moluccas
Kilwa New Guinea
INDIAN
da Gama 1497–98 Sofala
Loaisa 1526 OCEAN de Abreu Java
1511

Madagascar Drake(a1f5t7e7r–d8e0adtehloCfaMnoagellan) 1521–22 AUSTRALIA

Isla de Chiloé Cape of Good Hope KEY
Puerto San Julián Spanish expeditions
SOUTHERN OCEAN Portuguese expeditions
Strait of Magellan English expeditions
Cape Horn French expeditions
Dutch expeditions

NORTH EUROPE ASIA NORTH EUROPE ASIA
AMERICA AFRICA AMERICA AFRICA
INDIAN INDIAN
ATLANTIC OCEAN PACIFIC ATLANTIC OCEAN PACIFIC
OCEAN OCEAN OCEAN OCEAN

SOUTH AUSTRALIA SOUTH AUSTRALIA
AMERICA AMERICA

PACIFIC PACIFIC
OCEAN OCEAN

SOUTHERN OCEAN SOUTHERN OCEAN

1600 Spain took the lead in exploring and claiming KEY Denmark and 1800 European expansion continued in the 17th KEY Spain and
new lands, especially in Central and South America. possessions and 18th centuries, with massive areas of the possessions
By 1600, Spain also had claims on the Philippine Spain and world claimed by Europe by 1800. Britain, in Britain and
Islands. Portugal claimed only a handful of coastal possessions Dutch (United particular, despite losing its American colonies, possessions Portugal and
trading posts in Africa, India, and the Spice Islands, Provinces) was gaining ground—in Canada, in southern possessions
along with a strip of Brazilian coast. Portugal and possessions Africa, and above all, in India. France and
possessions possessions The Netherlands
and possessions
England and Denmark and
possessions possessions

173

1483–85 1486–89

Most of what remains of the Great Wall of China was rebuilt during the Ming dynasty.
Dotted with fortifications it extends over 4,000 miles (6,400km).

IN 1483, THE WARS OF THE ROSES THE RENAISSANCE But there was a further The Renaissance (literally Gulf, reporting favorably on all
flared up again (see 1454–55). Lancastrian claimant, Henry “rebirth”) grew out of the these routes in 1492. The second
Fought between Lancastrians and probability is that he ordered Tudor (1457–1509). His right to Italian Middle Ages and expedition, under Bartolomeu
Yorkists—rival Plantagenet their killings; his hold on the the throne was tenuous at best, marked a reevaluation of Dias, was specifically charged
claimants to the English throne— throne was too shaky to permit but critically he had the support of European thought. At its heart with finding a navigable passage
it had appeared to have been any rivals to survive if he could the French king, Charles VIII (r. was a reinterpretation of around the presumed southern tip
settled for good in 1471. In 1470, eliminate them. Richard III was 1483–98). In August 1485, Henry Europe’s Classical past. It gave of Africa. In January 1488, rather
the Yorkist Edward IV, who had vilified in later Tudor propaganda. led an invasion from France. By rise, first in Florence (left), to than simply following the African
seized the throne from the But given the turbulent treachery the end of the month, Richard an artistic and architectural coast southward as Cão and
hapless Lancastrian Henry VI in of late-medieval England, was dead, killed at the Battle of revolution, and later, to a others before him had done, at
1461, had been forced from it by a Richard’s actions seem fairly Bosworth, his superiority in scientific one. Its early impact around 27°S (several hundred
group of vengeful magnates. In rational. Sooner or later the numbers undone by the ineptitude was fitful but eventually spread miles short of the tip of south
1471, with Burgundian support Woodvilles would have sought an of many of his commanders. to most of Europe in the Africa) he headed southwest,
from Charles the Bold (see excuse for his death. Henry Tudor, in turn, crowned on following 200 years. away from the coast. By any
1472–76), Edward retook the the field of the battle, had become measure, that was remarkably
throne. Henry was murdered, 5:8 Battle of Bosworth Henry VII. The Tudor monarch’s FOLLOWING ON FROM EARLIER daring. Miles from land, he picked
probably on Edward’s orders. Henry’s Tudor army of seizure of the throne might easily PORTUGUESE VOYAGES (see up the westerlies that blow in the
5,000 troops overcame have provoked yet another round 1470–71), two further expeditions South Atlantic and was carried
In 1483, Edward, now grossly Richard III’s much larger force, which in this destabilizing infighting. But were despatched in 1487 to almost 300 miles (500km) to the
corpulent, died. Instantly, the was undermined by poor leadership. Henry VII would prove among the investigate routes to and across east of the Cape of Good Hope
conflict reignited, albeit in a most pragmatic, capable, and the Indian Ocean. Pêro da Covilhã on the tip of southern Africa.
different form. The problem was far-sighted of kings. Under the was charged with investigating Dias’s voyage provided a better
that the new king, Edward V, Tudors, England was significantly the East African coast as well as understanding of the wind
was only 12 years old and his strengthened, its magnates the Indian Ocean. From Aden, systems that linked the Atlantic
mother’s family, the Woodvilles, tamed, and its government reached via the Red Sea, he sailed and Indian oceans, and proved
saw the boy-king as an obvious comprehensively overhauled. to Calicut in India, as far south as vital in calculating the route to the
opportunity to proclaim Sofala in East Africa, and north to Cape of Good Hope and beyond.
themselves regents—in effect, the Strait of Hormuz in the Persian Later, Vasco da Gama and Pedro
to seize the throne themselves, Cabral exploited this knowledge
undoing Edward IV’s legacy. This in their own voyages.
at least was the view of the dead
king’s most consistent champion, Human sacrifice is a feature
his brother the Duke of common to many early societies.
Gloucester, who was competent,
intelligent, and loyal. Gloucester 20,000
characteristically preempted the
Woodvilles by seizing the throne THE ESTIMATED NUMBER OF
himself, as Richard III, executing
the leading Woodvilles, and PEOPLE SACRIFICED AT THE
imprisoning Edward V with his INAUGURATION OF THE
younger brother in the Tower of TENOCHTITLAN PYRAMID
London where both were then
murdered. If no definitive proof
has ever been offered that Richard
III was responsible for the deaths
of his nephews, the overwhelming

14R8a3pIhtaaleial nbopranin(tde.r1520)Jusneeiz2e6s,th14e8th3rRoni1ce4hao8anfr3SddEhEYbnIrdoIergTIwrowlokatawshnr(bTededuhrrVre)Ryom,iPfc1rEuhsinrantdgrcDedleaursonekfddienotfhe 14c8aM4ptOoultrdteoamvAikaa1kn4ems8rma4annaFpdunirraoe,nslfpatoJauEofrtuehincrdnaaovalpIiItaegoltaamhfntePiaoornneratqcuugeaslt 14m85KisosP(pnioorgrenotsaukergininuetges-ddsaoaermyriAvenginoltah)e 14a8p6cporCfuooorarIlntcuwdfhmoeieersbsstsueCpbsraounfisnt tvrsiissooltiyrraasenghbeiupftfoed 14M8i6hriaGsOnirgodarvoteailaoantnnihnoiufPFmtilhcoaoerneDdinseicgtlelntariwatycrtiot,feMs an

148th3eDmiooguothCãoof trheeacChoensgo SAixutfigurussstItVm9cc,aeo1slms4e8bipnr3leatPttheeoedspnteSehiwCesthliynapeel 148p5abinVoetrennre(Ttdiia.t1nia5n76) 14W8ina5vraO(dttoteo1Am4n9aa1nt)o–:lMOiaattamonmlduakSnysriAaugYuosrtk2BiIs2IotI,ssk1wdi4leol8efre5dtah,Bt,TeaEudtdnt,logiRenrliaaocdunhfygdanu:rardsattyed 1486paSianntsdrBoirBthototficVeelnlius BPaortrotFuleogbmCuraeeupsuaeeDronyifaa1Gvsi4ogr8ooa7dutonHrdospe

174

1490–93

This 19th-century painting shows the Fall of Granada in 1492, which ended
780 years of Muslim rule in Spain.

None is known to have practiced ambitious rebuilding of the Mamluk helmet On January 2, 1492, Spanish “crusading” taxes, previously paid
it with the vigor of the Aztecs, 4,000-mile (6,400-km) long Great This 15th-century iron Mamluk monarchs Ferdinand and before the fall of Granada. Success
however—or on the same Wall. First built in 200BCE, the helmet, as worn by Mamluk soldiers, Isabella (see 1469) presided depended on Columbus’s
gargantuan scale. It is estimated wall had presented a symbol of is decorated with inlaid silver over the fall of the Kingdom of undoubted navigational ability and
that the Aztecs ritually sacrificed superiority as well as a barrier calligraphy. Granada, marking the end of a on his insistence that Asia lay
upward of 20,000 victims a to incursions from barbarians in 10-year campaign to claim the much farther to the east than
year—slaves, enemies captured the north. Under the Ming, its THE OTTOMAN–MAMLUK peace last Moorish territory in Iberia. conventionally believed. On his
in battle, and people simply mountainous eastern length was treaty of May 1491 ended a war It was the end of a process begun arrival in the New World on
offered in tribute. The aim was to built mostly of brick and stone, its that had begun in 1485 for control in the 8th century—the Christian October 12, somewhere in the
placate their gods, above all the western, desertlike length of clay of the Western Asia and Red Sea reconquest or reconquista. It Bahamas, he immediately
god of war, Huitzilopochtil, and earth, often reinforced with trade routes. Neither side gained underlined Spain’s determination despatched emissaries to the
whose daily battles with the sun wood. It stood on average 25ft (8m) much but the war exhausted the to project itself as an aggressively “Chinese” court. Columbus’s
could be sustained only by blood. high and 18ft (5.5m) wide and was Mamluks financially, making their expansionist Christian power. self-belief blinded him to the
In 1487, on the opening of the new studded with 25,000 towers and subsequent conquest by the reality of what he had discovered.
great temple in the Aztec capital, upward of 15,000 garrisons—a Ottomans in 1516–17 inevitable. In 1492, the Spanish crown finally
Tenochtitlán, up to 20,000 people monumental feat of construction. decided to back Christopher CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS
were ritually executed, their By 1490, Vladislas II (1456– Columbus’s first Atlantic crossing. (c. 1451–1506)
hearts sliced from their bodies, in Tenochtitlán 1516) ruled over a vast kingdom, Columbus had made a series of
a single ceremony that may have This mural of the 16th-century Aztec including Poland–Lithuania, extravagant claims about the Born in Genoa, Italy,
lasted anything from 4 to 20 days. capital imagined by 20th-century Bohemia, and Hungary, whose reward his voyage to the Indies Christopher Columbus made
Mexican artist Diego Rivera shows crown he accepted in 1490. Despite (Asia) would generate. Spain was four transatlantic voyages
In China, the Ming dynasty the city’s massive scale. the size of these territories, they anxious to match the spoils believing that the riches of
(1368–1644) continued the had little influence on Europe as flowing to Portugal from its West the East could be reached by
a whole. Poland–Lithuania—vast, African ventures. It also needed sailing west from Spain. His
desolate, and impoverished—was ,,to replace the lost revenues from first journey (1492–93) was
on the margins of Europe. followed by others in 1493–96,
Hungary and Bohemia, although SAILED THIS 1498–1500, and 1502–04.
more sophisticated, remained DAY NINETEEN He was the first European to
not just separate kingdoms but LEAGUES... sight South America, in 1498,
uneasy rivals. The potential of (COUNTED) LESS and charted most of the
these sprawling lands would THAN THE TRUE Caribbean. He died still
never be realized. NUMBER, THAT certain he had reached Asia.
THE CREW
MIGHT NOT BE
DISMAYED IF

,,THE VOYAGE

SHOULD PROVE
LONG.

Christopher Columbus, 1492

14C8o7tvhiPvrloohêuyãragosghdaeRailtseodInSdeiaa on 1489) 14in8a7TueGgnruoercaahtttepitdylráaantmid 14d8a9rtaeAtiedoprsfprSriitnoootxnroiygmMhaaotysesi SeVplbatedemicsolbmaeserIsI1,kk8ii,nn1gg4oo9ff0BHouhnegmaria1y,4M91aamfOtelturtoksmiaxacynceo–arrdssoigf nweadr 14f9ro2dmeJceSrwepesaienxpbeylrloAeydusagelauanrscdth3cro,of1sA4s9sei2as,CAdotellaupnamrtibtcsutCso,aNinneawrOiecWastroonrbraivlemderse1di2n“,BS1aa4nh9a2SmaClavosaludamotrwb”uhsat hSee1p4st9ee3stmseCcbsooealnuirldm2ov5nbo,uysage
(to

148u8prFiisrBisnutgdmodafhjIoiksrktJsoaipnan ep1nu4dr8inc9ghVaFesrenaenCtkyiiapsnrhsursu,le 1 7 5o1f4T9i0mMuiarn,uiSssoaelmer1eua4cmrt9ke1adnBdrittany inwc1io4ttrh9epi2nrorrLFiatarotaserntdycincienodneSFpqpeeuarnedindsinteeanolnitfmdMGiarnunaasndtleAiaImdsduaaignbubesylltac1r8o,w1n4e9d2PRoopderAigleoxBaroneJrdtaguenirraunVasIrCye1rid9n,atto1gh4neS9epE3aaainCsndthewaRrirnotlheuPosstyfhsVrBeieIlIlanTIorernceeeasltoyna 1493beMguinhosafmIsAlmfarmiacdaifionTcfueaSrmtoeionpngirheay

1494–97 1498–1500

This map by Alberto Cantino was the first to show Portugal’s discoveries in the West and East This 20th-century painting depicts King Manuel I of Portugal blessing Vasco da
and the division between Spanish and Portuguese territories agreed upon at Tordesillas. Gama and his expedition as they get ready to set sail from Lisbon.

IN 1494, POPE ALEXANDER VI drew LEONARDO DA VINCI with Venice, the papacy, and the THE SOUTHWARD PROBING ALONG Calicut in southwest India. A
up the Treaty of Tordesillas, (1452–1519) Holy Roman Empire to oppose him the African coast by the practical route to the East had
which effectively divided up in a Holy League, ending his Portuguese in the 15th century been discovered. Da Gama’s
existing and future New World Born in Italy, Leonardo was a dreams of Italian conquest. had reached a climax when crossing of the Indian Ocean—
discoveries between Spain and self-taught polymath—a Bartolomeu Dias rounded the tip crisscrossed by Arab and other
Portugal. It drew a north–south painter, sculptor, inventor, By about 1496, an outbreak of of Africa in 1488. In May 1498, trade routes since the 9th
line 370 leagues (about 1,350 and scientific enquirer— what was commonly called the Vasco da Gama consolidated this century—depended on local
miles or 2,000km) west of the whose restless genius drove French pox (so-named as it was achievement when he continued Muslim knowledge. His route to
Cape Verde Islands. Land to the him to embrace a limitless first recorded among French into the Indian Ocean and reached the Indian Ocean, on the other
west was assigned to Spain; that range of projects, but to troops there) occurred in Italy. It hand, was new. Where previous
to the east, to Portugal. complete almost none. was syphilis. By the middle of the Battle of Zonchio Portuguese mariners had hugged
Among his masterpieces are 16th century, about one million This woodcut depicts ships in the the African coast, da Gama made a
The political crisis provoked in Mona Lisa and The Last people had contracted the first battle of the Ottoman–Venetian vast sweep westward into the
Florence by the death of Lorenzo Supper. He died in France in disease—probably from a more War. It was the first time cannons South Atlantic. It was not only the
(“the Magnificent”) de Medici in the service of Francois I. virulent strain brought by sailors had been used in a naval battle. longest ocean crossing yet made,
1492 was expoited by a Dominican returning from the New World.
monk, Girolamo Savonarola, who near Parma in July 1495. However,
imposed on the city a “Christian having made his triumphant way to From about 1490, Genoese
and religious republic.” In 1494, he Naples to claim its throne, Charles mariner John Cabot had lobbied
denounced tyrants and instituted VIII found his former Italian allies, Portugal and Spain to sponsor a
the Bonfire of the Vanities: the notably Milan, had joined forces westward voyage to Asia across
destruction of idolatrous goods. the Atlantic, but was rebuffed. He
He was overthrown, tortured, and turned his attentions to England,
executed four years later. basing himself in Bristol. An early
voyage failed, but in May 1497—
The Italian Wars, nominally with royal backing—he set out
sparked by the desire of Charles again. He reached northern
VIII of France (1470–98) to assert a Newfoundland, then sailed south
claim to the kingdom of Naples, along 400 miles (650km) of coast.
saw an intermittent 65-year He returned to England certain
struggle between France and he had reached China. The
Spain for control of Italy. Its following year, he led a much
opening salvo, which ended in larger expedition. All but one
1499, was both destructive and of its five ships were lost, Cabot
inconclusive. The first phase ended with them. But his initial
with the Battle of Fornovo, fought success prompted five more
voyages to Newfoundland from
1,000,000 1501 to 1505, which confirmed
the new discoveries were clearly
THE APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF not Asian. Despite these
disappointments, the English
EUROPEANS WHO CONTRACTED ventures were important in proving
the existence of a hitherto
SYPHILIS IN 50 YEARS FROM 1496 unsuspected continent—North
America—and in staking a claim
to later English primacy in its
exploration and settlement.

JaCnhuersaictsroatyIblosol2panish,byh1eeie4lrnls9aCN4,fioeHrlwsuistmpWEbauonurrisolodpleaaatnLa14r9e4GligiF(rieloooxluerasecmnudotciceeStdaua1tvno4odr9nse8ahr)ripoloaf 14s9o4bnePLochofoiwMmlipaeCxsotihumreuniltlFeiraarineiros,If,the14M96onOtettnoJemugsnarporneoesn2asi4cnoh,vre1aes4dd9eNb7eyIwHtafeolinuarnnydJVloaIhnI dnofCEanbgolta,nNd,oVvaCesamcrpoobeudetoaerfGt2Goa2omI,on1add4irHa9oo7upnedsen 14d9a8cVoLLmienaopcsinlteaStreudspopTehre SeTpriteneadCmteoypbnoeeffenrBdd2aee2srn,alce1tei4coo9onfn9Sfiwrmiss

inv1a4d9e4s sCItthaaSalryrtp,laoWmenfsaaiFsrVrrhskIaIin(IInttcogaol1–ia5n59) TrdeiavtiNdyJeeouSswfnpdTaeWiosi7norc,droal1evdn4sedb9irlie4Pleatoswsrietnuengal JulyL6Fe,raa1gn4uc9ee5nodaoHfetrFfoteBohlayarettnrstonlevIota, ly 1497anNduonDrdweenarmy,KaSinrwkgeudJDneoeinhnt,enmd(aorfk) May d2a0,G1a4mC9aa9lirVceauastc,choIAneuds igausflte1en2ta–dv2ey5fae, ta1Bt4e9adt9tblVeyeOonftetZtoiomannacnhio 14s9e9izFersaMncilean

176

1501–04

This scene from a fresco in Chehel Stun Palace in Isfahan, Iran, depicts
Safavid Emperor Shah Ismail I in battle against Uzbek warriors.

but it also initiated the route used NAVAL STRENGTH 300 THE YEAR 1501 IS CONSIDERED to the west by the military Michelangelo’s David
throughout the “Age of Sail” 81 the date the Safavid Empire was might of the Ottomans, the Completed by Michelangelo in
(see pp.172–73). galleys and galliots founded. With the Ottoman Safavids increasingly turned 1504, this giant marble statue of
Empire to the west and the their focus to the east. In
The ongoing Ottoman naval 250 Mughal Empire to the east, it the process the Safavid biblical hero David stands at
threat to Christendom was 200 formed one of a bloc of capital was moved 17ft (5.2m) tall.
underlined by the Venetian– other ships sophisticated, centralized, highly eastward, finally
Ottoman War of 1499–1503. Both cultured Muslim empires that ending at Isfahan. establishment in 1504
sides enjoyed profitable trade 200 dominated West Asia in the 16th of the Funj Sultanate
links. But Venetian sea-power 100 and 17th centuries. It began in a The introduction of Sennar in the north of
represented an obstacle to burst of conquest launched by of African slaves by Sudan, at the expense of
Ottoman designs in the eastern other ships Shah Ismail I, whose troops European settlers to the previous Christian rulers
Mediterranean. The Venetian 150 surged westward across Persia, the New World began of Sennar. The sultanate
defeat at the Battle of Zonchio in putting an end to the political in 1502, hardly 10 rapidly established itself as
August 1499 made Ottoman naval 64 vacuum and infighting that had years after Columbus’s a major power in the
power strikingly clear. galleys followed the death of Timur (see first Atlantic crossing. In region, threatening both
100 and 1386–90) in 1405. Proclaiming part, this was a response to Ethiopia and the
galliots himself Shah of Persia, Ismail I the alarming death rates Ottomans in Egypt.
was a Shi’ite Muslim and of the native populations, In Europe, the role of
50 vigorously promoted his faith as who had been similarly Florence in the early
the official state religion. Checked enslaved. The Portuguese
0 Venetians rapidly followed suit. This years of the High
Ottomans Safavid Empire initial phase of the trade, Renaissance (see
From modest beginnings on the known as the First pp.204–205) was
Zonchio ship numbers Caspian Sea, by 1501 the Safavid Atlantic system, lasted highlighted by
The disparity in numbers between Empire extended to occupy a swath until around 1580. two remarkable
the Ottoman and Venetian fleets was of Western Asia. works: Michelangelo’s statue of
compounded by the refusal of some The spread of Islam in East David, which he completed in
Venetian commanders to fight at all. Africa was reinforced by the 1504; and Leonardo’s painting
Mona Lisa, completed sometime
A further round in the Franco– Black GEORGIA Caspian Sea KHANATE KHANATE OF ,,around 1505–07.
Spanish struggle for mastery of Sea OF KIVA BUKHARA
Italy was launched in 1499, when QARABAGH …ANYONE
Louis XII of France (1462–1515) ARMENIA SHIRWAN TRANSOXIANA WHO HAS SEEN
seized Milan. He then allied with MICHELANGELO’S
Ferdinand of Aragon (1452–1516), AZERBAIJAN DAVID HAS NO
agreeing to divide Naples between NEED TO SEE
them. With Naples secured, Louis KURDISTAN Tehran KHURASAN
and Ferdinand fell out. Twice ,,ANYTHING ELSE
defeated by his former ally, Louis MES OP OBTAaMgIhAdadLUBRaI SsrTSaAAN F A VID E M P I R E AFGHANISTAN
reluctantly made peace in 1504. Isfahan Kandahar BY ANY OTHER
SCULPTOR…
The burst of European OTTOMAN KERMAN MUGHAL
exploration sparked by Columbus SEISTAN E M P I R E Giorgio Vasari, Italian author,
continued in 1500 when a Spanish EMPIRE Persian FARS from Lives of the Artists, 1568
expedition under Vicente Pinzón BALUCHISTAN
and a Portuguese enterprise Gulf Gulf of
under Pedro Alvares Cabral bound Oman Arabian
for India made the coast of Brazil. Sea
Cabral’s sighting of this new land
would prove important in
establishing Portuguese claims to
Brazil. Of greater significance was
the growing realization that this
was indeed a New World.

14O9t9(ttooVme1na5en03tWi)aanr–begins ApdreSiflefNo1ar5toz0vfaoa0,rrDcFaeur,sekMneoicfloahLfnuMdiolavnio, at c.I1n5ou0fit0AsrFecittrtisclet ment 15o0f1eSsAhdtacaychnbelaIisssssmthiyoe,ansPilSeIrasf1aia5vA0idf2CriaIcnraitbnrobsdeluaancvtebiso1yn5tSSo0ophf2SaaunShniasInfshaimvdiaidsislreuInleetxerercsutes 15C0a2finrAdtsiilntsNbomceeaorpwanvtrTpeodorWrdetdiooeauivrstcsiylehsdinosio,ofwItnnhTsdoeiroadf,etshiAellpaFrsrieln1c5h0f3orScpeasnaist hCearrimgny orloau,tIstaly 15c0o4omfMpDliaecvhteiedslasntagteuleo

ApreilxPA2pol2lvro,taru1serg5eirgus0Phe0CetssadebBrorraalzil Pin1z5ó0n0dViosicfceoAnvmteerasYzáomñnoeRuzitvher 15H0e2nGleeirnmpmaonackkPeeesttewfirrasttch1502 DRoeonnnaaetiTsaooesrfmBcathrhnpaiecitemeegtC,ctarocthensoaa(tmtopethefe,pesltl”the“)Le,teRitstolme e NodveeJllmuelbiRueosrvIe1Io,r,fbe1re5ebg0mpein3acaontGrrmiknoiuangelbsaialagePnpeoaeopirrnetioiRsdtoimc e beco1m50e3sinMpdooelsiptcieocnawdlleyrnutl1e5rb0se4dtewMrufeeuleeasnrtlsiCmthohefFrSiuBsWentlinujhanenitaearnNdile

177

1505–12 ,,

THE TRUE
WORK OF ART IS

,,BUT A SHADOW

OF THE DIVINE
PERFECTION.

Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian
artist (1475–1564)

MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI
(1475–1564) was one of the
defining figures of the High
Renaissance (see pp.204–05). In
1505, he was invited to Rome by
Pope Julius II to begin work on a
monumental tomb, an association
that would last for 40 years. In
1508, he began work painting a
fresco on the Sistine Chapel ceiling,
which he completed 4 years later.

The pace of Portuguese
expansion across the Indian
Ocean in the early 16th century
was remarkable. From 1505,
the Portuguese established
themselves in a string of ports
along the East African coast. The
goal was simple and ruthlessly
pursued—the domination of the
lucrative spice trade with India
and East Asia. A key player in
this campaign was Afonso de
Albuquerque, who in 1509
became viceroy of the fledgling
Portuguese colony in India. By
1510, he had secured Goa as the
principal Portuguese base in India;
by 1511, he had overseen the
foundation of the first Portuguese
settlement in Southeast Asia,
Malacca. He also sponsored the
first Portuguese voyage to the
Spice Islands, the Moluccas,
which were reached in 1512 by
Francisco Serrão, who had sailed
in company with Antonio de
Abreu and Francisco Rodrigues.

Sistine ceiling
Commissioned by Pope Julius II, the
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the
Vatican is one of the masterworks
of Michelangelo. It depicts scenes
from the Old Testament.

15J0u5MliPiutcosohpcIeIrelesaauntmgeemhloiostntosomRobme 15V0in6McLoinecaoonmLaipsrladeotedsa 15o0f7WnaFawmilordsrestled“aeAmpmmpaeüepalrlirecaran”coen 15c0r8aenaPLtteoie-spaVegethunJeeeutloiiaufnsCaIImbrai FedbeorfefuaDatriuOy,t3tIno, dm1i5aa0nn9OflPceoeerattnautgBueasttele MaviycBt1oan4rte,tyla1eor5voM0ef9riAlVaFgenrnneanicdceehlalto, 15s1e0izPeoGrtouaguese 15r1a0cidoJsaasaptgaoanfienCsshetisnpoairuabttheegin

1 7 8saPckorMtu1Eog5amu0s1ebt55saAe0sfra6i,cPaoRretudgSueeaseisslaeSniozdceootfra 1508 SafavidBsasgehizdeean1ds5l0a8veSmpaennoitsfohHfbinseapgtaiivnneiosla 1b5e0g8inMs iwcohreSoklinasitnncigneReeiolliCmonhgeaopfel AccessiAopnroilf 2H1e,n1rE5yn0Vg9IlIaI,nd 150D9ewsDiruditteecrhsiIunshsauPtEmrirraiaaicsnsaemilsotturfsaFcotlly Amse1et5rt0liec9amSaepnnadtinoPfbuCeeegrntinotsrRa1il5cSo1p0aTnriisphoKliicnagpFtuerreddinbaynd 151H0eSraatf,aBviadcstrsiae,izaKenhdiva

1513–15

Depiction of the Battle of Agnadello, one of the major battles of the Italian This detail shows the coronation of Ottoman Sultan Selim I. The empire
Wars, from the tomb of Louis XII and Anne of Brittany, France. almost trebled during his nine-year reign.

Where the latter two were forced ,, ,,ARE THEY NOT MEN? NO LESS SIGNIFICANT than artillery, were overpowered at
to turn back in the Banda Sea, the Spanish exploration of the the Battle of Caldiran. His Eastern
Serrão was able to continue to the DO THEY NOT HAVE Caribbean in the immediate flank secured, Selim swept
Moluccas using native craft. RATIONAL SOULS? aftermath of Columbus’s 1492 into Syria and Mamluk Egypt,
crossing was the discovery by which instantly crumbled.
However initially unpromising, it Juan Ponce de León in April Selim I not only dramatically
was a measure of the excitement 1513 of the “island” of Florida. It increased Ottoman territories
was the first Spanish contact with but, in securing almost all the
sparked by Columbus’s Atlantic Antonio de Montesinos, Dominican friar, delivering a sermon the mainland of North America Muslim holy places of the Near
crossings (see 1492) that within to Spanish colonists, Hispaniola, December 4, 1511 and the basis for subsequent East, added substantially to
20 years a variety of Spanish Spanish claims to the region. In Ottoman prestige (see pp.230–31).
attempting to circumnavigate his
expeditions had explored and island, Ponce de León made a NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI
further discovery almost as (1469–1527)
mapped almost the entire Antonio de Montesinos, in which, Pope Julius II established the important in the age of sail as
Columbus’s discovery of the wind Philosopher and writer,
Caribbean. This included, in to predictable outrage, he League of Cambrai in 1508. systems of the central Atlantic— Niccolò Machiavelli was a
the Gulf Stream. functionary in Florence,
1508–09, the Yucatán Peninsula denounced the “cruelty and The Republic was quickly where he witnessed the
Niccolò Machiavelli was a power of aggressive rulers
on the east coast of Mexico, a tyranny” of the settlers. plunged into crisis by its defeat diplomat in Florence when, in first hand, including, in
1513, he wrote the first modern 1502–03, that of the pope’s
discovery that led directly to the Similarly aggressive Spanish in May 1509 by Louis XII’s French handbook of political science, illegitimate son, the ruthless
The Prince (published in 1532). Cesare Borgia. He completed
conquest of Mexico by Hernan and Portuguese attempts at army at the Battle of Agnadello, Its central theme—that the several diplomatic missions,
exercise of political power requires but in 1513 was arrested and
Cortés (see 1519). The European colonization in Morocco, where one of the major battles of the violence and deceit—earned it tortured. He wrote The Prince
lasting notoriety. It offers advice in the same year. He died
conquest of the New World was both seized coastal strongholds in Italian Wars (1494–1559). The about the most effective means aged of 58, impoverished,
of ruling: essentially a pragmatic before his book enjoyed its
driven largely by greed and the 15th and early 16th centuries, following year Julius II allied determination to use all means later notoriety.
at hand.
effected principally by violence. partly helped the rise of a new himself with Venice against
Ottoman territorial expansion
It nonetheless laid claim to a Moroccan dynasty after 1511—the France, anxious that Venetian was renewed after the civil war
of 1509–12 which saw Selim I
Christian imperative, given papal Sa’dis—who filled the political territorial designs in northern emerge as sultan at the expense
of both his father, Bayezid II, who
sanction as early as 1452, by vacuum created by the crumbling Italy had been replaced by was forced to abdicate, and Selim’s
older brother, Ahmed, who was
which “saracens, pagans, and any of Marinid rule in the 1480s. identical French ambitions. This killed in battle. Selim initiated this
burst of growth—directed south
other unbelievers” could be The Venetian Republic was shuffling of alliances was typical and east against fellow Muslims
rather than north against Christian
enslaved. It was a view explosively diplomatically isolated and of the period. It was given a Europe—in 1514 when the
Safavids, vastly outnumbered and
challenged in 1511 in a sermon by opposed by almost every major further twist with the formation with no answer to the Ottoman

a Spanish Dominican friar, Western European power when in 1511 of a new Holy League,

including England, now directed

Bangkok Philippine Mindanao PACIFIC against France. One outcome of
Saigon Islands OCEAN this was a subsequent Franco–
South Venetian alliance.
Gulf of China Celebes
Thailand Sea Hemmed in on the west by the
Sea Ottomans and threatened to
the south by the Portuguese,
Moluccas New the Safavids were nonetheless
(Spice Guinea successful in confronting the
Islands) loose Uzbek confederation of
peoples of Central Asia to their
Malacca Borneo Ceram north. In December 1510, with
Sumatra victory over the Uzbeks outside
Celebes Banda the city of Merv, substantial
Banten Sea territories, including Herat,
Makassar Timor Bactria, and Kandahar, came

INDIAN Java Sea Flores Sea
OCEAN Sumbawa

Flores
Java

Sumba

Spice Islands exploration

Portuguese explorer Francisco KEY
Serrao successfully reached the
Moluccas (Spice Islands) after Antonio de Abreu /
Francisco Rodrigues 1512

others had turned back. Francisco Serrão 1512 under Safavid rule.

15j1o1iHnoEsPlnaoygnpLletaei-nJaFdugrlueiuenscohIfI ApdreRiflea1av1te,Hn1no5al1y,2LIteFaarlyegnucehat 15S1e2ElmiAmcpcIireienssOiotntoomf an 15J1u3calSnafopiPmraoSnsnipFscahelionedrxiedpLaloecróoenarst 15S1a4nfoaOorvtvtitehdorwsmreuaastnntÇSsIarycalrdrniuiarasanhndin 15(1154co8Ba3nan–qDbd1ueu5eolr3rhc1sci,)uPIpnuidneisjaab
AnDtoencdieoemndobeueMnrcoc4eon,slteo1eSnn5spsi1isnal1taonsvsiesomhveernt 1512 PorretaucghuISesspleaicneds 1E5mA1K2fprHaiiStcrasoeauinnsocgaaofh,nWsaZqtyeaausrteeitarss, oaKfnadno
Mac1h5i1a3veNlTlihicwecorPliòrteinsce SBeaptttnleeomroFtbfhreeMenrracn1rh3iIDgt,iannu1lacy5chno1lyeon5aotivrnfoeMlsoilfan 151H5JaAablglsiibaeunllrcogenCabdeneyndtntwraPaesoletliEniesushrionpe

179

1516–18 1519–22

,,
,,
WHY DOES NOT THE POPE...
BUILD... ST. PETER’S WITH HIS OWN
MONEY, RATHER THAN WITH THE

,,MONEY... OF POOR BELIEVERS.

Martin Luther, German priest, from 95 Theses, 1517

The fall of Tenochtitlán on August 13, 1521 was the result not just of Spanish
ferocity but of a 20,000-strong native army recruited by Hernán Cortés.

THE OTTOMAN CONQUESTS IN THE Church in Wittenberg, Saxony, THE ELECTION OF CHARLES V AS Emperor Charles V HE KNEW
MIDDLE EAST under Selim I— as part of what was a growing HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR in 1519 Few rulers were more dutiful than BETTER THAN
who in 1517 also brought Algeria protest movement against appeared pivotal. Charles Charles V or as conscious of their
into the Ottoman orbit—meant religious practices and corruption (1500–58) was already the divine destiny. However, his best ,,ANY OTHER THE
that the Ottoman Turkish state in the Catholic Church. In 1521, ruler of several territories across efforts consistently proved in vain.
was now emphatically an empire. after being excommunicated by Europe: in Italy, Austria, the Low TRUE ART OF
It was also rapidly developing as the pope, his opposition to the Countries, and in Spain. Now, as permanent warfare and dutiful NAVIGATION.
a major naval power. Control of Church hardened. The ready Holy Roman Emperor, his status hopes consistently frustrated.
Egypt both consolidated the response to Luther’s teachings appeared unassailable. For the Antonio Pigafetta, Italian navigator,
Ottoman presence in the eastern and the influence of the printing earnest Charles, the imperatives The daring, ruthlessness, and on Ferdinand Magellan, 1521
Mediterranean and, crucially, gave press (see pp.154–55) in were clear—to preside over a single-mindedness Spain brought
them access to the Red Sea. disseminating his ideas resulted in prosperous, pan-European to overseas adventuring paid of the first circumnavigation of
Already effectively masters of the a major force for religious change Catholic entity which, properly dividends with Hernán the globe. The expedition leader,
overland trade routes with the known as the Reformation. mobilized, would then rout the Cortés’s march on Ferdinand Magellan (b. 1480)
East, the Ottomans were now Ottoman menace. The reality was Tenochtitlán, capital of was a Portuguese nobleman who,
poised to dominate the lucrative The arrival of a Portuguese painfully different. The size of his the Mexican Aztec despite his nationality, succeeded
“route of spices.” In doing so, fleet under Tomé Pires in Canton, territories made effective control Empire. Beginning in persuading Charles V to bankroll
they found themselves in direct China, in August 1517 was the impossible. Few of his subjects in 1519, in less than his scheme to reach the Spice
conflict with the Portuguese, who climax of a campaign to open up were prepared to surrender five years the Islands in the Pacific by sailing
had been actively probing the Red trading routes across the Indian traditional “liberties” to a distant, Spanish force,
Sea since 1513. The stage was set Ocean, begun when Vasco da Gama foreign ruler; almost none was aided by Tlaxaclan
for another round of conflict rounded the Cape of Good Hope in prepared to finance him; and warriors, had
between the Muslim world and 1498. However, the early results religious differences persistently subjugated an
the Christian West. of these encounters were not intruded. Simultaneously, the entire nation. A
promising, as the Chinese regarded prospect of Habsburg domination minor noble and self-
In October 1517, the priest and the newcomers as uncouth alarmed every other major financing adventurer,
professor of theology Martin barbarians. A Portuguese trade European power, above all France. Cortés brought about Spanish
Luther (1483–1546) nailed his mission to Peking in 1520 was The result was a reign of near domination of Central America.
95 Theses to the door of All Saints treated with similar scorn.
A further milestone in the
THE REFORMATION cementing of Spain’s global role
was marked in 1519—the launch
The Reformation—the religious
revolt against the Catholic
Church instigated by Martin
Luther (right)—tore the
Western Church apart. Politics
intruded from the start as the
revolt spread across Europe.
The consequence was a legacy
of violent religious division
and confrontation between
Catholics and Protestants that
led to a permanent divide in
European Christendom.

MaArcIccahess1sK5iio1nn6gooffCS1h5pca1aor6itnnlheqOesutHteoremjSaayznr,isaan, dEgYyepmt,en AuPgomurstiustsg1iu5oen1s7teoFtCirrahsdtininag 15T1l8emSpcaenni,sNhotratkheAfrica FeHbeirnrunoManá(renaTyxreCir1cnoi5ovore1ctas9éhnstNdMitlomlaapávnyoena(dlbm2rysc.m,bh11eae45rts51h289)L) Deeoantahrdoof IdtaaliVaiSnnecEpixMtpelasomgerSeebepklreliiacrFneneg2rI0lwsde,liaea1nvsn5aetd1enss9rdSnppaainssage tJouVnIIeaIg7aar–nlelt2dieha4eFnA,rcn1Cae5glnol2açot0toh-tFiHshoreefeInGnFrcoyiehldld of Aporf(iFbleo2rr7dn,i1nc.5a12n41d8DM0)eaagtMehlaWlayoLn2ruh5mtih,sse1wrd5eo2acr1hklaEesrrdeeisctAitcMuTogaeaftnunrotdsoiSntcbph1aat3nint,sil1sá5hn2f1alls

1 8 015pu16blTishhoems ahsisMUotroep1iaF5Ae1rr6adgDionenaan(tbdh.Io1If4o5f2) OctoTbpMheuearbsrl3etiis1sn,h, WL1e5usit1thth7eiesnrb9e5rg Juneo2f8S,Rp1oa5min19aenlCeEhcmaterpdlCeehHsraooIrrlylaess V am1b5as2s0aPdoBorretaiujrignruigve,esCsehinina JaneuMxacarorymt3inm, 1Lu5un2tihc1aetred JunCeh1a5m2fop1racIgmenspeei,nrFviaraaldnece OPctDoHopeebefneeLrnryed1oeV1rIX,Io1Igf5trht2ahe1nettisFtlaeith

1523–25 1526

At Pavia in 1525, the French army’s siege lines were broken by a Spanish relief Babur’s Mughal empire could only be
army, then the soldiers were cut to pieces by pikemen and gunfire. created—and sustained—by force.

west. Five ships set out; one THE BELIEF THAT THE LANDS IN KEY ENGLAND NDS H O LY POLAND ,, IF THERE IS
returned, three years later, and THE WEST discovered by European Habsburg NETHERLA STPAROMAN A PARADISE
without Magellan, who had been explorers from Columbus onward possessions 1525 EMPIRE
killed by islanders in 1521. It was, were unknown Asian coasts, rather Border of Holy ,,ON EARTH, IT IS
nonetheless, perhaps the most than a new continent, proved Roman Empire Paris LANDS OF THE
remarkable enterprise of the age tenacious. It was likewise widely ATLANTIC FRANCE THIS, IT IS THIS,
of sail, an epic which for the first held that a navigable passage OCEAN DUCHY OF MILAN BOHEMIAN IT IS THIS.
time revealed the immensity of to the East through these
the Pacific. landmasses must exist. It was SPAIN FRACNOCMHTEÉ– CROWN Inscription on Babur’s tomb 1530
only the voyages between 1524 Milan AUSTRIA
1521 saw another round in the and 1528 from Florida to Nova TYROVLENETICACANASRTRNYINIROTILAHAIAVieHnUnaBNuGdAa R Y IN HIS STRUGGLES AGAINST
Italian wars (1494–1559), this Scotia by Giovanni da Verrazzano CHARLES V (see 1521), François I
time sparked by French fears of (1485–1528), a Florentine in the Madrid Barcelona PAALTES REPUBLIC had solicited the help of the
a Habsburg-dominated Europe service of François I of France, Ottomans in 1525, in the process
after the election of Charles V as that revealed the existence of Balearic Islands Rome KINGDO OTTOMAN initiating a Franco–Ottoman
Holy Roman Emperor. France and, a continuous coastline. Yet KINGDOM OF EMPIRE alliance that lasted 250 years.
at least initially, Venice joined Verrazzano persisted in the belief The alliance also provided the
forces to oppose Charles, England, that the Pacific was within reach. M e SARDINIA Naples OF NAPLES Ottomans with further justification
and the papacy. For the French, an Sea M to renew their conflict with
the war was as unsatisfactory as The German Peasants’ War of d i t e r r a Hungary and, in August 1526, they
its predecessors, culminating in a 1524–25 was a sharp reminder obliterated a combined Hungarian–
series of defeats. of the way that the language of n e Bohemian force at Mohács.
Protestant reformation could be
Portuguese caravel appropriated by groups who AFRICA KINGDOM In 1526, the Mughal Empire was
Magellan’s flagship Trinidad was usually lacked a voice in politics. OF SICILY founded in northern India. It was
The revolts were attempts by the creation of Babur (1483–1530),
a caravel like this Portuguese huge numbers of the politically Habsburg Empire under Charles V such as Anabaptism, which were a descendant of Genghis Khan
vessel. Typically less than disenfranchised in Germany and The very size of Charles V’s empire considered to challenge both social (see 1201–05). Babur hailed from
100 ft (30 m) long, they in Austria, by no means all of made it effectively ungovernable. hierarchy and Protestant authority. Ferghana in central Asia, from
were sturdily them peasants, to end what they Whatever its potential power, it was where he had been expelled. In
seaworthy ships. saw as abuses against them— riven by religious and political strife. The Battle of Pavia in 1525 saw 1522, however, he captured
chiefly taxes and labor services— François I captured and shipped Kandahar, an important staging
by the Church and the nobility. At gathered in a variety of loose to Madrid, where he was obliged point on the road to India and, in
the war’s height in the spring of groupings and hastily assembled to surrender all claim to Italy. But 1526, defeated the Afghan Sultan
1525, perhaps 300,000 people had armies. The uprising was it was an agreement the French of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, and
savagely repressed, with king had no intention of honoring. declared himself emperor. At its
thousands killed. Luther and height at the beginning of the
other leaders of the “official” 18th century, the Mughal empire
Reformation vehemently denied (“Mughal” is Persian for Mongol)
any connection with the rebels, covered almost the entire
and the revolt provoked a subcontinent. It was a byword
brutal clampdown on forms of for sophisticated and courtly life,
Protestant religious radicalism, fattened by trade and conquest,
and, though Islamic, tolerant
100,000 8:1 Battle of Pavia of other religions.
The French Army was
THE NUMBER OF REBELS virtually wiped out at
KILLED IN THE POPULAR Pavia on February 24, 1525, with
UPRISING IN GERMANY 8,000 casualties compared to 1,000
Imperial casualties.

JaCnhuAaadPrrrloeiyapsn9eV,oA’1sf5dUnr2oti2ramencinVheIt,ee, lectAedpforrMicliea2ldta7nB,to1iac5sfot2uce2rcrraFderenafdeneacrte 15p2ir3fraoJtmaepsCarnehepinsuaelsedJuSnwGeeu6ods,fits1Sah5wv2ieVn3dadesAenaprc,ehenildteeeccnttecdoef,king 15r2e4bvyoElOgt tystpuotmpipaanrness1s5eP2de4sao–sGu2aet5nhrtmeGsre’anrWnmayanaardnnincdeAnutrsatlria 15d2e5ifnePaRoteerdtduSbgeyuaeOstteomans Aprertsihlue2lt1MsBiunagtBhtalaelbEoufmrPepasirntaeiApbulaCitsgoahumnisnadbtrgMim2Bn9oeoiedhhseáHmcduseinfabegnyaatOreitadtnoamt ans
ProTteosrtgaanut eLsetaagbGulieesrhomefWda,nilylitNarmeawnTsTylaienntsdettoasalEmtehneegnlitsh
ReeSxmpeenpdateintcmtiiosrnbcouecfmroMm6na,apg1vlee5ilgtl2eaat2hntfiie’osrsngtlpoorfboaecnla1di5mg2oe2vdeHrcenaropnrtáaonifnCN-goeerwntéeSsrpaalin 15o2f4thHeoHjocoaUjopjitctuslrauennsainE, dhJoeaapcdaansGtt,rlieaocMveaAasnmrneceaihrsd–itacJcaVuoetnaoresrNta1ooz5fvz2aNa4noSorctohtia FraFnfeçubortirshueIarcradype2tfue4ra,et1da5ta2Pf5taevriaFCeubaruuhaAtrbzéytyme2Hco8eEc,rm1nex5ápen2ec5rCuootrerdtés 1525 CLoanusorVtenrenuMstctiitiacbinohuneLlelibabeinrnggaiFernlylsooar’senndce
181

1450–1749 REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

THE STORY OF secondary mirror

ASTRONOMY primary
(main) mirror

ONE OF THE OLDEST SCIENCES, ASTRONOMY MAY HOLD THE KEY TO THE ORIGIN OF EVERYTHING

The development of astronomy has been influenced by two key factors: the supporting strut
invention of the telescope, which revealed previously undetectable celestial
objects, and advances in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and computing,
which have been crucial to explaining astronomical observations.

Early astronomy was closely linked to mythology, of the gravitational force controlling that movement Newton’s telescope
(front view)
religion, and prognostication. Celestial by Isaac Newton. In the 19th century, the distance to
hydrogen beta line sodium lines
observations were used to measure time, devise the Sun and nearby stars was accurately measured,
magnesium lines
calendars, set the dates of religious festivals, and spectroscopy was introduced, and advances in
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
for astrological prediction. For millennia, it was theoretical physics provided explanations for Stars and other astronomical objects emit light and
other forms of electromagnetic energy, such as
believed that the Earth was the center of problems such as how stars generate their energy X-rays and radio waves. Using spectroscopy, these
electromagnetic emissions can be broken up into
the cosmos. However, this did not fully (by nuclear reactions in their cores). Prior to 1920, a spectrum of colors. A star’s spectrum is crossed
by dark absorption lines, each corresponding to
explain the observed movements of the many thought the Universe consisted of only our a different chemical element. By investigating
the intensity of these lines, a star’s chemical
Moon, Sun, and planets. own Milky Way Galaxy. However, Edwin Hubble composition can be discovered. Further study
can also establish its temperature, relative velocity,
measured the speed at which distant nebulae and the pressure and density of its atmosphere.

MODERN ASTRONOMY were receding, and it was realized that these

In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus nebulae were independent galaxies. Not only

published his heliocentric model, were the galaxies moving away, but the speed

which put the Sun at the center they were moving away increased with

of the cosmos and is widely distance, implying that the Universe

considered to mark the birth had a beginning, when everything was

of modern astronomy. close together. It was proposed that the

Then, after 1609, the newly expansion had been caused by a massive

invented telescope revealed explosion—the Big Bang. Findings from

a host of new astronomical modern space astronomy have supported

objects. The 17th century also the Big Bang theory, but it has also been

saw the establishment Persian astrolabe discovered that much of the Universe
of the laws of planetary Astrolabes show a representation of the consists of dark matter and dark
motion by Johannes night sky and were used until the 17th energy, the nature and origin of
Kepler, and an explanation century to estimate time and for navigation. which are still unknown.

2000 BCE c. 90–168 CE
Solar and lunar calendars
The Babylonians produce the Ptolemy’s Universe
first calendar by integrating
the 365.25 days of the solar Greek polymath 1543
year with the 29.53 days of The Sun-centered Universe
the lunar month. Similar Claudius Ptolemy Nicolaus Copernicus suggests
calendars are used in the Earth orbits the Sun and
ancient Egypt. proposes that the not vice versa. This demotes
the Earth to being just one
Earth is the center of the six known planets.

of the cosmos, a view

that prevailed until

the 16th century. Ptolemy’s constellations The Copernican Solar System

c. 1400 BCE 1420 1608/1668 Newton’s
Deities and the Zodiac Ulugh Beg The first telescopes telescope
The ancient Egyptians The Persian Ulugh
produce the earliest known Beg builds an German-born Dutch
representation of the Zodiac, observatory in
in which stars, planets, and Samarkand. He lensmaker Hans Lippershey
associated deities appear. measures the tilt
Babylonian Zodiacs also appear in of Earth’s axis to makes the first refracting
boundary Babylonian artifacts. 1/100th of a degree.
stone telescope in 1608. English

scientist Isaac Newton

Ulugh Beg makes the first reflecting
observatory
Zodiac of Senenmut telescope in 1668.

182

upper tube covered with aperture through
decorative vellum which light enters
telescope

lower tube made
of layers of paper

and cardboard

eyepiece lens
magnifies image
35 times

sphere rotates to
point telescope tube
in different directions

screw that holds 30MM THE DIAMETER
main mirror in OF THE OBJECTIVE
position MIRROR IN NEWTON’S TELESCOPE.
TELESCOPES USED BY MODERN
ASTRONOMERS HAVE MIRRORS
UP TO 10,400MM IN DIAMETER.

supporting
strut

Newton’s telescope wooden base
Isaac Newton made his first
reflecting telescope in 1668. plaque recording that this
Shortly afterward, he made telescope was presented to
a second model (shown here), the Royal Society, London,
which stands about 8 in (20 cm) in January 1672
high. Newton’s telescope was
the first to use a primary mirror
rather than a lens to collect
light. A secondary mirror then
reflects the light through a
magnifying eyepiece for viewing.

1780s Hubble Space Telescope 1990–present
William Herschel Space telescopes
Herschel discovers Telescopes are put
Uranus (1781) using a into space near
homemade telescope. Earth or orbit
He makes over around it, from
400 more, where they probe
including a the sky in a range
1.26m reflector. Herschel’s 1.26m telescope of wavelengths.

1920s 1930s 1960s–present
Edwin Hubble Radio telescopes Exploring other worlds
Using the US’s 2.5m A new field of astronomy— Spacecraft are used
Hooker telescope, radio astronomy—begins to explore the Solar
Hubble shows that the when early radio telescopes System. They fly past,
Universe has more than detect radio waves from the orbit, and land on
100 billion galaxies, and Sun and distant galaxies. planets, moons,
that it is expanding. asteroids, and comets.
Grote Reber’s radio telescope
The Hooker telescope Mars rover

183

1527–31 1532

The Sack of Rome in 1527 shocked Europe and devastated the Church. Although it also Atahualpa, the last Inca emperor,
deeply embarrassed Charles V, it meant his dominance in Italy was confirmed. leads his army at Caxamalca.

THE MOST SHOCKING EVENT OF on his vast territories. As Holy war with the papacy’s Holy SPANISH EXPLORATION AND
THE ITALIAN WARS was the Sack Roman Emperor, Charles V was League—assembled to challenge CONQUEST IN THE NEW WORLD,
of Rome in 1527 by Charles V’s the natural ally of the Catholic his dominance in Italy—some of so decisively reinforced by the
Imperial troops. It also highlighted Church just as he was the natural the troops who had laid waste to subjection of Mexico in 1521, was
the contradictions facing Charles enemy of Lutheranism (see 1517). Rome, when his army ran out of continued on an even more
V as he struggled to impose order Yet not only was Charles now at control in protest at their unpaid spectacular scale with the
wages were openly sympathetic to takeover of the Peruvian Inca
the reformist doctrines of Luther. SULEIMAN I (1494–1566) Empire by Francisco Pizarro
But, while Pope Clement VII (1476–1541) in 1532. In little more
cowered in the Castel San’ Angelo The 46-year rule of Suleiman than a year, a force of 188
as churches and palaces were was marked by a succession Spaniards defeated a highly
ransacked and nuns raped and of victories in the Balkans, organized state of five million.
priests murdered, it was clear the Middle East, and North Like Cortés’s invasion of Mexico,
that Charles’s control of Italy Africa that left the Ottomans its success depended on internal
was now absolute. as the most dynamic and divisions within the Inca Empire,
dominant presence in the and a combination of religious
Following their victory at Mohács Western Hemisphere. He is zeal, greed, and superior military
in 1526 and the conquest of much known as “Suleiman the means—steel, guns, and armor
of Hungary in 1529, the Ottomans Magnificent” in the West and against the Incas’ weapons of
feared the Habsburgs would try to as Kanuri, “The Lawgiver,” sharpened stones and padded
recapture the lost territories and in the Islamic world, and his cotton armour—the whole driven
so laid siege to Vienna. It proved reign saw a flowering of by Pizarro, a man of huge ambition.
too ambitious a task even for the Ottoman art and culture.
formidable Ottoman army, for the On the other side of the continent,
weather proved as arduous a foe Hesse and Saxony in northern further European penetration of
as the Austrians. A second attempt Germany, under which each South America was also taking
on the city in 1532 also failed. promised to aid the other if place, albeit on a far smaller scale.
Charles V attempted, by force, to In 1532, Portugal established its
After his victory at Panipat in reimpose Catholicism. It rapidly first permanent settlement in
1526, Babur consolidated his hold expanded to include other German Brazil, at São Vicente. This was
over north India the following year, Protestant states and gained the the nucleus of what by the end of
defeating a Rajput army under support of Charles’s external the century would be a huge
Rana Sanga at the Battle of enemies, the Ottomans and colonial enterprise based on
Khanwa. The final establishment France. It was also an opportunity slavery and sugar plantations.
of Mughal power came in 1529 for each territory to enrich itself
with the destruction of an Afghan by taking over church property. In 1532, hostilities between
army at Ghagra. Germany’s Schmalkaldic League
and Emperor Charles V ceased
In 1531, the Schmalkadic with the signing of a treaty at
League was formed. This was a Nuremberg. The concessions
military alliance, made originally made to the Protestants by
between the Lutheran rulers of Charles, which, most importantly,
included freedom of worship,
Siege of Vienna were welcomed by Martin Luther
The Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1529 and enabled German Protestants
failed because of the bad weather— to spread throughout the country
bitter autumn rains and early snow in the following decade.
—and over-extended supply lines.

MaErmactphtirh1e7e,dB1ea5fet2tal7etsMotfuhKgehhRaaalnjpwMuaautsynac6rom,n1it5eros2l7sleaUdcnkIpmRapiodem1ra5iena2ld8 Portuguese reach 1B5eB2na8BgldoaPoaluksbsolaifcrtaehteiCoaCnsootuifgrAtliuiteorgrnuCuechs’esatcr3lre,es1a5tVe2wd9ibtTheetmtwhpeeoePrnaeFrayrcaenocfeCaSanmed1p5bbt2reea9msiiOebtgeteormV2ia7en–nsOnuacnt,oAsbuuecscrtre1isa4s,fDuelDlcyefeoamuEthnmbdoepefrirBr2eoa6fb(,btu1h.r51e,43M803u)ghal FeGbetrrhumteaoaSrrncyehsP2mir7so,tat1Clek5hsa3tala1rdnlietcssLfVeoarmgue JuPlyiczoa1nr5rq3ou2leaFsurtnaoncfhcIienssccaoSpP1a5eSnr3ãiu2soh(PtVooicr1et5un3gt3ue)e,1Bs5de3rea2HefzesuOiatlnatttgeboadlmirsiynahns

1 8 4JoufnNeic2c1o,(lb1ò.5M124a7o6cfD9AhT)Geip,ahaeravetriuehlmPtl6hlrai,oinn1rc5aer2Dt8iüsDrteeAralb(tbhr.eo1cf4h7t1) 1528 SafavidsMtaadkyeef6eB,aa1Btg5aAh2tfdt9glaheMdaounfgsGhihnaaltsghhera SeptOetmtobmBeaurnd8sJa,u,c1Han5peu2tnu29gr5Cae,or1yn5f3e0skseTiyohneelAoeumuLtguelistnnhbteeussrroatgfhntefhaeith 1530coPloonrtiuzagtuioenseobf eBgrianzil 1531PCrhoaterlsetsanVNtioseumtthleainrwltsahneds gu1a5Pr3farr2oneNttePeeudeserotaesamcmGnetbeooperffmrrwignaocnreshsip C1r5im32eauKnehdsaetnarabOtpleitrstoohotfmeedcatnion

1533–34 1535–37

,, ...THE SCANDAL
OF CHRISTENDOM AND

,,A DISGRACE TO YOU.

Catherine of Aragon to Henry VIII about Anne Boleyn, 1533

Charles V’s seizure of Tunis in June 1935 was almost the only unequivocal success
of his reign. Briefly, the prospect of a resurgent Christendom loomed.

HENRY VIII OF ENGLAND had been THE JESUIT ORDER suppressed, yielding the crown 29,590 1,175
awarded the title Fidei Defensor— an additional income of around people burned
Defender of the Faith—by Pope The initial Catholic response to £200,000 per annum. However, PENANCE
Leo X in 1521 in recognition of his the Reformation was hesitant within years the money was gone, IMPOSED
vehement defense of the Catholic and uncoordinated, and was squandered by the king.
Church against Protestant led by a series of individuals PORTUGUESE
attacks. Henry would remain rather than the Church itself. Henry VIII’s divorce from INQUISITION
a devout Catholic to the end of The Jesuits, the Society of Catherine of Aragon in 1533 had
his life, opposed to all attempts Jesus, were established in HAVING BROKEN WITH ROME, been necessary to allow him to 644
to reform Catholic practice. 1534 by a Basque nobleman, it followed that all the structures marry Anne Boleyn. When she, effigies burned
And yet by 1533 he had been Ignatius of Loyola. Loyola’s of the Catholic Church in England too, failed to produce a son, Henry
excommunicated from the goal was to produce a new should be taken over by the state. had her executed on charges of Portuguese Inquisition
Roman Church. The following generation of highly educated This was not just a question of adultery in 1536. In the same Between 1540 and 1794, tribunals
year, he completed the rupture, priests to spread a new wanting to eradicate papal year, tensions at the pace and held in Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra, and
establishing a national church, militantly Catholic faith. Given authority in England. The Catholic extent of religious change, and the Evora led to the death by burning of
totally independent from Rome, papal sanction in 1540, the Church in England was immensely sincere concerns of many that the 1,175 people, most of them Jews.
with himself as its “supreme Jesuits spearheaded the wealthy, and this was money that break with Rome signaled larger
head.” The reasons for this Catholic revival. Henry VIII, permanently strapped changes in the fabric of the conceded to the movement’s
improbable split were simple. for cash, was determined to have. traditional Church, had reached demands. But when the crisis
Initially, Henry wanted a divorce convinced himself this was divine In 1535, the king’s secretary, the boiling point in the North of was over, he had the rebellion’s
from his aging Spanish wife, punishment for marrying his Thomas Cromwell (c. 1485– England. The Pilgrimage of leaders executed.
Catherine of Aragon, who after brother’s widow—in 1501, 1540), took charge of the two-part Grace saw the largest uprisings
24 years of marriage had yet to Catherine had married Henry’s dissolution of the country’s in England since the Peasants Distracted by events in Europe,
give birth to a son. Henry had elder brother Arthur, who died monasteries. Starting in 1536 Revolt in 1381. Those involved had Charles V was rarely able to
the following year; Henry and and culminating with all the great shown little or no dissatisfaction pursue his goal of driving the
Anne Boleyn Catherine married in 1509. monasteries in 1539, the with the Catholic church and were Ottomans back to their Turkish
Henry VIII married Anne Boleyn in The pope, under pressure from dissolution involved systematic unprepared to see centuries of heartlands. In 1535, however, he
secret in January 1533, four months Catherine’s nephew, Charles V, vandalism and saw the greatest settled faith discarded. Faced with achieved a rare success with the
before he divorced Catherine of refused to grant a divorce. Henry’s transfer of land ownership in protest on this scale, the king conquest of Tunis in North Africa.
Aragon. She was crowned in June. response, formulated over several England since the Norman It proved to be a costly victory,
years, was in effect to become his Conquest in 1066. Every one of the 58% of eligible provoking an Ottoman raid on
own pope, able to authorize his 560 monasteries in England was monasteries Majorca that captured 6,000
own divorce. Prompted in addition dissolved Christians and encouraged the
by the knowledge that, as French monarch to cooperate
elsewhere in Europe, any ruler Dissolution of monasteries more closely with the Ottomans.
asserting control of the Church in Under the Dissolution of Lesser
his own country would necessarily Monasteries Act of 1536, 243 of While it never achieved the
increase his own authority, in 1534 the 419 eligible monasteries were notoriety of its Spanish equivalent
the Church of England was suppressed or dissolved. (see 1480), the Portuguese
brought into being under the Act Inquisition, founded in 1536, was
of Supremacy. In pursuit of Henry’s nonetheless vigorous in rooting
personal interests, Roman out heresy in Portugal and, from
Catholicism was abolished. 1560, in its colonies, such as Goa.
Its chief target was Jews, many
originally Spanish, who were
forcibly converted to Catholicism.

JuHlyeen1xr1cyo, Vm1I5ImI33unicaSteeodpf(tEdel.mi1zb6ae0b3re)t71h,51It3h5o3e3f 3EGYonBeugrirmnlatghanendrapratiinsttsHTahnJesuCAHnmaoSerltbt9b.ia,eeLs1riasn5wda3idrs4eoNcnrJooscoavvefecteErqhRsmuneivegtbAehslercaertnod1f5iSs3u4fopTurehnmedeCadchybuyrch JaPniuzaarrryo1fo8u, n1d5s35LiFmraan, JPciuesrnrecufeoboe1rlc5lii3boln5yAastnuMapbpüarnepssttis1see5trZd3a5mPboerztiuVgaulelesey,pseonuetthreartne 1A5fWr3iac6AalceEtsnoguflnaUintnedidoa1nbn5ydd3tis6mhseHooneluantsriytoenV1rIio5IeIIf3nsos6qrmudPieaosrlirlstteiuorgnufeousended Oc1t5oG3br7NeaorcTerh1t,e5ha3Pno6iful–EgpFrnreigimsbliaarnnuggdeai,nrotyafthkees place

JulyA2t6Fa,oeh1fbu5Iran3ulc3paaarMEMybumyü2rpndP7ees,izrt1raeo5rrr3riio4nt “AGTneharembNaapentwyis, JAtdseeurscguaeluasiCzsraeaitlnet1ghm5o,”li1c5bo3yr4dIg1eTn5rh,a3eet4isuJtTesFahsrbouaelfinisLTtcshroe,eeydaowptliraytihnocGfeAesruamggsaabni1unP5rsgr3toFC4atrehlFalsawirnetreraçslnieontcseitshsVRaGauabtrhegolaarnitsua CJchuaanprtelue1rseN, V1oJo5rfulet3Tlhay5uSdAn6isrfi,rdsT1ie,ch5nao3ym5inaHgsethnMeroyRrVeoIyI(oIbave.lex1Sre4uct7Mphu8reta)ee,ymCsfo1har9uc,ryc1hA53n6neEBxeoccl.eu1yt5ino0n1(b/o1of5rn07) 1 8 5Octo(bb.e1r52084),,1dH5iee3ns7rayJfaVtenIIreI’gsSivtehiynimrgdEobdwuirwirtfaher,tdoV1I537 FraanHlclaioab–nsMOcbteeutdoraigmgtseaariinrnnastntheean

1538–41 1542–48

This illustration from the Vallard Atlas of 1547 depicts Jacques Cartier and
members of the abortive French–Canadian colony of 1541–42.

,, I AM INCLINED TO suppression of the revolt and the by nervousness of being beaten THE FIRST CONTACT BETWEEN
BELIEVE THAT THIS IS city’s notables were forced to to it by Spain (just as Spain was EUROPE AND JAPAN WAS IN 1543.
THE LAND GOD parade barefoot. The underlying anxious not to be outflanked by According to the Portuguese
tension, however, remained. France), proved no more fruitful. writer and explorer Fernão
,,GAVE TO CAIN. Initial efforts had been made in Mendes Pinto, it occurred on the
Despite concerted efforts, the 1534 and then in 1535–36 by island of Tanegashima, to the
Jacques Cartier, French explorer, about Canada, 1536 Spanish exploration of North Jacques Cartier (1491–1557), in south of the main Japanese
America in the 16th century the course of which the Gulf archipelago. Not only did the
THE BATTLE OF PREVEZA, fought In August 1539, Ghent, the proved discouraging. The myths of St. Lawrence and then the Portuguese introduce firearms
off western Greece in September birthplace of Charles V, rose in that drove it—a waterway linking St. Lawrence River in present-day to Japan, but they became
1538, further underlined the reach revolt against him. The issue was the Atlantic and Pacific, the Canada were reached and claimed intermediaries between China
of Ottoman naval power. It pitched tax, demanded by Charles to “Seven Cities of Gold”—proved to for France. In 1541, by now and Japan, whose merchants had
the Ottomans against a combined finance his Italian wars. It revealed be just that. The reality was vast thoroughly alarmed by Spanish been forbidden to trade with the
Papal, Venetian, Genoese, and the difficulties faced by Charles V territories that proved hostile and intentions, France launched a Chinese as a result of persistent
Spanish fleet brought together in imposing authority over unrewarding. Nonetheless, from more substantial expedition to raids by Japanese pirates.
by Pope Paul III. The Ottoman autonomous cities determined 1539, Hernando de Soto led a Canada with the explicit goal
victory highlighted the difficulty to guard their “liberties” by four-year expedition across much of establishing a permanent In 1543, the Polish mathematician
the Christians faced in welding refusing to pay a distant ruler for of the southern territories of settlement. It was led by Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)
together disparate, uneasily an equally distant campaign. today’s US. Similarly, in 1540–42, Jean-Francois de la Rocque de published On the Revolution of the
allied forces. Charles personally oversaw the Francisco Vázquez de Coronado Roberval, with Cartier his deputy, Heavenly Bodies. It was based not
headed a still larger force north and was a dismal failure. Cartier on Copernicus’s own observations
from Mexico, penetrating as far returned, unauthorized, to France of the heavens so much as on
as Kansas. And in 1542–43, Juan in 1542 with “gold and diamonds” those of Greek and Arab
Rodríguez Cabrillo led a fleet that proved worthless. Roberval astronomers. Nonetheless, he
north along the unknown Pacific abandoned the colony the was able to demonstrate that
following year after a winter of these much older observations
coast, discovering near starvation. French efforts in were more readily explained by
San Diego harbor. North America would not be the Earth orbiting the Sun rather
But none of these renewed for half a century.
ventures would Copernicus’s Universe
be followed up A consequence of the Catholic This painting by Andreas Cellarius
until the end of response to the Reformation was from 1660 shows “The system of the
the century. the missionary work undertaken entire created Universe according
between 1541 and 1552 by Francis to Copernicus.”
French attempts Xavier (1506–52), a cofounder of
at settlement in the Jesuits in 1534. Conceived
North America, on a heroic scale, its aim was to
promoted in part spread Christianity to East Asia.
Xavier traveled via Mozambique
Battle of Préveza to Goa, then to the Spice Islands
Despite the size of between 1545 and 1547, and then
the Christian fleet at to Canton and Japan before
the Battle of Préveza returning to China, where he died
in September 1538, in 1552. His Christian conversions
it proved no match are said to have been exceeded
for the Ottoman fleet only by St. Paul.
led by Khair ed-Din
(Barbarossa).

SeOptottoefmmPrabénevsrewz2a8in, B15a3tt8le AuingbuGyshCte1hn5atr3sl9uepsRpVerveoslsJteamdnua(1ra5rr1iey5s–1A557n4)n0, ehHiosefnfCoryulerVvtIheIIswife JuVlIyIHI2om8wa,ar1rr5die4,s0hCiHsaefitnhftrehyr1win5tie4feem0 MpourgahraillyehxaplatendsiboynAf1g5hc4ar0PonsesPcsroeeunds,qretouhxetedeseAntsdVtaiatncolagdtmihSvepiaaasDnoeiussthehArtpm,rliiselsdd7ie,obp1nya5Ftr4ort1sathnJfreecoisFsmuaXirtPaEovarietsurtgal 15C4a1CrhtJRiaaeorccryloqefa(louaoslue,bbnnsFaoyrdnuiesdnrnogCcn-haenda1d5a43) Fe1b5Hr4uo2(bawCoraryarntd1hc3ee.,xr1ei5nc2eu0t–e2d5) AuSgpduaesnctoOianm2rrae6dApvl,millFg1earaat5naetz4anisoo2cnfinisrRoscfiotveenrtire

1 8 61538YsePumobrejtunuggaau1ntie5dos3nAe9NodoHferneterhxnpAalmonrdeeorsidcsaeoTu(Shttooohmt1eJo5raun4sl3yC)H2r8oem,n1rwy5e4Vl0IlIIE(’sbxocerhcniuectafi.oum1Snt4hieno8opfi5rst)ite,teymrgbreanrt2e1e7d5s,t4t1oa05bt4Phli0esohrPJteaeu(dppsgruawuelieitstssehenCttr-oadcdaheyinVliCinehktnisC1na5oamr4o)0nFardNaonoercxtihspclAoomrVeáessrsiqcouauet(zhtowd1ee5s4t2) JuSnpaen2is6hP, 1icz5oa4nr1qrouAi(ssbstoaardsnosricn.Fa1rt4aio7nn1c/io1sfc4o76) 1o5f4H1uSOnotgtuoatmrhyearmnnappdraoervtainnce FMraaanyrcr6ii,sve1Xs5a4ivn2ieGPRroooaSrdteruípgqtuupeeermsezesbCeeeanwxrbtph-2rlidiol8lCearl,oyeae1rlSxl5iafpJa4onulnr2odanrDsniianiaengtgctohoeast

Natives and llamas were pressed into service to transport silver from Potosí,
Bolivia. The sprawling shanty town became the largest in the New World.

204 Holy Roman Emperor. Persistently
tons of gold distracted by the French and the
Ottomans, he had had little option
17,500 but to appease the league (see
TONS OF 1532) and only in 1546, with
SILVER France temporarily sidelined after
the Treaty of Crépy of 1544, did
Gold and silver shipped to Seville he feel able to confront it directly.
The silver mountain at Potosí meant The result, decided at the Battle
it dominated the exports of precious of Mühlberg in April 1547, was
metals shipped to Spain from Chile an overwhelming military success
and Mexico from 1503 to1660. for Charles. The longer-term
consequences were mixed.
than the other way around. It
took others, notably the Danish In 1545, Spanish colonists
astronomer Tycho Brahe in the discovered at Potosí, in present-
1570s, to show by direct day Bolivia, the biggest single
observation that Copernicus concentration of silver ever found
was right. But a major breach in —in effect, an entire mountain of
the geocentric universe theory silver. Together with silver found
had been made. in northern Mexico, it would prove
to be the motor of the cash-hungry
Also published in 1543 was Spanish Empire, for it was New
Vesalius’s On the Fabric of the World silver from Potosí that drove
Human Body. Like Copernicus, Spanish trade with China just as
Andreas Vesalius (1514–64) it financed Spain’s attempts at
looked to ancient Greek learning. European dominance.
Unlike Copernicus, he made his
own direct observations, based on In the same year, at Trent in the
dissections of human bodies. If Italian Alps, the Catholic Church
any moment can be pinpointed as set out to challenge the Protestant
initiating a scientific revolution in Reformation by reforming and
the West—the belief the world is remodeling itself. The Council
best understood by empirical of Trent aimed to eradicate
observation—it was perhaps this. corruption, make the Church’s
teachings more coherent, and to
Ever since the formation of the project itself as a dynamic and
Protestant Schmalkaldic League competitive religious force. It gave
in 1531, Charles V had been forced rise to a series of new Catholic
to skirt its threat to his authority as orders and met twice more, in
1551–52 and 1559–63.

The Portuguese arrive in Japan
Portuguese merchants display some
of their wares to the intrigue of the
locals on their arrival on Japanese
shores in 1543.

15h4o2FsrtRailenitncieeeswabeneddtJwHaJenauebu(abnsanobrrRuynro3gcd,.sr11íq54u499e3)zDC1ea5a(b41thr4t3hi7loNel3fooi–cr1oy5lo4af3u)hspeCulioboplcieesrnh1nte5risNci4cuheS3istitpyshFaeriarnln,acanend1dsa5,t4Ntna3ioccPrektoshretthruneguese reSaceThprFteJeraafamotpnylCablcooneeewfrreaCins1nrog8dél,peFH1y,ra5enbbn4oesc4rtbhtwuhevrIiegtcanstloyry aAtpdrisdilceo1pv5oe4sri5tvsSaaspttaPsniiolsvtheorsí, PeruJuOlyteto4dBm-,Da1ar5innb4,aa6brdoeDmstetsieararathl(kbKnoo1hofr5wIan4ninrd6c.iaaP1sno4r7at8rum)guyeasteDriouu, tIndia15d4e6stSrooynsgFhMeacabryloriEwuEmanmreppydirir2eKe0in, g15o4f7EnEgdlwanaDdredocfVHeSImeprabnneáirsnh2C1,co5o1pr4n5rt7eéq4ssu7Mei(sDunbtgte.a-1hadd4atoa8hlrys5S)AteaDfpgkePhetaeaaKtmnrharibsob(tfeubaCr.ln,1a8i5tn,h11e25r)4in8e

1 8 7InR1q5ou4mifso2iautninodnJeumdlyar1r2ie, s15C4a3t1hH5eh4erisin3nrsPeyixuPVtbhIaOIlrIinwcrat,ihfteieonFaobfrAicnodfreth1ae5sH4V4uemsQPauopaleroniutlruiBsBtmsg’oasuadeyenys,setsaeoabutnlrtidashdheMiernandgpAautftro1icC5ao4l4leCgoemCphlaeptDieoelno,cCefomTaf rmKbeibennrrtgitdc’1hsog3Rene,eCv1feao5ntr4hem5osalCtitcoiooCuinnnoi(tuctiionaKl1tta1ee5n5r44d-57a)hMadurag,yhinAaplfsgrhetaasJknebuenielsytgt-ai1nn0Ss,cb1he5mt4wa6elkeSanclhdCmichaaLrlekleaasglduVieca(nWtoda1trDh5Jee4aa7nt)huEoanfrgHyle2ann8rd,y1(Vb5.I4I17I4o9f1)SHcahtbmhseAabpBlukrraagitlltsdl2eidc4eo,Lff1eeM5aat4güt7uhhelebaetrg1548 JesthueitsKloanugnoc,hcemn1it5srs4ai8loAnMftriConichgapingroaovtteeocrfntomtrhJeeaeingpirtnacnctoleroaasssdeetepsfrtirooamtes

1549–51 1552–54 1555–56

,, ART OWES ITS ORIGIN TO
NATURE... THIS BEAUTIFUL CREATION...
SUPPLIED THE FIRST MODEL, WHILE
THE ORIGINAL TEACHER WAS THAT

,,DIVINE INTELLIGENCE…

Giorgio Vasari, from Lives of the Most Excellent Italian Painters... 1550

The only surviving child of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, Mary I was the This copper engraving depicts the
first queen of England to rule in her own right. Peace of Augsburg of 1555.

THE ACCESSION OF THE NINE- of Cranmer’s Book of Common IN 1552, THE LAST CHAPTER of the 4:1 Heretics put to death THE FINAL PHASE OF THE ITALIAN
YEAR-OLD EDWARD VI (1537–53) to Prayer—its use was compulsory. 60-plus years of the Italian Wars During her five-year WARS made plain that Charles V
the English throne in 1547 marked (see 1505–12] was opened. It saw rule, Mary I had 283 could never impose himself
a violent break with his father’s When the first Portuguese France allied with the Ottomans Protestants burned at the stake for militarily on those of his nominal
religious settlement. Henry VIII’s Governor-General, Tomé de in the Mediterranean, and with heresy—227 of them were men subjects within the Holy Roman
Church of England (see 1534) was Sousa, arrived in Brazil in 1549 he a series of German Protestant and 56 were women. Empire who had embraced
Protestant only in its rejection of was accompanied by five Jesuits, princes, notably Maurice of Protestantism. Charles accordingly,
papal authority. Edward VI, guided sent at the express wish of the Saxony, in Germany. England space of less than a year, England and reluctantly, allowed his
by the actively Protestant Lord Portuguese king, João III, and led would make a late and disastrous was wrenched from one religious brother Archduke Ferdinand, Holy
by Manuel de Nóbrega (1517–70). contribution to the Spanish cause extreme to another. From 1555, she Roman Emperor designate, to
Book of Common Prayer The Jesuits (see 1533–34), in in 1557. This came about because began the systematic persecution negotiate a compromise, the
The Book of Common Prayer made other words, were central to the Henry VIII’s daughter, Mary, of leading Protestant figures, 283 Peace of Augsburg, agreed in
English the language of the English Portuguese colonization of Brazil became queen in 1553 and of whom she had burned alive September 1555. At its heart was
Church for the first time. It also from the beginning. Nóbrega not married Charles V’s son, the —hence her later demonization a formula—cuius regio eius religio
provoked bitter protests and uprisings. only celebrated the first mass in future Philip II of Spain, in 1554. as Bloody Mary. (“whose realm, his religion”)—
Protector, the Duke of Somerset, Brazil, at Salvador, first capital of That the ruler of an England that that allowed each ruler to impose
acting head of the government, and the new colony, he established the had been Protestant since 1534 The execution in Geneva in his own religion on his territory.
Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556), first Jesuit College in the New should be married to the son of October 1553 of the Spanish Tolerance of this sort suggested
the Archbishop of Canterbury, World. He and his companions the most militantly Catholic ruler theologian and radical humanist, a major breakthrough. But the
introduced a new, vehemently proved energetic missionaries, in Europe is easily explained. Michael Servetus, burned at the choice was between Catholicism
Protestant church, given legal force establishing schools and chapels Where her brother, Edward VI, had stake at the express command and Lutheranism only—Calvinism
in 1549 by the Act of Uniformity. and, importantly, concentrating been aggressively Protestant (see of the French religious reformer (see 1552–54) was not included.
Many of the outward forms of their efforts among the natives’ 1549–51), Mary I was no less John Calvin (1509–64), marked
Catholic worship, including children. He was a consistent aggressively Catholic, determined a critical moment in the The accession of the 14-year-old
bell-ringing, were forbidden. It champion of the Indians in the on the full restoration of Catholic Reformation (see 1516–18). Akbar to the Mughal throne in
was reinforced by the publication face of routine brutality by the —and papal—supremacy. In the Servetus was a keen exponent, 1556 marked a decisive moment
guilty in Calvin’s view of “execrable in the dynasty’s fortunes. His
Portuguese colonizers. Burned at the stake blasphemies” because he rejected father, Humayun, had seen a
Throughout the 16th century, Michael Servetus died in Geneva, a Calvin’s belief in predestination— substantial erosion of Mughal
copy of his book chained to his leg, that all events are “willed by God,” power in the face of Afghan and
the North African coast was one uttering the words: “Jesus, Son of with eternal salvation available Hindu advances. Having fought
of the key battlegrounds between the Eternal God, have mercy on me.” only to those who submit to God’s off a determined Hindu attempt on
the Christian West, chiefly Spain, will (largely as defined by Calvin). his throne at the Second Battle
and the Ottomans for control of What was significant about the of Panipat in November 1556,
the Mediterranean. Spain needed death of Servetus was that for the Akbar presided over an enormous
to eradicate the devastating raids first time Protestantism was seen expansion of Mughal power.
by Barbary pirates—actively to be as intolerant of heresy as
encouraged by the Ottomans—that Catholicism. The implications The claims of Russia’s czars
permanently threatened to disrupt were bleakly ominous. to be the sole legitimate heirs of
Habsburg communications with Rome and, therefore, the only
its Italian lands. The fall of Tripoli guardians of Christianity led
to the Ottomans in 1551, with naturally to a belief that the
some assistance from French expansion of Russia by conquest
ships, was a striking blow to was not just desirable but
Habsburg strategic hopes, just as inevitable. Under Ivan IV, known
it marked a significant victory for as “the Terrible” (1530–84),
the Turks. The city withstood such ambitious assertions were
repeated efforts to retake it.

MaSraeclsvhfitaar1dsb5otl4rics9dohlaeodBniaa1ash5lPicB4ara9rapayFizetiiarrl’slsptuBbolois1kh5ote4ofd9CBinJoremaEsznmiulgiotlnsanbdegin mission 15G5e0tohPrPeguaMibionolVtisceatarsEtsaix,orcSniAe’csoluplJLfelrapinNivptlteoao2Isrnbt1saoeu,lafshi1anei5nddw5eA1a(rrbDcl.ohe1riatd5et1hOc0tdo)sfa 15a5ll2oyfFCwSrhiaedtahxnrriocvlMenhesaynuVafrr,goiwacmeihnosGtiesDrmeJceaesnmuyitbFerra2n,c1is55X2avDieeJrauEt(lhbdy.wo61fa,5r10d565V) 3I oDfeEanthgloafnKdi(nJbug.r1ley5tim3h17e9p),ao1cs5cee5ds3isnCio1Ean5ntOh5ogto3(flttaloMoiSncma1aidsaf5rmawyn5v5iIcit)dho–nflict JaSnhuinaaaernnsyotxri2mit3hea,waJ1truee5Jtdslh5eytoq58wC1ru3di2h0asei,h,knr01ea0Go50hfk5ePi5ltlostCporeeinaPtRaiouonlmIoVef the
by

1 8 8JuJleyXsau2vi7ti,eF1rr5aai4nnr9rcJiivsaeps1a5n5K0inHgelGsuinsktai vfoIuonfdSewdebdyecn1eo5npt5rp0eorMsoiatfigoPdnreb,obbyteueCssrhtgiaea,ngrlteeds V 1re5c5a1pOtuttroemTarinpsoli 15e5s2taPboplroistsuhtgAtaurtpaeMrdsieialnFc9gar,ao1n5c5o3iFsrD(eRbenaoacbrthhnelwoca.frisi1t,4e9r4) SeOrvcheteotrubesetir(cb2.in71,5P11r51o5)teb3suMtranince1tehd5Gsa5taeea4slnbeSalivasaahdeid1d,5yM5n4oarKsortaceytcgfsoraioninmas,SiWnodenesgtpheAanfyrdiEceman,cpeire Sfprereip1entd5cPeoe5emms5agbcLoeueufartorhrfe2aelA5nirgu,ateignoesndbautrg ChaOrlcetasobbVdeipcrrao2tg5ers,e1(st5so5iv15e5l5y8)

1557–59

This oil painting shows Henri II of France and Philip II of Spain meeting at Cateau-Cambrésis
on April 3, 1559 to sign the peace treaty. In reality, it was signed by their ambassadors.

THE TENSE RELATIONS BETWEEN KEY NORWAY Barents Sea
the Portuguese, who had been Arkhangelsk
attempting to establish trading Territory of
posts in China since 1513, and Moscow 1300–1505
the Chinese, always suspicious
of Portuguese intentions, had Expansion of
thawed during the 1540s to the Moscow 1505–1584
point that by 1552 China agreed
to allow Portugal a trading post Expansion of Sea SWEDEN Ural Mountains
in Macau on the south coast of Moscow FINLAND
China. It was the key foothold the In 1547, Ivan IV ESTONIA Nizhny
Portuguese had been seeking. By transformed the Novgorod SIBERIA
1557, this temporary settlement Grand Duchy of Riga Pskov
had become permanent. It would, Moscow into the Baltic LATVIA Moscow Kazan Aral
in turn, prove a crucial link in the Czardom of Russia. Sea
Portuguese, later Spanish, global In the 1550s, he LITHUANIA Ryazan Samara
trading system. Macau remained began the expansion Smolensk
Portuguese until 1999. of its boundaries,
and its territory and POLAND Saratov
In 1557, Mary I of England (see population doubled
1552–54) was persuaded by her during his reign. Kiev KIRGHIZ
husband Philip II to join Spain in its Tsaritsyn
renewed war with France. This
proved disastrous, leading directly HUNGARY Rostov
to the loss of Calais to the
French in January 1558; Calais Astrakhan
had been English since 1360 and
was the country’s last foothold in Black Sea Caspian Sea
continental Europe. Mary had Constantinople
been unable to have children and
significantly boosted. Although his Akbar the Great in procession when she died in November The Treaty of Cateau- predictable consequence was the
efforts in the west were thwarted During the 46-year reign of Akbar, 1558, she was succeeded Cambrésis of April 1559 marked death of the French king, Henry
by Lithuanian arms, those to the Mughal India enjoyed expansion by her Protestant the definitive end of the Italian II (b. 1519) three months later in a
south were strikingly successful. of territory, prosperity, religious half-sister Elizabeth I, Wars. It proved a short-lived tournament held to celebrate the
He had already conquered the tolerance, and cultural richness. the daughter of success. Habsburg Spain was the treaty. The succession of boy-kings
Khanate of Kazan in 1552. In 1556, Anne Boleyn. clear victor, its dominance in Italy that followed led France to 40
he achieved an even more notable Russia now found itself not only in absolute (at the expense of the years of bitter civil war (see 1572).
breakthrough, destroying the control of the trade routes to Capture of Calais papacy as much as of France). For
enfeebled Khanate of Astrakhan. Central Asia, it was also poised This enamel plaque its part, France kept Calais as well In 1558, Czar Ivan IV continued
to sweep eastward across Siberia. by French artist as Metz, Toul, and Verdun. By the his policy of Russian expansion
Leonard Limosin with the beginning of the
celebrates the terms of the treaty, Philip II settlement of the Khanate of Sibir
capture of Calais by was tacitly making plain (western Siberia). Ivan’s conquest
French forces led by that the military of Kazan in 1552 had opened up
Francis, Duke of Guise and financial the way to the Urals and Siberia
on January 7, 1558. contributions of to the east. Colonization was led
the Netherlands by rich merchants, such as the
to the conflict Stroganovs, who had been
had been granted estates and tax privileges
principally to by Ivan in the lands they took.
advance Spain’s Protected by Cossacks, large-
Italian goals. scale migration into Siberia
Future conflict followed in the 1570s, establishing
in the Spanish trade links with local tribes. The
Netherlands was Khanate of Sibir was eventually
more or less conquered in 1582, greatly
guaranteed. A less increasing the size of Russia.

JaAncu(c1ae5Mrs4uys2ig–2oh1n7a6,ol01ft55hA)5rkto6obnaer MaTrhAcorhmecx2hae1bsc,isuC1htr5eoa5dpn6fmoofreChra,enfroetresmrybeurry, NodveBefeamatttblseeHroi5fn,Pd1ua5ns5iap6taASt kebcoanrd 15a5ll7aienEosdnnwdgFeilrtacAhanlunaFSdgrcrpeeeuasnsicnwth1a0art, 1S5t.5Q7uSepnatiinn rou1ts5p5o7ssPeosrstuiognuoefsMe taackaeu, ChinSae1p5Ct5eh8EmamDrblepeeaesrtrhV21o,r15ocH,5(fobo8n.lqy1Ivu5Ra0eon0sm)tthoaefnKTehrarniabtlee obfeSgiibnJisruonfteFor3uma0rnon,nca1eam5rk5cei9hnllytHepidenlntuinornycjgorIiunIissgitsiFnrge1n5cP5ha9CrhmMGaoaarNvlr,eeegdstraahnVrueo,egrrbthleooatcfefnordmsoef s

fouJnoudfleyIrg3no1fa,tJ1ieu5ss5uo6itfsDL(eobay.to1hl4a9,1) 1K5ah5na6dnRaretueascoshifaACnsastsrspaeikaizhneaSnea 1S5w5e6rdueJlnoehrbnoefcIIFoImionfleasnd SepteDmeexbapCetlhorarr1oeJtf,irae1FnJr5rauec(5cbano7q.rcuu1hyne4t7as9e,n1r1da)5tct5aa8cpktFurErenengNCclhiaoslvhaeismEbliezarb1e7t,h1I5f5o8lloAwMccianergsysdIioe(bnaA.tohp1f5roo1iflf62C) –a3te,a1u5-5mC9aaTmrItrkabeslraieaétynnsidWsoafrs Jubleyc1o0m, 1es55k9inFgroafnFcrisanIIcesettle1m55e9ntSMfpooaubnniAilsdelheaBdba,aym, a

189

1450–1749 REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

gold surface

Lacquer inro netsuke stops Tea jar
1750–1799 inro from slipping 17th century
Inros were small boxes hung from off belt This formerly lidded jar is
the belt and secured by a netsuke. Agano stoneware. Its shape,
This lacquer and gold example is black body, and blue glaze
decorated with scenes around Kyoto. imitate wares imported from
China for the tea ceremony.

human figure typical floral
decoration

connecting Porcelain tea bowl Imari charger
cord 1700–1750 Edo period
Wrestler’s netsuke Used as a delicate cup, this Vast quantities of Imari porcelain,
1800–1850 example of blue-and-white Arita named after its principal port of
In the Edo period much ingenuity went ware, decorated with figures, distribution, have featured this
into the designs of carved toggles called imitates a design of the Chinese charger’s palette, dominated by
netsuke. This example, depicting a snail Kangxi dynasty period (1662–1722). blue, pink, and orange shades.
on a mushroom, is made of boxwood.

EDO PERIOD bamboo
mount gives
JAPANESE ARTS FLOURISHED UNDER THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNS’ RULE
fan rigidity

The Edo period (1603–1868) was one of peace. The Mount Fuji
merchant class grew wealthier and better educated, and
began to enjoy arts that were previously the preserve of top piece
the landowning elites and the samurai warrior class. emphasizes
height
Japanese craftsmen were inspired by the culture of ukiyo (Floating
World), itself inspired by the Buddhist idea that all is illusion. In Edo Printed fan
Japan ukiyo became associated with fleeting pleasures—from dallying 1858
with courtesans to attending kabuki dance dramas. Craftsmen strove This late Edo artifact is made of split
for an esthetic of otherworldly elegance. Surrounded by beauty, their bamboo and paper. On each side is a
clients set about their pursuits, from writing to prayer, as though they different silkscreen-printed scene by
too were part of the illusory Floating World. Hiroshige II (1826–69).

lacquered decorative
surface straw hat

finely carved
detail

Zen ink
decoration

Lotus separable
throne component

Wooden Buddha figure Ivory figure Brass lantern Folding screen
18th century 18th century 18th century Edo period
Buddhism lay at the heart of This delicately carved ivory figure Intended for exterior use, Sliding panels (fusuma) and folding
Tokugawa ideas of a coherent of an old woman carrying a probably at an entrance approach, screens served as movable interior
society. This small figure was bundle of faggots carries the this monumental brass lantern walls in Edo Japan.
kept as a reminder of Buddha. inscription of Gyokusen. disassembles into five parts.

190

horns confirm
demonic identity

hair accentuates
wild movement

Brocade picture light coloring
18th century denotes an
Entitled Truth-Sincerity, aristocrat
this is one of the nishiki-e
(brocade pictures) of Suzuki gaping mouth and
Harunobu (c. 1725–70), made demonic teeth
by superimposing printings
of woodblocks inked with a Theater mask
range of colors. Edo period
This mask represents Hannya,
water pot seal block a female Noh character turned
into a demon by jealousy and
bamboo anger. Noh theater coexisted with
brush other forms, such as Kabuki.

detail drawn from
nature

wooden cube
contains
penknife and
a needle

three
volumes

bound
together

Writing tools grinding ink block Bound woodblock prints
1800–1899 block 1779
Calligraphy was widely practiced by A monochrome print consists of a single
the well-to-do as a leisure pursuit. The impression from a carved woodblock.
compartments of this box contain brushes Some later examples were hand-colored,
and other paraphernalia of the art. in anticipation of color printing.

191

1560–62 1563–64

,, WITHOUT DESTRUCTION,
THERE IS NO CREATION…

,,THERE IS NO CHANGE.

Oda Nobunaga (1534–82)

Oda Nobunaga ruthlessly broke the military power of Japan’s leading regional Construction of the austere yet vast royal residence, El Escorial, began in 1563.

warlords in a drive for control that eventually united Japan. It was intended to underline the piety as well as the majesty of Spain’s rulers.

BY ABOUT 1560, ODA NOBUNAGA, 1562 and dragged on until 1598. Massacre of Huguenots IN 1563, SWEDEN AND DENMARK Escaping persecution at home,
LEADER OF THE ODA CLAN in There were, technically, eight The killing of 80 Huguenots at Vassy CLASHED FOR SUPREMACY in the in 1564 a group of Huguenot
central Japan, was emerging as separate wars; in reality, it was a in northeast France in March 1562 Baltic. The first modern naval settlers established a colony in
the greatest of the country’s single, long-drawn-out struggle. was the spark that began the French war ensued—that is, with sailing Florida on the banks of the St.
regional warlords, or daimyo. On one level, it was a purely Wars of Religion. ships, rather than galleys (as was John’s River on the site of what
Since the calamitous Onin War, religious conflict—was France to still common in the Mediterranean), today is Jacksonville. Called Fort
which began in 1466, Japan had be Catholic or Protestant? crown or the nobles, whether heavily armed with cannon. Both Caroline, it was the first French
been effectively ungovernable— Inevitably, this meant that the Catholic or Huguenot. The French countries were competing for colony in what would become the
the daimyo brutally vying for principal Catholic and Protestant Protestants were known as control of the maritime invasion US. It lasted little more than a
supremacy. The arrival of the rulers of Europe were periodically Huguenots, from the Swiss– routes, the Danes supported by year before it was destroyed by a
Portuguese in the mid-15th dragged into the conflict, neither German Eidgenossen or “oath the semi-independent German Spanish force determined not to
century, bringing with them the pope nor Philip II of Spain companions.” The Catholics were city of Lübeck. Seven major naval allow French settlers, especially
firearms, added to the chaos— wanting a Protestant triumph any in the majority, but the Huguenots battles were fought between 1563 Protestant ones, to encroach on
the Japanese proved to be ready more than the Protestant rulers were exceptionally well organized. and 1570, by which point both a territory where they enjoyed
students of the possibilities wanted a Catholic one. Yet it was Both parties had powerful sides were effectively bankrupt. superiority. All the settlers and
of Western-style artillery also a matter of determining who aristocratic leaders for whom the As other countries would discover, the relieving force, bar a number
bombardments (see 1574–77). exercised authority in France—the struggle was also political. A royal custom-built men-of-war may of women and children, were
minority always brought political have been the most formidably killed. In revenge, in 1568, a
From 1561, the substantial instability in its wake (see 1557–59), powerful weapons of the period French force destroyed a
Baltic territories of the Livonian but from 1560 it was compounded but the ships were prodigiously Spanish colony, Fort Matanzas,
Order (see 1236–40), which had by three successive kings who had expensive. The war ended with no built after the destruction
already lost East Prussia in 1525 very limited ability to manage the territorial gain for either side. of Fort Caroline.
when the Teutonic Grand Master, nobles. As none produced an heir
Albrecht von Hohenzollern, and civil war intensified, what was Battle of Oland
converted to Protestantism, were at stake by the end was not just The Danes were victorious at the Battle of Oland
progressively dismembered by the country’s religious destiny but on May 30–31, 1564, during which the Swedes
Russia, Sweden, Poland, and royal authority itself. lost their new royal flagship, Mars.
Denmark. Originally a Crusading
(that is, Christian) frontier entity,
Livonia was a victim in part of the
Reformation, but more of Polish–
Russian rivalries—neither willing
to see the other strengthened in
the region at its own expense.

Few conflicts were more
destablizing than the French
Wars of Religion, which began in

4 4 THE NUMBER OF
KNIGHTS WHO
SERVED AS GRAND
MASTER OF THE
LIVONIAN ORDER
ApDrerialeMtf1ho9er,oml1fae5nGr6ceh0Prtmhhiaolinnpp(bD.eo1cf4meF9mrbo7a)etbnhceceorirms5CIe,Ias1(tbh5R.e6e1r0g5ien4Dne4et)ad;otehfhiMFsreadniccei 15b6e0cguiPnltoisrvutaugtgiaournecasineneBr1a5z(61il50to3DFb0rai–pec1lnco6com0h0far)cotoimnJuterrNatondeuwNciWec1soo5trC6lad1tthCoeodmraplle, tMioonscoofwSt. ApPrhbiilelEi2gpl3inIE,Is1soc5cfoo6Srn3pisaatlirnuMctaYioyeana3nro0dsf,’S1W5wa6er3dbeNenotrbwdeeigceinSnes1Dv5(eAet6onnr3omt1ifcP5aClu7erh0bksu)l,irdccaehtfiioonfnitEiovnefgTslhataentd3e9mdoecnMttraFinyrJee2on7hc,nh1CP5ar6ol4vteiDnset(abant.ht15roe0ff9o)rmer
Basil’s occupy 1563 Mreinp1gu5lC6sh3peJiosinPrhaJaunatbpfiepFlrniaomocanpxaleealetynigs’osaeanckneoedfyaEwTnohgrelkiBsohofohPkirsootfoterMsiaatnarntytrsJseuttnleeem2ste2an,bt1lFi5so6hr4etdFCrianernFoOcllchointroeidboaef rFl1e5Am,ni1ds5hr6ea4ansDaVteoea(mstbha.isl1itu5s14)
15T6r2anOstytolvmaannias

DCehcaermlesbeIbXre(6c1o,5m155o0e6f–s07F1k4r5ia)n6eng0vceeFnotuunalduautnniiodfinecsraOtlaiodidna foNoforJ(bt1ahu5pen3aa4ng–a82) Ls1ui5vb6os1neiCaqnouleOlanrptdspeoearfroaLtfniitvdioonnia mMarMaksassrasWctchaarrer1ts,aoo1tff5VFR6ars2ee(stlnoiygc1hio5n98) c. 156P2eEFtpelldaerimenBrtirss(echTu.hag1ree5t2liTs5trthoi–uef6mD9)pehath

192

1565–67 1568–69

Although Breugel’s Massacre of the Innocents has a Biblical subject, in reality A priest blesses two soldiers in the Northern Rising of 1569, the last sustained
it is a commentary on Spanish brutality during the Dutch Revolt. attempt by Catholics in England to protest against the Reformation.

IN ESTABLISHING HIS OWN BRAND (see 1532) was to link them with IVAN THE TERRIBLE IN 1568, OMURA SUMIDATA , a constitutional arrangement,
of divinely sanctioned Orthodox the Philippines and the Spice (1530–84) Japanese daimyo who in 1563 had anxious it should not be to their
absolutism, Ivan IV (see panel, Islands on the western extremity converted to Christianity, gave disadvantage. For the Poles, the
right) never had to contend with of the Pacific, which, in 1564, Though capable of bouts of permission for Portuguese clinching factor was the transfer
the substantial vested interests— Spain determined to colonize. remorse—as when, in 1581, traders and missionaries to to them of immense territories,
mercantile, aristocratic, or A westward route across the he killed his eldest son and establish a port at a fishing village among them the Ukraine.
clerical—that frustrated his Pacific had been pioneered in heir by staving in his head at the southern tip of Japan—
counterparts in Western Europe. 1527, but no return route was with a staff—Ivan IV applied a Nagasaki. Until the suppression The Northern Rising of
His principal opponents were the known. Between June and ruthless brutality to his rule. of Christianity in Japan in 1614, November 1569 was the most
Cossacks—free-ranging October 1565, Spanish navigator Hence Ivan “the Terrible”. Nagasaki, a Jesuit colony, was not serious threat to Elizabeth I’s
frontiersmen—and the boyars, the Andrés de Urdaneta made the One key consequence was only almost entirely Catholic—or pragmatic Protestantism. Led by
that vast numbers fled “kirishitan”—it was Portugal’s the Catholic earls of Westmorland
Spanish settlement critical breakthrough, Russia during his reign from most important trading center in and Northumberland, it swept
St. Augustine in Florida, founded by sailing far to the north to 1547 to 1584, depopulating East Asia. across northern England before
Spain in August 1565, is the oldest find favorable winds in the country to the point being savagely repressed.
continuously inhabited European the longest nonstop that serfdom (bonded The most urgent task facing
settlement in North America. voyage yet made— peasantry) was the only Akbar in his consolidation of In 1569, the Flemish cartographer
11,600 miles (18,700km). means of retaining an Mughal power in India (see Gerardus Mercator (1512–94)
hereditary nobility. The Cossacks It completed a vital trade agricultural workforce. 1555–56) was the defeat of the devised a world map that for the
were co-opted as allies by the network. Hindu Rajputs of the northwest. first time showed the true compass
obvious strategy of bribing them, its right to govern itself even while This was a decade-long campaign, bearing of every landmass. The
while, from 1565, the boyars were In much the same way acknowledging Philip as its which climaxed in 1569 with the Mercator projection remains the
dispossessed, and in most cases that religious conflict and overall ruler. In particular, it saw fall of the fortresses of Mewar most familiar map of the world.
slaughtered. Their former estates power politics in the no reason why it should pay taxes and Ranthambore. Having
became Ivan’s “private domain,” French Wars of Religion to finance the Spanish king’s secured the submission of the Gerardus Mercator
the oprichina—a vast area of produced a savage campaigns elsewhere. While this principal Rajput rulers, Akbar Mercator was an engraver and a
central Russia—parceled out conflict, so the Dutch was a problem that could never be married a series of Hindu mathematician as well as a skilled
among a new nobility, the dvoriane, Revolt—which began in resolved peacefully, even by the princesses (he had 36 wives in cartographer. He devised his world
loyal to the czar. 1566 and lasted until 1648—was standards of the period, the all), tying his defeated enemies to map of 1569 for marine navigation.
the product of a toxic mix of resulting conflict was shockin in him in matrimonial alliances.
The key maritime challenge religious intolerance and a drive its violence (see 1572–73).
confronting Spain after its for political domination. In 1566, In 1659, the failure of Sigismund
conquests in Mexico and Peru Philip II of Spain, Catholic ruler II, last of the Jagiellonian rulers of
of the Netherlands, asserted: the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and
“I do not propose nor desire to be of Poland, to produce an heir led
the ruler of heretics.” Given that to a formal union between the
there was considerable support two states. This new Polish–
for a growing Protestant minority Lithuanian Commonwealth
in the Netherlands, his divine became the largest territorial
obligation to eradicate these state in Europe. The move was
heresies was inescapable. But prompted by Sigismund’s desire
there was a further complication. to ensure that his dynasty’s
The Netherlands, whether territories were preserved, and
Protestant or Catholic, had no the need to protect Lithuania from
desire to submit to Philip’s rule the Ottomans and the Russians.
given that this would mean The nobles of both territories
surrendering its own “liberties”— quarreled over the new

Fecbobrlouengaiirznayst1iwo3ni,th1o5fsP6et5htilSleipmpapeninnJisteuhAsonnne(1dC–4arOeé9cbcr8sout–dos1esb5en6Ur8or)rd1tpa5hin6eoe5rnnteaePr1as5crri6efie5ictguItnrvonaoNnfroetteuwhrteerWoTore,rrRlrduibslseiabegins15T6in5patVLoienirfnetesetottSoifacC(en1hn5are1riss8tit–fsr1to5m94t)hJeuFlryNe2no,cs1htr5sa6ed6earDmeuasth(bo.f1503) 15b6e6giDnust(ctho R16e4v8o)lt 15s6e8itntlCeNhmargeisantstiaaenks1ti5a,s6bJela8ciizaspOehpasdeintadaJlaN,pKoabynuo1etn5soSae6pg8iaamDnpiusethcrihsahl“iSpepai1nB5go6env8tgehpgsCerasoirGennslcess”isptrrúaaulicdcthiounrcbhegoifnts1h5iepn6oJ9RweoAsemukrJibietnuasclr,nryeCeo1anro,ttmdeh1ss5mInR6Po9doaniljUaipwsnuheit–aoLlntihtohfuLaunbialinn
SAt.SuApguaugnsuitssh2t8ien,se1t,a5Fb6ll5oisr1hid5a65 MrweaeOsltsitastteotssrmunscaiMcenegeaseddsitfvtouealrnhlrycaaelnJtiuenanne 1I9V,o1f5S6c6oBtlEiarnnthgdl/oaJfnaJdma(medsc.e.1IsS6oe2fDp5S)teuealmtttahhbneoeofrMEfS6matu,hgpl1eeni5riiOm6efit6c(atebonn.m1t,a4n94) dispa1t5c6h7edSptoanNisehthterorloapnsdR1sFe5rl6ieg7niocShnecW(tooanr1d5o6f8)
1 9 3ca1p5tus6rt8reoCsAnhkR1gibt5ahoa6joprr8l,udoItTnofhdfRiiraedliFgrioennc(htoW115a5d7r6e0S8)MoSleopnmadnaaisnñhaIsndlaaevniNdgsae,tiroSRaroiuÁesNxtilnhvpoaglPvoraearoEgemcnsaifigbincleasrnt 1dth5(e6to9RJeNaf1oon5rrutm6ah9raeytMri1nofeo5nrr7,c0fia)rtsotrt’simperoinjeactwioonrludsmedap

1570–71 1572–73
,,
BEAUTY WILL RESULT
FROM THE FORM AND THE
CORRESPONDENCE OF

,,THE WHOLE…

Andrea Palladio, from Four Books of Architecture, 1570

Andrea Palladio, the most influential In the background of this painting of the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre by

architect of the later Renaissance. the Huguenot François Dubois, Catherine de Medici inspects a pile of corpses.

THE MANILA GALLEON was one of In 1571, the Portuguese 251 Ottoman. The Christian fleet, DESPITE THE SPANISH CONQUEST significant figure in the Revolt,
the most distinctive elements attempted to colonize Angola, commanded by Don Juan of of Inca Peru (see 1532), a remnant agreed to take command of them.
of Spain’s New World trading but the Kimbundu people proved Austria, illegitimate son of Inca state was set up in the Upper Rebellion had turned to open war.
system. From the 1570s, three impossible to subdue, the soil of Charles V, triumphed, largely Amazon in 1539 under a minor
galleons (two after 1593) made the coast was too poor to cultivate, through its artillery. Although the Inca noble, Manco Inca Yupanqui, The massacre of Huguenots
an annual round-trip between and the salt trade could not be Christians failed in the wider goal in a small settlement, Vilcabamba. in Paris on August 24, 1572,
Acapulco in Mexico and Manila in wrested from African control. to retake Cyprus, the threat of From here, he and his descendants St. Bartholomew’s Day, was the
the Philippines. In return for New They did establish trading forts at Ottoman expansion in the western waged an intermittent, generally worst atrocity of the French Wars
World silver, Spain imported silks, Luanda and Benguela in 1575 and Mediterranean was ended. ineffective campaign against the of Religion. It stemmed from an
spices, porcelain, lacquerware, 1587, boosting their slave trade. Spanish. In 1572, Vilcabamba was attempt to resolve the wars by a
and ivory. It is estimated that by Battle of Lepanto overrun and the last Inca leader, marriage. Henry of Navarre, a
1600 the value of a single cargo The Battle of Lepanto, fought An estimated 20,000 Ottomans and Túpac Amaru, was executed. leading Huguenot close to the
of these ships—the largest in the off the coast of western Greece in 7,500 Christians died at the Battle of succession of the French throne,
world—exceeded the entire annual October 1571, was the last major Lepanto. The ramming tactics of the In 1566, a delegation of Dutch was to wed Marguerite of Valois,
revenue of the English crown. engagement between galleys— Ottoman galleys proved ineffective. nobles appeared before Margaret sister of the young French king,
with 208 Christian galleys against of Parma (1522–86), half-sister of Charles IX. This was largely
Philip II and governor-general of brokered by the king’s mother,
the Netherlands, objecting to Catherine de Medici (see panel,
Philip’s drive against heresy in the right) who, as fearful for her son’s
Netherlands. They were referred throne as she was alarmed by
to contemptuously by one of growing Huguenot power, had
Margaret’s counselors as nonetheless persistently sought
“gueux”—“beggars.” The name to bring the warring factions
was enthusiastically taken up by to terms. In this overheated
the protesting Dutch, particularly atmosphere, Catholics and
the Sea Beggars, privateers (or Huguenots descended on Paris
pirates) whose raids on Spanish for the marriage. However, there
shipping from 1568 significantly was a plot to assassinate the
hampered Spain’s military efforts. Huguenot’s dominant figure,
The Sea Beggars depended to a Gaspard de Coligny. Who was
considerable extent on support behind it remains uncertain. In
from England, discreetly doing
what it could to disrupt the 12–15
Spanish. But in the spring of 1572,
Elizabeth I (see 1586–89), anxious MILLION
not to offend Spain too obviously,
closed English harbors to them. 1.5
In response, in a more or less MILLION
desperate gamble, on April 1, 1572
the Sea Beggars seized Brill, 1492 1572
Holland. Within three months they
had taken practically every town Inca population
in Zeeland and Holland, purging The European conquest of the Incas
them of royalists and Catholics. was devastating. Imported European
William of Orange (1533–84), diseases, rather than deliberate
politically and military the most genocide, were the chief culprit.

MaFyleA2mbm0ri,aso1hhd5aec7mran0rtOaortgltareaslip,AuhTusehegniresudassstutrtee8hs,oe1tfTh5theh7ie0firdWrPsFeotrar1ecld5neM7coha0afnnSWFidtliaa.rCsrG, teoeonofrftfmSRrfipaecaalilianinAglimissohhneirspiicmlaveernretaf,rcvohimaesSCohuitnha Fe1b5or7fu1BIateDarnlyeivaa1ent3nhau, rtotisCtelliniO(bcO.tto1ct5booa0mmet0rab)B7nian,ste1tddl5ee7Cfo1ehfarLtiesetdpiaabnnyfltoeet 15f7ou1nPdoerdtuinguAensgeocloalony ApSreoialpi1Bpn,oet1sgh5iget7iaoN2rnesttorheetvhrievlaeSnpdAasnuSigstD.uhBasyat r2Mt4ha,os1lso5am7cr2eew, ’Psaris 15o7v2IenrMdriuuanghGaulFjsaerobafsrtA,iuenLagjaoreuRyool1fec1Hah,due1sgl5luCe7ea3(nttoDhootuJlukicely 6)

take1n5b7y10t5OCr7atyt0dopNimPrnauoggasranmtsusaigskusiie,osJneatpoan 1It5a7ly0oPfuFAbAorluniccrhdaiBrtteieooacontkPuisnarelolfabdyio Maarym1Gy5ilr7ea1dyFCbisrryteaimDroteefsvaMlGneortesIcaot w de1s5ts7reo1cyOtsndreaeabNreolNlbiaourunasa, gIJkaakpoan 157re2sFisintwaainlthcceofaltlolalpSospfeaVnoil1ifcs5aIhn7bc2raaumPleobOrastuLguuseíasLeduaeíspswiJdcruepiltoCtyeeaH1nmma3ba,õyr1el5se7m3, SNspeeatvnheiensrh-lJmacunaoldypnsHtt1uhau5rfgse7tuie3eergEneodticwtMoorofsnBhtioapuutlbooagLnna,eRanloicmdhNietslîmle,es

194

1574–77 1578–79

,, SOVEREIGNTY IS THE ABSOLUTE

,,AND PERPETUAL POWER OF A

COMMONWEALTH… THE HIGHEST
POWER OF COMMAND…

Jean Bodin, French political philosopher, 1576

Hopelessly outnumbered, the Portuguese were in effect exterminated at the
Battle of Alcácer Quibir. Portugal lost not only its king but most of its nobles.

CATHERINE DE MEDICI THE NORTH AFRICAN COAST of the Selimiye Mosque JUST AS PHILIP II’S ATTEMPTS TO stormed the city of Namur; in
(1519–89) western Mediterranean was a key Built by Mimar Sinan for Selim II in REASSERT HIS AUTHORITY over retaliation, Calvinist dissenters
focus of Ottoman–Christian Edirne and completed in 1575, this the heretical Netherlands were established themselves in cities
The Italian-born Catherine rivalry, with Spain, in particular, mosque is the supreme statement derailed by his simultaneous need across the south. In January 1579,
married Henry II of France in seeking to prevent Muslim raids of Ottoman Islamic architecture. to confront the Ottomans in the the Catholic nobility of the south
1533. On his death in 1559, on its shipping. Yet, gradually, the Mediterranean, so the Ottomans’ reaffirmed their loyalty to Philip,
she became monarch in all handful of North African cities in the Portuguese in the 1540s had attempts to confront the heretical forming the Union of Arras. The
but name as France fell into Spanish hands were lost—Algiers been eagerly imitated by the Safavids in Persia were distracted northern provinces formed the
turmoil, with her first two in 1529, Tripoli in 1551, and Bugia Japanese despite being very slow by their conflicts with Spain. The Union of Utrecht. To the miseries
sons, Francis II and Charles in 1555. By 1574, only Tunis to load. Nobunaga’s solution was pause in the conflict after the fall of the Netherlands were added
IX, proving too young and remained. Its final fall in August to have three guns for each man of Tunis in 1574, confirmed by a the horrors of civil war.
inexperienced, and Henry III 1574 to an overwhelming Ottoman firing them, supported by teams peace treaty in 1580, freed both
facing a deteriorating political fleet marked the end of Habsburg of loaders. The result was a near states to pursue their goals Chichak helmet
situation. Her goal to preserve ambitions in North Africa, which continuous fire against which the elsewhere. The benefits for the The Ottoman rawhide
the Valois monarchy was a from now was to remain firmly Takeda clan’s conventional cavalry Ottomans were immediate—a helmet with copper
spectacular failure. within the Ottoman orbit. and infantry were helpless. string of conquests in Georgia gilt was so effective it
and Azerbaijan that, by the fall was widely imitated
any case, the plot failed—Coligny, The Battle of Nagashino, fought Spain’s efforts to suppress the of Tabriz in 1585, saw both in Europe in the
though wounded, survived—but in June 1575 between the forces Dutch Revolt (see 1572–73) incorporated within their empire. 17th century.
the mood in Paris became of Takeda Katsuyori (1546–82) foundered in 1575. Unable to levy
explosive. Catherine may then and an alliance led by the warlord taxes in the Netherlands, Philip II In August 1578, the king of
have persuaded the king that a Oda Nobunaga (see 1560–62), could not pay his troops and they Portugal, Sebastian, was killed at
Huguenot takeover was in the marked a decisive moment in the mutinied, looting and murdering the Battle of Alcácer Quibir in
offing and could be forestalled evolution of warfare in Japan—the indiscriminately. Philip’s authority northern Morocco. The battle had
only by killing all the principal first effective use of firearms. The in the Netherlands disintegrated. two consequences. One was to
Huguenots in the city. Equally, the arquebus muskets introduced by The vacuum was filled by the confirm Ahmad al-Mansur
subsequent bloodletting may have Dutch themselves—Catholics and (1549–1603) as the new sultan of
been spontaneous. At all events, TROOPS (IN THOUSANDS) 50 royalists as well as the rebellious an Ottoman-backed Morocco. The
not only was Coligny murdered, but 6,000 Protestants. Their agreement was other was a succession crisis in
more than 3,000 Huguenots were sealed by the Pacification of Portugal. Sebastian’s heir was
killed. Across France, 20,000 may casualties Ghent, signed in November 1576. his 66-year-old great-uncle,
have died in the following weeks. 40 Henry, a cardinal. He died,
childless, 17 months later.
30 Among the claimants to the
10,000 throne was Philip II (see 1580).

casualties After the Pacification of
20 Ghent (see 1576), Philip II
was forced to agree not just
10 to pull out his troops but to
restore traditional privileges
0 Takeda across the provinces. But
Nobunaga forces on the question of religion,
forces he remained adamant—
Catholicism must be restored
Battle of Nagashino everywhere. The violence flared
Nobunaga’s men outnumbered the again. Philip’s envoy, Don Juan,
Takeda troops by more than 2:1, but
it was Nobunaga’s skillful use of
firearms that won the day for them.

AuMgusuursNobtmom2ba7iutc,snh1ati5ogs7aOh3,odJgoaupnaante JuDneVeaa2atshn7a,dor1fiw,5GIr7tiiao4telrigrain(obp. a1i5n1te1r) 15w7i5NtheSdtprhaaenwrilsathrnodaosgprasetferBotromedtaheconfeArueDgneIuctaaesctlht.i a12on47f8,pT81ait/5ii1na74tn6e91,r05o)(7bv6eorrMrnuunghBaelnsgal FeSbwRreuuWdaseserninyadd1aee5tfn7eB8(aaLttisvtlAoenuBoigaafMunttsoSWltereoa4bocr,af)c1soA5t,li7acreán8sc, eukrlintsQguinoibfdiPreo,artthuJogafapnlru(aobasv.Ssrin1peyc5ar6e5tin,s4l1o)wo5yfai7tNl9htyeCMUttahnoattheirhoPNreconlhhelariieoctnl1ihcfdp5eoAs7IrnIr9lqroauaDfnsedusskt,eocofafspoPtuuartrhimnegranMbeagasintrsicht

1573 Slavery leg1ina5l7rBiez3revaModSzllatiolssvsieninvCeiarpocleaorautcsiasaalhnanetnoddbbilyity S1p5a7n4isJDshuiuenttgoceeha2obf8ofaN,rLna1cedge5ioad7nse5hnBi1na5ot7t, l5JeaCopoSfamenlpimEleritdyioiennMeo,ofAstnqhaueteoN,lioaveSmtopbacenarilsl8hf,ot1rr5otho7pe6swDauittthPcdharcauiwnfioiacPtfaeleGtoaSihfoceenepnottef mBinebFregrrae1nra7cHtec,he1esbn5ieHgr7tynuw7eIgeIdIueaennndots 1 9 51578CRaSeuancfeaaswvAieaizddnecrOpobrtnaotoflivjamiincncat(enotso–vJeap1arnr5nod9uv0ia)nrcyes2d3oe,ff1Ne5ne7sth9iveUePrnrlaaoilontleindassnotacffoenUrtwtmrietDhcrhaCtkJaeulifncoleran1imi7a,sc1oN5ae7sw9t 1fFAo5rlr7baEniA9oncknMigbsoluaangrnhdinavliEtemtsopJheeirssoucriotsurt

1580–81 1582–85

Resistance to Philip II’s claim on the Portuguese crown in 1580 was weak— Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s victory at Shizugatake in May 1583 was typical of his

while an army advanced on Lisbon, the Spanish fleet assaulted it from the sea. ruthless deployment of overwhelming force against his enemies.

THE PUBLICATION IN DRESDEN THE RITUAL SUICIDE OF ODA Songhay Empire SAHARA
of the Book of Concord in 1580 NOBUNAGA (see 1560–62) in 1582 The death of Askia
was a pivotal moment in the brought to power his most able Daud in 1582 Koumbi Saleh Timbuktu Gao
development of Lutheranism (see general, Toyotomi Hideyoshi followed by the
1516–18). While reaffirming the (c. 1536/37–98). Within a decade, Moroccan invasion SONGHAY EMPIRE
supreme importance of the Holy he had succeeded in unifying (see 1591) were Jenne
Scriptures—the Bible—it set out a almost the whole of Japan under key factors in
strict interpretation of them “as his rule. It was a remarkable the Songhay
the unanimous consensus and achievement for one born a Empire’s decline.
exposition of our Christian faith.” peasant. All non-samurai were
It remains the basis of Lutheran disarmed to ensure that KEY AT LOACNETA
beliefs today. commoners could not challenge N IC
his authority, while his Songhay territory
Philip II of Spain’s claim to reorganization of the tax system in 1500
the Portuguese crown after the and redistribution of land
throne became vacant (see guaranteed the revenues needed Songhay territory
1578–79) was made good in to complete his conquests. in 1625
August 1580 by a combination
,,of military force and bribery. Francis, Duke of Anjou On February 24, 1582, Pope Easter was calculated, fell on Sir Francis Drake (1540–96)
Foreign support—English or Gregory XIII (1502–85) decreed a March 11 rather than March 21. became the first English captain
NOTHING French—was essential to defeat the revision to the Julian Calendar, Thus, for doctrinal reasons, the to circumnavigate the globe in
IS SO FIRMLY Spanish, so the Dutch Protestants introduced in 46BCE, which pope’s modest adjustment was 1577–80, renewing English
BELIEVED made the Duke of Anjou their ruler. underestimated the length of made. The change was introduced interest in the New World. Sir
AS THAT every year by 11 minutes. By the in October—Thursday the 4th Humphrey Gilbert had already
WHICH LEAST assertion that a legal king could late 16th century, the Julian date being followed by Friday the15th— voyaged to Newfoundland in
be legally overthrown would was 10 days adrift from the actual but only in Spain, Portugal, Italy, 1578–79. In 1583, he returned,
,,IS KNOWN. have significant consequences. date, meaning that the spring and Poland-Lithuania. The rest of with Elizabeth I’s backing, and
equinox, from which the date of Europe, especially Protestant claimed it for England. In 1584,
Michel de Montaigne, French The impact of the Single Whip Europe, scenting a popish plot, again with royal approval, Sir
Renaissance writer, Essais Book I Reform, or “simple rule,” in 1581 was much slower to follow suit. Walter Raleigh (c. 1552–1618)
in Ming China was immense. The sent an expedition to found the
In July 1581, the northern reform meant that not only would Virginia Colony, named for the
provinces of the Netherlands—the all taxes be based on property— “Virgin Queen.” It was established
United Provinces—declared their itself recorded in a universal the following year at Roanoke
independence by the Act of census—but they would be paid in Island, today in North Carolina,
Abjuration, renouncing their silver. It was introduced to but, by 1590, it had disappeared.
oaths of loyalty to Philip II. With simplify China’s tax system and to
the Spanish king now technically avoid problems of inflation created The surrender of Antwerp on
deposed, a new throne, that of the by a paper currency and debased August 17, 1585, to the Duke of
Netherlands, was created and coinage. It was made possible by Parma was not merely a striking
accepted by the Duke of Anjou the inflow of Spanish and Japanese military triumph for Spain, but it
(1555–84), brother of Henry III silver. The new tax system created also brought the city’s commercial
of France. The south remained even greater demand for bullion, preeminence to an abrupt end.
broadly loyal to Philip, but the Act’s raised the price of silver still
further, and in the long term Siege of Antwerp
contributed to destabilizing the The 13-month siege reduced the
entire Ming economy. city’s population from 100,000 to
40,000, but it returned the southern
Netherlands to Spanish control.

JaonfupHraeornmyrpy3t1Is,os1fu5Pc8ocr0etusDsgJeiauoaLlntnu(hbect.hr21ies55ri,1sa12n)5B8o0oPkuobflCicoantci1oo5nrF8dro0MefnPtohcnuhetbapliihcgainltoeiso(on1p5oh3fe3Er–s9Ms2ai)cisheblyde 15R8e1thfoSpariatnmiadgllilinenlaWCsnhihdlviinetpaarxoersdebres JuHniJedae2Npy1aoo,nbs1hua5inf8stae2egriaTzdoe(eysbao.ptt1hoo5mwo3ef4i rO) idnAauJgeususitt1M51a85tD28tae2dAuoirsDdrRpei(uivarca.ttcel1hiso5ionif4nf9CES–hmo8i2nnp)gaeshrpaoayrrAEkmsskdpiyairnea,sWtAiceuHsgtucuAmlasfriptmich5asr,e1Ny5eG8wi3lfboSeuirrntd(lca.n11d55Y83fuo39nr–BnE8aun31nrg)m5lpca8aren4MotsdeveFicciniihhrncsievsetlame,CdCRhephiurnignoedgasuieecrCeida(1tbh5y4o3lJi–ec1su60it7p1)r5fii8ers5EsttuSinrppoeaPaptrihemnCialeeainpbsnpstueaeinnbttetlliseshmeesnt

1 9 6PhilicSprpoIaPIw1nou5nirns8stFihu0tr(egtaaAosunnpe1cdrs6isie4lD04)r,a1k5e8Jk1nuilEgynh2gted6lide,sph1bo5yps8Ere1ilvsizaAaPStcbeheteeipoltUrihtfpenAIImiItabeatbjdusPerPrsraurkt1olioe5ovvri8ncnb1oocynfeRsPsueosqlsiusieahnn–ctsL(lltyaibotihaemFbsueisaaebnntgrodiueaoaLdnnrisvyi,no1gn5ia82) GOrcetgoobreiarn15CiM,na1Stlare5hoyn8idz1d2uu5acgr8ea3dtaBkae1tt,5lJ8ea3opfUanAnimtesdtePrrdoavmin,ceNsebtheesrielagnAedsssasslioenafaJdOtueirolraynno1ogf0feD1,W5u(1bt8i5cl.58lh1i4aV5Rm3iRre3gov)iao,nnlitaokCeol(oanbAyaunegdAsutonanstbwetldi1esr7bhbp,yye1td1Do55au8S9tk5p0ea)FnoaifsllPhoalferdma intr1o5d8u5ceCdhtoocoEluartoepe

1586–87 1588–89

,, ,,I HAVE THE BODY BUT OF A WEAK AND

FEEBLE WOMAN, BUT I HAVE THE HEART
AND STOMACH OF A KING...

Elizabeth I, Queen of England, addressing the troops at Tilbury, August 19, 1588

After keeping her in custody for 19 years, Elizabeth I finally had Mary, Queen
of Scots tried and executed for treason in February 1587.

ENGLAND’S INTERVENTION IN THE abandon. The highlight was a THE SPANISH ARMADA was Philip ELIZABETH I (1533–1603) of France, and to Philip II in Spain,
DUTCH REVOLT (see 1572–73) was three-day assault on Cadiz in II’s most obvious military the prospect of a Protestant
characterized by the Battle of southern Spain, in which 23 gamble—a massive deployment of Elizabeth faced many king of France was unthinkable.
Zutphen in September 1586—it Spanish ships were sunk Spanish naval might meant first to problems on her accession to Henry IV’s eventual acclamation
was a comprehensive defeat of (according to Spanish sources; overthrow England, then to crush the English throne in 1558— as king came only in 1593, after
the combined Anglo–Dutch forces Drake claimed 33) and four were the Protestant provinces of the religious division, economic a series of debilitating wars,
by the Spanish. Elizabeth I had captured. The raid delayed Philip Netherlands. It failed entirely. hardship, and threats from when he—conveniently—
better luck with her attempts to II’s Armada by over a year. It showed how outright military Scotland, France, and Spain. converted to Catholicism.
destabilize Spain. In a series of success was elusive, and that She overcame them with a
plundering voyages to the Plots and rebellions plagued logistical difficulties confronted combination of guile and
Caribbean, Drake had highlighted Elizabeth’s reign and she had her any long-range military operation. intelligence and presided
how Spain’s lucrative New World Catholic cousin, Mary, Queen of Launched on May 30, 1588, the over a reinvention of England
trade could be disrupted. In April Scots, executed in 1587 as a Armada was the victim of English as a defiantly self-confident
1587, Elizabeth despatched him dangerous claimant to her throne. seamanship, of lengthening lines Protestant nation.
on a mission to Spain with a goal of supply, and of the weather—the
of further raiding and destruction. Christianity in Japan thrived gale-wracked Spanish fleet was The death in 1589 of Henry III of
Characteristically, she almost when first introduced by the forced home in disarray. Spanish France, stabbed by a Dominican
immediately changed her mind, Portuguese in the mid-16th hopes of exterminating Protestant monk, brought Henry of Navarre
but her message recalling Drake century. By about 1580, there heresies were decisively checked. (1533–1610) to the throne and
never reached him. It was a were an estimated 130,000 plunged France into crisis. Henry
spectacular success—Spanish Japanese Christians, most in and Spanish Armada IV’s claims to the crown were
and Portuguese vessels and ports around Nagasaki. For Toyotomi Severe storms and the English fleet clear, yet he was a Protestant.
were attacked with audacious Hideyoshi (see 1582–85) they caused heavy losses to the Armada, To the powerful Catholic League
represented an organized and which numbered around 150 ships
30 armed force around which when it left Lisbon.
4,500 opposition to him could be rallied.
ARMY (IN THOUSANDS) casualties A prime motive for the conversion
of many warlords had been that it
25 would make it easier for them to
obtain gunpowder, since its trade
6,000 was still largely controlled by the
20 casualties Portuguese. At the same time,
Hideyoshi was anxious not to
15 jeopardize the trading links the
Portuguese had established.
10 His response was typically
hardheaded—trade was still to
5 be encouraged but Christianity
would be banned. In July 1587,
0 a Purge Directive Order to the
Jesuits was issued. In addition,
Anglo–Dutch Spanish Nagasaki was brought under his
direct rule. Though the Order
army army was not fully enforced for a
decade or more, Christianity
Battle of Zutphen in Japan would in future be
The Anglo–Dutch forces suffered forced underground.
huge losses in the Battle of Zutphen
in 1586, which resulted in the city
being handed over to the Spanish.

SeApnbtgeylZmoSu–pbtDpaeuhnrtiesc2nhh2,aa1trm5B8ay6tbtleeaotefn 15K8a6sMhmugirhals annex FeEbleirzxuaQeabcu(reubeytt.ehi81onI,5noo14ofr25dfS)8eMc7roastrsy, Jueldyic1t5i8s7suAendtii-nCJharpisatnian ApCrh(i1rli5K4s7it,n7i1ag–5n1o86If8V4D8e)nbmecaormk es MaAyrLm3is0ab,do1an5s8a8ilsSpfraonmish 15p8e8lsetFaaildaneimdnncglinaetweoslwaednseedsepnpoepCsuhslaintiao,n AuAgsIusIIasa(stnbHs2.die1,nsn51au55rtciy18oc)n9oeofsofsNfFioaHrnvaeannorcrfreye

1r5a8id6sSSirpFanraisn1hc5aiC8ssrea6tDitrstSirltbapebEpkmaealenaeiGinsnnrthtesscRToeh(ne1aCB5io4suus1rna–iatn1loc6oef1fO4t)hrgeaz April 2S9irr–aMFidrasaynC1cai,sd1PiD5zo,8rlSSae7ekpsepaeitlneecmStibageiSsrwm1eu8dn,(is1d1h55I6Ik8I6i7nV–ga1,s6a32) Mpauyb1tlih2ce,u1Bp5aar8girs8ariiinDncgasadtiyneHosPef—anrriysJIuIAIlrym–Aaduagudesfte1a5te8d8 bSypaESnneigposplfohitstReehomnbtbieaerltrsDu4ui,td1olr5e8oy8f(EbD.lie1zaa5tb3h2e)t,h I Jano(bfu.Ca1ar5ty1h59e),r,1iwn5ei8fed9eoDfMeHoaeeftdhnFirrcyai nIIce158M9omPobratusag,uEeasestsAafcrkica 197

Dastana forearm guard elbow Metal turban helmet Spiked parrying shield
Date unknown protector Date unknown 18th century
The warriors of early Mughal armies With its five spikes and central plate, this
wore lightweight but effective turban Mughal device served as an elaborate and
helmets with nose and neck guards dangerously impressive weapon, as well
to deflect enemy arrows and blades. as vital protection for its bearer.

Forearm guards (dastanas) were worn

by Mughal warriors to shield limbs

from glancing blows. The hinged plate

also protected the inner arm surface. sliding bar for
nose protection
stylized blade
Battle-ax with battle spikes
17th century
Mughal ideals of beauty extended even to each blade is 7 in
weapons, such as this ornate but formidable (17.7 cm) long
cavalryman’s ax from India’s Deccan region.
elaborate
tip

Iron mace
18th century
Solid weapons, like this mace, could crush
enemy skulls, even through plate armor,
and were used by Mughal foot soldiers.

MUGHAL EMPIRE central
OUT OF A POWER STRUGGLE EMERGED AN ADVANCED, WEALTHY, AND INTEGRATED SOCIETY plate

For over two centuries (1526–1761), Mughal rulers antelope features
dominated most of India. Through military might carved in ivory
and administrative prowess, they integrated Hindus
and Muslims into a rich culture of imperial splendor. Ivory priming powder horn
Date unknown
With their roots in Mongol and Turkish cultures, seven generations of Ivory carving had an ancient history
Mughal kings, beginning with Babur (r. 1526–30), blended Persian and Islamic in India, and it became equally revered
military and artistic influences into India’s indigenous Hindu culture. The in Mughal courts. This powder horn,
result was one of the most impressive medieval empires, which, at its height used on hunts, has an antelope shape.
(1556–1707), commanded vast wealth, assimilated Hindus into its ruling elite,
expanded education, and provided patronage in the arts and literature.

Hunt painting
17th century
Hunting and horsemanship
were favorite pastimes of
Mughal rulers, who created
huge hunting parks. A prince
is seen here on horseback
with a servant and hound.

silk embroidery fleeing
in chain stitches antelope

deer being servant
hunted with hound

Satin hunting jacket Mughal miniature
Early 17th century Date unknown
The sport of kings required Arts and architecture flourished under the
beautifully adorned clothing— patronage of Mughal kings such as Akbar
this coat is lavishly (r. 1542–1605). Miniature painting, introduced
embroidered with typically as manuscript illustration, was most prized.
Persian floral patterns.