THE STORY OF ELECTRICITY
inert gas must be a partial vacuum in ,, GENIUS IS ONLY ONE PERCENT
placed in bulb bulb means filament INSPIRATION, AND NINETY-NINE
can reach high
temperatures ,,PERCENT PERSPIRATION.
without catching fire
Thomas Edison, US inventor, c. 1903
wires carry metal end
electricity to screws into
and from lamp
filament
contact
transmits
electricity
carbonized bamboo MICHAEL FARADAY (1791–1867)
filament moves
electrons This English inventor played an important role in
furthering knowledge about the relationship between
filament becomes magnets and electricity. His discovery of what he
incandescent called “electromagnetic rotation” was a vital step in
when current the development of what would become the electric
motor. Faraday worked out that the interaction between
passes through it electricity and a magnet would lead to the constant
rotation of current, something he tested using a wire
carrying electricity, a magnet, and a bowl of mercury.
1878–79 1882 Steam turbine 1884 Early 21st century
The electric light bulb Hydroelectric power Sustainable electricity
British inventor Joseph Electricity from steam Growing worries about
Swan creates an Scientists begin
incandescent “electric to realize that the Like liquid water, steam is also pollution caused
lamp.” The idea is force of water can by the older ways
improved by US generate electricity, harnessed for electricity by devices like
scientist Thomas Edison, and build dams and of generating
and the light bulb Hoover Dam hydroelectric power the turbine, created by Charles Patton. energy lead to the Wind turbines
is born. plants to harness
development of
1825 this energy. “green” technology,
The electromagnet such as wind turbines.
This device, built by
Joseph Henry, uses two 1881 Tesla coil 1883–84 1950s
metal plates, which are The world’s first public The Tesla coil Nuclear power
put in acid in order to electric lighting Serbian-American Scientists discover that atoms
form a voltaic cell. The English town of inventor Nikola Tesla can be used—in controlled nuclear
Godalming, Surrey, develops a coil that can reactions—as a source of energy
Henry’s electromagnet brings to a close the era transmit electricity over to heat water, which then generates
of the gas lamp when it long distances—it is a electricity. By 1951, the first
wires its streets with crucial discovery that aids nuclear power plant is built
electric lighting. the spread of electricity. in Arco, Idaho, in the US.
299
1840 1841 1842
Horse and coach at a London station leaving to deliver mail. The development The port of Hong Kong was key to An illustration depicting a caravan of African slaves. The slave trade remained
prevalent in many parts of the world despite a growing effort to eradicate it.
of stagecoaches meant post could be delivered all over Britain. Britain’s trade in the East.
EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT OF New Tamati Waka Nene AS CHINESE AND BRITISH TROOPS THE OPIUM WAR between Britain driving force for the Mines Act of
Zealand had gradually increased Nene was a warrior and chieftain of continued to fight in the Opium and China finally came to an end 1842, prohibiting children under
over the previous decade, and the Maori Ngatihoa tribe in the early War, Britain’s ships sailed up after British troops took further ten and women from working in
included the introduction of many 19th century. He spoke out in favor the Pearl River, capturing forts territory, reaching Nanking in mines. In the US, the state of
missions. Settlers traded with the of the Treaty of Waitangi. around Canton, followed by the August. Chinese officials sued for Massachusetts passed legislation
Maori, who were already living on ports of Amoy and Ningpo. The peace, resulting in the Treaty of to limit a child’s work day to ten
the island—exchanging European The Maori would keep their land British also occupied the key port Nanking on August 29. China was hours. Belgium’s King Leopold I
muskets for Maori crops and on the basis that if they sold it only of Hong Kong. A preliminary forced to pay an indemnity of $20 also tried to regulate child and
livestock. This had led to an arms the British Crown could buy it. agreement to end the war, drafted million to the British and officially female labor conditions, but his
race between rival tribes in the There was much opposition to in January and known as the cede Hong Kong. It was also made plans were rejected.
Maori Musket Wars (1820–35). the treaty but some Maori chiefs Convention of Chuenpee, ceded to open the ports of Canton, Amoy,
believed that the British presence Hong Kong to the British, but the Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai The slave trade and the practice
The British wanted to establish a would bring stability to the document was written amid to British trade. These cities of slavery still persisted in many
colony and the New Zealand country. On May 21 sovereignty continued hostilities and was became known as “treaty ports.” countries. France had brought
Company was set up, selling land was proclaimed over the territory. never ratified. slavery back to its colonies (see
for settlement (see 1835). A ship Industrialization and the mining 1803), and while Spain had signed
of settlers left for New Zealand in In Britain, the postal system Egypt and the Turks, meanwhile, industry resulted in many children a treaty over abolition in 1817 with
1839. All involved were aware of was reformed. Improved ended their second war over being forced to work under dirty the British, who had abolished the
potential hostility from the Maori. transportation made it possible to Syria (see 1839), with Egyptian and dangerous conditions. In slave trade in 1807, it was not
In 1840, William Hobson (1792– deliver mail all over the country, troops withdrawing from Syria. Britain, social reformer Anthony enforced for decades. Likewise,
1842), lieutenant-governor of New but costs rose as postage was Ashley Cooper, seventh earl of Portugal’s 1818 treaty with Britain
Zealand, approached Maori chiefs paid for on receipt, based on Shaftesbury (1801–85), became a and subsequent treaties were
with the Treaty of Waitangi. This distance traveled. A “penny post”
offered protection by the British in system was proposed, whereby not honored, nor was
exchange for ceding sovereignty. any letter could be sent anywhere slavery abolished in its
in the country for a penny, and colonies. However, in
2,050 postage would be prepaid using 1842, a further treaty
non-Maori stamps. These measures came allowed British ships to
population into force in 1840 and was the first attack Portuguese slave
system of its kind in the world. ships off East Africa.
80,000 The Portuguese colony
of Mozambique was a
MAORI huge slave port, with
POPULATION 15,000 slaves a year
taken from 1820 to 1830.
New Zealand’s population in 1840
The European population was still Treaty of Nanking
very small at the end of 1840, though This treaty ended the
the Treaty of Waitangi opened the three-year Opium War,
way for further settlement. gave Britain control of
Hong Kong, and opened
up five “treaty ports” to
traders.
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300
1843 1844 1845
,, ,,WHAT
HATH GOD
WROUGHT?
Samuel Morse, American
artist and inventor, in his
telegraph message
A portrait of Abdul Rahman. His With the backing of the US Congress, Samuel Morse managed to have A painting depicts sufferers of the Irish famine. One million died when the potato
crop failed over successive years, while millions more left the island forever.
father, Faisal, revived Saudi fortunes. wires built that could transmit messages.
THE OTTOMAN DESTRUCTION OF described working-class life. POPULATION IN MILLIONS 10 between the Irish people and the
the first Saudi state (see 1818), Around this time he also began British government. Many Irish
established by the Wahhabi a lifelong friendship with fellow 8 decided to emigrate and more
movement and Saud family, did writer and philosopher, Karl than two million people left for
not prevent the founding of a Marx (1818–83), and the two went 6 Britain, Canada, and the US,
second Saudi state in 1824. After on to publish hugely influential 4 contributing to the decline in
initial upheavals, Faisal al-Saud, works about capitalism and population from 8 million to 6.5
second leader of the second state, communism. 2 million between 1841 to 1851.
resumed his rule in 1843, and led
the state successfully until 1865. In the Caribbean, a group of 0 1851 1901 On the other side of the Atlantic,
conspirators known as La 1841 the Republic of Texas had been
In South Africa, after a series Trinitaria, led by Juan Pablo trying unsuccessfully to join the
of victories against the Zulu Friedrich Engels Duarte (1813–76), launched their Population decline in Ireland US since 1836. When it became
people, Boer settlers (see 1880) The Prussian philosopher wrote fight for the independence of the Partly due to famine deaths, but clear that Britain had a stake in
established the Republic of Natal about the condition of the working Spanish-speaking side of the mostly due to massive emigration keeping Texas independent, to halt
in the southeast of the country. classes in England. His work with island of Hispaniola (see 1822). to escape deprivation, Ireland’s US westward expansion, the suit
The territory was annexed by the Karl Marx made him famous. With neighboring Haiti distracted population had halved by the 1900s. was finally approved in December.
by its own civil war, Duarte and his
12,000 FRIEDERICH ENGELS (1820–95) fellow rebels were able to eject SUCCESSIVE FAILURES OF THE POTATO BLIGHT
was the son of a prosperous the Haitians and declared the new potato crop in Ireland triggered a
THE NUMBER businessman who owned textile Dominican Republic independent famine that lasted five years and The blight responsible for the
OF BOERS WHO mills in Prussia and a cotton mill from Haiti on February 27. left more than one million people failure of Ireland’s potato crop
MIGRATED in England. He went to work at the dead. The crop failure, due to late was Phytophthora infestans, a
FROM THE family firm in Manchester in 1841, Meanwhile, Samuel Morse (see blight (see panel, right), was mold that caused rot within
CAPE COLONY but he lived a double life. In his 1837) had managed to get funding particularly devastating because two weeks. Blight spreads
spare time he met workers and from the US government to build for millions of the rural poor, the quickly when humidity stays
British in 1843. Many Boers studied the economic conditions the first telegraph line in the US potato was their staple food. The above 75 percent and
decided to move farther north to of people in England, and the from Baltimore to Washington. British government’s response temperatures above 50˚F
what later became the Transvaal result of his work was a book, The The line was completed in 1844. was limited. Rather than intervene (10˚C) for two full days; both
and the Orange Free State, joining Condition of the Working Class in In his first public demonstration directly, it directed landlords to factors were present during
the emigration of Boers from the England in 1844 , in which Engels of the telegraph that year he sent shoulder the burden. However, as the summer of 1845. By
Cape Colony, in a move known as a message that famously read many small tenant farmers had autumn the crop was lost and
the Great Trek. “What hath God wrought?” no crops to sell, rents went unpaid people abandoned the land.
and landlords ran their tenants off
Despite the treaty between the Glass and iron the land. Landowners soon were
Maori and the British in New The Palm House at unable or unwilling to provide
Zealand (see 1840), the issue the Royal Botanical local poor relief. To compound
of illegal land sales caused Gardens, Kew, UK, matters, many larger farms
increased tensions, culminating in was built in 1844, continued to export grain, meat,
the Wairau Massacre on June 17, constructed with and other foods to Britain as there
in which a chief’s wife and 22 plate glass and iron. was no market for them in Ireland,
Europeans were killed. It was the first given that there was little extra
large-scale structure money available for the purchase
to be made using of such goods. The fact that these
wrought iron. foods were not given to the
millions who were starving in
Ireland, further strained relations
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301
1846 1847 1848
The Battle of Palo Alto, the first battle of the Mexican War, fought near A poster from 1848, showing the Parisian public facing the municipal guards
Brownsville, Texas. The war was triggered by a boundary dispute. during the February revolution against the government.
DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS BETWEEN for decades. Poor harvests, FRIEDRICH ENGELS AND KARL In February, only a couple of
MARX (see 1844) joined a weeks after the manifesto’s
MEXICO AND THE US became blockades, and disruption to revolutionary group of Germans publication, the streets of Paris
known as the League of the Just erupted into revolution. Although
strained after Texas became supplies during wartime had who soon changed their name to it was dramatic and violent, it was
the Communist League. Engels not a socialist insurrection.
the 28th state (see 1845). The led to fluctuating wheat prices. 100,000 and Marx were charged with France had been suffering an
developing a program of action economic depression and a
Mexican government did not want Legislation to protect domestic FRENCH TROOPS for the group, and the result was minister named François Guizot
a pamphlet that became known had come to symbolize the
to accept this annexation and agriculture by limiting the import 10,000 as the Communist Manifesto. government’s inability to alleviate
This called for the overthrow of the situation. The monarchy fared
refuted the US claim that the new of cheap grain and fix prices had Algerian troops the bourgeoisie, with the cry of little better as the king, Louis-
“working men of all countries, Philippe (see 1830), was also very
state’s southern border was at the proved unpopular and led to the Rebellion of Abd al-Qadir unite.” Marx believed the gulf unpopular with the public. Fighting
Although the Algerian troops were between rich and poor in Europe broke out on February 22 and
Rio Grande, stating it lay farther establishment of the Anti-Corn hugely outnumbered by the French, meant conditions were ripe for a quickly became violent, with
Abd al-Qadir made effective use of socialist revolution. soldiers opening fire on the
north, at the Nueces River. A Law League in 1839. The League guerilla tactics.
diplomatic mission was sent to argued that the laws impeded IN THE YEARS FOLLOWING
FRANCE’S ATTACK and
Mexico City in 1845 to settle the prosperity as restrictions on grain colonization of Algiers (see 1830),
the French faced much resistance
matter, as well as to attempt the imports caused a price increase from Algerians, including emir
Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza’iri (1807–
purchase of the New Mexico and and a consequent rise in the cost 1883). He gained the support of
Algerian tribes who aided him
California territories, but these of wages. The control of exports in his fight against the French.
After a series of defeats, he was
efforts were met with a snub. also limited the external market forced to surrender in 1847.
He was taken prisoner, but
The following year, on April 25, for British goods. A combination was later freed.
Mexican troops crossed the Rio of pressure from the League and In Germany, a telegraph line
connecting Frankfurt to Berlin
Grande and attacked soldiers the failure of the potato crop in was installed by a firm owned Europe in revolt
by Werner Siemens (1816–92), Republican uprisings in 1848 saw
stationed there. The US President, Ireland (see 1845) led to the who had developed a technique SWEDEN
for seamless insulation of
James K. Polk (1795–1849) repeal of the laws. copper wire. an end to the monarchy in France, NEUTNHITEERLDANDS
althougBhRreI vToAluI tNionaries in tic Sea
declared war, and fighting lasted In Japan, there was Meanwhile, English author DENMARK Bal
Emily Brontë (1818–48) published
until Mexico surrendered in 1847. international pressure for the Wuthering Heights. Although not other countries were less
met with much critical acclaim,
The US also faced boundary isolationist nation to open up its it later became one of the most successful in their aims. EAST
influential literary examples of the PRUSSIA
disputes with the British, over ports to foreign trade. The Dutch, Romanticism movement. HANOVER
the Oregon Territory, which lay who were the only Europeans Hanover RUSSIAN
EMPIRE
between 42º N and 54º40’ N. The allowed limited access to trade PRUSSIA Berlin PRUSSIA
Cologne
US claim for land as far north in Japan, sent a mission in 1844 Paris POLAND
Cracow
as 54º40’ N gave rise to Polk’s urging the country’s rulers to WÜRTTEMBERG Prague
Stuttgart
campaign slogan of “Fifty-four open up trade. This was followed
Bay of Munich AUSTRIAN
Forty or Fight!” However, under by the French and British Biscay FRANCE BAVARIA Vienna EMPIRE
the 1846 Treaty of Oregon the requesting trading rights. In 1846, SWITZERLAND Buda Pest
boundary was set at 49ºN. a US delegation arrived and was SARDINIA HUNGARY
In Britain, the control of the also sent away empty-handed, but LOMBARDY-VENETIA Venice
import and export of grains— the US would soon try again in its MASSA AND CARRARA
known as the Corn Laws—had quest for access to Japanese SPAIN LUCCA MODENA
been the source of controversy ports (see 1853). TUSCANY PAPAL
FIFTY-FOUR STATES OTTOMAN
,, EMPIRE
,,FORTY OR FIGHT! CORSICA
Rome
KEY SARDINIA Naples E
H
T
S
Small German states DS IOCMI LOIFE
Areas in revolt against Palermo KTIWNOG
Louis–Napoleon in 1851
William Allen, Governor of Ohio, during his election campaign
German Confederation
RevoAluFtiRonIiCn 1A848–49
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302
1849
Merchant ships crowd the bay at San Francisco during the gold rush years, when
tens of thousands of fortune-seekers arrived in California.
COMMUNISM WITH THE END OF THE WAR been triggered by the death
BETWEEN THE US AND MEXICO in of their ruler Ranjit Singh
With the publication of the Communist Manifesto Marx and Engels 1847, the US gained—through the (1781–1839). Previously, the
laid the foundation of a political movement that sought to share Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) Company considered Singh’s
the means of production, such as land or factories, equally among —a vast area of land that included force of 100,000 Khalsa
the public. Communists aimed to create a classless and stateless California. The following year, a warriors far too powerful
society, as well as abolish the capitalist trappings of private carpenter named James Wilson to confront. But after his
property and wage labor. Marshall noticed shiny metal death, British troops
nuggets in a river near present- moved in and took areas
crowds.The following day, Guizot success. In some places, day Sacramento, which he soon near the border, seizing the Livingstone’s compass
was forced out of office and Louis- they amounted to large-scale realized were gold. News of this city of Lahore by 1845. A The magnetic compass used by
Philippe abdicated from the throne. protests, such as the Chartists’ discovery spread throughout the treaty between the two forced David Livingstone, who spent much
A provisional government was demonstrations for changes to country—aided by President the Sikhs to give up even more of his time as a missionary exploring
set up and the Second Republic the voting system in Britain, or the James K. Polk’s announcement— territory. A revolt against the Africa’s interior.
established, eventually producing call for institutional reforms in and by 1849 the rush had begun. British in 1848 triggered the
a constitution and extending the Belgium and the Netherlands. That year some 40,000 people Second Sikh War, and by 1849 the the British East India Company
vote. However, internal power arrived in San Francisco by boat Punjab region had been annexed had already taken control of the
struggles led to a workers’ It was in France, the Austrian and another 40,000 by wagon by the British. port of Aden a decade earlier
rebellion in June. By the end of Empire, Germany, and the Italian train from around the US and in order to set up a coaling
the year, another Bonaparte was states where the real agitation other countries. Most of the Yemen, at the foot of the station for British ships en
in power—this time Napoleon’s lay. In the Kingdom of the Two prospectors ended up empty- Arabian Peninsula, was fighting route to India.
nephew, Prince Louis-Napoleon Sicilies (see map, left), the king handed but many stayed in against imperial advances from
Bonaparte (1808–73), who had was forced to grant a constitution. California, making the West the Ottoman Empire, which was
been elected president. Germany saw street fighting in Coast a booming region in the trying to reassert its authority in
Berlin in March, with the king mid-19th century. the Tihama region, on the Red
This unrest was not limited to of Prussia promising to grant Sea. In the south of the country,
France. The rebellions had started Germany a constitution. Austria, In southern Africa, a British
in Sicily in January, and spread too, saw fighting break out in explorer and missionary named PRE-RAPHAELITES
from there. There were a number Vienna, and a new government David Livingstone (1813–73) had
of factors involved: high food was appointed, while many of its finally reached a lake in the Three young artists frustrated
prices, economic depression, territories, such as Hungary, interior that he had heard with the state of British
nationalist movements, desire called for more autonomy. In about—known today as Lake painting at the Royal Academy,
for constitutional reforms, and broad terms, however, the events Ngami. He had been living in where they were students,
frustration with monarchies. The of 1848 ended in failure and South Africa since 1841 and had decided to create a movement
revolutions varied in intensity and further social repression. been traveling extensively in to bring a moral seriousness
the region. In order to find this into art—in contrast to the
,, …DISGRACED BY THE body of water, Livingstone had to pomposity and frivolity they
STINK OF REVOLUTION, cross the Kalahari Desert, where perceived in Victorian art.
he also encountered the Botletle Known as the Pre-Raphaelite
,,BAKED OF DIRT AND MUD. River, which he thought could be Brotherhood, Dante Gabriel
“the key to the Interior.” Rossetti, William Holman Hunt,
Frederick William IV of Prussia, on the Crown after the 1848 Revolution and John Everett Millais painted
In India, the previous four years religious and romantic subjects
had seen two wars between the with realist clarity, although
British East India Company troops their work was also symbolic.
and the Sikhs in the northwest.
The First Sikh War (1845–46) had
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1850 1851 1852 1853
A depiction of one of the many bloody A hand-colored lithograph shows the Crystal Palace at the Great Exhibition of The Royal Navy played a significant Commodore Matthew Perry brought
battles during the Taiping Rebellion. 1851 in London’s Hyde Park. Some six million people visited it in six months. role in the Anglo–Burmese War. Japan a railroad car as a gift.
IN THE SAME WAY CHINA HAD ,, IT IS A WONDERFUL HOSTILITIES HAD ONCE AGAIN US COMMODORE MATTHEW PERRY
TRIED TO KEEP European ships flared up between British troops (1794–1858) had been charged
from its ports, it had also tried to ,,PLACE—VAST, STRANGE, and the Burmese. After making with opening up trade between
drive out Christian missionaries, extensive territorial gains in the the US and the secluded Japan.
thereby limiting the influence of NEW, AND IMPOSSIBLE last war against Burma (see Japan had been under
Christianity. Despite this, by the TO DESCRIBE. 1823), Britain was eager to control international pressure to open up
mid-19th century some 200,000 more of the area. Wider control its ports to foreign merchants for
Chinese had been converted, and Charlotte Brontë, English novelist, on visiting the Great Exhibition would create an overland coastal years. The Dutch, who were the
thousands more were familiar connection from Calcutta in only Europeans allowed very
with the religion. IN LONDON, THE WORLD WAS ON surged from about one million in Britain’s Indian territory to the limited access to trade in Japan,
DISPLAY. An exhibition had been 1801 to over two million by 1851. British port in Singapore. The East sent a mission in 1844 urging the
In 1850, officials sent troops to organized, billed as the “Great India Company also wanted country’s rulers to allow in more
disband a religious society whose Exhibition of the Works of Industry In Australia, the discovery of access to the teak forests in ships. This was followed by
beliefs were loosely based on of all Nations.” The Great gold in Victoria and New South Burma. In 1852, the British seized French and British requests for
Protestant ideas. This sect was Exhibition, as it became known, Wales the same year prompted a a ship belonging to Burma’s king, trading rights. A delegation from
led by Hong Xiuquan (1814–64) was housed in the Crystal Palace, gold rush that tripled the country’s and this was enough to start the the US was sent away empty-
who, believing himself to be the an exhibition hall made of glass population over the next ten years. Second Anglo–Burmese War. handed (see 1846). However, the
younger brother of Jesus Christ, and iron built for the occasion. Lasting only a few months, British US government was eager to
launched a revolt that became the Some six million people pored In Siam (Thailand), King Mongkut troops were able to take southern secure trading rights in East Asia
Taiping Rebellion. Drawn by his over the 100,000 exhibitions (1804–68) began his rule. His reign territory, ousting the reigning and so sent Perry to further
call to share property, many between May 1 and October 31. saw increased relations with the king, Pagan Min (1811–80), and negotiate. He arrived on July 8
starving peasants joined the ranks Of the 14,000 participating West. During this period, he installing his brother, Mindon Min and refused to leave until he had
and fighting went on for 14 years, exhibitioners, almost half were employed an English governess, (1814–78), who was willing to delivered his letters. The
claiming millions of lives. from overseas. An enormous Anna Leonowens (1831–1915), accept British control of the Japanese relented after a few
variety of agricultural and whose memoirs inspired the 20th- southern portion of the kingdom. days and took his papers, which
20 manufactured items were century musical The King and I. requested a trade treaty. They
on display, ranging from the In West Africa, in present-day eventually consented to the
MILLION Koh-i-Noor diamond from India 25 Senegal, Muslim Tukulor chief terms, and the Treaty of
to tapestries from Persia, and Umar Tall (1797–1864) capitalized Kanagawa was concluded the
THE NUMBER British engineering equipment. POPULATION (IN MILLIONS) 20 on unrest between the Dinguiraye following year.
OF PEOPLE and Bambara people to wage a
KILLED OVER In the same year as this global 15 jihad (holy war) on part of upper As China was contending with
THE COURSE event, a telegraph cable was laid Senegal, taking control of the the Taiping Rebellion (see 1850),
OF THE across the English Channel, 10 territory. His empire would another uprising broke out in the
TAIPING facilitating rapid international eventually stretch to Timbuktu in central and eastern provinces.
REBELLION communication. 5 present-day Mali. His rule was a The rebels were composed of
time of further entrenchment of many outlaws, as well as
Britain by this point had seen 0 Islam in West Africa. peasants from famine-stricken
a large population boom and areas. With the government
become more urbanized as 1801 1851 In South Africa, the British otherwise engaged, the rebels
agricultural workers moved to acknowledged the independence were able to form armies and
the cities to work in the growing Rise in Britain’s population of the Transvaal after refusing to begin the Nien Rebellion. Over
number of factories (see 1771). The population of England, Scotland, accept the previous Boer Republic the course of the next 15 years
Detailed censuses showed that and Wales nearly doubled in fifty of Natal (see 1843). This was they gained control of much of
the population of London had years, from 10.6 million in 1801 to followed two years later with a northern China, although they
almost 21 million by 1851. similar acceptance of the settlers’ were eventually defeated.
new Orange Free State.
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304
1854 1855 1856
,,
MEN, REMEMBER THERE IS NO
RETREAT FROM HERE. YOU MUST
,,DIE WHERE YOU STAND.
Colin Campbell, Commander of the Highland Brigade, at the Battle of Balaclava, October 25, 1854
A painting of King Mongkut of Siam, US filibusterer William Walker
who was also known as Rama IV. surrenders to Costa Rican troops.
THE TENSIONS THAT HAD BEEN Wallachia, and the Ottoman Austria threatened to enter the MISSIONARY DAVID LIVINGSTONE IN NICARAGUA, US-BORN WILLIAM
mounting between Russia and Empire declared war. By March war against Russia in 1856 and a was exploring the interior of WALKER (1824–60), who had
the Ottoman Empire in the 1854, Britain and France had also preliminary peace was arranged Africa (see 1849) on his second arrived in the country in 1855
previous year spilled over into a declared war on Russia, and in on February 1, followed by the expedition. He was convinced a with 58 men, declared himself
war. Britain and France joined the September they landed troops in March 30 Treaty of Paris. trade route to the sea existed, and president. He was initially invited
fight from October. The conflict Russia’s Crimea territory and sailed up the Zambezi River in by Francisco Castellón (1815–55),
was fueled by the decision of Czar began a siege of Sevastopol. In The Crimean War was the November 1853 to find it. Two who had been trying to organize a
Nicholas I (1796–1855) to declare October, a brigade of British first conflict to be covered by years later, he and his party came liberal revolt. This was a period
the right to protect Orthodox troops at the Battle of Balaclava newspapers, which were taking across a gigantic waterfall, known of filibustering: attempts by
Christians living under Ottoman misinterpreted orders, charging advantage of the new telegraphic as Mosi-oa-Tunya, “the Smoke privately funded mercenaries to
rule. When this claim was rejected down a valley instead of up it, and photographic technology. The that Thunders.” He was the first take over small countries and
by the Ottomans, Nicholas sent allowing Russians to bombard the war also established the European to see the falls and annex them to the US. Walker
troops into Moldavia and 673 soldiers on all sides. Had it reputation of the “Lady with the renamed them Victoria Falls. intended to establish Nicaragua
not been for French intervention, Lamp,” British nurse Florence as a slave state; southern US
The Crimean War the casualty rate would have Nightingale (1820–1910), whose To the East, in Siam (Thailand), states wanted to enlarge slave-
Brigadier Scarlett leads the British been higher than 40 percent. This reforms to field hospitals caused King Mongkut (see 1851), known holding territory as abolitionism
Heavy Brigade uphill at Balaclava, incident was memorialized in the a dramatic reduction in deaths for his interest in the West, signed grew. Walker was eventually
on October 25, 1854 against the poem by Lord Alfred Tennyson, from disease during wartime. She commercial agreements with captured by invading Costa
Russians during the Crimean War. The Charge of the Light Brigade. helped promote nursing as a Britain and the US in an effort Rican forces and later shot.
respectable career for women. to open up Siamese trade.
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305
1857
English painter Thomas Jones Barker’s The Relief of Lucknow completed in 1859, depicts British
forces defending this colonial city after the end of a prolonged siege during the Sepoy Rebellion.
IN 1857, A RUMOR SPREAD growing suspicion that the British ,, A FREE NEGRO OF THE
THROUGH THE INDIAN TROOPS— were also trying to undermine AFRICAN RACE…IS NOT
known as sepoys—in the Bengal Indian culture and traditions. A ‘CITIZEN’ WITHIN THE
Army stationed at Meerut, The soldiers refused to use the
Northern India. Their new rifle cartridges, and the subsequent ,,MEANING OF THE
cartridges were reputed to be dispute that broke out between
greased with pork and beef fat. Indian troops and British CONSTITUTION OF
The cartridges were for a new commanders sparked the revolt THE UNITED STATES.
type of rifle, the Enfield, and to known as the Sepoy Rebellion
load them the ends of the paper (also known as the Indian Mutiny). Chief Justice Roger Taney in the Dred Scott v. Sandford case, April 1854
cartridges needed to be bitten off.
For Hindu and Muslim soldiers, The unrest lasted for more than Company was stripped of its Anglo–French forces attacked Dred Scott
allowing beef or pork fat in a year, as the mutineers were power to control India. The Canton in 1857. By the following A slave in the US, Dred Scott sued
their mouths went against their joined by peasants angry at their Company by this point was hated year, the Treaties of Tianjin were his owner for his freedom. The case
respective religions beliefs. Added exploitative landlords, as well as throughout India, and the British negotiated between China, went to the US Supreme Court,
to this rumor were various other those who resented the recent government thought it could Britain, and France, as well as where his emancipation was denied.
grievances, together with a British annexation of the north no longer be relied on to keep with Russia and the US. These
Indian region of Oudh. The rebels stability (see panel, 1858). The agreements called for China to territory, later returning to
British Indian managed to capture Delhi and Mutiny had shown the level of open more ports and to legalize Missouri. Scott, with the aid
“restore” an aging Mughal Indian discontent and anger, opium importation. In addition, of abolitionists, filed a lawsuit
45,000 emperor, Bahadur Shah II which would continue to grow foreign diplomats were given claiming the move from slave to
(1775–1862), to power, while under British rule, while at the the right to live in Peking. The free state had broken his chain of
311,000 killing the British in Delhi and same time helping to fuel the Chinese refused to ratify these servitude. The case reached the
the nearby cities of Kanpur and independence movement. agreements until 1860. Supreme Court in 1857, where
British–Indian army in 1857 Lucknow. The retaliation by the the justices voted against freeing
A much larger proportion of Indians British army was similarly brutal, In additon to the conflict in India, In the US, the abolitionist cause Scott on the grounds that he was
than British served in the army, and they recaptured Delhi in British troops had returned to suffered a serious setback when a not entitled to rights as a US
making an uprising involving the September and Lucknow the battle in China. Britain demanded Supreme Court ruling in the case citizen, including the right to sue
Indian troops a serious threat. following March. The revolt was greater freedom of trade in China Dred Scott v. John F. A. Sandford in a court of law. The judges also
suppressed by June 1858. in the wake of the Treaty of Nanjing declared slavery to be legal in declared the Missouri Compromise
(see 1842), but the Chinese all US territories. The case was (see 1820) unconstitutional
This conflict was the culmination resisted. In 1856, the British sent brought by Dred Scott. He was because Congress could not
of frustration with the East an expedition with the French to taken by his owner, John Emerson, deprive citizens of their property.
India Company’s rule as well attack China’s ports, culminating from the slave state of Missouri It was up to the states to decide
as creeping westernization as in the Second Opium War. (see 1820) to the “free” Wisconsin to ban slavery, and there was
Britain annexed more territories nothing to stop new territories
and sent out more officials. The becoming slave states.
uprising provoked deep concern
in Britain, and the East India
Enfield rifle and cartridges paper cartridges muzzle-loading
The paper cartridges contained powder and a bullet. After containing barrel
removing the cartridge’s end, the powder was poured out into
the barrel. The cartridge and bullet were then rammed in. powder and bullet
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306
1858 1859–60 ,,
...THE CRIMES
OF THIS GUILTY
,,LAND WILL NEVER
BE PURGED BUT
WITH BLOOD!
John Brown, American abolitionist,
before his execution, December 2, 1859
A contemporary oil painting illustrates the 1860 Battle of Guadalajara US Marines under the command of Colonel Robert E. Lee smash the armory
during the Mexican Reform War between liberals and conservatives. door at Harper’s Ferry, behind which John Brown and his men were besieged.
AFTER MEXICO’S DEFEAT BY THE However, the Catholic Church RUSSIAN EMPIRE Sea of and the rebellion was finally
US (see 1846), many Mexicans and the military refused to accept Okhotsk ended by federal troops, led by
were in favor of reform, including these reforms, and the antagonism Colonel Robert E. Lee. Of the 22
the middle-class liberal Benito turned into the War of the OUTER MONGOLIA Khabarovsk men who participated in the raid,
Juárez (1806–72). Installed in the Reform (1857–60). With the 10 were killed, including Brown’s
government as justice minister, conservatives in charge of the Vladivostok two sons. Brown himself was
Juárez and other liberals, military, the liberals found later hanged.
including president Ignacio themselves pushed out of Mexico Tashkent Port Arthur JAPANESE
Comonfort (1812–63), drafted City, and were eventually forced Peking Meanwhile, in England,
a new constitution curbing to make a new capital at the port EMPIRE naturalist Charles Darwin
military and ecclesiastical of Veracruz in 1858. The US Merv CHINA Tientsin Tokyo (see 1835, 1839) cemented his
privileges, such as the allocation decided to intervene in the BALUCHISTAN Kiaochow reputation with the publication
of special courts for civil trials, conflict, recognizing the liberal of On the Origin of Species by
and some landholding rights. The government at Veracruz in 1859 AFGHANISTAN TIBET Weihaiwei Means of Natural Selection. The
constitution, which also prohibited and sending it much-needed work explained the process of
slavery and called for a democracy arms. This aided the rebels PERSIA Nanking Shanghai PACIFIC evolution and he set out his ideas
in Mexico, went into effect in 1857. in their retaliation, and they OCEAN about species adaptation and the
managed to defeat conservative Delhi NEPAL Lhasa survival of the fittest.
RISE OF THE RAJ forces. Juárez returned to Mexico
City on January 1, 1861 as BRITISH BURMA Amoy In the US, Abraham Lincoln
With the end of the East India president, taking control of the (1809–65) won the race for
Company’s administration in whole country, and he once again Karachi Calcutta Canton Formosa presidency as the candidate
1857, India was governed put the constitution into effect. Diu for the newly formed Republican
directly from London by the INDIA Hanoi Hong Kong party, which had been established
Viceroy. This was brought France, meanwhile, was Bombay to curtail the power of existing
about on November 1, 1858 embroiled in battles not only in Yanaon Macao FRENCH slave states and stop the creation
by governor-general Charles China, but in other kingdoms in Goa INDOCHINA of new ones. The Democrats had
John Canning (1856–62) who East and Southeast Asia where Rangoon SIAM split and fielded two candidates.
became the first Viceroy of the French sought a foothold in Bangkok Manila
India. The period, known as trade. France was concerned
the Raj, lasted until Indian about the rise of Siamese power, Arabian Saigon South
independence in 1947. as well as the continuing attacks
on French missionaries in Sea Madras China PHILIPPINES
Vietnam. By the end of 1858,
a Franco–Spanish expedition Ceylon MALAY Sea
had seized the city of Da Nang in
Vietnam, starting the Cochinchina STATES SARAWAK
Campaign. In 1859, the coalition
captured the key port of Saigon, Celebes
where a garrison of 1,000 troops
later faced a year-long siege from Singapore Borneo
1860 to 1861. The war finally
ended in a settlement with INDIAN Sumatra New
Vietnam’s king, Tu Duc (1829–83), OCEAN Guinea
in 1863, in which three provinces DUTCH EAST
were ceded to France. KEY INDIES Java Timor
Great Britain France Russia
Netherlands Spain Japan
EUROPE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
Throughout the 19th century European powers vied for control 18% 40%
of the profitable trade routes from China through Southeast Asia. Breckinridge Lincoln
Goods such as spices were imported to Europe from colonies in
Asia, while textiles were exported. The opening of the Suez Canal
in 1869 made trade between Europe and Asia quicker and cheaper.
CONSTRUCTION WORK HAD Canal Company (Compagnie 12%
FINALLY BEGUN ON A CANAL that universelle du canal maritime de Bell
would link the Mediterranean Sea Suez) was set up and given the
and the Red Sea. It would cut right to run the canal for 99 years 30%
voyages between Europe and Asia after its completion. Douglas
by thousands of miles by allowing
ships to avoid sailing around the In the US, abolitionist John A clear majority
Cape of Good Hope. In 1854, Brown (1800–59) attacked a The Democratic candidates, Douglas
French official Ferdinand de federal armory in Harpers Ferry, and Breckinridge, combined had
Lesseps (1805–94) managed Virginia on the night of more of the popular vote, but Lincoln
to obtain permission from the October 16. He also took more won the necessary electoral votes.
khedive (viceroy) of Egypt, Said than 60 slave owners hostage,
Pasha (1822–63), to construct a hoping that the slaves of these
canal at Suez. In 1856, the Suez people would join his cause. They
were attacked by the local militia
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1861
The Confederate battery at Fort Moultrie firing on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor
on April 12, 1861. The attack triggered the Civil War, which devastated the US.
THE SPLIT IN THE US DEMOCRATIC Union cap was being compromised. So, at SOUTHERN CONFEDERACY
PARTY ahead of the 1860 election Forage cap, with regiment badge, 4:30 a.m. on April 12, Brigadier-
precipitated a much larger, more as worn by northern Union soldiers General P. G. T. Beauregard gave The Southern Confederacy
dangerous fracture that came in during the Civil War. Confederate the order to fire on the soldiers equated to a new nation, and
1861—the secession of Southern soldiers wore the color gray. stationed there. These would be as such, needed a flag. The
states to a confederacy. Many the opening shots of the national flag of the Confederacy,
northerners, President Lincoln months, it was followed by American Civil War. known as the “Stars and Bars,”
included, initially thought that Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, closely resembed the northern
slavery might just die out if it were Mississippi, Texas, and Florida. Meanwhile, the second Italian states’ Union flag. To avoid
not allowed in any new territories. These states formed the War of Independence, which confusion on the battlefield,
But a gradual approach was not Confederacy and elected began in 1859 and was part of the a new battle flag (right) was
possible, since abolitionism kept Jefferson Davis (1808–89) as their wider struggle for unification of adopted, first by the Army of
growing, with more of the public president. They were soon joined the Italian states, was coming to Northern Virginia, and later,
supporting it over the 1850s. by Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, a close. France and Piedmont– by all Southern forces.
and North Carolina in the spring, Sardinia had formed an alliance to
The US was economically although the slave-holding states drive out Austrian rule in Italy, Sicilies, seizing Palermo in 1860. In Russia, serfdom was
divided, which intensified the of Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, which they achieved through a With most of the Italian kingdoms abolished in wide-reaching
debate over slavery. The South and Delaware did not secede. series of victories in 1859. But in a degree of upheaval, Victor changes by Russian emperor
was mostly rural, and slave labor One of the underlying causes of during negotiations of the Peace Emmanuel II (1820–78) of Alexander II (1818–81) who, after
was used to grow cotton, tobacco, secession, besides slavery, was of Zurich, Napoleon III of France Piedmont–Sardinia was declared defeat in the Crimean War (see
and rice. The more urban Northern the issue of the states’ rights allowed Austria to retain Venetia “king of Italy.” The struggle was 1854), wanted to reform the
states, in contrast, had a high versus that of federal government. (mostly Venice), causing uproar not yet over, however, as France country, starting with labor. He set
population of immigrant workers. South Carolina and the other among supporters of Italian occupied Rome while Venice was out the Edict of Emancipation in
Confederate states argued that independence. In the south, under Austrian rule. Garibaldi’s 1861, despite opposition from
Lincoln’s presidential victory states held the right to own slaves Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–82), attempt to liberate the Papal landowners. Earlier attempts to
was the last straw for Southern and to leave the Union. an Italian military commander, States (Rome) in 1862 at the abolish serfdom had been made
slave owners, and by December attacked the Kingdom of Two Battle of Aspromonte on around 1818, but with little
1860 South Carolina had seceded The situation grew increasingly August 29 ended in defeat, success. Some 10 million people
from the Union. Over the next few tense. The continued presence of Alexander II leaving the project of unification were freed on February 19 and
Union forces at Fort Sumter, in Alexander was the emperor of still incomplete. were promised their own land.
Confederate the harbor of Charleston, South Russia from 1855–81. He freed the
Carolina, made many people there serfs and reformed the judicial and
2,800,000 Army 650,000 feel that their new sovereignty education systems.
UNION
ARMY
Union US CIVIL ,, IT IS BETTER TO ABOLISH
soldiers WAR SERFDOM FROM ABOVE
killed
,,THAN TO WAIT FOR IT
360,000 Confederate 258,000
soldiers killed TO ABOLISH ITSELF FROM
BELOW.
Costly civil war
The conflict between the North’s Czar Alexander II of Russia
federal government and 11 Southern
states was brutal and bloody with a
high rate of casualties and deaths.
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308
1862 1863 1864
,, POLITICS IS THE ART
,,OF THE POSSIBLE.
Otto von Bismarck in a remark to Meyer von Waldeck, August 11, 1867
Workers hurry to catch their morning train at the Gower Street station Prussia and Denmark went to war
on the Metropolitan (underground) railroad in London. over Schleswig and Holstein.
IN MEXICO, AN EXPEDITION OF early on, but reinforcements 30 THOUSAND IN THE ONGOING AMERICAN CIVIL
British, French, and Spanish eventually reached Mexico City. THE NUMBER OF WAR, President Lincoln made
forces arrived to collect payment Napoleon III saw an opportunity to General Grant commander-in-
on the money they were owed. establish an empire in Mexico. PASSENGERS ON THE chief of the Union forces. A few
After the War of the Reform (see FIRST DAY OF THE months later, Union general
1858) President Benito Juárez had Farther north, in the American METROPOLITAN LINE William T. Sherman (1820–91),
declared in 1861 that he was Civil War, Union troops attempted, THE SITUATION IN MEXICO became the option of abolishing slavery began his “march to the sea.”
placing a moratorium on the but failed, to capture the more complex as conservative gradually, rather than immediately. Sherman pursued a “scorched
payment of interest on foreign Confederate capital, Richmond, by Mexicans, still angry about their Not one state took up his offer, so earth” policy, destroying rail lines
debt for two years. The lending advancing up the peninsula east defeat in the War of the Reform on January 1, he followed through and setting towns on fire from
countries disputed his decision, of Yorktown. This was followed by (see 1858), capitalized on the with his plan and issued the Atlanta to Savannah, Georgia.
and soon resorted to armed the Second Battle of Bull Run fighting between French and Emancipation Proclamation,
conflict. France sent in troops, (August 28–30, see p.310), which Mexican troops (see 1862) and abolishing slavery in the South. Relations between Denmark
saw 70,000 Union troops defeated conspired with Napoleon III to and Prussia, part of the German
which faced a defeat by 55,000 Confederates. A few overthrow the government. As On the battlefields, Union troops Confederation, had soured. A brief
weeks later, on September 17, a result, Austrian archduke were making serious gains in the war was the result of a revolt by
OTTO VON BISMARCK one of the bloodiest battles of the Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph south, as General Grant captured the Germans in the duchies of
(1815–98) war took place at Antietam, in (1832–67) was invited to become the Mississippi port of Vicksburg Schleswig and Holstein, which
Maryland, where Union troops emperor of Mexico. He accepted, in July, giving Union forces control were living under Danish rule.
One of Prussia’s most suffered around 12,000 casualties thinking that he had been voted in over key parts of the Mississippi Prussian troops occupied the
influential leaders, Otto von and the Confederates around by the people, and became River. The Union Navy, meanwhile, territory and by August 1,
Bismarck came into power 11,000. Farther west, Union troops Maximilian I the following year. had captured the port of New Denmark gave up rights to the
as prime minister in 1862 under General Ulysses S. Grant Orleans, and occupation of the duchies, which were to be placed
and he masterminded the (1822–85) won a crucial victory at In the US, Abraham Lincoln tried city followed. Farther north, under joint Austrian and Prussian
unification of Germany (see the Battle of Shiloh, Tennessee. to persuade Confederate states to Confederate defeat at the Battle rule—a situation that would
1871). Bismarck built up the return to the Union by giving them of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, become a future source of conflict
army and also tried to develop In Japan, the Tokugawa regime (see 1866).
a German national identity; had become increasingly Emancipation proclamation from July 1–3, had
he fought against the Catholic suspicious of foreigners (see Abraham Lincoln reads the marked a turning 38,000
Church and tried to stem the 1853), taking measures that Emancipation Proclamation before point in the war. Danish troops
growth of socialism. included the passing of anti- his cabinet members. The decree
foreigner acts and efforts to abolished slavery in the US. In Britain, 61,000
expel people. This precipitated Londoners were German
attacks on ships from the US, thrilled by the Confederation
Britain, France, and the opening of the
Netherlands. In retaliation, in Metropolitan The Prussian–Danish War
1863 the US fired on two Japanese Railway, which ran The war began when Prussian
ships and French warships fired underground, from forces crossed the border into
on—and subsequently burned Farringdon Street Schleswig, and Denmark was forced
down—a small village. The to Paddington. This to relinquish control of the duchy.
following year, France, Britain, the was the first part
Netherlands, and the US sailed of what would eventually become
into the Straits of Shimonosekei the London Underground, also
and destroyed Japanese batteries known as the Tube. Other train
along its coast. They eventually companies soon followed suit.
secured a treaty giving them free
passage and the right to trade.
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1750–1913 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION
ORIGINS OF THE CIVIL WAR MINNESOTA WISCONSIN 1850: A NEW COMPROMISE
As the US expanded, the issue of which states would be allowed to have slaves TERRITORY MICHIGAN Thirty years after the Missouri
became the central political focus between North and South. By 1860, the Compromise, the debate over
18 free states of the North and the 15 slave states were on the brink of war. OREGON slavery intensified as the US
TERRITORY extended farther west. Senator
Henry Clay organized a series
MICHIGAN MAINE 1820: THE MISSOURI UTAH American IOWA of bills that were considered a
TERRITORY VERMONT TERRITORY Indian compromise. California was to
NEW COMPROMISE be admitted as a free state but
PENNSYLVANIA HAMPSHIRE Slavery became a more territory the controversial Fugitive Slave
pressing political issue as Act, which penalized officials
NEW MASSACHUSETTS the US began to settle its NEW MEXICO who did not arrest alleged
YORK RHODE ISLAND western territories. When TERRITORY runaway slaves, was also
the Missouri territory passed, angering abolitionists.
CONNECTICUT petitioned to become a state CALIFORNIA TEXAS FLORIDA
in 1817, its slavery status
ILLINOIS OHIO NEW JERSEY prompted a political crisis.
DELAWARE The outcome was the
INDIANA Missouri Compromise, which
allowed slavery in Missouri
VIRGINIA but not in any new state ARKANSAS
north of 36˚30’ latitude.
MISSOURI KENTUCKY MARYLAND
ARKANSAS TENNESSEE NORTH CAROLINA
TERRITORY SOUTH CAROLINA
KEY
MISSISSIPPI GEORGIA Free states Slave states
LOUISIANA Free territories Territories where slavery legal
unorganized
ALABAMA territory
KEY
Free states Slave states OHIO Antietam Harpers Ferry NEW
Free territories Territories where slavery legal JERSEY
Sep 17, 1862 Sept 12–15, 1862
Washington
Bull Run Gettysburg
Fredericksburg
Jul 21, 1861, Jul 1–3, 1863
Dec 13, 1862
Columbus Chancellorsville Aug 29–30, 1862
Spotsylvania
ILLINOIS Indianapolis Apr 30–May 6, 1863 Court House
Lexington Booneville Saint Louis Cincinnati The Wilderness May 8–12, 1864
Jun 17, 1861 INDIANA Apr 30, 1863 Seven Days Battle
MISSOURI May 5–6, 1864 Jun 25–Jul 1, 1862
Louisville Frankfort IRGI NIA
Richmond
W. V Staunton Richmond
Jun 8–9, 1862
Springfield KENTUCKY Perryville Cold Harbor Norfolk Fort Monroe
Wilson’s Creek Cairo Oct 8, 1862 VIRGINIA Jun 3, 1864 Jun 26–Jul 2, 1862
Aug 10, 1861 Nashville TENNESSEE N. Columbia
Bentonville Dec 15–16, 1864 Fort
Hatteras
Stones River Knoxville CAROLINA
Aug 29, 1862
Memphis Dec 31, 1862– Nov 17–29, 1863:
Jan 2, 1863 City besieged
Jun 5, 1862
ARKANSAS Chattanooga
Shiloh/ Franklin S. CAROLINA Fort Macon
Pittsburg
Nov 30, 1864 Mar 23–Apr 26, 1862
Landing
TEXAS Chickamauga Kennesaw Mt Nov–Dec 1864: Wilmington 1861: CIVIL WAR
Apr 6–7, 1862 Sherman’s troops Charleston The bombardment of Fort
Sep 19–20, 1863 Jun 27, 1864 pillageand burn Sumter in South Carolina
much of Georgia on
‘March to the sea’
MISSISSIPPI Atlanta Fort Sumter triggered a ferocious
conflict that would
Jul 20–Sep 2, 1864 Apr 12–14, 1861
LOUISIANA Vicksburg ALABAMA Fort Pulaski Port Royal consume the whole
country for four brutal,
Port Hudson May 19–Jul 4, 1863: Mobile Apr 12, 1862 Feb 17, 1862 bloody years, until the
City besieged Confederacy had no
May 21–Jul 9, 1863 Apr 12, 1865 GEORGIA Fernandia choice but to surrender.
Fort
Pickens Pensacola Mar 2, 1862 KEY
Baton Rouge May 9–10, 1862 Jacksonville Union States 1861
Confederate states 1861
Aug 5, 1862 Tallahassee Mar 11, 1862
New Orleans Mobile Bay Olustee St Augustine States that voted to join Confederacy
Union front line to December 1861
Apr 18–29, 1862 Aug 5, 1864 Feb 20, 1864 Mar 9, 1862 Union front line to December 1862
Union front line to December 1864
Fort Jackson Fort Ship Island Union movements
St Philip Confederate movements
Sep 17, 1861 Union forts
Tampa
Gulf of Mexico FLORIDA Confederate forts
Union naval blockade
ATLANTIC Union victory
Confederate victory
Inconclusive battle
OCEAN City destroyed by Union forces
310
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
WASHINGTON 1854: THE KANSAS– 1857: THE DRED SCOTT
TERRITORY DECISION
NEBRASKA ACT The growing abolitionist cause
OREGON NEBRASKA One of the compromise acts in received a setback when the
TERRITORY TERRITORY 1850 was to allow the Utah and Supreme Court ruled in the
New Mexico territories to case of Dred Scott v. John F. A.
KANSAS reach a decision on slavery Sandford (see 1857) that slavery
TERRITORY when they became states. The was legal in all the territories.
Kansas–Nebraska Act applied The judges also declared that
American this principle for people in the Missouri Compromise was
Indian those states, allowing them to unconstitutional. They argued
vote on the issue. This act also that it was up to states to
territory controversially repealed the decide to ban slavery, but that
Missouri Compromise, causing territories were not states.
further anger in the North.
Territories opened to slavery
KEY Territories where slavery legal KEY
Free states Territories newly opened to slavery 1854 Free states Area not subject to standard territorial laws
Free territories Area not subject to standard territorial laws Slave states
Slave states
AMERICAN OVER THE COURSE OF THE CIVIL WAR,
THE UNION PROVIDED SOLDIERS WITH
CIVIL WAR
1 BILLION
THE CONFLICT THAT TORE THE UNITED STATES APART ROUNDS OF
AMMUNITION
The shells fired at Fort Sumter, South Carolina, in 1861 not only ripped
the country in two, but also began a deadly conflict that would pit families 100 MILLION
against each other, with brother fighting brother on the battlefield, as the POUNDS
Confederacy of Southern states took up arms in defense of slavery. OF COFFEE
10 MILLION
PAIRS OF
PANTS
1 MILLION
HORSES
AND MULES
The issue was not only ideological, but also a restaurant in Richmond, Virginia, reached 1,100
economic. Southerners felt that their rural, around $5 by 1864. By the time the South
agrarian livelihood was under direct threat from conceded defeat and surrendered in 1865, 1,000
the policies of the federal government. And for the both sides had been heavily battered—but
industrial and urban North and President Abraham the country emerged united. COST IN US DOLLARS (MILLIONS) 900
Lincoln, the question was about more than
freedom for slaves. Without the 15 slave states, The war was also significant because it was 800
what would the future hold for the Union? The war the harbinger of modern warfare. Infrastructure
cost billions and destroyed the Southern economy. developments, such as railroads, and technological 700
The Union navy blockaded ports causing prices in innovations in armaments like breech-loading
the South to skyrocket; the price of a cup coffee in rifles had changed the nature of battle, and led 600
to a much higher number of casualties.
500
400
300
200
Populations $1,200 100
The industrial North
had a much larger THE COST OF A BARREL OF 0 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866
population than the FLOUR IN VIRGINIA BY 1865 1861
mostly agrarian
Southern states. 1:3 Outnumbered YEARS OF CIVIL WAR PERIOD
Despite the South
9 being significantly KEY
outnumbered, the fighting
23 MILLION continued for four years, Union army Union navy
CONFEDERATE leaving some 600,000 dead. expenditure expenditure
MILLION POPULATION
UNION POPULATION Cost of the war
Billions were spent fighting the Civil War,
with the army and navy costing the Union
millions during this period. The estimated
cost to the Confederacy, including the
emancipation of the slaves, was around
$2.1 billion, inflicting serious damage to
the Southern economy.
311
1865 1866 1867
The War of the Triple Alliance devastated Paraguay. This painting by Cándido French painter Edouard Manet’s
López depicts the arrival of the Allied Army at Itapiru, Paraguay. The execution of Maximilian I.
THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR DREW US government under Andrew 50,000 IN 1866, PERU DECLARED WAR ON ,, A SPECTRE
TO A CLOSE. By the spring, Union Johnson (1808–75) objected to SPAIN, JOINED BY CHILE. The IS HAUNTING
troops had captured the French intervention in Mexican PARAGUAY cause of the war dated back to
Confederate capital of Richmond, affairs (see 1863). the Talambo Affair in 1862, when ,,EUROPE; THE
and after several other defeats, Alliance of 26,000 Spanish immigrants were
Confederate general Robert E. Farther south, a war had Argentina, Brazil, attacked by Peruvian workers on SPECTRE OF
Lee (1807–70) saw no other option erupted between Paraguay and the Talambo estate in northern COMMUNISM.
but to surrender on April 9, its neighbors Uruguay, Brazil, and and Uruguay Peru. Spain’s demand for
signaling the end to the bloodiest Argentina. Brazil invaded Uruguay compensation was ignored, so Karl Marx, from the Communist
conflict the US had seen. The war in 1864 to assist in the overthrow Forces in War of Triple Alliance it seized the Chincha Islands off Manifesto, 1848
had left the US intact, but more of the ruling party. In response, Although Paraguay had the far the coast of Peru in 1864. These
than 600,000 men had been killed the president of Paraguay, larger force at first, it was untrained were valuable as a source of FRANCE’S ATTEMPT TO GAIN
and half a million wounded. The Francisco Solano López (1827– and without a chain of command guano, used as fertilizer. Spain CONTROL OF MEXICO (see 1863)
new peace was soon marred: only 70), declared war on Brazil, and López, as leader made all decisions. demanded 3 million pesos in seemed doomed with the arrival
a few days after the Union’s shortly after, on Argentina. exchange for the islands in 1865. of US reinforcements. France
victory, President Lincoln attended Uruguay aligned itself with Brazil courthouse in Morant Bay during abandoned Mexico’s emperor,
Ford’s Theater in Washington, DC. and the War of the Triple a meeting of the parish council, Peru’s General Mariano Ignacio Maximilian I, who had been
There, Confederate John Wilkes Alliance (also Paraguayan War) and 19 white people died in the Prado declared war on Spain installed at their behest as well as
Booth crept into the state box began. López was killed in battle altercation. In retaliation, in January 1866. Chile, fearful of that of Mexican monarchists. He
and shot him. Lincoln died the on March 1, 1870, and a peace governor Edward Eyre led a a renewed Spanish presence in was captured by liberal forces,
following morning on April 15. treaty was negotiated. The war ruthless attack on the black South America, joined Peru. They court-martialed, and executed on
devastated Paraguay, reducing the community, declaring martial law, tried to close their ports, but June 19. Benito Juárez then
The American Civil War was population of 525,000 to 221,000. and killing hundreds of people Spain managed to bombard returned to his post as president.
over, but the situation in Mexico Valparaiso in Chile on March 31
remained complicated. US troops In Jamaica, a group of peasants while imprisoning and Callao in Peru on May 2 Farther north, the size of the US
were deployed there because the who had been denied government hundreds more. before a ceasefire the following received a huge boost with the
land for planting stormed the When news of this week. This was the last attempt purchase of the vast Alaska
reached Britain by Spain to recapture South territory from Russia. For the price
there was a public American territory. of $7.2 million, the US received
outcry and Eyre was 663,268 sq miles (1,717,856sqkm)
recalled to England. Battle of Callao of territory.
A detail of a painting shows Peruvian
Lincoln’s death troops defending the fortified port of In Europe, Karl Marx (see panel,
This painting by Alonzo Callao, Peru, while being bombarded right) had published the first of
Chappel depicts the by the Spanish navy. three volumes in what would
death of Abraham become one of his most influential
Lincoln, 16th President works, Das Kapital. The book,
of the United States. through an examination of the
capitalist system, tried to address
larger economic and historical
questions about the nature of
class and social relations.
In Prussia, tensions with
Austria had led to the Seven
Weeks’ War the previous year.
Under the resulting Treaty of
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312
1868 1869
,,
…REJOICE THAT I HAVE LIVED
TO SEE THIS DAY, WHEN THE
,,COLORED PEOPLE… HAVE
EQUAL PRIVILEGES WITH THE
MOST FAVORED.
Thomas Garrett, American abolitionist, on the
passing of the 15th Amendment
This painting shows battleships in the Ten Years’ War (1868–78), which was
part of the long-running struggle for Cuba’s independence from Spain.
KARL MARX (1818–83) WITH THE FALL IN 1868 OF THE In the same year, there was AS RECONSTRUCTION CONTINUED Grand opening
TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE in Japan also an uprising against Spanish in the war-torn southern US, The opening of the Suez Canal, Port
Karl Marx was a German and the rise of the emperor Meiji rule in Puerto Rico. The Lares Congress enacted an amendment Said, Egypt. The project took a
philosopher, political Tenno (1852–1912), the island uprising, or El Grito de Lares, was to the Constitution—ratified by the decade to complete but its impact on
economist, historian, political reversed its policy of isolationism shortlived and, like the Cuban states in February 1869—that global trade was immediate.
theorist, sociologist, and and began a program of uprising, also ended in failure. extended the right to vote to all
communist revolutionary, Westernization, with the aim of black men, whether they had immigrant laborers. The
whose ideas played a being able to stand up to the In South Africa, British control been enslaved or not. The construction of this line allowed
significant role in the Western powers that were was spreading. Boer settlers had Fifteenth Amendment declared rapid coast-to-coast travel in
development of modern demanding access to Japan (see moved away from the Cape that “the rights of the citizens of the US, further facilitating
communism and socialism— 1853). This period, known as the Colony, taking land from local the United States to vote shall not western settlement.
theories collectively known Meiji Restoration, was a time of tribes, including the neighboring be denied or abridged by the
as Marxism. His critique of long-lasting fundamental social Basutoland. Sotho leader United States or by any State on Another feat of engineering also
capitalism, Das Kapital, reforms, such as the ending of Moshoeshoe I (c. 1786–1870) account of race, color, or previous opened around the same time—
remains influential today. feudalism, formation of a national asked Britain for help against condition of servitude”. the Suez Canal (see 1859). After
army, and implementation of tax further incursions into Sotho a decade of construction, this
Prague, Prussia received systems, with a constitutional territory, and the result was that Meanwhile, westward expansion canal linked the Mediterranean
Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, government being convened the kingdom was annexed to the in the US continued to grow, aided and Red seas, and provided a
Hesse-Kassel, Nassau, and by 1890. There was a boom in British Crown in 1868, becoming a by the arrival of railroads. By much quicker passage to the
Frankfurt, allowing it to organize infrastructure modernization protectorate. On Moshoeshoe’s 1869, the first transcontinental Indian Ocean.
the North German Confederation. throughout this period, with death in 1870, it was made part of railroad had been completed by
The king of Prussia, William I the arrival of railroads and the Cape Colony region without the Central Pacific Railroad. In South Africa, diamonds had
(1797–1888) was at its helm, the telegraph. consulting the Sotho people. The project was supported by been discovered in the Northern
backed by Prime Minister Otto government bonds. Part of Cape province in 1866, and soon
von Bismarck (see 1862). Austria In Cuba, discontent with the the track was started from a rush was on between the Boers,
also gave up control of the Venetia Spanish regime had been Sacramento, California, heading British, and native people to mine
(Venice), allowing the region to be growing. When Queen Isabella II east and joining with existing lines them. The British swiftly stepped
unified with Italy. (1830–1904) was deposed by a in Promontory, Utah, on May 10, in to annex the territory while
military rebellion in Spain, Cubans 1869. Much of the work on this thousands of prospectors
seeking independence took the stretch of railroad was done by arrived to try their luck.
opportunity to launch a war more than 10,000 Chinese
against the Spanish rulers on
their island. Led by Carlos
Manuel de Céspedes, this
uprising, known as El Grito
de Yara (The Cry of Yara),
resulted in The Ten Years’ War
(1868–78), a campaign of
guerilla warfare that ended in
failure for the Cuban rebels.
Meiji vase
A Japanese Satsuma cabinet vase
from the Meiji period. Art was well
supported by the Japanese
government during this period.
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313
1870 1871
This 19th-century painting depicts Prussian hussars firing up at a French Men at their battery during the war between the Third Republic and the Paris
observation balloon during the Franco–Prussian War in 1870. Commune that erupted at the end of the Franco-Prussian war.
,, THE ARMY minister, however, wished to 40 Copenhagen Baltic
IS THE TRUE provoke France into war. To these 35
NOBILITY ends he published the Ems 30 Sea
OF OUR telegram (as it was later known), 25
editing it to appear as though 20 Königsberg
,,COUNTRY. insults had been exchanged 15
between King Wilhelm I of Prussia 10 TheANHmGEasITgtUeBuHMrerEduRasmLseAlNs DWSCEoSloTgPnHBeAreLHmIAaHemAnPbNuORrVgEMURETCSHKULRSEBINNRRBIGoAUsIBNAAtRoeNDGcrESlkiNnTABTUEPRSOGMPEORSPPAEoRWNNsUIeEASnSSTIAEDAanSzTigPRWURaSrUSsaISAwS I A
Napoleon III, Emperor of the French and the French Ambassador. PERCENTAGE BEL
France declared war on Prussia 5
PRUSSIA’S VICTORY IN THE SEVEN on July 19. Prussia was victorious BADENLuxembourg Leipzig Breslau POLAND
WEEKS’ WAR (see 1867) gave the at the battles of Gravelotte 0 SAXONY SILESIA
impetus to further pursue plans on August 18, and Sedan on 1869 Nuremberg
for German unification, this time September 1, where an ill BOHEMIA
by bringing the southern German Napoleon surrendered to
states into the union. Attempts German forces and was taken 1889 1909 1929 Karlsruhe Prague
had also been made to place prisoner. While Napoleon was
Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern- held captive, a provisional BAVARIA
Sigmaringen (1835–1905) on the government for national defense
Spanish throne, left vacant after was set up in Bordeaux where it Immigration in Argentina Stuttgart
Queen Isabella II’s deposition in was decided to depose him and This graphic shows the steady rise
1868 (see panel, 1872). Intense establish the Third Republic. By in the percentage of Spanish and Strassburg WÜRTTEMBERG
French diplomatic pressure from mid-September, the Prussians Italian immigrants who arrived in
Napoleon III prevented this. Otto had besieged Paris. The city was Argentina between 1869 and 1929. FRANCE Munich Vienna HUNGARY
von Bismarck, the Prussian prime forced to surrender in early 1871
after severe food shortages. By Basle AUSTRIA
March, an armistice had been
SWITZERLAND
agreed and Germany was given German unification KEY Prussian invasion
the regions of Alsace and This map shows the newly of France in
Lorraine. unified German Empire, Prussian gains Franco-Prussian
which was organized after by 1866 War of 1870-71
Meanwhile, a steady stream of Prussia’s victory in the
immigrants escaping poverty and Franco–Prussian War. other states in boundary of
war in Europe flowed to the North German German Empire
Americas. In the US, the Confederation 1867 1871
population hit 40 million and by
the end of the century it would other German
states 1866
nearly double to 76
million. Likewise, in Austro-Hungarian
Argentina the 1870 empire 1867
population of 1.8
million would reach ITALIAN TROOPS HAD ENTERED radical Paris Commune. A council
8 million by 1914, with ROME the previous September of citizens—including republicans,
many immigrants from and in October a plebiscite, or Jacobins, socialists, and
Italy and Spain—both referendum, made Rome the anarchists—governed Paris for
places that had been capital of the united Italy—which over two months. The retaliation
seriously affected by became official by 1871. The of the National Assembly, which
years of warfare. pope, however, was not pleased had relocated to Versailles, was
with his settlement offer and swift. Troops were sent to Paris
Siege of Paris excommunicated Italian king and 20,000 people were killed.
The siege resulted in the Victor Emmanuel II, entrenching
capture of the city by himself in the Vatican while Rome Following victory against France,
Prussian forces, leading developed as the new capital. The Wilhelm I of Prussia declared
to a humiliating French tension between the Vatican and himself Emperor of Germany
the Italian government would not and named Bismarck (see 1862)
defeat in the Franco– be resolved until the 20th century. as Chancellor.
Prussian War.
While France and Prussia In South Africa, a diamond rush
were negotiating the end of the (see 1869) in the Northern Cape
Franco–Prussian war in 1871, was followed by the discovery of
angry Parisians had risen up over gold in the Transvaal region. This
the surrender and established the sparked the arrival of thousands
of prospectors to the region.
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314
1872 1873 1874
,, ,,THE MAIN THING IS TO
MAKE HISTORY, NOT
TO WRITE IT.
Otto von Bismarck, 19th-century German statesman
A portrait of the US women’s suffragist leader Susan B. Anthony, who brought A depiction of Garnet Wolseley’s
her campaign to public attention by illegally voting in 1872. reception among the Asante people.
100 presidential election, marched up Royal Canadian Mounted Police announced in May 1873, although IN MARCH, BRITISH ARMY OFFICER
to the polling station in Rochester, “Mounties,” as they became known, an apprenticeship system was CHARLES GEORGE GORDON
DOLLARS New York and cast her vote in wearing their distinctive uniforms at put in place, extending slave (1833–85) arrived in the province
defiance of the law. She was an annual sports event at Regina, conditions for some until 1876. of Equatoria, in the south of
THE FINE arrested and fined. Although she Saskatchewan, Canada. Egyptian-occupied Sudan. He was
IMPOSED ON refused to pay the fine, the court In Canada, the North West to take control of the territory but
SUSAN B. case did not continue and Anthony EAGER TO PROTECT GERMANY’S Mounted Rifles was formed to under the auspices of the khedive
ANTHONY FOR carried on with her crusade. GROWING POWER, Bismarck enforce the law on a national (viceroy) of Egypt. Gordon was
VOTING proposed the Three Emperors’ and local level. The force was tasked with establishing way
Meanwhile, in New York, Captain League, an alliance between charged with policing the largely stations up the White Nile and to
IN THE AFRICAN KINGDOM OF Benjamin Briggs set out to cross Germany, the Austro-Hungarian rural provinces of the huge attempt to suppress the ongoing
ETHIOPIA, Yohannes IV (1831–89) the Atlantic on the ship Mary Empire, and Russia, with the Canadian territory. The initial slave trade. He mapped parts of
was crowned emperor. He was Celeste on November 7. By purposeful exclusion of France. few hundred officers had some the Nile and set up outposts along
considered a strong ruler, staving December 4, the crew of the Dei Formed in 1873, the league 300,000sqmiles (800,000sqkm) the river as far as Uganda. He
off the increasing incursions from Gratia spotted the Mary Celeste lasted for three years, was later under their jurisdiction. But the became governor-general of
Europeans as well as from African drifting around the coast of reestablished in secret in 1881 US was uncomfortable with the Sudan in 1877.
neighbors. By the end of the Portugal completely deserted. and renewed in 1884, and finally idea of armed troops patrolling
following decade, Ethiopia had The life boat was missing and the collapsed in 1887. At issue were the border, so the force’s name Meanwhile, in West Africa,
defeated invasions by Egyptian ship had drifted some 700 miles the continued conflicts of interest was changed to the North West a British expedition led by Sir
forces, as well as Italian forces. (1,100km) from the last point between Austria–Hungary and Mounted Police—though later the Garnet Wolseley (1833–1913)
entered in the log. Its crew was Russia in the Balkan territory. name would be altered again to defeated the Asante Empire
In the US, pressure was growing never seen again, and the the Royal Canadian Mounted (present-day Ghana) and
for women to be given the right to maritime mystery was In the Caribbean, the island of Police, which is still in use, asserted control over the
vote. One of the leading advocates never solved. Puerto Rico finally abolished along with the famous southern part of their territory,
was Susan B. Anthony (1820– slavery. Although the slave trade abbreviation of “Mounties.” known as the Gold Coast.
1906), who, during the 1872 In France, physicist Louis Ducos had been suppressed earlier, the
du Hauron had been working on practice had continued on the Charles George Gordon
creating a color photograph island and in neighboring Cuba. A British general and colonial
using a three-color principle. He Both were still under Spanish administrator, Gordon was invited
patented his process in 1868 and control. The end of slavery was by Egypt’s khedive to govern part
went on to produce some of the of Egypt’s Sudan territory.
earliest color photographs.
CARLIST WARS IN SPAIN
The 19th century in Spain was dominated by the Carlist Wars.
These civil wars began in 1834, triggered by the death of
Ferdinand VII. The conservative Carlists did not want the king’s
daughter, Isabella (1830–1904), to take the throne, but rather
Ferdinand’s brother, Don Carlos (1788–1855). After three wars,
the dispute was resolved in 1876 with the accession of Isabella’s
son Alfonso XII (1857–85) to the throne, who drove some 10,000
Carlists out of Spain.
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sDheipcefomubnedra4baMnadroynCeedleasttseea
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April
3 1 5The
1750–1913 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION
scene of Soapstone Lohan
birds 1600–1799
This statue shows a Lohan, a human
decorative who achieved enlightenment through
panel meditation on the teaching of Buddha.
Buddhism flourished during the
Qing period.
painted Jade brush holder
doors c. 18th century
The detail of this jade brush holder
contains the figure of Taoist philosopher
Lao Tzu. The ancient Taoist practices
were popular in the Ming period but
fell out of favor with Qing rulers.
Elm chair flowers fruit Elm cabinet
c. 1850 c. 1860
This Ming-style elmwood chair The doors of this black lacquered
has a shaped crest rail and curved elm cabinet of rectangular outline
backsplat with openwork cartouches are painted with a colorful decoration
above a beaded apron. that includes birds and flowering trees.
THE QING DYNASTY
OBJECTS FROM THE EMPIRE THAT RULED CHINA FOR MORE THAN TWO CENTURIES
The Qing dynasty was established after the last Ming Flask cinnabar
emperor was overthrown in 1644. Rule was instituted 1736–95 lacquer
by Manchu chieftains, and the Qing period of rule lasted Supported on a spreading
until 1911. It was a time in which China witnessed a circular foot, this flask has
tripling of its population to around 450 million. a short, contracted neck and
right-angle handles. The sides
Although the Manchus were seen as outsiders by the Chinese, they
maintained their rule for so long by continuing to use the existing form have bands of exotic blooms.
of government from the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). This continuity spilled
over into the arts and crafts as well, and much of the work produced in copper-red
the Qing years was heavily influenced by Ming designs, especially porcelain. underglazing
head is made dragon
of chalcedony
Covered box
1736–95
The top of this peach-shaped
covered box (the fruit is a symbol
of long life) shows a chun
(spring) character enclosing,
in the center, Shou Lao, the
god of longevity, with a
dragon on either side.
hook is
carved
from jade
Ax head Belt hook intricate
19th century 19th century carving
Made from chalcedony, this This jade belt hook has a Taoist
translucent green and red ax design, shaped as two dragons
head has a flat, curved cutting and a bat laid on the outside,
edge. Carved in relief is a Taotie a phoenix on one side, and a
mask and sleeping silkworms. silkworm pattern on the reverse.
316
Blue tea set THE QING DYNASTY
1850–99
Part of a set of two, this lacquered
porcelain bowl with lid and wooden case
saucer is decorated with and brass caps
famille rose enamel colors
on a blue background.
interior is
lined with silver
panels depict Portable set of eating
implements
Pewter tea caddy Brass wedding bowl the seasons 1736–95
18th century The contents of this
This tea caddy is constructed traveling set of eating
from pewter. Its simple design implements include two
is embellished with floral and pairs of chopsticks, a
calligraphic engravings. knife, a pair of forks,
and an ivory pick.
18th century
This brass wedding bowl is part of a set Sancai teapot
1662–1772
of two. This one is lined with silver— This teapot is sancai porcelain
and has a rectangular shape,
the other has a gilt silver interior—and with raised panels on each side
illustrating the four seasons.
the base has an engraved design.
large bead called subsidiary
Buddha head separates string of beads
smaller beads
Ivory necklace for civil servant
1900s
These beads are made of painted ceramic
and gold leaf. The larger beads, called
Buddha heads, divide up the smaller beads
into groups of 27. There are also subsidiary
strands of 10 blue beads.
incised
inscription
peaches Golden nail guards Xian seal
symbolize c. 19th century 19th century
longevity These elaborate nail guards have This oval Xian seal has an incised
gold openwork with a “cracked ice” inscription on each of the long
pattern. The device was designed sides. The base reads “Living by
to protect the nail of the little finger. the Golden Tower.”
fine silk Pair of bowed shoes
1800–1900
rounded These bowed shoes with pointed toes
designs and high heels were worn for outdoor
popular in activities by a woman with bound feet.
19th century The sides have an intricate embroidered
decoration of birds and flowers.
Silk robe
c. 19th century
This woman’s black silk robe has a
pattern of flowers woven into the fabric.
The design also includes a springtime
scene involving flowers and butterflies.
317
1875 1876 1877
A painting entitled The Victor by Russian war artist Vasily Vereshchagin (1842–1904) depicts Turks celebrating a victory during the Russo–Turkish War.
Hostilities between Russia and the Ottoman Empire were long-running and the two had gone to battle many times over the previous two centuries.
THE RIFT BETWEEN THE OTTOMAN ,,ANGER AND UNREST HAD BEEN who lived near the border with PORFIRIO DIAZ IN CHINA, FAMINE SPREAD
EMPIRE AND ITS SUBJECTS IN growing among American Indians Mexico. They too were angered by (1830–1915) through the northern provinces.
Bosnia and Herzegovina grew in the US, many of whom had attempts to move them onto a A drought the previous year
wider as Christian inhabitants of been forced off their land. This reservation, and attacked white Mexican general, politician, affecting the Yellow River
the two territories rebelled issue often resulted in armed settlements. This conflict and president, Porfirio Díaz —a vital source of water—was
against Ottoman rule, requesting conflict with US troops. One of the continued for another decade was of mixed European and compounded by a lack of rain in
aid from neighboring Serbia, most infamous confrontations until their leader, Geronimo indigenous descent. From 1877 and the arrival of locusts.
which had a much higher degree was the Battle of Little Bighorn (1829–1909), surrendered in 1886. a humble background, he When the rains returned toward
of autonomy. Buoyed by Russian where, on June 25, Lieutenant made a name for himself the end of the following year,
promises of support and inspired Colonel George A. Custer (1839–76) Elsewhere in the US, a Scottish- in the military. After he was some 9 to 13 million people had
by the nationalism sweeping born inventor named Alexander elected president, he shored died in a region of 108 million.
through the region, Serbia too THE NATION Graham Bell (1847–1922) up his support and created
declared war on the Ottoman THAT SECURES patented his device for a political machine that In South Africa, the discovery of
Empire on June 30, 1876; CONTROL OF “transmitting vocal or other kept him in power and the gold (see 1871) had exacerbated
Montenegro followed suit the THE AIR WILL sounds telegraphically”—the first opposition divided and tensions between the Boer
next day, leading the weakening telephone. This development suppressed, leaving him settlers and the British, who by
empire into another destabilizing ,,ULTIMATELY would change forever the way the to control politics in Mexico this point governed much of the
conflict. Montenegro was initially world communicated. for more than 30 years. country. By 1877 the British
successful, with a victory in CONTROL THE managed to annex the Transvaal.
Herzegovina, but Russian support WORLD. In Mexico, former soldier Porfirio establish which river it joined. However, the Afrikaners rebelled
in Serbia did not materialize and Díaz (see panel, right) tried to Stanley’s African exploits were against this move and regained
the Turks won the battle of Alexander Graham Bell, launch a revolt against president already famous; he had been their independence a few years
Aleksinac on August 9, 1876. This Scottish inventor Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada. His later (see 1881).
forced the Serbs to appeal to attempt in early 1876 failed and previously sent by
other nations for help. and his men were killed by a he fled to the US. He returned in a US newspaper to Famine in China
coalition of Eastern Sioux and November and defeated the find fellow explorer An illustration in a French magazine
In other parts of the Ottoman Northern Cheyenne Indians. government’s troops. In May 1877 David Livingstone (see shows the state of poverty during the
world, Egypt continued to make Around the same time, US forces he was elected president and 1855) and in 1871, on famine years in China, when millions
incursions into Ethiopia, leading were fighting the Apache people, controlled Mexico for decades. the shores of Lake died in the northern region.
its king, Yohannes IV (see 1872), Tanganyika, he had
to declare war on the Egyptians. Explorer Henry Morton Stanley supposedly uttered the
The conflict arose because (1841–1904), meanwhile, was
Ismail Pasha (1830–95), the trying to follow the uncharted celebrated words, “Doctor
khedive (viceroy) of Egypt, wanted Lualaba River in the Congo to Livingstone, I presume?”
to put settlements on strategic
points along the Red Sea Early telephone mouthpiece
coastline in Ethiopian territory This early example of a telephone—known as
(present-day Eritrea). By 1875 a box telephone—had a trumpetlike mouthpiece
Egypt had succeeding in and it transmitted sound through the use of
occupying many coastal towns, an electromagnet.
as well as the inland city of
Harar. The fighting lasted
until 1877, by which time
Ethiopia had managed to
defeat two Egyptian
campaigns.
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1878 1879
Vasily Vereshchagin’s Mass for the Dead (The Defeated) shows the aftermath of This oil painting shows the defense of Rorke’s Drift on January 22, where a
a Russian defeat during the Russo–Turkish War of 1877–78. handful of British soldiers faced an attack by of 4,000 Zulu soldiers.
RUSSIA DECIDED TO ONCE AGAIN IN SOUTH AMERICA, PERU, 139 4,000
DECLARE WAR on the Ottoman BOLIVIA, AND CHILE began a British forces
Empire on April 24, 1877, in an dispute over who had control over ZULU
attempt to aid the Serbians in the Atacama Desert region, FORCES
their fight against the Ottomans running along the Peru–Chile
(see 1875). Russia was aided by border. In the previous decade the BATTLE
Romania (the united Moldavia and valuable mineral sodium nitrate OF RORKE’S
Wallachia). The Russo–Turkish had been discovered there.
War of 1877–78 included a Initially Chilean companies went DRIFT
five-month siege of the Ottoman into the desert to extract the
Bulgarian town of Plevna, which mineral and issues over territorial 32 550
eventually fell to Russian forces. control soon arose. Chile and British
Russia also managed to take Bolivia at first agreed that the casualties Zulu
some key fortresses and a truce 24th parallel was their boundary. casualties
was called. A settlement was But Bolivia, dissatisfied with the
reached on March 3, 1878, known Afghan fighters deal, entered into a secret Battle of Rorke’s Drift
as the Treaty of San Stefano, A photograph of Afghan soldiers agreement with Peru to defend its Although the Zulus had some rifles,
which gave Serbia, Romania, and holding hand-crafted rifles, at interests in the desert. Bolivia these were put to little effective use,
Montenegro their independence, Jalalabad, Afghanistan, during the later seized the property of and superior British firepower won
while Bulgaria was granted second Anglo–Afghan conflict. Chilean companies, prompting out despite overwhelming numbers.
some autonomy and put under Chile’s president to send in
Russian authority.FORCES (IN THOUSANDS) Britain’s desire to curb Russian was ignited when British agents troops. Chile formally declared (1826–84), who organized some
expansion into Bulgaria—which learned of negotiations between war on Bolivia and Peru on 60,000 warriors. The British
However, European powers were at this point reached the Aegean Afghan leader Sher Ali Khan April 5. The war of the Pacific took established a depot at Rorke’s
not satisfied with this settlement Sea—by refusing to let Russia (1825–79) and Russia. This was place on land and sea, and was Drift, which was later attacked
as there were many competing extend naval power in the compounded by Sher Ali’s refusal not resolved until 1883, with Chile by Zulus after their victory in
interests. Prussia backed Great Mediterranean. Austria-Hungary to receive a British delegation. In keeping control of the mineral- Isandlwana. The Zulus were
wanted to continue occupation of November 1878, British forces rich Antofagasta region. successfully repelled after 550
200 Bosnia and Herzegovina to keep invaded the region. Sher Ali warriors were shot by the handful
40,000 its regional influence intact and turned to Russia for support, but In South Africa, British forces of British troops stationed at the
casualties stem growing Slav nationalism. was told to make peace with came up against the Zulu nation depot. After seven months of
Britain. Sher Ali died the next year in the Anglo–Zulu War. The conflict, the British managed
150 Meanwhile, Britain had signed and his son, Mohammad Yaqub British wanted to expand into Zulu a final victory over the Zulus in
the Cyprus Convention with Khan (1849–1923), signed a treaty territory, but this was met with the Battle of Ulundi on July 4,
100 Turkey. This deal would allow ceding the Khyber Pass to the resistance by King Cetshwayo and took control of their territory.
British administration of the British. Soon after, a British envoy
30,000 island while it remained under was murdered and British troops Sunken ship in
casualties Ottoman sovereignty. This allowed returned to take Kabul. Yaqub was War of the Pacific
50 Britain to establish a presence forced to flee. He was succeeded This scene from
and a naval base in the eastern by Abdur Rahman Khan (c. 1844– the Battle of
0 part of the Mediterranean, with the 1901), who ended the conflict and Iquique, during the
Turks Russians aim of blocking further Russian supported British interests. War of the Pacific,
incursions into the region. shows Chilean and
Siege of Plevna Peruvian ships.
Although the Russians eventually Away from the European The dispute also
overcame the Turks, the small diplomatic bargaining table, the included Bolivia.
Turkish force heroically held up the British were once again caught up
Russian advance into Bulgaria. in warfare with Afghans. The
Second Afghan War (to 1880)
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1880 1881
,,
THE DOOR THAT NOBODY
,,ELSE WILL GO IN AT, SEEMS
ALWAYS TO SWING OPEN
WIDELY FOR ME.
Clara Barton, American humanitarian
West Indian laborers cutting a channel during the first—and failed—attempt Clara Barton was the founder of the
to construct a canal in Panama connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. American Red Cross organization.
BUOYED BY THE SUCCESS OF THE THE BOERS “suzerainty” over it. This did little going to instruct the public to take
SUEZ CANAL (see 1869), Ferdinand to rectify the situation, and the their revenge on Jews. The violent
de Lesseps (see 1859) began to The Boers (“farmers” in Dutch) in South Africa were settlers of simmering resentment between attacks caused many Jewish
draw up plans for a waterway Dutch, French Huguenot, and German descent that left the Cape the British and Boers would people to emigrate to Western
connecting the Atlantic and Province in search of autonomy farther north. They spoke erupt again before the end of Europe, the US, and Palestine.
Pacific oceans through the Afrikaans, a language that evolved from Dutch. The earliest the century (see 1899).
isthmus of Panama. However, the settlers arrived in the Cape of Good Hope after the Dutch East In the US, teacher and nurse
project got off to a difficult start India Company established a port in 1652. The Boers had a strong France, meanwhile, was Clara Barton (1821–1912)
the following year in 1881. There ethnic identity and clashed often with the Zulus and the British. attempting to extend its influence organized the American Red
were disagreements over the in North Africa. With Algeria Cross, a part of the growing
canal’s plans, the machinery did under its control, it looked to the International Red Cross relief
not function well in the terrain, neighboring Ottoman territory of organization that had been
and many workers died of disease Tunisia. The past 50 years had founded in 1863.
in the tropical heat. seen Tunisian rulers caught in
between Ottoman demands and Meanwhile, in New Mexico,
Meanwhile, the development of European creditors, especially sheriff Pat Garrett (1850–1908)
commercial refrigeration began after the government went captured one of the United States’
to alter the relationship between bankrupt in 1869, after which a most notorious outlaws, Billy the
consumers and producers. British, French, and Italian Kid (c. 1859–81) on April 30. Born
Cheese and meats could now financial commission was William H. Bonney Jr., Billy the Kid
be exported long distances. On imposed on the territory. France became an infamous gunfighter,
February 2, the first shipment of decided to send in 36,000 troops and was rumored to have killed at
frozen meat to survive the journey in 1881, under the pretext that least 27 men by the age of 21.
intact arrived in London from Tunisians had been moving into After his arrest he was jailed and
Australia. The following years saw Algerian territory. Under the sentenced to death, but he escaped
Treaty of Bardo that same year, until Garrett tracked him down
1,150,000 2,370,000 a boom in shipments of meats IN SOUTH AFRICA, TENSIONS Tunisia became a French and shot him dead on July 14.
Germany US and other agricultural goods BETWEEN BOER SETTLERS (see protectorate. French military
from Australia, New Zealand, panel, above) and the British over occupied the territory and a Garrett’s gun
740,000 7,010,000 and Argentina to Europe. the annexation of the Transvaal French minister was A replica of the
Russia Britain (see 1877) had tipped into installed to liaise with the holster that held Pat
Around the same time, the violence. Boers had established Tunisian bey (ruler), who Garrett’s gun around
840,000 problem of creating a safe means the South African Republic in the now only had limited control. the time he captured
France of artificial light was solved by Transvaal area and begun to use Billy the Kid.
the US inventor Thomas Edison arms to support their claim, In Russia, there was an
18,325,000 (1847–1931). He had perfected starting the First Anglo–Boer War outbreak of anti-Jewish
REST OF THE existing designs on lightbulbs in 1880. British troops suffered a violence culminating in
of the day (see pp.298–99) by defeat at the hands of the Boer pogroms in the south of the
WORLD preventing them from overheating settlers in the battle at Majuba country, including Kiev, that
and making them much safer to Hill on February 27, 1881, bringing continued until 1884. This was
Shipping tonnage 1881 use. Almost as soon as he had the dispute to an end by March. triggered by the assassination of
This chart shows total goods shipped patented the design, lighting The Convention of Pretoria the reformist Alexander II
by country in vessels over 100 tons. systems began to spring up on treaty granted the South African (1818–81) who was killed by a
Refrigeration sparked a rise in food the streets, in businesses and Republic independence over its group known as People’s Will.
transport and the use of vast ships. hotels, and in homes. affairs, although Britain was False rumors circulated that
allowed to maintain an unclear Jewish people were responsible
and that the government was
CeUnSasutps5o0ppuumltasiltliioonn MaoyfMf2retooFlzbiBerosnrutirtmsnahieeni,apAtmfuresontmtralia JuRlyabh2eAmc2foagAmnhbeadKsnuhireasmtnainr of MaofrbcRyhaubns1ost3mii-aASblae,esmtxsraaiigtnsigdcseeivnrriiaonItlIgeendce FrperneocsthTetaucbtnoliirssaihateed in JutlryeAa2rbtg3yoeBrbndeotetiuwnrnabedeeeantsrwtyCaehbeilnlisethhaeensmdexact
Jcuendees2t9oTFarhaintice DecemBoabenernrWe2xa0artFi(oiAtrn(ofsTrt1roiac8Af na8tnhns1gve)lRaooSea–volpeururetbhgliiocn) aTttuarJckkabmsneecuTonaumirrskyteams1n6epwnaRrhFutioscosrhfitaRlaiuntessria May 21ABmUarSetroninucarssneetRsCeuldaprCtarhoess SJitutilnyg2B0uInlldpsiaeunorprWelenadrtose:rUsCShStiieroofuoxps AugwFuiitrshsttP3tArrROeentefagofiptlrycoui;ia–abSBlCloioecounenitrrdnhveeWtTeAonrsaftatriranoicbnsalvinasahled
320
1882 1883–84
This illustration shows the bombardment of Alexandria—a sea battle won by A hand-colored woodcut showing the island of Krakatoa, Indonesia, before its
the British, who succeeded in destroying the port’s fortified batteries. destruction, when its volcano erupted in 1883.
OVER THE COURSE OF THE consisted of Germany, Austria– BRITISH TROOPS SUFFERED EARLY Meanwhile, France had seized Triggered by the ongoing Berlin
PREVIOUS FEW YEARS, the power Hungary, and Italy. The first two DEFEATS IN THE WAR IN SUDAN more of the territory around the Conference on Africa (see 1885)
of French and British interests had signed previous unions (see at the hands of the Mahdi Niger River (Niger) and became Germany claimed territory
had grown substantially in Egypt. 1873), which included Russia. Italy revolutionary army (see 1882). involved in conflict on the island of in southwest Africa (Namibia),
This led to increasing European joined after disputing France’s At the beginning of the year on Madagascar off the coast of East Togoland (Togo), Cameroon, and
interference in Egyptian affairs— territorial claims in North Africa. January 26, Ahmad and the Africa in a bid to protect French part of the island of Zanzibar off
considered legitimate because of Mahdi troops captured the city territory. In 1883, France invaded the coast of Tanzania, East Africa.
the financial debt Egypt owed to Meanwhile, in France, scientist of El Obeid, situated in the center the island in the Franco–Hova Italy took control of Eritrean
Britain and France. By 1882, Louis Pasteur (1822–95)—known of the territory. Mahdi troops War against the Hova people— coastal towns along the Red Sea,
Egypt was bankrupt and the for his development in 1863 of the continued their march toward the largest Malagasy group though made no farther inroads
khedive (viceroy) was scarcely pasteurization process that Khartoum, which had earlier on the island—and bombarded into Ethiopian territory.
able to hold on to his own reduced harmful germs in food been placed under British the coastal towns of Majunga and
authority. Ismail Pasha (1830–95) and drink—had turned his administration by the Egyptian Tamatave from the sea. In 1885, In the Pacific, Britain and
had been deposed by the Ottoman attention to vaccines (see 1796). khedive (see 1874), capturing the they reached a settlement Germany divided up more
sultan in 1879—under pressure He investigated anthrax, a city after a siege of nine months. allowing the French occupation territories. By the 1870s, Britain
from Britain and France—in favor bacterial disease that had killed at Diégo-Suarez in the north. had established settlements
of his son, Muhammad Tawfiq many sheep in Europe and also Brooklyn Bridge However, tensions continued and along the coast of the eastern half
Pasha (1852–92). This Dual affected humans. By 1881, he had The Great East River Suspension the French sent in 15,000 troops of New Guinea (present-day
Control by the French and British conducted successful large-scale Bridge in New York City was built in 1885, landing at Majunga and Papua New Guinea), annexing it
persisted while there was growing experiments with animals, and between 1870 and 1883. It stretches capturing the capital. by 1884. Germany took control of
internal nationalist unrest. vaccines were produced. 5,988ft (1825m) across its span. the northeast part of the island.
Britain was fearful of what a
nationalist uprising might mean
for the Suez Canal, in which it had
a substantial interest. So British
forces decided to mount an attack
to stifle any further action; the
Royal Navy bombarded the forts
of Alexandria on July 11, 1882.
Egypt was then placed under
military occupation, becoming a
British protectorate.
Farther south, in Sudan, British
troops were continuing to fight
the Sudanese War (1881–99)
against the followers of the
powerful Muhammad Ahmad bin
Abd Allah (1844–85), who had
declared a holy war after taking
the title Mahdi. His mission was to
restore justice to the world,
believing it was soon going to end.
In Europe, an anti-French
union was being formed, known
as the Triple Alliance. It
MaenrlctaehnSrdi2se0iLrsriBbacreeLidrteaieaoidnndteeomBarnitdisinhg MafoyrAm2u0setTdrribaipe-lHtewuAenelglniaarGnye,craemndanItya,ly JuRlyeppBrPueobsreoelirvncsitno-ccfdreaeS,yatSetNeollouartlhtahnAWdfreiinscat 18c8o3FnrqSoautcnaeccrsuettpotoyafifknFMegrseaAndNgcaiahggdeaesrzc(atro;19A0uK4g)rauarskootafuet2Knxo6drpaa,l4oke10sar8,iut0o8opn03at0h,sV,aeodaanlencrdsddatcn3rkaoo,i0ulyl0sss0eissmltaislneudsna(5m,0i0s0; kMmaS)riaSecwguhtaedr1yoa(o3tonof,p,K1Jsba8hybn8aeMur4gtaaiornhuysdm2i 6, , 1885) 18o8n14A8Bf8fore5rir)cAllaiefnnraiCdAcosaffn”taofier“rsSe(cntrocaembleOcMtoeabrsaiedPtrciriaon1imnnt8efd8eere4nrMseaGinetgrirconeiednaeiatnaelwndich
June 11kUhreadbiiverepavonowdlteEarugsraioninpEsetganypt AuJugulyos1c1t8c121u02BpyrPOiEytvioegstrhyrtpuItlryeicdheTbcuhtasikinovMsoksyc’soSSweoputtehmAfbreitcroaw1, nbKeliiincmtoAbbmyferereicslleaefiyctr,otsrtbiceity 3 2 1Ocotof cbPoeancrfli2fiic0ct;,AaP1nf8ecte8rorun3TlwWereaiatav hr1ety8Cs8ohMf4ilaeBxirmitisM(1hpa8oix4nwi0vme–er1nge9tuod1nr6m,)HfiaiinrrcvsahetminnsteesJlgfu-ulny 5,c1la8i8m4sGCearmmearnoyo1n884 CoudwpoitwihnnJKwaopirtahenaa’ssidtaaoidgf,eCpdhuitna1884 GToegrmo aanndy Cacaqmueirreoson PorfirDpieorceDesímiadzebrneetrtou1fr8nM8se4axsico
1885 1886
A village in the valley of the Congo River in Africa in the 1800s. Congolese British troops of the Somersetshire Light Infantry cross a river in Burma, during
territory was put under the control of the Belgian king, Leopold II, in 1885. the Anglo–Burmese War.
AS SOME OF THE NATIONS IN ,, BESIDE Meanwhile, in Germany, EMANCIPATION FINALLY ARRIVED FORCES (IN THOUSANDS)60 2,500
EUROPE became more powerful— LEOPOLD, NERO, engineer Gottlieb Daimler FOR SLAVES IN CUBA in October casualties
especially the new nations of CALIGULA, (1834–1900) patented a high- 1886, after a long struggle.
Germany and Italy—they were ATTILA, speed internal-combustion Although Britain had decided to 50
eager to participate in the growing TORQUEMADA, engine. Daimler and partner end the slave trade in 1807 and
European colonization of overseas GENGHIS KHAN Wilhelm Maybach (1846–1929) abolish the practice of slavery in 40 4,000
territories, notably in Africa. To AND SUCH conducted further research with 1833, Spain and other European casualties
this end, the Berlin Conference the engine, placing it on bicycles colonial powers did not follow suit.
on Africa was held from ,,KILLERS OF and carriages. Around the same In 1817, the Spanish agreed 30
November 15, 1884 until February time fellow German Karl Benz a treaty with Britain to stop the
26, 1885. Later known as the MEN ARE MERE (1844–1929) had also been slave trade—and then ignored it. 20
meeting that triggered the AMATEURS. experimenting with engines. He With the loss of most of its Central
“Scramble for Africa,” competing came up with the idea for the and South American colonies, 10
powers jostled for territory— Mark Twain, American author, Benz car, and in 1885 assembled Spain turned to its remaining
although no African leaders were on Leopold II’s regime in the Congo the first automobile in the world. sugar islands of Cuba and Puerto 0
even consulted, much less invited. He set up Benz & Co, which would Rico to refill its coffers. To this British Burmese
The meeting was initiated by Early Benz later merge with Daimler to make end, slavery not only continued, COUNTRIES
Portugal in the interests of A side view of a Mercedes–Benz cars. but increased over the course of
protecting its claim to part of the gasoline-driven, the 19th century, although British Third Burmese War
Congo estuary. This claim would, three-wheeled Benz In India, a growing political antislavery patrols tried to stop Although the war lasted a few weeks,
however, be rejected and the river Motorwagen. German awareness and the burgeoning ships between the west coast of the Burmese insurgency that followed
basin was declared neutral in engineer, Karl Benz, Africa and Havana. Despite their lasted until 1899, claiming many
order to protect trade in the patented his design in1886 nationalist movement led to efforts, the numbers continued to more lives—as shown in this chart.
region. A group of European and the motorcar was born. the establishment of the rise. In 1840, around 14,500 slaves
investors were given part of Indian National Congress, were brought to Cuba; by 1859 The annexation was the
the Congo region, which was put which held its first meeting this number reached nearly 30,500. culmination of the Third Anglo–
under the control of Belgium’s in December. Burmese War in 1885, which had
King Leopold II (1835–1909), By 1866, slave imports had only lasted a few weeks. The war
and named the Congo Free fallen to just over 1,000 and the was triggered by Burmese king
State. Thibaw’s negotiations with
following year, the slave trade France over a political alliance
was finally outlawed by the and the construction of a railway
Spanish legislature. line to the Indian border. Britain
However, this act did not was unable to air its concerns as
free the considerable Thibaw refused a visit from the
number of slaves on British envoy. Britain had already
the island. Years of annexed Lower Burma after the
gradual abolition previous war (see 1852) and the
culminated in a British decided to react by now
royal decree that seizing Mandalay and northern
emancipated the Burma. Thibaw was deposed
slaves in 1886. and the territory was annexed to
Meanwhile on India, giving Britain control of the
January 1, Britain former kingdom. Although this
annexed Burma, marked the end of the official war,
heralding a long there was a sporadic guerrilla
period of insurgency. campaign by the Burmese that
would continue to cause unrest in
the region for another four years.
JaFniruaspaptpreseyrunf4codcreemcstseofdmMula(yprrbceehpscer3oon1mtte-BecdestaocByhrraBuittaoeisntshawlaannda) BeLlegeoisupFtmaorebl’sdelisISIht(ea1st8e3C5o–n1g9o09) OnfierbsoutfistltkhiyenswcCrohariplcdae’sgrso SeEpautsentmeitrebnseRwrui1tmh8 eBluialgaria JaBnruBitauarrinyma1annexes MaBruSccehhra3broTe–rseBtauotflyfigocafirailalny eWnadrs SeGpestreuomrnriebmnedorec4rhsIinewdfaioarfnriAoWpraasrctsho:eUS Army
3 2 2TaGngeraImnnydaiinNkaanaptrbpiooeotncelioactiGmltcoeCaerrloasmpnteagarrntIefyysos,larsaInn,nfindmdreissaext,neetPtismsaMceiafircsOhcaellaSnerbia deDfeewavitetehldboBpyinmuGlweegrnaamtrDrioaaafnimfiKerlnaesgrtrlian(B1ue8eteo3nrm4sz–Go(11bo98it04lte0l4is)–ea1bn9d29) SaebpoStlitesemhllbBaleoarenr3drB0,eaeBpdcurdhibtiunilsiagchnoiatfltaond AnNgolBovr–(eitBtmoiusB1bhru8ema8rrmn6eT)nseheleseixerWaaddttaesiorrtnroitoofry Janpuaatreynt2sg9fiaKsrasoatrluilmntBoeome-ddnoerzbrivnoebnile CoMcaay-C8oSlaoffitrdsrtinskold Oacbtoolbisehre7sSsplianaviCneruyba
1887 1888 1889
,, ,,IF THERE BE A GOD, I THINK THAT WHAT HE
WOULD LIKE ME TO DO IS PAINT AS MUCH OF THE
MAP OF AFRICA BRITISH RED AS POSSIBLE…
Cecil Rhodes, British politician, on colonization
A crest belonging to Czar Ferdinand An engraving depicts slaves washing
I, who was elected ruler of Bulgaria. diamonds at a Brazilian mine.
BULGARIA HAD BEEN CAUGHT UP 720,000 IN PARIS, ENGINEER GUSTAVE IMPERIALISM
in the wave of nationalism that EIFFEL (1832–1923) DAZZLED the
swept through Europe in the 200,000 city and all of Europe with his The late 19th century was
earlier part of the 19th century tower, which was opened to the a time of extensive colonial
(see 1848). Bulgaria’s BRAZILIAN CUBAN public on March 31. Eiffel won a rule by European powers.
independence struggle—during design contest to build the tower “The Rhodes Colossus”
which 15,000 Bulgarians were Slave population as part of the International (right) from an 1892 Punch
massacred by Turkish troops in At the time of their respective Exposition of 1889 in honor magazine depicts British
1876—had attracted Europe’s abolitions, Brazil and Cuba had large of the centenary of the French colonizer, Cecil Rhodes,
attention. A couple of years later slave populations. Freedom was Revolution. With its 984-ft (300-m) straddling the continent after
a small Bulgarian principality was initially slow in coming to slaves. tower—twice the height of the the announcemount of his
established and Britain and Great Pyramid in Gaza—nothing proposed telegraph line from
Austria-Hungary ensured Russia BRAZIL, LIKE CUBA, CONTINUED like it had ever been seen. The Cape Town to Cairo. But this aim was to acquire territory in
would not have influence there. TO MAKE USE OF SLAVES much tower attracted almost two was also a period infamous Southern Africa and continue the
By 1885, Bulgaria had merged later than other former colonies. million visitors in the first six for European exploitation of extraction of valuable minerals.
with Eastern Rumelia, and after In South America, the republics months after it opened. natural resources, as well Rhodes came to symbolize the
a coup d’état, the two states were that emerged from the Spanish as the indifferent or cruel excesses of colonial greed.
unified. This altered the Balkan Empire had abolished slavery by Brazil, meanwhile, faced treatment of native peoples.
balance of power and Serbia the middle of the century. And like political upheaval as a military 22,000
declared war. The conflict was Spain, Brazil had been put under coup overthrew leader Dom some of Pedro’s reforms and,
brief and peace was restored pressure by the British to end the Pedro II. The military, clergy, and although still popular with the THE NUMBER
by 1886. On July 1887, Prince trade, which eventually occurred aristocracy had been angered by public, he abdicated and a OF WORKERS
Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in 1850. Over the next thirty years, republic was declared. WHO DIED
(1861–1948) was elected ruler growing abolitionist sentiment Eiffel Tower DURING
of Bulgaria. reached the highest level, as the Initially criticized by the Parisian Farther north, in Panama, A FAILED
emperor Dom Pedro II (1825–91) public who thought it unsightly, the canal project (see 1880) ATTEMPT
Czar Ferdinand I became sympathetic to these the tower has come to be an had collapsed, and work on it TO BUILD
Postage stamp, with Czar Ferdinand. ideas. He was interested iconic Parisian landmark. came to a halt. The Compagnie THE PANAMA
He was elected to the position after in the gradual abolition of slavery Universelle du Canal CANAL
political infighting led Bulgarians but was aware of the dangers of Interocéanique and the French
to look further afield for a leader. a slaveholder backlash. He had public had lost faith in the
observed not only what had enterprise as the death toll
happened in Cuba, but also in the mounted and construction was
US Civil War (see 1861). In 1871, plagued by endless problems.
a gradualist measure known as
the Rio Branco Law, which freed In Africa, British rule was
children born to slave mothers, expanding apace as Cecil John
was enacted. Later measures Rhodes (1853–1902)—who had
in 1885 freed slaves who were already established his reputation
older than 65. Eventually, a in the gold and diamond mines in
proclamation in May 1888 South Africa—received a charter
completely abolished slavery. for his British South Africa
Company in 1889. The company
was expected to respect local law
and beliefs. However, Rhodes’s
JaFonifrMudsDaoeMtorfnaeagyduana2rttuloa4eiem:gdBlIótabaManttyli,toiclEapenrntadihstflreiaoeBng,ptuóOteilahndtgleteao(b1army8dia8Gain,0negi–nnE1Bdem9era1appl4klei)ranend, esbnteatctooefmes “JRaciopkcptcehurer”imn LuSroldBanevdrreaosrznyilabolJisubhneeeecdmo1imn5peeWrsoilGrheerlmmaInI MaofrScEuhtBhd9aaiotnYtploeeihasoaekfnifMlonlereecdsteebIsmVyamt a IvoFrrlyeanCtecorhabspetrcoboteemccoetmosrecaostelo, ny Chiminepax’eftsrerotfiinomardlsTsrTtiaaaaninllljrgitonshahedawnay NoAvmNeemesrluilbtcicreeacalrneeBvsse1ljssoyl4fuatbuhrrelnoagauanitlnnti8esds0mthwdpeoartrytlsdo in
Marccohm3p1leEteifdfealnTdoowpeerns
(1G8ho3its4tl–fiie1(r1Ms9b8t0aDN50ar1ao)uc–irvthm1eoe9v4mlmee2o9arbb)lesiplrae8tNebESonemvuttsenwilgmdeeraaebaBynnem—edrIrorvpl1ipiisoon3hhlleieoBcprnnelroteoionctdelaLsysotehnrdson KcoadmakersanabavepacsitolhhamoebtlepersuetbcoloicrEdamirnlugiesosicftwckmlanaaxosdwsceiyncloainnl daer DGuhtocigmhhsa(er1lt8fis5ttmo3V–aui9nth0iclo)aesctnpiontimtgvaamolnwaitfnsteerar Italy occinupHieosrnEroiftrAefrai,ca dNeopvoesemsbPeerda1rb5ooMIlIisiolhifteaBsrrymaczooilnuaapnrcdhy
323
1750–1913 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION
THE IMPERIAL EMPIRE BUILDING
In the 18th century, most colonial outposts
were located along the world's coastlines, as
WORLD settlements sprung up where ships stopped off.
Trading posts grew into cities, often with
THE ERA OF EUROPEAN COLONIAL EXPANSION ACROSS THE GLOBE European-style architecture to reflect the
political changes. Over time, improvements in
military power, transportation, and health—
tropical diseases killed thousands of
Europeans—saw the spread of colonial rule
Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries the world witnessed a relentless throughout the 19th century. This was
European drive to control territories all over the globe. Colonies especially true for Britain and France. However,
provided not only direct supplies of valuable natural resources, but also Spain, which had begun empire-building earlier
a theater of conflict in which Europe's antagonisms were played out. and controlled large parts of Latin America at
the beginning of the period, had lost almost all
of its territories by the 1820s.
The Imperial Age saw Spain, Britain, France, Southeast Asia were often on the receiving
Germany, Holland, Portugal, Italy, and to a lesser end of racial prejudice and political oppression.
extent, Denmark and Sweden, scramble for Economic exploitation of colonial territories and
territories. A country could lose colonies in one their people also frequently occurred, as raw ALASKA
war, only to reclaim them later through trade in a materials were exported out of the country,
wider political game. Colonies often started out as and slave labor was used. This Rocky Mountains
trading posts, in places such as India, but through situation persisted until after
political maneuvering and exercising military World War II, when many CANADA
might European countries began to take control. colonies around the world began to demand NEWFOUNDLAND
THETHBERSITUINSHNEEVMERPISREET.S,O,NPeople living in the Americas, Africa, India, and Great
their independence (see pp.422–23). Lakes
,, Chicago MountainNsew York St. Pierre
and Miquelon
NT I CUITE D ST ATE
O F A M ER ICA SAppalachian Washington DC
Los Angeles
A NBermuda
ATL
MEXICO CUBA
Popular saying coined during the early 1800s US occupation Bahamas
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Havana
Mexico Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
GUATEMALA
1,037,651 2500 SALVADOR Jamaica HAITI St. Martin
2000 Leeward Islands
LENGHT OF RAILROAD LINE (MILES)1500 NICARAGUA BRITISH HONDURAS West Guadeloupe
North and South Rhodesaia1000 HONDURAS Indies Martinique
Sudan
500 Curaçao Barbados
British East Africa & Uganda
Sierra Leone Windward Islands
Gold Coast
Nyasaland VENEZUELA Trinidad and Tobago
BRITISH GUIANA
BELGIAN COSTA RICA COLOMBIA Guiana HighlandsA n d e s PERU DUTCH
CONGO ECUADOR Amazon GUIANA
Galapagos
Islands Basin FRENCH
GUIANA
5,764,731
Belgium 0 PACIFIC ACRE BRAZIL
BRITISH AFRICAN TERRITORIES
Expansion Colonial minority OCEAN
Making tracks
Following the example of Britain Native Spaniards were in the By 1914, the vast expanse of colonial British Lima
Africa was spanned by thousands of miles of
and the Netherlands, the small minority in the Spanish colony of railroad track, opening the region up to trade
and aiding communication between territories.
state of Belgium exploited the New Spain (Mexico and Central BOLIVIA
vast territory of the Congo, which America). In 1810, they made up just
was 76 times larger than Belgium. under a fifth of the total population. YRio de Janeiro
AYPARAGUSão Paulo
Imperial land US Imperial population CHILE ARGENTINAURUGUA
By 1910, Britain was well ahead in PORTUGAL Millions of people across the world Santiago
the imperial race, with an empire BELGIUM lived under colonial rule by 1910. Andes
covering more than twice as much of GERMANY Britain governed subjects in Africa,
the globe as its closest rival, France. the Americas, Asia, and Australasia.
FRANCE
BRITAIN Patagonia Buenos
Aires
24 21 18 15 12 9 6 3 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
COLONIAL POPULATION (IN MILLIONS)
SIZE OF EMPIRE (MILLION SQ MILES)
FALKLAND
ISLANDS
324
THE IMPERIAL WORLD
1700 In the 18th century, European expansion, with 1800 A century later, Spain, France, and Britain had 1850 By the middle of the 19th century, the world map
the exception of Spanish Central and South America, taken control of almost all of the Americas. The had been reconfigured with the independence of Latin
was mostly confined to port cities. Huge swaths of British had also made a series of incursions into America. British and French attention had turned to
the world were under the control of the older Ottoman India, as the Mughal Empire broke down, while also the resource-rich lands of Africa, while the Dutch
and Qing empires in the East. undertaking exploration into Africa. continued to expand into Southeast Asia.
Greenland 1900 At the turn of the
WAY 20th century, European
N colonialism had reached
ICELAND NOR FINLAND across the globe.The
SWEDE “Scramble for Africa” in
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
DENMARK St Petersburg Siberia the 1880s saw the major
BRITAIN Moscow powers jostling for territory
NETH. POLAND and taking land from
O C E A NAzores
Berlin AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE Africans. The US gained
Madeira GERMAN territories in the Caribbean
London Gobi and Southeast Asia.
P A C I F I CCanaryBELGIUM EMPIRE ROMANIA
O C E A NIslands JAPAN
Paris SWI TZ. Vienna
NCE ITA Tokyo
PORTUGAL LYA Budapest Black Sea KHIVA Port Arthur
Lisbon FR SERBIA
BULGARIA Caspian Sea QIN G KOREA
GIBRALTAR EMPI
SPAIN Rome Istanbul BUKHARA Beijing
Ceuta Tehran DeHlhiimNaElPaALy a s
Madrid OT T OM GHANISTAN INDIA RE Weihaiwei
IFNI Athens Jiaozhou
TUNIS AN
Melilla Malta EM
GREECE CYPRUS Nanjing
PERSIA Shanghai
British occupied PIRE BHUTAN
B
MOROCCO ALGERIA Cairo AF
EGYPT
OTTOMAN E BAHRAIN Gwadar
EMPIRE to Oman
D
U Taiwan
I
RIO DE ORO Ottoman N Macao Hong Kong
Cape Verde Sahara dominions S TRUCIAL Chandernagore
Islands under
Red Sea Arabian OMAN OMAN Diu BURMA Guangzhouwan
GAMBIA Peninsula
PORTUGUESE FRENCH British control Damão Bombay
GUINEA WEST AFRICA ERITREA Yanaon
French in terms of 1899
HADHRAMAUT Bangkok SIAM FRENCH Manila
Franco-British agreement. ANGLO- Socotra Goa Madras
Mahté Pondicherry INDOCHINA
French control in part notional EGYPTIAN BRITISH Karikal PHILIPPINE
Sahel SUDAN Aden Saigon ISLANDS
TOGO NIGERIA FRENCH SOMALILAND SOMALILAND BRITISH
KAMERUN NORTH BORNEO
SIERRA LEONE Addis Ababa ITALIAN CEYLON
LIBERIA ABYSSINIA SOMALILAND SARAWAK
DUTCH
GOLD Fernando Po LADO Maldive Islands MALAYA BRUNEI EAST
COAST INDIES
SAO TOME Singapore
AND PRINCIPE H CONGO SUMATRA
BORNEO
RIO C FREE STATE BRITISH
MUNI O EAST AFRICA
F RCEONN
G nominally
independent GERMAN
under Belgian EAST
control Zanzibar Seychelles Chagos Islands Batavia
Cocos Islands JAVA
AFRICA
Christmas
Ascension ANGOLA NORTHEASTERN BRITISH Amirante Islands Island
RHODESIA CENTRAL
BAROTSELAND- PORTUGUESE
NORTHWESTERN AFRICA TIMOR
RHODESIA Comoro Islands
St. Helena GERMAN SOUTHERN MADAGASCAR
SOUTHWEST RHODESIA
AFRICA BELCAHNUDAN Mauritius
WALVIS BAY
to Cape Colony A NA-
C ERéunion
I A N OSOUTH AUSTRALIAN
DAFRICAN COLONIES
I NREPUBLIC
PORTUGUESE
EAST AFRICA
Cape Town NATAL
CAPE BASUTOLAND Sydney Lord Howe
COLONY Island
ORANGE
FREE STATE
KEY
Ottoman Empire Spain and possessions German Empire in 1900; Hohenzollerns in 1700; Prussia in 1800 and 1850 Japan and possessions NEW
Britain and possessions Portugal and possessions Austrian Empire in 1850; Austrian-Habsburg Empire in 1700 and 1800 Qing Empire ZEALAND
France and possessions Swedish Empire Italy and possessions in 1900; Venetian Republic in 1700 US and possessions
Denmark and possessions Netherlands and possessions Russian Empire and possessions
325
1890 1891 1892
A colored engraving depicts the massacre of Sioux Indians at Wounded Knee The Trans-Siberian Railway during The Great Mosque of Djenne, Mali, was
Creek, South Dakota, by US soldiers of the 7th Cavalry Regiment. its construction in Russia. built after the French took control.
IN THE US, TENSIONS AND US soldiers were also left dead, Protectorate. This became 5,785 French in Africa
SPORADIC FIGHTING in the west many due to friendly fire from known as the “British Central A postage stamp from French West
between US troops and American US machine guns. This was Africa Protectorate” in 1893 MILES Africa shows an illustration of a
Indians had continued since the the last major conflict THE DISTANCE native mask. France managed to
Battle at Little Bighorn (see 1876). between American Indians and was then officially BETWEEN gain control of much of the region.
In addition to this, American and the US Army, although designated as “Nyasaland” MOSCOW AND
Indians faced increasingly harsh poor relations persisted in 1907. Part of this territory VLADIVOSTOK BRITAIN AND FRANCE WERE
living conditions: poverty, disease, between the two groups. lay along Lake Nyasa and ON THE TRANS- CONTINUING THEIR PUSH into
and crop failures were rife. By the the Shire valley in present- SIBERIAN West Africa. The British had
1880s, a new mysticism called the In Europe, a small island RAILWAY secured ports along the coast,
Ghost Dance had emerged among off the North Sea coast day Malawi). annexing Lagos in 1861. Lagos
the Sioux people, based on the of Germany, near the IN RUSSIA, CONSTRUCTION provided a key point from which
belief that an Indian messiah territory of Schleswig- Sioux weapon HAD BEGUN ON AN EXTENSIVE to seize control of surrounding
would come in 1891 and unite Holstein, Heligoland, A 19th-century style knife RAILROAD SYSTEM across its vast Yorubaland, situated around the
all the displaced native peoples. had formally come into and beaded rawhide sheath, territory. The project was the idea lower parts of the Niger River,
This newfound belief manifested British possession in as carried by American of Alexander III (1845–94), and it corresponding with much of
in trances, dances, and a mass 1814, having been Indian Sioux warriors. was known as the Trans-Siberian modern southwest Nigeria. The
frenzy, which worried the seized by the Royal Railway. It stretched from British took advantage of existing
US agents who oversaw the Navy seven years Moscow to the port of Vladivostok, internal divisions among Yoruba
reservations. They attempted to earlier. However, as 5,715 miles (9,198km) to the east. rulers, and in 1892, they overthrew
stop the dances, and the Sioux Germany’s European Russia received permission from the Ijebu government, part of the
people rebelled, with US army and African expansion China to run tracks through parts Yoruba political system.
troops being called in by the continued, a deal was of Manchuria, allowing the
end of the year. struck for Britain completion of a trans-Manchurian Likewise, the French exploited
to hand over the line by 1901. The work began from divisions in the Muslim Tukulor
The reservation of Wounded island to Germany in west and east ends and eventually Empire by signing treaties with
Knee Creek in South Dakota was exchange for the met in the center. By 1904, the its neighbors and building forts
the scene of a massacre on islands of Zanzibar sections linking Moscow and within Tukulor territory. By 1892,
December 29, when around 150 and Pemba, near Vladivostok were connected and the French controlled much of the
American Indians—men, women, Tanzania’s port of running. The railroad facilitated region around the Senegal River.
and children—were killed and 50 Tanga off the East the quicker movement of people
were wounded by US troops. African coast. Germany through Russia and allowed for
During disarmament of the Sioux developed Heligoland the further settlement of sparsely
tribe a scuffle had broken out, and into a large naval base. populated Siberia.
in the ensuing carnage around 25
Zanzibar was added
6:1 Wounded Knee dead to Britain’s substantial
The massacre left 150 territory in Africa,
Sioux dead, while 25 building on earlier
troops from the US army were killed. deals struck with
A further 50 Sioux were wounded Germany, as well as
during the conflict. claims made following
the Berlin Conference
(see 1885). In the following
year, Britain formally
established the
Nyasaland Districts
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326
1893 1894
,,
,,
ALL THAT SEPARATES
… RACE, CLASS, CREED,
OR SEX, IS INHUMAN, AND
,,MUST BE OVERCOME.
Kate Sheppard, suffragist, in the pamphlet Is it Right?, 1892
An engraving showing the coronation ceremony of Emperor Nicholas II and
the Empress Alexandra, who would be Russia’s last ruling monarchs.
ALTHOUGH FRANCE HAD MADE 25,000 IN RUSSIA, AFTER THE DEATH I AM NOT YET READY
GAINS IN THE WEST AFRICAN Jamaica OF ALEXANDER III, Nicholas II
INTERIOR, the coastal territories (1868–1918) became the next, ,,TO BE CZAR. I KNOW
around the kingdom of Dahomey 1,000,000 and last, emperor of Russia. He
(present-day Benin) had proven Cuba presided over an increasingly NOTHING OF THE
difficult to subdue. In 1889, Britain troubled country, and would not BUSINESS OF RULING.
had handed over to France the Sugar production in tons be able to withstand the social
coastal city of Cotonou in In 1893, Cuba, then the dominant revolution that engulfed Russia Czar Nicholas II, on becoming ruler of Russia, 1894
Dahomey without consulting the world sugar grower, produced in the early 20th century.
Dahomeans. The result was the 1 million tons of sugar, four times conflict broke out, with Japan throughout the empire, resulting
First Franco–Dahomean War as much as Jamaica. Russia’s neighbor, China, had declaring war on China on in the collapse of the independence
(1889–90), which concluded with become entangled in a local August 1. movement a few years later.
a treaty that ceded Cotonou and Halfway around the world, in conflict in Korea that escalated The death toll has been estimated
Porto Novo to France in exchange the British colony of New Zealand, into the Sino–Japanese War. The In the Ottoman Empire, the to be around 250,000 Armenians
for payments to the king of women won the right to vote. The confrontation had started over an Christian Armenian people were killed out of a population of
Dahomey. However, tensions push for women’s suffrage was internal revolt in Korea. The also caught up in the nationalist 2 million, between 1894 and 1897.
remained, and by 1892 another gaining momentum in many monarch asked both nations for spirit of the time, and they tried
war had begun, this time over places, but these islands were help, and both sent troops. Yet to assert their independence. Sino–Japanese War
the issue of slavery. The king, the first to grant the right, after they also refused to leave once However, their efforts met with a A painting of the Sino–Japanese War
Behanzin (1844–1906), was still formidable efforts by suffragists the rebellion was suppressed. particularly brutal suppression, shows the Japanese forces
allowing slave raids, despite the and tireless campaigners, such Japan was allied with the ordered by Sultan Abdul Hamid II conquering Jiuliancheng after
abolition of slavery. In addition, as Kate Sheppard (1847–1934). modernizing government in (1842–1918). This saw systematic defeating the Chinese at Pyongyang.
he attacked a French gunboat. Shortly after this act was passed, Korea, while China backed the massacres of Armenian people
France retaliated, this time with there was a general election in royal family. Tensions between
an army of French and Senegalese which 65 percent of women cast China and Japan mounted and
troops, and they overpowered the their votes.
kingdom, bringing it under French
control in 1893. Meanwhile, Cuba was
experiencing a sugar boom,
with profits of $64 million in 1893.
However, a US tariff the following
year would cause profits to drop
to $13 million by 1896.
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d’IMvoairrceFhrbe1en0ccoChmôcetoesloany A painting of Behanzin, king of
Dahomey (modern Benin), shows plaMgukaeiylinlbiBnrHuegmobaanokirlgnsoliiuKoocynunoedtnabg2ry’.st5heend June 30inToLwoenrdoBnfroiodrpgterenafsfic cNzaorv, eNmicbheorla1s LItIaa(ks1et8sR6ut8hs–es1i9tah1nr8o),ne
him holding symbols of kingship
while surrounded by attendants. 327
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NovembDteaorFhDSrUoaeemnhncooocefmnhafidnceeiynFWatrl(epaaerrrnneCcwdsoahe–nneantB-idneanyin)
1895 1896
,, EVERY DAY SEES HUMANITY
MORE VICTORIOUS IN THE
,,STRUGGLE WITH SPACE AND TIME.
Guglielmo Marconi, Italian inventor
This scene from the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1896
shows the Abyssinian forces routing the Italian troops.
TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS Marconi’s wireless GREECE SAW THE MODERN Olympic revival
WERE PROLIFERATING RAPIDLY The wireless telegraph (replica REBIRTH OF THE ANCIENT The cover illustration for the April edition of Scribner’s Magazine
all over the world. In Italy, shown) developed by Guglielmo celebrated the revival of the Olympic Games, being held in Athens,
physicist and Marconi paved the way for the OLYMPIC GAMES, which was Greece. There were 43 events, in nine different sports.
inventor Guglielmo development of radio technology. organized by an enthusiastic
Marconi (1874– Frenchman, Baron Pierre de disagreement between Italy and 7,000
1937) invented a the device the following year, and Coubertin. In 1890, he met Abyssinian emperor Menelik II
wireless telegraph. laid the foundation for radio William Penny Brookes, who had (1844–1913) had turned into an THE NUMBER OF
In his initial technology. Meanwhile, German orchestrated a British Olympic armed conflict. The turning point
experiments, using a physicist Wilhelm Conrad Games in 1866. Coubertin and was the Battle of Adwa on ITALIANS KILLED
telegraph key to operate a Röntgen (1845–1923) had been Brookes wanted to create an March 1, 1896, at which 80,000 AT ADWA
transmitter, he was able to experimenting with electric international festival of modern Abyssinians defeated 20,000
send electromagnetic waves in currents and cathode-ray tubes. sport. After years of campaigning, Italian soldiers.
bursts that corresponded to The outcome was a type of Coubertin was finally able to
Morse code. He then used a radiation that allowed objects to organize the event in Athens from
transmitter to ring a bell that had appear transparent on April 6–15. It was an enormous
been placed 30ft (9m) away. He photographic plates. Röntgen success—almost 300 contestants
worked on the receiving antennae called this X-radiation, an early competed in track and field,
and by the end of the year he version of the modern X-ray. gymnastics, tennis, swimming,
could transmit a signal 1.5 miles cycling, fencing, shooting,
(2.5km). However, he found little In Korea, the clash between weightlifting, and wrestling, while
enthusiasm for his work, so he Japanese and Chinese forces (see 40,000 spectators cheered them
went to Britain, where he patented 1894) came to an end after the on. However, Brookes did not live
Chinese defeat in Pyongyang, to be present at the games, having
Early X-ray and subsequent naval victories by died the previous year.
One of the first X-ray photographs the Japanese fleet. China sued Meanwhile, Italy was trying to
made by German professor Wilhelm for peace on February 12 and the extend its reach in Africa with an
Conrad Röntgen (1845–1923) resulting Treaty of Shimonoseki, invasion of the Abyssinian
captured a woman’s hand with rings. which had involved Russian, Empire (modern Ethiopia). Its
French, and German intervention, previous attempt to annex the
forced China to give up the island kingdom had ended in failure
of Formosa (modern Taiwan) to by 1889 (see 1872). Under the
Japan, as well as the nearby terms of the Treaty of Uccialli,
Pescadores (Penghu) Islands. Italy thought it had the right
China also had to recognize to establish a protectorate
Korean independence, open over Abyssinia, but this was
more ports to Japanese trade, contested. By 1895, the
and pay a large indemnity.
1896 OLYMPIC GAMES
43 THE NUMBER
OF EVENTS
14 THE NUMBER
OF COUNTRIES
241 THE NUMBER
OF ATHLETES
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328
1897 1898 1899
A cartoon entitled “The concert of nations,” in an 1897 edition of Le Petit Four soldiers raise their rifles over the brush of San Juan Hill, Cuba, Cyclists of the Lancashire Fusiliers
took part in the South African War.
Journal, satirizes the Thirty Days’ War, also known as the Greco–Turkish War. as they fight from trenches during the Spanish–American war.
ALTHOUGH THE TEN YEARS’ JOSE MARTI (1853–95) WITH THE DESTRUCTION OF THE Hawaii annexed HOSTILITIES BETWEEN THE
WAR HAD BEEN UNSUCCESSFUL USS Maine—blown up while In a contemporary illustration, BOERS AND BRITISH were once
(see 1868), many Cubans were A writer, philosopher, docked in Havana’s harbor— Hawaiians in Honolulu receive again heading toward conflict.
unwilling to accept continued journalist, and political the US made the decision to go news of their annexation by the US. They had already clashed in the
control by Spain. Leading the theorist, José Martí became to war against Spain. Cuba’s The US would also take control of First Boer War (see 1880). This
renewed cries for independence a key figure in the Cuban struggle for independence had Guam and the Philippines. time Boers were demanding that
was the Cuban Revolutionary revolutionary struggle. He already attracted much support in British troops protecting mining
Party. It declared a republic in is considered a national the US. The government blamed Meanwhile, in Egypt, Britain and interests should withdraw from
eastern Cuba and began a guerilla hero for his planning and the Maine incident—in which 260 France became embroiled in the the Transvaal, but this request
war, known as the Cuban War of leadership during the Cuban crew members were killed—on Fashoda Incident, which involved was ignored. So the South African
Independence. Soldiers managed War of Independence. He Spain. Although Cuba and Spain territorial disputes over their Republic and the Orange Free
to reach Havana by the following died on the battlefield at Dos had agreed an armistice on respective attempts at expansion State declared war on Britain in
year, although they were driven Ríos, in the east of the island. April 9, the US began the in Africa. The British wanted to October. The South African War
back. The US would end up Spanish–American War only build a railroad linking Egypt would last less than three years
getting involved when the Meanwhile, Britain was a few weeks later, on April 25. and Uganda while France wanted but, for the British, it would
battleship Maine was blown up undergoing a remarkable boom Battles were fought in two to continue its eastward drive into become the largest since the
in the Havana harbor (see 1898). in coal mining. The level of coal theaters: the Atlantic and the the Sudan. Although their troops Napoleonic Wars, as its forces
production had doubled since Pacific. US Navy ships sailed into met in Fashoda on September 18, reached some 500,000 men.
Trouble was brewing between the 1860s. The mining industry Manila Bay, in the Spanish the situation did not escalate into The war was fought across a
Greece and the Ottoman Empire was also a major employer— Philippines, while another fleet war, as all sides wanted to avoid hostile terrain, which the
over the situation in Crete. There in 1897 the number of miners in made incursions into the southern battle. Instead they decided that Boers—whose
had been a brutal suppression of Britain was around 695,200, rising harbor of Cuba, Santiago, where British, French, and Egyptian flags troops numbered
a Christian uprising on the island from about 216,200 in 1851. troops then disembarked. By should fly over the fort that the less than
the year before, and Greece was July 25, Spain had capitulated. It French had occupied. Eventually, 90,000—could
determined to annex the territory. Coal mining in Britain would pay a steep price for what they agreed that their boundaries use to their
However, the Thirty Days’ War By 1897, Britain was the world the US Secretary of State John would be marked by where the advantage. The
did not have the outcome Greece leader in coal production. Its output Hay (1838–1905) called “a Nile and Congo rivers divided. war became
desired. When an armistice was of 200 million tons put it ahead splendid little war” in a letter to infamous
agreed in August, it was forced to of the US and Germany, who his friend and future US president because of
pay an indemnity and it lost part were also large coal producers. Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919), the treatment
of the territory of Thessaly. The who had led the First Volunteer of Boer
Turks withdrew their troops from Cavalry (known as the “Rough civilians, who
Crete and the island was made an Riders”). Under the terms of the saw their
international protectorate. Treaty of Paris of December 10, farms burned
Spain had to give up its remaining and women and
250 colonies, allowing Cuba its children put
independence and ceding Puerto into camps
COAL (MILLIONS OF TONS) 200 Rico, Guam, and the Philippines where up to
to the US. However, the US 25,000 died.
150 continued to occupy Cuba, and the
following year tried to exclude War medal
100 Cubans from governing, and The Queen’s South Africa Medal,
disbanded the army. Around the awarded to military personnel who
50 same time the US also managed served in the war, is engraved with
to annex the islands of Hawaii. a Jubilee bust of Queen Victoria.
0
1865 1897
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329
1900 1901 1902
This illustration shows the storming of Beijing by the international force that Queen Victoria’s funeral procession Prince Saud Ibn Abdul-Aziz, the first
arrived to fight the anti-Western attacks during the Boxer uprising. makes its way through London. monarch of the modern Saudi state.
THE GROWING PRESENCE OF continued to burn down churches MILLIONS 80 THE MANY COLONIES THAT HAD THE SOUTH AFRICAN, OR ANGLO–
WESTERNERS—especially and kill Christians. After the 70 BEEN FOUNDED IN AUSTRALIA— BOER, WAR between Boer settlers
Christian missionaries—in China international troops seized 60 1850 1900 Victoria, New South Wales, and the British ended on May 31.
was starting to cause public several forts, the empress 50 Queensland, South Australia, The end of the war was hastened
anger. This eventually erupted into dowager Tz’u Hsi (1835–1908) 40 Western Australia, and when the British adopted a
the Boxer Rebellion, which was a ordered all foreigners to be killed, 30 Tasmania—ushered in a new era “scorched earth” policy, which
peasant uprising that aimed to and many foreign ministers were 20 on January 1, after the drafting involved destroying crops and
eject all foreigners from China. murdered. After the arrival of 10 and approval of the constitution livestock to limit Boer supplies.
The group behind the attacks had reinforcements, the international and official establishment of the The dispossessed Boer women
earlier founded a secret society force made its way to Beijing, 0 Commonwealth of Australia. and children were rounded up into
known as the “Righteous and which it captured. The empress 1800 concentration camps. Under the
Harmonious Fists,” hence the dowager fled, and a truce was A few weeks later, Great Britain Treaty of Vereeniging, the Boers
sobriquet “Boxer.” Members of negotiated with the imperial Growing nation and its colonies mourned the loss were forced to recognize British
the group were also found among princes in September 1901. This Thanks to decades of immigration, of Queen Victoria, who died on sovereignty in South Africa, ending
the Qing court, and so the put an end to the violence and the population of the US had January 22. She had ruled the the independence of the Orange
movement’s violent attacks on provided for reparations to be soared, reaching more than nation and empire for 63 years, Free State and the South African
foreigners and Chinese converts made. While these events were 75 million by 1900. making her reign the longest by Republic. The whole territory was
to Christianity were taking place, the Russians took a British monarch. Her son, now under British control.
officially sanctioned. the opportunity to occupy of the Congo, but the many Edward VII (1841–1910), took the
An international southern Manchuria, which Africans employed performed throne, and the largely peaceful— Meanwhile, Ibn Saud (c. 1880–
relief force of bordered southern Russia. the dirty and dangerous work though very socially stratified— 1953) recaptured the Saud
2,100 troops in the mines for very little pay. period under his rule was known dynasty’s formal capital of Riyadh,
from Britain, In Africa, mining began in as the Edwardian era. after decades of civil war (see
France, Italy, Katanga, a southern region of the Meanwhile, in West Africa, 1843). In 1901, Saud, who was
Germany, present-day Democratic Republic British troops faced a rebellion Commonwealth stamp living in Kuwait, set out to take
Russia, Japan, of the Congo. The discovery of rich by the Asante, which took eight This stamp showing Queen Victoria back the territory he had been
and the US was copper deposits—as well as months to subdue. Unrest in the is from Australia, which brought its forced to leave by the rival
eventually sent to other minerals, including zinc, Gold Coast region continued colonies into a federation the same Rashids. He and his men reached
the port of Tianjin cobalt, and tin—led to the rapid throughout the following decade year the monarch died. Riyadh in January 1902 and crept
in June 1900, but establishment by Europeans of as Africans continued to resist into town, waiting to ambush the
the Boxers mining infrastructure, such as British rule. Rashidi governor the following
railroad lines, and towns began to morning. Soon Saud had taken
Across the Atlantic, in the US, the city and the territory, with the
spring up in this decades of immigration had help of a growing number of
region. As mining caused the country’s population supporters. This became the
companies to nearly double. There were kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932,
proliferated, around 35.5 million people living and it remains under the Saud
Katanga was in the US in 1870, and by 1900 family’s rule to the present day.
soon one of the that number had reached more
most highly than 75 million. Much of this On the Caribbean island of
industrialized areas growth had been in urban Martinique, the violent eruption of
areas—some 40 percent of the Mount Pelée killed around 30,000
Going underground population were living in cities people and destroyed the port of
A Metro sign built into a lamp- rather than settling in rural Saint-Pierre on May 8. The
post in Paris, France. The first communities. volcano had previously erupted in
underground train line was opened 1792 and 1851, but on nowhere
in Paris in 1900. near the scale of the 1902 eruption.
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1903 1904
The original 1903 airplane designed by Wilbur and Orville Wright makes The French newspaper Petit Journal shows how the Russian sick and
its first flight on December 17, 1903 in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. wounded were transported on skis during the Russo–Japanese war.
TWO BROTHERS IN THE US, WILBUR Lion in the path JAPAN AND RUSSIA HAD BEEN the year. A peace deal was
(1867–1912) AND ORVILLE (1871– The United States
1948) WRIGHT, became obsessed publication Judge COMPETING to expand their brokered by US President
with the growing science of depicts the Panama
aviation and were determined to Canal as the “lion in influence in Manchuria and Korea. Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919),
fly. They pumped the profits from the path” in this
their bicycle shop into their political cartoon. Russia had built its Trans-Siberian and on September 5 a treaty was
experiments and built a biplane.
In the town of Kitty Hawk, on the however, were railroad (see 1891), which now had signed that forced Russia to leave
coast of North Carolina, they intertwined with
began to conduct experiments. On the infamous a line running into Manchuria, Manchuria, cede part of the island
the morning of December 17, Dreyfus Affair.
their work paid off when Orville This was a scandal annexed during the Boxer crisis in of Sakhalin to Japan, and recognize
made what is considered to be the involving Alfred
first successful flight in an Dreyfus (1859– China (see 1900). During this time, Japan’s interests in Korea, as well
airplane that the pilot had 1935), a French
complete control over (as opposed officer who was Japan had begun to build up its as grant fishing rights off the coast
to earlier attempts with gliders). accused of treason.
He traveled 197 ft (60 m) in 12 Evidence came to army and navy, and approached of Siberia. Japan’s victory against
seconds. Later that day Wilbur light that cleared
flew 850 ft (259 m) in 59 seconds. Dreyfus, but it was Russia in 1903 to suggest they Russia marked its emergence as
suppressed.
Farther south, in Panama, the Dreyfus was recognize each other’s mutual a major world power.
US had resurrected the idea of Jewish, and France
building a canal between the became divided over the issue interests in these regions. The In Africa, German troops were
Atlantic and Pacific, the first of anti-Semitism. During the
attempt at which had failed more scandal, the sports newspaper talks broke down on February 6, facing rebellions in their colonies.
Le Vélo supported Dreyfus. Angry
12 advertisers decided to set up a 1904, and three days later Japan Revolts broke out in German
SECONDS rival periodical, L’Auto-Vélo, later
THE DURATION called L’Auto. Cycling promoter attacked Russian warships, sinking South West Africa (Namibia),
OF THE Desgrange was hired as editor.
WRIGHT However, L’Auto’s sales were two of them and triggering the where the Khoikhoi people had
BROTHERS’ initially poor, and so a race
FIRST FLIGHT was organized to promote it. Russo–Japanese War. Japan risen up in 1903, followed by the
Desgrange devised a month-long
cycling contest (though it was then sent troops into Manchuria Herero in 1904. Many Africans
later shortened) which followed
the route of Paris–Lyon– and Korea, forcing the Russians were rounded up and put into
Marseille–Toulouse–Bordeaux–
Nantes–Paris. On July 1, 60 farther north over the course of concentration camps, where
competitors set off. The event’s
first winner was Maurice Garin. the work conditions were so dire
than a decade before (see 1889). Russo–Japanese War that more than half of the prisoners
The US wanted to purchase the This map shows the course of the died. By the time Germany had
assets of the former French conflict in which a victorious Japan suppressed the rebellion, in 1908,
holding company and begin drove Russia out of Manchuria, about 80 percent of the Herero
construction, but talks with the forcing Russia to give up its and 50 percent of the Khoikhoi
Colombian government (which expansionist policy in East Asia. peoples had been killed, either in
still controlled the isthmus) broke
down. Soon after, in 1903, Panama, the course of the
with the backing of the US,
declared its independence. By Mukden Harbin conflict or while
1904, Panama and the US had 21 Feb–10 Mar 1905 interned in the
agreed on the terms of the Changchun RUSSIA camps.
Panama Canal Zone, in which the Liaoyang
US would be permitted to exercise 26 Aug–2 Sep 1904 Jilin KEY
its jurisdiction until 1979, and
work on the canal began. Beijing MANCHURIA
In France, cyclist Henri Funing Fushun Vladivostok
Desgrange (1865–1940) organized Yingkou Dashiqiao
a race that would become one of
the most prestigious in the world: Hoeryong
the Tour de France. Its roots,
Port Arthur Dagushan Japan
Aug 1904– Dairen Piziwo
Jan 1905 Qing China
Wonsan
to Russia 1897,
Qingdao Weihaiwei Sea of to Japan 1905
Seoul Japan
KOREA area leased
to Japan 1895
Yellow Mokpo Pusan
Sea Japanese advances
Tsushima 1904–05
QING
CHINA 27–28 May 1905 Honshu route of Russian
Baltic fleet
Shimonoseki Hiroshima
Japanese victory,
JAPAN with date
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1750–1913 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION
THE STORY OF
THE CAR
FROM THE MODEL T TO HYBRIDS, CARS HAVE BEEN A DRIVING FORCE FOR CHANGE
After thousands of years of slow transportation using ships, horses, or even Ford Model T
traveling on foot, the development of the automobile revolutionized the way
the world thought about distance and speed. Instead of spending days on a
trip, people and goods could move hundreds of miles in a matter of hours.
Although the late 19th century witnessed many prices, so that by the 1920s many eager
significant technological innovations in the consumers could buy a car. This had a profound
realm of transportation, such as the development effect on the landscape as highways sprang up,
of steamships, none would come close to having and by the 1950s, suburbs in the US were planned
the widespread and immediate impact of the around the idea that residents would be driving.
development and mass production of the car.
Although automobile ownership was at first only THE AGE OF THE AUTOMOBILE
the preserve of the wealthy, the US inventor Henry Despite the subsequent problems—especially
Ford was able to increase output and push down pollution and traffic jams—the love affair with
the car has never ceased. Indeed, as people in
developing countries become richer, they too want HYBRID CARS
to be car owners. Now the challenge is to find
more fuel-efficient and environmentally friendly Automobile engineers have long been trying
ways to power cars, and more manufacturers are to find ways to run cars on other fuels than
experimenting with other forms, such as hybrids gasoline, including solar power and battery power.
(see panel, right). However, in spite of these Hybrid cars combine a fuel engine with a battery
issues, the automobile continues to be an integral engine, giving the driver better fuel consumption
part of transportation networks all over the world. and producing less pollution.
Rolling off the assembly line ,, ,,ANY CUSTOMER CAN HAVE A CAR PAINTED
Workers on the assembly line at the Ford Motor Company
assemble a Model T. Ford’s innovative factories allowed ANY COLOR THAT HE WANTS SO LONG AS
the company to assemble millions of cars very quickly. IT’S BLACK.
Henry Ford, US industrialist, My Life and Work, 1922
15th century Reconstructed Trevithick’s road locomotive 1867–77 Otto
Leonardo da Vinci’s car da Vinci car The four-stroke engine
The Renaissance Italian 1801 Otto engine
designs the world’s first The steam-powered car The German inventor 1885
self-propelled wagon. Richard Trevithick, a British Nikolaus August Otto Internal combustion
inventor, creates a smaller, patents his four-
lighter version of the steam stroke internal- improves
engine and calls it the combusion engine. The Germans Karl
“road locomotive.” Benz and Gottlieb
Daimler separately
1769–70 1860 Benz three- develop practical cars
The first true automobile The coal–gas engine wheeler
The French engineer Nicolas Cugnot Belgian Jean-Joseph with internal-
builds a steam-powered vehicle that Étienne Lenoir invents combustion engines.
can reach speeds of up to 2 mph (3 kph). a two-stroke internal-
Cugnot’s combustion engine
Faradier fired by coal gas.
Lenoir gas engine
332
1913 Ford Model T THE STORY OF THE CAR
Henry Ford’s design classic has many
of the features found in today’s cars. brass-framed
As well as being relatively cheap, it windscreen with
was sufficiently robust and reliable two panels
to withstand the rough roads of the
US at the time. brass wing
mirror
brass struts
support windshield open-bodied model
had no doors
acetylene-powered
headlight brass horn with
rubber squeeze bulb
kerosene-powered
sidelight
solid rubber
tire
starting handle shock absorber
wooden wheel
1885–86 1903–30 1930s Volkswagen Beetle
The four-wheeled car The Ford Model T Volkswagen’s
Gottlieb Daimler The US car manufacturer Henry “compact car”
makes improvements Ford begins production of the Developed in
to the engine and adds mass-market Model T. By 1927, Germany, the
a fourth wheel to the some 15 million cars have been “people’s car”
body, producing the produced, thanks to Ford’s marks the rise
first modern car. moving assembly lines. of the affordable,
fuel-efficient car.
1889–90 1890s–early 1900s 1940s–50s 1997–present
Front-mounted engines Early electric cars The rise of the luxury car Hybrid cars
René Panhard and Émile Not all cars are Car makers look for cleaner,
developed with gasoline Brands such as Rolls cheaper ways to fuel cars.
Levassor of France are engines. Some 28 Royce and Cadillac
the first to build entire percent were using become bywords for Toyota Prius
cars for sale and to put electricity by 1900. the most luxurious
the engine at the front. cars for sale.
Panhard et Levassor Dos-a-Dos Rolls Royce Silver Dawn
333
1905 1906 1907
,,
THE ETERNAL
MYSTERY OF THE
WORLD IS ITS
,,COMPREHENSIBILITY.
Albert Einstein, in the Franklin Institute Journal, March 1936
German-born Albert Einstein became one of the world’s most famous The ruins of the San Francisco City Life for Romanian peasants was
scientists after the development of his Special Theory of Relativity. Hall after the 1906 earthquake. harsh and many wanted land reform.
IN RUSSIA, DISCONTENT WITH THE equation E=mc2. In 1921 he would province of Bengal, joining SAN FRANSISCO EARTHQUAKE PEASANT UNREST THAT HAD BEEN
CZAR, NICHOLAS II, had been receive a Nobel Prize for his East Bengal and Assam, with a SPREADING throughout the
growing, and there were calls for a scientific contributions. capital in Dhaka. This move was 25,000 BUILDINGS countryside in Romania
constitutional monarchy. This was attacked as an attempt to stifle DESTROYED culminated in a revolt in 1907.
compounded by the humiliating In India, the British viceroy Lord the nationalist movement, This was fueled by land issues,
defeat in the Russo–Japanese Curzon (1859–1925) was facing which had strong support 450–700 PEOPLE as the peasants were forced into
War (see 1904). Protests spread increased nationalist opposition. throughout Bengal. DIED exploitative contracts, meaning
around the country. In February, He decided to partition the many farmers had to live in
Nicholas promised to set up an $350 MILLION poverty. As the rioting spread
elected assembly, but this did OF DAMAGE through villages, up to 10,000
nothing to stop the unrest. Finally, people were killed before it was
the military joined in, and June SITUATED ON ONE OF THE WORLD’S suppressed by the military.
saw a mutiny by the crew of the MOST ACTIVE FAULT LINES—the
battleship Potemkin. By October, San Andreas, which runs for In Southeast Asia, Cambodia
Nicholas promised a constitution 810 miles (1,300km)—the city of had clawed back some of its
and an elected legislature, but this San Francisco is susceptible to western provinces from Thailand
was insufficient for the protesters, earthquakes. By 1906, people in due to French pressure. By 1863,
who organized themselves into the growing city were used to the France had established a strong
soviets (revolutionary councils). earth moving—there had been presence in Cambodia, eventually
One of the leaders, Leon Trotsky recorded quakes in 1836, 1865, restricting the Cambodian king’s
(1879–1940), was jailed. Although 1868, and 1892—but nothing had powers and installing a governor.
the protests continued, anti- been done to make the city of This paved the way for colonization
revolutionary forces finally 400,000 people better prepared. by the French, but angered
suppressed what became known On April 18, San Francisco bore Cambodian nationalists. The
as the Russian Revolution of the brunt of what was later resistance was quelled by 1907.
1905. The following year, Nicholas estimated to be a 7.8 magnitude
implemented reforms, the earthquake, while people as far The French in Thailand
Fundamental Laws, which afield as Los Angeles and Nevada A 19th-century French gunboat,
included the creation of an also felt shaking. The quake armed with a Hotchkiss Cannon,
elected legislature, or Duma. lasted less than a minute, but it patrols the waters of the Chao
wreaked damage that would take Phraya River in Bangkok, Thailand.
In Switzerland, the German years to repair, as buildings
physicist Albert Einstein collapsed and many caught fire
(1879–1955) had received his throughout the city.
doctorate and international
acclaim for his publications. The In India, the All India Muslim
most influential was known as League was established—initially
the Special Theory of Relativity, with the support of the British
which explained the relationship government—with the aim of
between mass and energy in the protecting the rights of Muslims.
Some 3,000 delegates attended its
Film poster first meeting on December 30. By
The film Battleship Potemkin 1913 it had joined the growing call
(1925), made by the Russian director for self-rule in India.
Sergei Eisenstein, dramatized the
1905 mutiny of the ship’s crew.
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334
1908 1909
,,
ONE DAY MY MORTAL
,,BODY WILL TURN TO DUST,
BUT THE TURKISH REPUBLIC
WILL STAND FOREVER.
Mustafa Kemel Ataturk, first president of Turkey, 1926
An engraving in the Italian newspaper La Domenica del Corriere, from February 1908, depicts the assassination of
Charles I, king of Portugal. He was murdered during a period of increased calls for a republican government.
PORTUGAL WAS CONVULSED BY outcry and calls for reforms. Ottoman suzerainty and one of the Sultan Mehmed V controlled Egypt. Although they
REVOLUTION following the Belgium’s answer to these Young Turks’ aims was to reclaim The 35th Ottoman sultan, Mehmed V were initially seen as “liberal,”
assassination of its king, Charles I demands was to make the the territory. After securing (1844–1918), was effectively a puppet many of their policies were
(1863–1908), in February. Already territory an official colony and Russia’s support, Austria– for the Young Turks’ Committee of considered repressive, especially
a highly unpopular monarch, he rule it from Brussels, ensuring Hungary annexed Bosnia– Union and Progress. elsewhere in the empire. Much of
made matters worse by deciding the continued supply of Congolese Herzegovina. This move the anger lay in the Young Turks’
to appoint his own prime minister products. But the brutal immediately angered nearby FOLLOWING THE SUCCESSFUL nationalism, which meant they
—bypassing parliament in the conditions persisted, and the Serbia, which called for a section REBELLION BY THE YOUNG TURKS wanted to push a Turkish identity
process. Events took a violent turn population dropped from an of Bosnia–Herzegovina that would the previous year, in 1909 the at the expense of the many large
on February 1 when Charles and estimated 20–30 million in 1884 give it access to the Adriatic Sea. Committee of Union and ethnic groups throughout the
his eldest son, Lúis Filipe, were to around 8.5 million by 1911. Russia was soon caught in the Progress—the group’s political Ottoman world, such as the Arabs
shot while they were traveling in a middle of what would later be wing—had taken control of the and Slavs. However, they did
carriage in Lisbon. Charles was Meanwhile, Austria–Hungary known as the Bosnian Crisis. levers of power within the implement some progressive
succeeded by his son, Manuel II also reconfigured its colonial At first it sought to secure some Ottoman Empire—something reforms, such as secularizing
(1889–1932), who managed to relationships—in its case with concessions for Serbia, but it later they would maintain for the next the legal system and improving
survive on the throne for just a Bosnia–Herzegovina, which it bowed to the demands of couple of years, despite internal education, including allowing
couple of years before being had already occupied (see 1878). Austria–Hungary and its allies. disputes. The Young Turks had women better access to
overthrown (see 1910). It had become worried about the During this period, Bulgaria’s wanted to force the sultan to schooling. They also wanted
implications of the Young Turk Prince Ferdinand (see 1887)— restore the constitution, and to limit the amount of foreign
In Africa, the Congo Free State Revolution underway in the whose role as leader was not yet once this was accomplished Abdul influence throughout the
(see 1884) was abolished and neighboring Ottoman Empire (see recognized by Russia and many Hamid II (r. 1876–1909) ruled as a empire in areas such as
Belgium’s government 1909). Austria–Hungary was other European countries—took constitutional monarch, although Bosnia–Herzegovina (see 1908).
established the Belgian Congo. concerned that its power in the advantage of the crisis to proclaim only briefly—he was deposed on
The Free State had been run by a Balkans might be undermined Bulgarian independence from April 27. They then proceeded to MUSTAFA KEMEL
private company with Belgian because, technically, Bosnia– the faltering Ottoman empire. make his brother, Mehmed V ATATURK (1881–1938)
King Leopold II (1835–1909) Herzegovina was still under (r. 1909–1918), the new sultan.
ruling over it personally. Africans Having been involved with
working in the Free State provided GERMAN Prague RUSSIAN Many of the Young Turks had the Young Turk Revolution
the company with valuable EMPIRE EMPIRE been students and members of of 1908, Mustafa Ataturk
rubber and ivory. However, Krakow the Ottoman intelligentsia and led the Turkish national
reports of the appalling labor Munich Lviv they organized themselves while movement in the Turkish
conditions led to an international living in Europe and British- War of Independence. When
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY the Republic of Turkey was
KEY established in 1923 he
Vienna Bratislava became its first president.
The Kingdom of Hungary Salzburg Budapest
The Austrian Empire Milan Ljubljana Szeged
Venice Trieste Belgrade
Bosnia–Herzegovina
Fiume (Rijeka) ROMANIA
Border of Austria–Hungary Bucharest
Pula
The Austro–Hungarian Empire BULGARIA
In 1908, Austria–Hungary was eager Adriatic Sea Sarajevo
to assert its control over the Balkan
states of Bosnia and Herzegovina in I TA LY Split SERBIA
order to prevent the Ottoman Empire
from taking the territory. Mostar
ALBANIA
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1910 1911
,, ,,IT’S BETTER TO DIE UPON
YOUR FEET THAN TO LIVE
UPON YOUR KNEES!
Emiliano Zapata, leader during the Mexican Revolution
Emiliano Zapata was one of the leaders involved in the fight to oust Porfirio Díaz from office and put in place a Imperial officials flee from Tientsin during the Chinese Revolution, which
revolutionary government led by Franscisco Madero. Zapata was instrumental in organizing guerrilla troops. precipitated the end of the Qing dynasty, rulers of China since the 1600s.
A CENTURY AFTER ITS FIRST the 1910 election, reneging on his in for attacks from the right and 6000 Manchus’ days were numbered.
REVOLUTION (see 1810), Mexico promise for fair elections. Madero the left as groups splintered from In the US, exiled revolutionary
was once again caught up in the escaped to Texas and began to the revolutionary movement. This THE NUMBER leader Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925)
throes of political change. Liberal organize an uprising for political fighting spilled over OF DIAMONDS had heard about the events in
reformers had begun to resent November 20, the anniversary of into violence, with warfare IN GEORGE V’S China and returned home. He was
Porfirio Díaz’s political machine the previous Mexican revolution. continuing for decades. CROWN elected provisional president of
(see 1876) and the Regeneration It was not a large rebellion, but the country, although prime
movement was formed. Members involved small towns being In East Asia, China invaded EVENTS IN CHINA TOOK A minister Yuan Shikai (1859–1916)
of the group were often jailed, and attacked by pockets of guerrilla Tibet once again, trying to assert DRAMATIC TURN AS THE QING had been given full power by the
the publication of their newspaper groups, which the army was able its claim to rule the territory. DYNASTY—which had been in imperial court. The two struck a
was suppressed. In 1906, they to suppress. However, by the This invasion came after British power for more than 260 years— deal, although Yuan would try to
published a manifesto calling for following year, the revolutionary attempts to occupy Lhasa in faced a rebellion. Despite its make himself emperor in 1915;
a one-term presidency and militias—many of them peasant 1904, which were fueled by fears longevity, many Chinese always his efforts ended in failure three
reforms to land—the return of farmers—led by Francisco that Tibet could fall under the considered the ruling Manchus months before he died in 1916.
land confisicated by the Díaz “Pancho” Villa (1877–1932) and influence of Russia. This was as foreigners. They were also
regime to its rightful owners—and Emiliano Zapata (1879–1919), followed by a 1907 treaty between resentful at the growing number Meanwhile, in India, the British
education. Díaz eventually allowed stepped up their attacks against China and Britain that recognized of Westerners, who had been were trying to display their
the development of an opposition, the army. Díaz surrendered his China’s sovereignty over Tibet. permitted to move inland from the colonial might with an enormous
and other groups emerged. office under the Treaty of Ciudad Tibet did not consider it valid, port cities. The 20th century had durbar, or assembly, in Delhi.
However, Díaz jailed one popular Juarez, and by November and the Tibetans were able to been full of unrest for China (see This was to mark the visit of
presidential candidate, Francisco 1911 Madero was installed as use the revolution that began 1900) and this continued to grow King George V and Queen
Madero (1873–1913), on the eve of president. However, he now came in China the following year (see as revolutionary groups began Mary. During the visit, the king
1911) as an opportunity to drive to form around the country. In announced that the colonial
October, a revolutionary plot was capital would be moved from
out the Chinese. uncovered and the members Calcutta to Delhi. Around the
For nearby Korea, arrested and executed. Soldiers in same time, the unpopular policy
Wuchang who knew of the plot of partition in Bengal was ended
the consequences of the decided to push forward with a (see 1905), and the territory was
Russo–Japanese war revolt; they led a mutiny on reunited. Over the following years,
(see 1904) had severe October 10, which soon spread
ramifications. It had throughout the country, and
allowed Japan to use the rebels declared China a
the peninsula for military republic. They were met with
operations and in the little resistance because many
resulting Treaty of officials accepted that the
Portsmouth, in 1905,
Korea was made a Sun Yat-sen
Japanese protectorate, The cover of the magazine Je sais
and by 1910 had been tout shows a picture of Sun Yat-sen,
officially annexed. president of the Chinese Republic.
Casa Mila
Designed by the Catalan
architect Antoni Gaudi
(1852–1956), Barcelona’s
iconic Casa Mila was
constructed between
1905 and 1910.
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336
1912 1913
An illustration of General Lyautey, A photograph captures the moment when suffragist campaigner Emily Davison
the French governor of Morocco. is trampled by George V’s horse at Epsom on Derby Day.
600WORLD PRICE OF RUBBER ($/TON) THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE FACED THE TREATY OF LONDON OF 1913 only receiving a small part.
FURTHER UPHEAVAL with the OFFICIALLY SIGNALED THE END This internal division opened
500 First Balkan War. The conflict of the First Balkan War. However, a vacuum for the Turks. The
ended with the Turks losing the Balkan League—Serbia, Young Turk government in
400 Albania, which became Bulgaria, Montenegro, and charge of the Ottoman Empire
independent, and Macedonia, Greece—that had challenged was not satisfied with the
300 which was to be shared among the Ottoman Empire soon outcome of the Treaty of
the Balkan allies (see 1913). began to disintegrate. Bulgaria London and it mounted
200 attacked Serbia in June because another invasion, this time
In March 1912, Morocco was of a disagreement over the recapturing Adrianople
100 established as a French division of Macedonia, although (modern Edirne) on July 20.
protectorate under the Treaty the fighting ended a couple of However, by this point it
0 of Fez. The year before the new months later with a Serbian– had lost almost all of its
1840 1870 1911 sultan Abd al-Hafiz (c.1875–1937), Greek alliance. Greece and Balkan territory.
besieged in his palace, had asked Serbia would receive most
Rubber boom the French to help him suppress of Macedonia with Bulgaria In Britain, the suffragist
Technological innovations, especially internal dissent. battle to give women the
the tires used on the increasingly right to vote (see panel,
popular motorcar, fueled a rise in left) took a violent turn
the use—and price—of rubber. as campaigner Emily
Davison (1872–1913)
a new part of Delhi was built, WOMEN’S RIGHT TO VOTE threw herself in front of ,,Coup d’etat
with a monumental Viceroy’s King George V’s horse An illustration from Le Petit Journal
house and government buildings By the early 20th century, the fight for women to be given the vote during the Epsom Derby in June. depicts the murder of Nazim Pasha,
designed by the leading British had gained momentum all over the world. Australia had followed The horse, Anmer, struck Ottoman minister of war, during the
architect Edwin Lutyens New Zealand (see 1893) by giving women suffrage in 1902. In Davison’s chest and she was First Balkan War.
(1869–1944). However, such northern Europe, Finland had given women the right to vote in knocked down and remained
displays did little to quell the 1906, while Norway followed in 1913. While, women suffragists in unconscious for four days, until moving assembly lines that he
growing nationalist sentiment. Britain would have to wait until after World War I, countries such she died of her injuries on June 8. had installed in his Michigan
as Russia and the US (see above—states with full suffrage are It remains unclear if her intention factory. This improvement meant
In Europe, Marie Curie gold) also began to peel back voting restrictions around this time. was to commit suicide. A public that a completed chassis (car
(1867–1934), a Polish-born funeral was held for her in body) could be made in just over
French scientist, won her London on 14 June. an hour and a half, while his
second Nobel Prize, this time competitors took hours longer.
in chemistry for her work on By 1913, Henry Ford (1863–
radioactivity. She and her 1947), the head of the US Ford HISTORY IS
husband, Pierre (1859–1906), Motor Company, which he set up
had been the recipients of the in 1903, had sold nearly 250,000 ,,MORE OR LESS
1903 Nobel Prize for Physics. Model T cars. Although other
companies were making cars, BUNK. IT’S
In 1911, the world price of they were far too expensive for TRADITION.
rubber was beginning to soar, average consumers. Ford wanted
fueled by its use in new to make them more affordable so Henry Ford, US industrialist,
technologies, especially in the he began production of the basic in an interview in the Chicago
production of automobile tires. Model T. He also developed new Tribune, May 25, 1916
Rubber came from the sap of and more efficient production
trees that grew in the forests techniques through the use of
of Brazil, Southeast Asia, and
West Africa.
DeAcmreemuancbdheseresn1t’4sheRexoSDpaoebelucdedttecihhtmoieoPmbnCoeelhesrinfi2er9sseSt upRnreepYsauidtb-elsincetnof JaCnounagrryes8sAMfforaerisrmcMtcaaehnobdr3Nloii0snachctFSiorpooernuunoanttchldehecAartfonrTridcraeatSeapstayinnoifshFez FepbrMreusa(ibadd.ree1ynr8ot27F2a3rs)Masnaecsxiiinscacaonted JuEnmGeie4loyBrDgraeitviVsis’hsoshnuotfrrfsareamgapetltetthedebEypKsionmg Derby JuBnaelk2a9nSWecaornbdegins OcPtaocnboamemrpa1le0ctaendal
May 30 Treaty oFfirLsotnBdaolnkaenndWsar
DDeucrebmarbcmeKorrianoDrgnkeaGsltheitoihonreDgoMeefocVneitgmsobilnieadredOpeeucnltaedrreensce AcTprirtuaiilns1eicm4lsiaLniinuedkxresunRroMyvnoSyitasge FOicrtsWot baBrearblke8agnins diCscountJhsguesrnerOeestfst1oom8rmmAeasernatusEbnmtdoeprire SterpetaeOtmyttkosbinimeggnraden2od9mEbmPeoeptfawiBrceeeuelangnadria DeciMenamtosrstoboedermurCcb1eolysmcFabompreraodlfntavsiycntingotroies
337
7
TECHNOLOGY
AND
SUPERPOWERS
1914–2011
Technological progress brought the wonders of space flight and
the internet, but radical projects to transform society failed.
Despite two World Wars, the human population quadrupled,
creating new economic and environmental challenges.
1914
Young German men cheer as they march down Pariser Platz in Berlin. Many
Germans reacted enthusiastically to being called up for war.
EARLY IN THE YEAR, ATTENTION Belgium 0.1
WAS FOCUSED ON CENTRAL
AMERICA. In January, the first ship Serbia 0.4
completed its passage through
the Panama Canal. This amazing COUNTRIES Britain 0.7
feat of American engineering cost
around $300 million to construct Austria 1.1
and claimed the lives of around
4,000 workers. France 3.7
3.8
In April, the US intervened in Germany
Mexico’s civil war by sending a
force of Marines to occupy the Russia 14
port of Veracruz, which prevented
President Victoriano Huerta from 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
receiving arms shipments from TROOPS (IN MILLIONS)
Germany. The US held the port for
six months, contributing to action. Although the Serbians Army sizes at the outbreak of war
Huerta’s fall from power in July. were prepared to make Russia’s army was huge, but it was
concessions, Austria–Hungary poorly equipped and badly organized.
Meanwhile, Europe began its declared war on July 28. In Britain had a relatively small army,
descent into war. World War I response, Russia began mobilizing and depended on its navy for defense.
was sparked by the assassination its army in support of Serbia.
of Archduke Franz Ferdinand regarded the onset of war
(1863–1914), heir to the Austro– Within a week, all the major with dismay, it was greeted
Hungarian throne, and his wife European powers were at war. by cheering crowds. The
Sophie. They were shot on June 28 Brushing aside last-minute traditionally antimilitarist and
during an official visit to Sarajevo peace initiatives by Germany’s internationalist German Social
in Austrian-ruled Bosnia. The fatal Kaiser Wilhelm and Russia’s Czar Democrat Party rallied to the
shots were fired by 19-year-old Nicholas II (1868–1918), German war effort, convinced Germany
Bosnian Serb, Gavrilo Princip. military chiefs insisted that had to defend itself against
The Austrian government Germany declare war on Russia. Russian conquest. In France,
blamed Serbia for the Since their military plans most previously antimilitarist
assassinations. Assured of demanded a swift victory in the radicals and socialists adhered
Germany’s full support by Kaiser west as a prelude to defeating to the union sacrée (sacred
Wilhelm II (1859–1941), on July 23 Russia in the east, Germany also union), which called for a political
the Austrians sent an ultimatum declared war on France. truce with prowar parties and
to Serbia. Its demands were Germany did not want to fight the vetoed any strike action. In
intended to be so humiliating that British, but in order to invade the UK, Ulster Protestant
Serbia would reject them, giving France they needed to send an paramilitaries, who had been
the Austrians a pretext for military army through Belgium, whose on the verge of an armed
neutrality was guaranteed by rebellion against the British
Raising the Stars and Stripes Britain. On August 4, after government’s plans for Irish
American soldiers raise the flag over German troops had crossed Home Rule, and their Catholic
the Mexican port of Veracruz. The the Belgian frontier, Britain opponents, the Irish Volunteers,
occupation cost 17 American lives declared war on Germany. volunteered en masse for the
and lasted for six months. Although many people privately British Army.
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,, THE PLUNGE OF CIVILIZATION
,,INTO THIS ABYSS OF BLOOD
AND DARKNESS… IS TOO TRAGIC
FOR ANY WORDS.
Henry James, American author, August 4, 1914
British men line up outside the recruitment office in Southwark Town Hall, London.
Thousands of men from all sections of society volunteered for army service.
In continental Europe, millions English Channel NETHERLANDS KEY 250,000
of men were called up and German advance
dispatched by train to the Antwerp (Aug 2–Sept 5) THE TOTAL
frontiers, while a much smaller The Allies (and NUMBER OF
force of British regular soldiers BELGIUM allied states) BRITISH, FRENCH,
was sent to France as the British Germany AND GERMAN
Expeditionary Force (BEF). Lord Brussels Neutral states CASUALTIES
Kitchener (1850–1916), the British AT THE FIRST
secretary for war, launched a Mons Liège GERMANY BATTLE OF YPRES
drive to recruit volunteers. The
response was overwhelming, Le Cateau was forced to retreat, their
with three-quarters of a million hopes of a swift victory in ruins.
British men enlisted by the end LUXEMBOURG
of September. Most people On the Eastern Front the
expected a short war with high Reims Verdun Russians mobilized more quickly
casualties, and at first this than Germany had anticipated,
expectation seemed justified. Paris but as they advanced into East
Prussia the Russian First and
German troops surged into FRANCE Second Armies were crushed at
Belgium, adopting an official the Battles of Tannenberg and
policy of “Schrecklichkeit” GERMAN INVASION OF FRANCE the Masurian Lakes. The Recruitment poster
(frightfulness). They committed victorious German General Paul British War Secretary Lord
atrocities against the Belgian The German war plan, devised in 1906 by then chief of staff von Hindenburg (1837–1934) and Kitchener’s face adorned
population—in the worst incident Count Alfred von Schlieffen, assumed that, if attacked on two fronts, his chief of staff General Erich recruitment posters that called
674 civilians were massacred at France would concentrate its forces along its eastern border. The Ludendorff (1883–1918) became for volunteers to join up and fight.
Dinant—and laid waste the bulk of the German army was to advance through Belgium and national heroes.
historic city of Louvain, burning Luxembourg, encircling the French armies. The aim was to defeat British Empire. British troops
its famous university library. the French in six weeks, before the Russians could enter the fray. On the Western Front, from from India landed in Turkish-ruled
September through to November, Iraq and seized Basra, while
The BEF experienced its first French launched their own the British and French armies. a series of battles were fought Japan joined the Allies and fought
action at Mons. Unable to resist offensive along the eastern The Germans were also forced to northward into Flanders (see for control of the German
the German onslaught, the British French–German border, but they change their tactics, abandoning pp.467–47). They culminated in concession in China. In Africa,
and French were driven back suffered heavy losses for no gain. their plan to advance to the west the encounters known collectively British troops invaded German
toward Paris. Meanwhile, the By the beginning of September of Paris, and instead marching to as the First Battle of Ypres. With East Africa and South African
the situation was desperate for the east of the city. French army neither side able to inflict a decisive forces attacked German
commander General Joseph blow, the armies dug trenches Southwest Africa—they also put
Joffre (1852–1931) launched a along a line that was to remain down a revolt by the Boers, who
counteroffensive at the Marne, broadly unchanged for three years. had sided with the Germans.
while troops from Paris—some of
whom were carried to the front in Meanwhile, the war was At Christmas, widespread
buses and taxis—attacked the widening into a global conflict. fraternization between opposing
German flank. The German army Ottoman Turkey joined in on the troops along the Western Front
side of Germany, declaring a jihad appalled generals, who feared
Refugees flee Belgium (Muslim holy war) against the their men would lose the will to
Roads in Belgium were lined with fight, but the war continued. By
refugees like these, carrying whatever the end of the year around half a
possessions they could, and fleeing million French and German troops
from the advancing German army. were dead, and a third of the
British men who had arrived in
France in August had been killed.
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1915
A submarine embarks on a mission in the Atlantic. German U-boats terrorized A German airship taking off from its
the seas, attacking both naval and merchant shipping at will. base for a bombing raid on London.
AT THE START OF 1915, THE GREAT On the Western Front, the the French suffered in repeated FRENCH CARVED CLUB Savage attacks
POWERS OF EUROPE remained stalemate continued along offensives throughout the year. Soldiers raiding enemy
locked in a war for which they a double line of trenches that Mass offensives led only to mass BRITISH SPIKED CLUB trenches often carried
had been unprepared. The fighting stretched from the Channel to casualties—over 300,000 British primitive weapons for
had exhausted munition supplies, the Swiss border. Generals and French losses in the autumn GERMAN METAL ROD close-quarters combat.
so to continue the war the assumed that sufficient numbers Champagne-Loos offensive. As well as clubs like these,
On the Eastern Front, the On April 26, Italy signed the they used trench knives,
Chemical warfare of men and shells fighting was far more Treaty of London, committing knuckle dusters, and even
Before the advent of the gas mask, hurled against mobile, and the Russians it to enter the war on the side of spades in savage melees.
troops, such as these French these defenses were forced to retreat from Britain and France. Before the
soldiers, protected themselves from would achieve a Poland and Lithuania. war, Italy had been an ally of airships…through increasingly
a gas attack in any way they could. breakthrough, but Germany and Austria–Hungary, extensive destruction of cities,
they were wrong. In an attempt to so this was a diplomatic coup factory complexes, dockyards….”
combatants had to vastly expand break the deadlock on for the Western Allies. Italy duly This was, in reality, far beyond the
their armaments industries. The British the Western Front, the Germans declared war on Austria on airships’ capacity, but from May 31
Governments became aware attempted their used poison gas for the first May 23, and the fighting on the onward night raids on London
that the war would be won, or first offensive of time at Ypres in April, releasing Italo–Austrian Front quickly and other major cities still
lost, as much in the factories the trench war at lethal chlorine to drift across to descended into the same static managed to cause many civilian
as on the front line. Britain set Neuve Chapelle in the Allied trenches. The first stalemate as on the Western Front. casualties and forced Britain to
up a new Ministry of Munitions, March, with Indian victims were French colonial divert resources from the Western
and in Russia the czarist troops leading troops on April 22, followed two While stalemate persisted on Front to home defense.
government set up a special the assault and days later by soldiers of the First the ground, war in the air
War Industries Committee. The the Canadian Canadian Division. But German developed on a substantial At sea, Germany responded to
French, meanwhile, had to recall Expeditionary Force troops failed to take advantage of scale. Slow-moving aircraft flew an ongoing blockade of its ports
conscripts from the trenches to fighting for the the initial impact of the gas; over enemy trenches taking by the British Royal Navy by
work in factories, their production first time. They Allied soldiers quickly discovered reconnaissance photographs and attempting to impose its own
problems accentuated by the gained a mere 1.2 miles (2km) of means of protection, and the engaged in small-scale bombing blockade on Britain through the
German occupation of industrial ground for 11,000 casualties. The Allies also adopted gas as a missions, while nimbler fighter use of submarines. From February
areas of northeast France. Germans had a similar experience weapon against the Germans. aircraft intercepted them. German U-boats were authorized
attacking at Ypres in April, and to attack merchant shipping in
Away from the battlefield, British home waters without
WOMEN AT WAR Germany’s Zeppelin and Schütte- warning. On May 7, the Cunard
Lanze airships embarked on the liner Lusitania, bound from New
A shortage of manpower meant world’s first long-range bombing York to Liverpool with almost 2,000
that women were recruited into campaign, with Britain as their passengers and crew on board,
a range of jobs traditionally main target. German Navy airship was torpedoed off southern Ireland
reserved for men. By 1918, commander Captain Peter by the submarine U-20. More than
around a third of the 1.7 million Strasser believed that Britain 1,200 people were drowned,
workers in French munitions could be “overcome by means of including 128 Americans citizens.
factories were women, and The attack provoked anti-German
they constituted over half of riots in British cities and a hostile
the total German industrial response in the US. After the
workforce. Women also
replaced men as agricultural
laborers, for example in the
British Women’s Land Army.
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sunk
British troops on the Western Front are silhouetted against the sky, wearing
the steel Brodie helmets that were first introduced in October 1915.
sinking of another passenger liner, Seeking an alternative to the and disease, quickly developed. of a Nation was a runaway box and ten minutes its ambition
Arabic, off Iceland on August 19, costly stalemate on the Western By the time the operation was office success. With the racist surpassed that of any previous
the Germans felt obliged to Front, Britain and France devised abandoned in January 1916, the Ku Klux Klan as its heroes, film. Less controversially,
curtail U-boat attacks in the a plan to crush Germany’s ally Allied forces had suffered almost Griffith’s masterpiece provoked British actor Charlie Chaplin
Atlantic to avoid provoking Turkey. British and French a quarter of a million casualties. protests from African Americans blended slapstick comedy with
the US into entering the war. warships were to sail through the and triggered race riots, but with pathos to achieve stardom in
Success at Gallipoli was a boost a running time of three hours The Tramp.
Fighting a just war Dardanelles Straits into the to Turkish morale, which was
This British recruitment poster uses Sea of Marmara, bringing much needed after the Turkish The ANZACS
the sinking of the Lusitania as the Turkish capital, Third Army had been virtually at Gallipoli
propaganda to prove the justice Constantinople, under their destroyed fighting the Russians An Australian soldier
of the Allied cause. guns. When the naval attack in the Caucasus earlier in the carries a wounded
was made on March 18, year. Claiming that the Armenian colleague at Gallipoli.
however, three battleships population of eastern Turkey was More than 26,000
were sunk and consequently collaborating with the Russians, Australians were killed or
it was decided that the the Turks embarked on a mass wounded in the campaign.
Dardanelles Straits should deportation of Armenians from
be seized before the navy the war zone. The deportation,
could pass through. which was accompanied by
widespread massacres, has since
Allied forces landed at been interpreted as an act of
Gallipoli on April 25, genocide. Between 800,000
including a large contingent and 1.5 million Armenians are
of the Australian and New thought to have died as a result
Zealand Army Corps of Turkish action.
(ANZAC). Faced with tough
Turkish resistance on The second half of 1915 was
difficult terrain, they failed also marked by the terrible
to break out of their landing sufferings of Serbian troops and
zones. Renewed landings at civilians. Serbia stoutly resisted
Suvla Bay in August achieved no Austrian offensives throughout
greater success. Trench warfare, the first year of the war, but in
similar to that in France but with October 1915 its army collapsed
conditions exacerbated by heat in the face of a combined attack
by the Germans, Austrians, and
,, … ACROSS THE RIDGES OF Bulgarians. Britain and France
THE GALLIPOLI PENINSULA landed troops at Salonika in
Greece, intending to aid the Serbs,
,,LIE SOME OF THE SHORTEST but they were too late. Serbia was
overrun, and as many as 200,000
PATHS TO A TRIUMPHANT Serbians died in a winter retreat
PEACE. through Kosovo into Albania.
Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, urging the case for a While the war was being fought
renewed offensive at Gallipoli, June 5, 1915 in Europe, Hollywood was
establishing itself as the center
of movie production. Director
D.W. Griffith’s civil war epic Birth
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(NaSJmSououilbutyihtah9w) AGceafesrptricmtAuafarnreniAtcdruaobgoyupsst W4wGairtehsrdamrwaawanssfrRoocumcsusPpiaoSynleasspnotdceimalbisetrs 5mIenetteirnngaectniaodlnlstSaNoefloiwpcprhtaeeorrmlsaoosbfneIRaIrlua8cssossCimuazmanmrefaosnrcdes SCehplaateummnpcbahgeOonrcfet2feoa5nbnAsedilrvlafieo6etsrsLAcioeunossstarott–aGcekrSmearnbia OecnxtueocrbsueetreEd1dh2ibnietyABlhBplGrleCiiietnleairggsdvmihueepamlsrlncissafooprneedrs NCohvaeemnmpdbsageinnrec6ooFsfrtfeleynnfcsahiivluere Decemfboerbsceieersg7ienAdMnbgeylsoTo–upIrnokdtsaiaamnt iKaut 3 4 3Decembeevtrarco1uo9apAtsilolbinGeeadgfrlilnoimpoli
1914–2011 TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS
THE GREAT BRITAIN
WAR London
THE CONFLICT THAT CHANGED THE NATURE OF WAR FOREVER
World War I (Aug 1914–Nov 1918) was also known as the Great War. Although The Western Front English
it was a global conflict, the focus was Europe, where the Central Powers— Millions of troops were Channel
Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey—fought an alliance led by France, compressed into a restricted
Britain, and Russia. The US entered the war on the Anglo-French side in 1917. area of northeastern France and
western Belgium. It was here that
most of the largest and bloodiest
battles of the war were fought.
From the outset, the decisive arena of conflict was by the Germans at Verdun and by the Western KEY
Germany’s Western Front. The Germans invaded Allies at the Somme—without breaking the Front line 1914–1916
neutral Belgium and Luxembourg, overcoming stalemate. Up to 1918, only a voluntary withdrawal Hindenburg Line
Belgian resistance at Liege and Antwerp. French by the Germans to the fortified Hindenburg Line Front line Mar 1918
and British forces were driven into retreat significantly changed the position of the armies. Furthest extent of German advance 1918
southward after clashes at Mons and Charleroi. At Armistice Nov 1918
the Marne, however, French commander General From March 1918 a series of large-scale Major battle
Joseph Joffre rallied his forces for a counter- German offensives broke through Allied defenses
offensive and the Germans were pushed back. and advanced the front line toward Paris. But,
aided by the arrival of US troops, the Allies halted
After a desperate struggle at Ypres in the fall of the Germans at the Marne. A successful British
1914, the rival armies dug into trenches that offensive at Amiens in August initiated the
stretched from the North Sea to Switzerland. “Hundred Days," a series of advances that pushed
Massive resources were committed to offensives— the fighting back close to the German border.
A WAR ON ALL FRONTS FINLAND
On the Eastern Front, Germany and
Austria-Hungary faced the forces of AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
the Russian Empire. From the battle
of Tannenberg in August 1914, the SWEDEN
German Army established an
ascendancy over the Russians, but the Baltic Sea RUSSIAN Belgrade ROMANIA
Austro-Hungarians enjoyed no such EMPIRE
superiority, suffering defeat in the Bucharest
Russian Brusilov offensive in 1916.
Revolution in Russia in 1917 led to the Riga SERBIA
country’s exit from the war, and a EAST
humiliating peace treaty with Germany PRUSSIA Memel Sarajevo
signed at Brest-Litovsk in March 1918.
Smolensk
The entry of the Turkish Ottoman
Empire into the war as an ally of Tannenberg Minsk
Germany in the fall of 1914 spread the Aug 23–30, 1914
conflict to the Middle East. An Anglo- Masurian MONTENEGRO Sofia B U LGA R I A
French bid to attack the Turkish capital, GERMANY Lakes
Constantinople, failed dismally at Gallipoli. Sep 9–14, 1914 Brest-
Litovsk
Bulgaria also joined the Central Warsaw
Powers, helping to crush Serbia in 1915 Kiev
and Romania the following year. Allied POLAND
troops based at Salonica in northern
Greece from 1915 remained largely Cracow GALICIA Adriatic Gallipoli
passive until the final months of the Sea Durazzo Apr 25, 1915 – Jan 9, 1916
war, when their advance northward in Gorlice
September 1918 helped deliver a decisive May 2–10, 1915 ALBANIA Salonica
blow to the collapsing Central Powers.
Budapest MOLDAVIA Odessa
AUSTRIA–HUNGARY
Belgrade Ionian GREECE Aegean Sea
Sea
SERBIA ROMANIA Black Sea
THE EASTERN FRONT KEY THE BALKANS Serbia KEY
Fought mostly in East resisted attacks by Salonican front Sep 1918
Prussia, Poland, and Front line 1914–15 Austria-Hungary, but was
Galicia, the war between (limit of Russian advance) overrun once Germany Austrian, German, and
Russia and the Central and Bulgaria joined in. Bulgarian advance 1915
Powers brought Russia Limit of Austro-German The Allies landed troops
to political and military advance 1915–16 at Salonica and Gallipoli, Retreating Serbs 1915
collapse. Peace terms and many retreating
enabled Germany to Brusilov offensive 1916 Serbs joined the Allies Allied offensive Sep 1918
occupy Russian territory. at Salonica.
Armistice line Dec 1917 Romanian offensive
Aug–Sep 1916
German penetration
into Russia by 1918
Major battle
344
North Sea NETHERLANDS 5,000
4,000
GERMANY
3,000
FRONTLINE COMBAT AIRCRAFT
Strait of Dover Calais Ostend Antwerp 2,000
Passchendaele
Lys Sept 28–Oct 10, 1914 1,000
Jul 31–Nov 6, 1917
Apr 9–29, 1918 Brussels
Ypres
Loos BELGIUM
Oct 19–Nov 22
Jun 7–14, 1915 1914
Arras Messines
Apr 9–May 16, 1917 Jun 7–14, 1917
Somme Mons Namur Liège 0 US
France Britain Germany Italy
Jul 1–Nov 18, 1916 Aug 23, 1914 Charleroi Aug 4–16, 1914
COUNTRIES
Amiens Aug 21, 1914
War in the skies KEY
Aug 8–11, 1918 Cambrai Military aviation expanded 1914
massively through the war. In 1918
Nov 20–Dec 7, 1917 August 1914, around 500 aircraft
Albert were deployed by all combatants
combined. By the end of the war
LUXEMBOURG some 12,000 military aircraft
were in action at the front.
Sedan
Chemin des Dames 6% 4%
Other combat- Poison
Apr 16–May 9, 1917 related deaths gas
Rheims Verdun
Feb 21–Dec 18, 1916
Argonne 10% 60%
Rifle fire Artillery
Sep 26–
Chateau-Thierry First Marne Nov 11, 1918
Paris Jul 18, 1918 Sep 5–12, 1914 20%
Machine
FRANCE Second Marne St Mihiel gun fire
Jul 15–Aug 6, 1918 Sep 12–19, 1918
Nancy
RUSSIAN SWITZERLAND War casualties
EMPIRE The total military death toll in
World War I was around 9.7 million.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Germany suffered the heaviest loss
at over 2 million, followed by Russia
(1.8 million), and France (1.4 million).
Bolzano Caporetto
Oct 24 –Nov 19
Trento Vittorio Veneto Ison1917
Oct 24 –Nov 3, 1918e River
zo
Black Sea River Piave Piav 11 battles SWITZERLAND
Constantinople Jun 15–23, 1918 of the Isonzo
Verona Jun 1915–Sep 1917
Venice Trieste
ITALY Adriatic 40 The cost of war
Sea The huge financial
cost of the war
OTTOMAN
EMPIRE 30 became a major
issue in the postwar
period, when Britain
and France sought
20 reparations
payments from
Germany to pay
debts owed by them
10 to the US.
0
MAJOR COUNTRIES INVOLVED IN THE WAR
Central Powers THE ITALIAN FRONT An ally of Germany and KEY COST IN US DOLLARS (BILLIONS)
advance Sep Austria-Hungary before the war, Italy remained Italian advance Austria-Hungary
1916 –Jan 1917 neutral in 1914, and the following year entered the Britain
conflict on the side of Britain and France. A series Austro-German France
Major battle of ineffective Italian offensives on the mountainous advance Germany
border with Austria at the Isonzo River were Italy
followed by headlong retreat after a crushing Allied offensive Russia
defeat at the battle of Caporetto. With British and US
French reinforcements, the Italians held firm at Front line Sep 1917
the River Piave in summer 1918.
Front line Dec
1917–Oct 1918
Major battle
345
1916
This Irish Republican barricade was set up across Townsend Street in Dublin during
the Easter Rising to delay the advance of British troops fighting to retake the city.
A YEAR OF BATTLES OF In March, Mexican general Prussian In April, Britain faced a revolt Russia’s most successful
UNPRECEDENTED SCALE opened Pancho Villa (1878–1923), the wappen, or against its rule in Ireland. The offensive of World War I, almost
with a German offensive against flamboyant leader of one of the Irish Republican Brotherhood destroying the Austrian army in
the French city of Verdun in revolutionary armies engaged in helmet sought German support for a Galicia. The Austrians were only
February (see pp.344–45). Mexico’s ongoing civil war, made a plate nationalist uprising, but rescued by the arrival of German
German commander-in-chief Erich cross-border raid into the US. Germany’s attempt to supply troops to support them. Brusilov’s
von Falkenhayn (1861–1922) aimed His attack on Columbus, New German helmet rifles to the rebels was initial success was based on
to “bleed the French army white” Mexico, was rebuffed by the US The German spiked Pickelhaube intercepted by the British. subtle tactics—surprise and the
by drawing it into costly combat. Cavalry. The provocation was too helmet was replaced in the course of rapid movement of shock troops
The French reacted as he had great for the US to ignore, and 1916 by the metal Stahlhelm, which Republicans still went ahead to exploit breakthroughs.
hoped by sending reinforcements, President Woodrow Wilson provided better protection. with the uprising on Easter
decimated by the German heavy (1856–1924) ordered General Monday, occupying key Unfortunately, the British did not
guns. German losses also John Pershing (1860–1948) to This disaster was offset by the buildings in Dublin, and learn from their Russian allies.
mounted up, as French resistance lead an expedition into Mexico. Arab revolt against Turkish proclaiming a Provisional On July 1, General Douglas Haig
stiffened under the inspirational Around 5,000 US troops fought rule. Encouraged by Britain, Government of the Irish Republic.
leadership of General Philippe engagements with both Villa Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca The British sent troops to Dublin, GENERAL DOUGLAS
Pétain (1856–1975). Repeated supporters and Mexican (1854–1931), launched an uprising and after five days of fighting the HAIG (1861–1928)
German offensives continued government forces before in June. Arab forces defeated the rebels surrendered. Fifteen
until mid-July, after which French withdrawing in January 1917. Turkish garrisons of Mecca, republican leaders were executed Cavalry officer Douglas Haig
counteroffensives succeeded into Medina, and other towns in the after a secret trial by a British performed well as a corps
December. Little territory changed Britain suffered a military Hejaz, and Hussein proclaimed military court. Although few Irish commander in the first year
hands and both sides suffered disaster in the spring in himself Sultan of the Arabs. The had supported the rebellion, the of World War I. As British
around 400,000 casualties. Mesopotamia (Iraq), then part of British sent T.E. Lawrence executions stimulated a wave of army commander-in-chief,
the Turkish Ottoman Empire. The (1888–1935), a junior officer pro-Republican sentiment. his assaults on German
Meanwhile, the US was fighting area had been occupied by British in Cairo, to act as adviser to At the end of May, the German defenses at the Somme in
a war on a quite different scale. forces from India. From December Hussein’s son Feisal, the most High Seas Fleet and the Royal 1916 and Passchendaele in
active leader of the revolt. Navy’s Grand Fleet met in the 1917 resulted in huge losses.
1915, Anglo–Indian troops Between them, Lawrence and Battle of Jutland in the North In 1918, Haig held firm in
had been under siege by Feisal organized an effective Sea. The British spotted a sortie the face of the formidable
Turkish forces at military force. They used guerrilla by the German fleet and sent a far German spring offensives,
Kut-al-Amara, between tactics to push for the liberation of superior naval force to attack it. then presided over a string
Basra and Baghdad. Relief Arabs throughout the Turkish- German Admiral Reinhard Scheer of British victories.
forces failed to fight their ruled Middle East. (1863–1928) was caught by
way through to Kut, so, surprise, but British Admiral John
facing starvation, they were Jellicoe (1859–1935) failed to
forced to surrender. Taken profit from the advantage. The
prisoner, the British and German warships were able to
Indian soldiers endured make a fighting withdrawal
terrible hardship, less than to port, while inflicting heavier
half surviving captivity. losses than they suffered. Despite
a disappointing performance, the
Bandit leader Royal Navy had confirmed its
Originally a bandit chief, superiority—it was the German
Pancho Villa became a key fleet that had retreated.
figure in the Mexican In June, General Aleksei
Revolution and Mexico’s Brusilov (1853–1926) mounted
clash with the US in 1916.
JacnoufmraoprmlyeGt9eaAelllvliiapecoJsulaiSanteucirooavnnricsyec2rAi4pctMtioiinnlittrianordByurciteFasienlabuFrnruecanhrcyohf2fae1tnGVseeivrredmuaangnasinst MaBraUckhSer6waaNprepswoeitncortneedtarMyadreaccfhltGae9errerGPmseowarrmntaursaghnouinyepssPeosrteuiAzgpeanrlaaitlgio2an4inaIlsnitsDtBsursibttliaisngh,eIrruuipslehrising Apfortriolce3T0uinrAkKnsugtlos–uIrnrdeinadners MaAyuTs1rtae4rgniaatiilnnasoutnoIcftfaheleynssiveMaaygpr1oeM6setiBSmwdyrdaeikltrneeatdisEnpi–valPaiassnitnicodbsoneFt torwaf neceen JuHnuAesr5fsareboSliamnhiunadndTreceiufchprlkieaninrsgedhsAernruaclbee,Revolt
3 4 6FebrCuaaurcyasse1ui6zseRosuffrsEfoesrmnizasunFTirvueuePrbmkhreiulyiaprpye2P5éotFfardienenftecahnkseGeseoncfoeVnreatrrlodlunMarchC9olMPuamenxbcicuhason, VNgieellnwaerMraaeildxsicoUSpuGPneeMinrtaisevrhreacinehligxJn1potl4eoehdanMidtesioxnico Apsruilrr2e9nIdraiersrmhtyroeiBnbreDiltsuisbhlin May 3l–eDa1d2uebBrlrisnitoiEsfahssuetpexprercueupstrseiesding May 31cal–naJdsuhGnbeienarm1tintlBacenoronitflfciselJhueusttsilvaend aApcptr,oJevuxepnsaeNn3daiUtnioSgnCaarolmnDgeeBrdfeJerfsuunosnssrbceieeleog4svinRosuffisnesniGasanivliecia JFurenneoc7fhFAsottrrVotenVtrogaduGupxenori,fnamtllasns
,, SUCCESS WILL COME
TO THE SIDE THAT HAS THE
,,LAST MAN STANDING.
General Philippe Pétain, 1916
French soldiers arriving at Verdun in eastern France. The standard tour of duty
at the front was eight days—all a man could be expected to stand.
launched a massive offensive at months, introducing tanks as CASUALTIES (IN THOUSANDS)600 Quartermaster-General Erich
the Somme (see pp.344–45). soon as this new weapon was Ludendorff (1865–1937) were
Rather than destroy enemy available, and allowing his 450 given supreme command of the
defenses, the eight-day artillery subordinates to experiment German army and control of the
bombardment had alerted the with varied tactics including 300 entire German war effort. In order
Germans to an imminent attack. night attacks. But there was no to wring every drop of productivity
British troops marched forward breakthrough, and the only result 150 out of German industry, they
in lines, because the generals was attrition—a gradual wearing created a state-directed economy
believed their conscripted troops down of the armies. 0 that has been dubbed “war
were incapable of executing more British French German socialism.” By contrast, their
intelligent tactics, and were mown By the second half of 1916, the Austrian allies were losing their
down by German machine guns. strain of two years of warfare had Casualties of the Somme offensive will to fight. The death of Emperor
Almost 20,000 men were killed, left countries with the option of The Somme was one of the bloodiest Franz Josef I (1830–1916) in
the heaviest losses ever either ratcheting up their war battles of the war. Between July 1 November marked the beginning
experienced by the British army effort or seeking a path to peace. and November 18 over a million of the end of the Austrian
in a single day’s fighting. Haig In August, Germany changed its men were killed or wounded. Empire. His successor, Charles I
kept the men fighting for five leadership. General Paul von (1887–1922), was desperate for a
Hindenburg (1847–1934) and his way out of the war.
The collective madness of the Performing artists
battlefield provoked an influential Leading Dada artist Hugo Ball
art movement that gave itself the performing at Cabaret Voltaire,
nonsense name Dada. Dadaists which he founded in 1916. Dadaists
such as Hugo Ball and Hans Arp protested against the war.
gathered at the Cabaret Voltaire
in Zurich, in neutral Switzerland, state their war aims as a prelude
and advocated a crazy antiart that to ceasefire negotiations.
satirized a world afflicted by mass Germany’s civilian government
slaughter. Their anarchic works came up with its own “peace
rejected the social order that offer,” but the country’s military
legitimized war. leaders would not permit any of
the concessions that might have
A more rational spokesman for made peace a practical possibility.
peace was President Woodrow
Wilson, elected for a second The Russian Empire was
term of office in November. As the desperate for an end to the
man who had kept the US out of fighting, and its czarist regime
the European war, Wilson put was leaking popular support.
himself forward as a peacemaker. In December, court conspirators
He issued a “peace note” that assassinated Grigori Rasputin
called on combatant countries to (1869–1916), an hirsute “holy
man” whose hold over the czar’s
Going over the top wife had become a public scandal.
British soldiers prepare to attack The assassination was widely
during the Battle of the Somme, welcomed, but it could not halt
leaving the relative shelter of the the czarist government’s slide
trench for exposed ground. toward collapse.
Jucnafevead2Ble1rayrtUatfillSegthrootfoMCpaesxrarictizaanJlu2l0yk,01ilS0lAoe0lmdmBomronisteitfisorhfsfsteondlasdiyiveeorfs AumgcauodsdmeticGm2ta9eatrHnomrdiniaeadnrlepwsnouibtwpuhrereagrmlsmeost SefiprFtselttemuhrsesbe-SedCorobm1uy5mrBcTeerailtneisktthseaotn SeAptBttehrTmiethisbiSeheopmrcva2ampl6teu,re Ocotfofreebnteasrkive2es4aFFtorVeretnrDcdhouunauNmoWovnUieltsSmoPbnrererese7idleWecnotteoddraosw NoAvuFesrmtsarunibgaczerncarJeEnoe2mdsd1-eepnpdeehrbpodyhriehewiss,CharDleeescnBetemurcbhReaorrme6saGtneiarnmcaanpsitaDl epcrneeosmditdeebec”enlraatsr1Wek8stilUhsbeSoeinlrl’iswgea“prreeanaimtcsesto
oJfufelyns1i2veFiantaVleGredrAumnugafanuilsdste2cCl7eanRretorsmawlaPanoriawoenrs exSphlAaocruakfgrtluieootsmnotntE3e’s0laeAmEpnhrtrnaaeenrsstccttIuisceladSndeBprtuesmilboverof2fe0nRsuivsesieanndOs ctobSeabnrirg1teh6r-McooapnretgnraosrlfiecrtlsiinnticUS KGienNrgmodvaoaensmmypobcufrepePpraoe5tlteassntdatNe ovemberof1fe8nSsoivme meneds cNoDiJmvoeemfclfleraeemnrdaebesperlFr-aric3nee-nscchhief DeceGAmesobqreugprietrh7irmeaLpselolBamycrdiientsiisshter GDreiagcsoesrmai sRbsaeisnrPpae2utt9ertiodngirnad
347
1917
Armed workers and soldiers taking part in the overthrow of Russia’s Provisional Government by
the Bolsheviks in Petrograd. They established a communist revolutionary regime.
ON JANUARY 9, GERMAN KAISER Propaganda poster committed to continuing the war. continued. At the start of the
WILHELM II (1859–1941) approved New York’s Mayor’s Committee on The failure of the campaign he year newly appointed French
the decision of his military National Defense declared April 19 launched on July 1, known as the commander-in-chief Robert
commanders to engage in “Wake Up America Day,” and Kerensky Offensive, was followed Nivelle (1856–1924) promised a
unlimited submarine warfare. publicized it with this poster. by widespread mutinies in the crushing onslaught that would
The Germans knew that this army at the front and desertion. win the war in days. When the
would mean sinking American On April 2, US president Attempts to suppress the Nivelle Offensive was launched
merchant vessels and would Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924) Bolsheviks failed. The Provisional in mid-April, however, it proved no
probably bring the neutral US asked Congress to vote for a Government survived a coup more successful than previous
into the war, but they believed war “to make the world safe for attempt, but on November 7 it offensives. The disappointment
they could sink enough ships to democracy.” Four days later, the succumbed to an armed takeover was bitter. There were widespread
force Britain to sue for peace and US declared war on Germany, organized by Lenin’s associate, mutinies and the French army
make US intervention ineffectual. keeping independence of action Leon Trotsky (1879–1940). threatened to disintegrate. Hastily
When an American cargo ship, the by not formally allying itself with Lenin set up a revolutionary appointed to replace Nivelle,
Housatonic, was sunk by a U-boat Britain and France. The slow government of People’s General Philippe Pétain (1856–
on February 3 off the Scilly Isles, process of building and equipping Commissars and proclaimed 1951) restored order with a
the US broke off diplomatic a mass conscript army began. a unilateral armistice. mixture of concessions and
relations with Germany. punishments, and ruled out
While the US was entering Meanwhile, on the Western any further French offensives.
Anticipating US entry into the the war, Russia was caught up front stalemate and slaughter
war, German foreign minister in revolutionary turmoil. A
Arthur Zimmermann decided this plan was intercepted, decoded momentous sequence of events
to offer Mexico an alliance, by British intelligence, and passed was triggered by food riots,
encouraging it to fight to regain to the US government. When it strikes, and a mutiny of soldiers
Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona was published in the US press in Petrograd (St. Petersburg).
from the US. A telegram from it caused a sensation, stoking On March 15, Czar Nicholas II
Zimmerman detailing anti-German feeling already (1868–1918) abdicated and a
ignited by the U-boat campaign. Provisional Government was
established by politicians from
VLADIMIR ILYICH the Duma (Russian parliament).
LENIN (1870–1924) Committees set up by workers
and soldiers, known as “soviets,”
Born into Russian minor created a competing focus of
gentry, Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov political power. On April 16,
became a Marxist activist, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (see panel,
adopting the name “Lenin.” left), leader of the extremist
Living in exile in Western Bolshevik Party, returned to
Europe, he led the Bolsheviks Petrograd from exile in
from 1903. Returning to Russia Switzerland. Lenin sought to
in 1917, he was determined to radicalize the revolution by
radicalize the revolution proposing an end to the war
through a Bolshevik seizure of and “all power to the soviets.”
power. Once in control, he
ruthlessly stamped out all The dominant personality in
opposition, and founded the the Provisional Government,
world’s first communist state. moderate socialist Alexander
Kerensky (1881–1970), was
JaAnduUdaSrcreapywslrls2esiitsn2hfiogodrueS“tneptvneiWacattcieoles,royn” FetbrotraoucHpatsiirnciydanle2Fwn1rbiaGtunhercdrgermaLswaitnnaaegleto MaArcRctihmtceo2rarakJinoetosnArePymsueerrictoan MaNriPcchrhtooa1vkli5aessisCoIzpnIaoaarwlbGdeoircvianetreRnsum,sesniat ApCracinlaFa9pdrtauianrnecetVr,iominoypAsRrridagseo,ffeAnspliarvuieln1c6heFsreNnicvhelalermofyfMenainsytivr1oe8duSceelescctiovnesScerirpvticioenAicntUS JuDnaLeyo1lGni3god1hto6htn2arpbabeyiodomGpoeblneremrsankills JuAnmFeoe2rr5ciceFaianrrsrEtixvtrepoeiondpiFtsirooanfnacrey
Ferebsruusmaurebysm1uanGrrienersemtwraiacntryefadre tMeGaleerrgcmrhaaa1mlnlZi,aaimmtntcaemekmpeiuwnprbgitmtlhitcsoalhMenfeoaedrrxmPiicneotU,MroSagRrrcauhdss8miaSa’strrk“iRkFseeetsvaborirtnluuoatfiroyn” Aprilw6aUrSondeGcelarmreasny Alepardieilnr1PL6eeBntroionlsgSahrwrearivdtiizvkfeerroslmanNdMivaeyll1ec5haPiseécftoaamfitnemrreamFpnrludeatencirnec-ishiensa-rJinmunydee7stMroaysGsievremBaMrniteitssrhseinnmceihsneJeRsCusioandntgege1r6esFsirosft SAollv-iiRentuPssemstiraeonegtrsaJdudneecCl2ea9nretGrsarwlePeacorewoenrs
348
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