Timelines of History_ The Ultimate Visual Guide To The Events That Shaped The World

Ostrakon retrograde
c. 475–470 BCE (right-to-left)
In Athens, influential politicians could be
ostracized (exiled) by public vote. The name inscription
of the politician each voter wished to be
banished was inscribed on a piece of pottery. Discus
600–500 BCE
Boeotian horse and rider figurine Boeotian figurine This fine bronze discus belonged to
550 BCE 400–200 BCE an athlete named Exoidas. After he
The depiction of this horse and This terra-cotta figurine of a won a victory in a sporting contest
rider has an archaic feel about it, woman holding a jar comes using it, he dedicated the discus
in contrast to the production of from Boeotia, where a tradition to the gods Castor and Pollux.
Boeotian terra-cotta workshops of such sculptures began as
over 200 years later (see right). early as the 8th century BCE. Attic askos
425–400 BCE
lotus and The askos was a type of vessel for
honeysuckle pouring liquids such as oil, shaped
in the form of a traditional wine sack.
pattern The design is in the red-figure style
that became popular around 530 BCE.

Attic skyphos Apulian pyxis
525–500 BCE 500–400 BCE
This drinking vessel shows a A pyxis was often used for storing
couple at their wedding standing small items of jewelry and cosmetics.
in a chariot. The vase is painted This south-Italian example is decorated
in the black-figure style. with geometrical shapes.

checkerboard
pattern

cylindrical
neck

hero Hercules carrying double band
Erymanthean boar of meanders

lotus bud top of foot and
pattern lower base

Athenian amphora painted black
540–530 BCE
An amphora was a type of vessel used Attic lekythos Epichysis
for storing wine. This one is decorated 480–470 BCE 375–340 BCE
using the black-figure technique, which Greek vases were often painted with The long-spouted epichysis was a vessel
predates the red-figure method. mythological scenes. This black- used for pouring wine. This south-Italian
figure vase shows the goddess vase has its base decorated with a
Athena beating a giant to his knees. pattern of white chevrons.

49

500–491 BCE 490–476 BCE
,,
THIS IS GOOD NEWS … IF THE
PERSIANS HIDE THE SUN, WE SHALL

,,DO BATTLE IN THE SHADE.

Herodotus, ancient Greek historian, quoting words attributed to Dieneces, a Spartan, on being told that the Persian
archers shot so many arrows they would conceal the Sun; from Histories

This 19th-century painting shows the Spartan king Leonidas I (center, facing) and his men at the Battle of
Thermopylae in 480BCE. Thermopylae became a byword for heroic defiance against overwhelming odds.

THE KINGDOM OF MAGADHA maneuvers to weaken each other, before seizing Eretria, which had
emerged as an important state in periodically interrupted aided the Ionians in 499 BCE.
northern India under the rule of by outbreaks of war. Although the Athenians appealed
Bimbisara (r. 543–491BCE), friend to Sparta for aid, the only help
and protector of Gautama Buddha In 490 BCE, Darius I (548–486 BCE) they received came from Plataea,
(c. 563–c. 486 BCE), who founded of Persia decided to take revenge which sent 1,000 reinforcements.
Buddhism (see 550–501 BCE). on the mainland Greeks for their The Athenians opted to march
Bimbisara’s son Ajatashastru support of the Ionian revolt. out to meet the Persians rather
(r. 491–461BCE) strengthened the Darius despatched a huge naval than wait for a siege, on the
royal capital at Rajagirha and built expedition under Artaphernes advice of their general, Miltiades
a center at Pataligrama on the and Datis, which sailed from (550–489 BCE). In 490 BCE at
Ganges River, which later became Cilicia, landing first at Naxos
Plebeians withdraw from Rome Pataliputra, the Mauryan royal
The departure of the plebeians (on the left in this engraving) threatened to capital. By conquering Kosala Persian winged-lion rhyton
split Rome irreparably, so the patricians (right) ceded some political power. and Kashi, and annexing the Vrijji The Persian Empire enjoyed
confederacy, Ajatashastru turned vast wealth, as illustrated by
THE GREEK CITY-STATES OF IONIA uprising against the Persians. Magadha into the dominant everyday items such as this
in western Anatolia had been Sparta rejected his pleas, but only power on the Ganges Plain. golden drinking vessel. They
subjects of the Persian Empire Athens and Eretria sent forces. A directed huge resources toward
since Cyrus conquered Lydia, their failed attack on Sardis led the In China, the political system of the conquest of Greece.
previous overlord, in 547BCE (see Athenian forces to return home. the Spring and Autumn period
550–501BCE). In 499BCE, The Ionians gradually lost ground evolved into the Warring States
Aristagoras, the ruler of Miletus, to a Persian land offensive from period (481–221BCE), in which
set out to mainland Greece to 497BCE. The fall of Miletus to the seven main states engaged in
recruit allies for a planned Persians that year and the death a constant round of diplomatic
of Aristagoras undermined Ionian
600 unity and, after a great naval 7
defeat at the Battle of Lade in
PERSIA 494BCE, the revolt fell apart. THE NUMBER
OF WARRING
353 In Italy, the young Roman STATES
Republic was rocked by social
IONIA dissent in 494BCE when the animals were
plebeians (the lower social often the
The Battle of Lade groups) withdrew from Rome en
The Ionian Greek navy fought hard at masse in protest at their inspiration for a
Lade, but the prearranged defection treatment by the patricians (the rhyton’s shape
of the Samians to the Persians led to higher social groups); they
its utter defeat. threatened to set up an alternative
state. They were persuaded back
only by official recognition of their
own representatives (tribunes).

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50

475–451 BCE

Marathon, the Greek hoplite THRACE THE ATHENIANS ENJOYED EARLY
(heavy infantry) formation SUCCESS under the direction of
advanced head-on against a far MACEDONIA Black Sea Cimon (510–450BCE), wresting
Eion on the Strymon River (in
more numerous Persian force to Pella Byzantium Anatolia) from the Persians in
win an unlikely victory. 476BCE and then attacking
THESSALY Abydus Carystos on Euboea (which had
Chastened, the Persian submitted to the Persians) in
expeditionary force withdrew from Larissa Aegean MYSIA 470BCE. An attempt by the island
Greece after Marathon, but in Artemisium 480 of Naxos to leave the Delian
481BCE Xerxes I (519–465BCE) Thermopylae 480 Sea LY D I A Anatolia League around the same time led
dispatched another huge Persian Marathon 490 to an Athenian expeditionary force
army, which crossed over the Plataea 479 Athens Sardis 498 that powerfully suppressed the
Hellespont (near modern-day Salamis 480 Ephesus breakaway movement. In 469BCE,
Mycale 479 Athenian forces won a great
Peloponnese Miletus 494 victory over the Persians at the
Sparta IONIA Eurymedon River on the south
GREECE coast of Anatolia, establishing
Athenian supremacy in the Aegean.
Istanbul) and proceeded south The Greco– Mediterranean Rhodes Athenian treasury at Delos
toward Athens. Many northern Persian wars Sea Pericles (c. 495–429BCE), the All members of the Delian League
Greek states chose to submit, Although the Cyprus Athenian statesman largely had to deposit funds at treasuries on
but Athens and Sparta patched Crete responsible for making Athens Delos, but the contribution of Athens
together a league of southern Greek victory the political and cultural focus was the most important.
states. In 480BCE, a heroic defense Persians possessed KEY Persian victory of Greece, tried but failed to
of the pass at Thermopylae by Indecisive battles prosecute Cimon in 463BCE, on and by 462BCE their last stronghold
the Spartan king Leonidas I, vastly superior numbers, the Annexed by Persia a charge of having neglected a at Ithome had been reduced. Soon
Greek forces were motivated chance to conquer Macedonia. after, open conflict broke out
to win crucial land and sea Persian campaigns From this maneuver, Pericles’ between Sparta and Athens and
engagements. against Greece vision and ideas of expansion for their respective allies. The First
490–479BCE Athens were already evident. Peloponnesian War was
When the leading figure among inconclusive. It ended in 451BCE
in which he and all his 10,000 the democrats, Ephialtes, was with a five-year truce, extended in
assassinated in 461BCE, Pericles, 446BCE to a Thirty Years’ Peace
soldiers died, bought time for the victories followed in June 479BCE, After the initial defeats of the his protégé, swiftly took his place. between the two sides.

Athenians to evacuate. The on land at Plataea in Boeotia and Persians in 480–479BCE, Athens Periodically, the Persians had Meanwhile, the western part of
tried to bribe the Spartans into the Greek world was becoming
Persians burned the city, but soon at sea at Mycale off the Ionian sought to formalize the league of diversionary attacks on Athens, increasingly important, marked by
initially to little effect. In 464BCE, a the rise of the Sicilian city-state of
after, under the command of coast. The Greeks then took the anti-Persian allies. A treasury revolt of the Messenian Helots Syracuse. Under a series of able
(unfree men) in the western rulers (tyrants) that began with
Themistocles (see panel below), offensive, and during 478–477BCE was set up on the island of Delos Peloponnese further distracted Gelon (r. 485–478BCE) and his
the Spartans from any attempt to brother Hieron (r. 478–467BCE),
the Athenian fleet inflicted a won a string of victories in Ionia in around 477 BCE. The league’s stem the rising power of the Syracusan forces subdued the
Delian League. The Messenians neighboring city of Acragas and
serious defeat on Xerxes’s naval and Cyprus, which reversed most funds were to be deposited here received little outside assistance, expanded territory around Catana.
Although Hieron’s younger
force at Salamis. Further Greek of the Persians’ gains. and regular meetings were to take brother Thrasybulus was driven
out in 466BCE, the Syracusans
place. But this Delian League retained their dominant position
in Sicily beyond the 450sBCE.
THEMISTOCLES (c. 524–460 BCE) soon became little more than an

Athenian empire, and Sparta and

A clever politician and strategist, its allies refused to take part.

Themistocles persuaded the

Athenians to use the wealth of a ,,

silver mine discovered at ,,THE GREAT
Laurium in 483/2BCE to double
their fleet. However, after the STRUGGLE
naval victory at Salamis, he HAS COME.
became the object of increasing
jealousy from political rivals. In

about 470BCE Themistocles was Herodotus, ancient Greek historian,
ostracized from Athens (exiled quoting Pausanias, the Spartan
by public vote). commander, before the Battle of

Plataea in 479 BCE; from Histories

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450–431 BCE 430–404 BCE

In the late 5th century, the Mexican city of Monte Albán began to build its public
buildings—the ancestors of its later magnificent pyramids, shown here.

IN THE ROMAN REPUBLIC, the two villages. Monte Albán’s center ATHENS AND SPARTA HAD FOUGHT ,, THE EMPIRE YOU
social classes—the patricians and housed large-scale public EACH OTHER BEFORE (see 451BCE). POSSESS IS BY NOW LIKE A
the plebeians (see 500–491BCE)— buildings—including truncated The Athenian Empire had the
were still divided. The two sides pyramids, great plazas, and naval advantage as it included ,,TYRANNY—PERHAPS WRONG
came to an agreement in 451BCE, ballgame courts—as well as most of the island and coastal
appointing a group of ten men elaborate burial tombs. Within states around the northern and TO ACQUIRE IT, BUT CERTAINLY
(the decemviri) to govern Rome 150 years, the population of eastern shores of the Aegean Sea. DANGEROUS TO LET IT GO.
outside the normal constitution. Monte Albán would swell to Meanwhile, the city-state of Sparta
In 449BCE, the decemviri produced around 17,000, making it the led an alliance of independent Thucydides, ancient Greek historian, relating a speech by Pericles to the
the Laws of the Twelve Tables, largest city in Mesoamerica. states from the Peloponnese and Athenians; from History of the Peloponnesian War, II.63
which formed the basis for all central Greece, as well as Corinth,
Roman law codes. Zapotec figure from Monte Albán and had the strongest army. hostilities in 430BCE began three force at Pylos southwest of
This elaborate ceramic deity is Despite the Thirty Years’ Peace of years earlier, when Athens had Sparta. Yet neither side could land
Around 450BCE in Central typical of the production of Monte 446BCE, tensions remained high intervened on behalf of Corcyra a fatal blow and in 421BCE they
Europe, a new Celtic culture Albán, which became Mexico’s between Athens and Sparta. The in a dispute with Corinth; the agreed the Peace of Nicias, which
emerged, called La Tène, which premier site in the 5th century BCE. events that led to renewed Spartans took it as a sign that was supposed to last for 50 years.
supplanted the earlier dominant Athens had breached the peace.
An attack by Thebes, a Spartan The truce soon began to unravel.
12 ally, on Plataea, which supported Corinth refused to recognize its
THE NUMBER Athens, was similarly taken by authority, a pro-war leadership
the Athenians to indicate Sparta emerged in Sparta, and a complex
OF TABLES OF was fixed on war. Athens, led by set of political maneuvers by
ROMAN LAW Pericles, achieved early success in Alcibiades (450–404BCE), the
the Peloponnesian War (431– newly dominant politician in
404BCE). In 426BCE, the Athenians Athens, led to the renewal of the
invaded the Peloponnese, and war in 419BCE. The following year,
the following year landed a large Sparta’s allies won a key victory
at Mantinea. Athens struck back

SOCRATES (469–399 BCE)

Halstatt culture. Ruled over by a One of the greatest Greek
warrior aristocracy that buried its philosophers, Socrates served
dead with swords, spears, and on the Athenian Council in
funerary chariots, La Tène had 406BCE, but his challenges to
important centers in Bohemia (in conventional morality at a time
what is now the Czech Republic) of political uncertainty gained
and around the Marne and him powerful enemies. He
Moselle rivers (in modern France). refused to mount a conventional
defense against charges of
In Oaxaca on Mexico’s Pacific corrupting the Athenian youth
Coast, a new center arose shortly and was sentenced to die by
before 450BCE at Monte Albán. drinking the poison hemlock.
This proto-city, on a hilltop above
the Oaxaca Valley, drew people
from the surrounding agricultural

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403–381 BCE

Amphipolis THRACE Byzantium The Great AFTER ITS VICTORY IN THE (r.404–358BCE). Cyrus was
Peloponnesian War PELOPONNESIAN WAR, Sparta defeated and killed at the Battle
422 Abdera Sea of Marmara The period of 431–404BCE found itself embroiled in a quarrel of Cunaxa in 401BCE, but in its
saw the destruction of with Persia over whether the aftermath some 10,000 Greek
Pella Thasos the Athenian Empire at Ionian Greek cities should regain mercenaries were left trapped in
the hands of a coalition of their autonomy. Through the northern Mesopotamia. Under
Spartolus Thasos Cyzicus Sparta and its allies. 390sBCE, sporadic fighting and Xenophon, the Greeks marched
Acanthus Aegospotami Lampsacus 410 abortive peace talks diverted to the Black Sea coast and
Methone 429 KEY Sparta from a weakening position safety near Trapezus (Trabzon
405 Athenian Empire in mainland Greece. The “King’s in modern-day Turkey), a feat
Potidaea Athenian ally Peace,” a definitive treaty with their commander immortalized
Sparta and allied states Persia in 386BCE, deprived the in his book Anabasis.
Lemnos Cynossema PHRYGIA neutral territory Ionians of autonomy but allowed
411 Athenian victory the Spartans to quash any threats In Italy, the Romans widened
Dodecane Spartan victory to its supremacy. In 385BCE, they their territory and annexed the
Corcyra THESSALY PERSIAN attacked Mantinea in the central city of Veii in 396BCE, whose
EPIRUS Peloponnese and in 382 BCE submission represented the end
Ambracia Aegean Lesbos EMPIRE occupied Thebes. Spartan power of any Etruscan threat. However,
Sea Mitylene seemed unassailable. c.390BCE, an army of Celts, who
Arginusae had been attacking the Etruscan
In Persia, the death of Darius II city of Clusium, turned south,
Leucas 406 (r.423–404BCE) was followed by a defeated a Roman army at the
brief civil war, when Cyrus the Battle of the Allia, and then took
Delium Chalcis Phocaea Younger tried to overthrow his Rome itself. This disaster haunted
424 Eretria older brother Artaxerxes II the Romans for centuries.
Cephallenia Delphi Chios IONIA
Zacynthus Gulf of Corinth Thebes Euboea
Notium Ephesus
ACHAEA 407

Corinth Athens Andros CARIA
Mantinea Argos
418 Epidaurus
Miletus
Peloponnese
Pylos Sparta Cyclades

Sphacteria

425 Melos se Cnidus

Cythera Rhodes
Lindus

2,800 Spartans 7,000 18,500 30,000 Spartans

ATHENIANS ATHENIANS BOEOTIANS ATHENIANS
420 3,000

BATTLE OF SPHACTERIA 425 BCE BATTLE OF DELIUM 424 BCE SIEGE OF SYRACUSE 415–413 BCE

in 416BCE by capturing Melos—the was briefly overthrown. In Magadha in India the
only main Aegean island not in Democracy was restored the Haryanka dynasty founded by
its possession—but fatally following year, and, although the Bimbisara was replaced c.413BCE
overreached itself in 415BCE Athenians won victories at Cyzicus after the death of Ajatashatru
with an expedition to Sicily, ending in 410BCE and Arginusae in 406BCE, (c.459BCE) and a series of
in the total destruction of the the total destruction of their ineffectual rulers. Shishunaga
Athenian force by the Syracusans fleet at Aegospotami off Ionia in founded a new dynasty, which
in 413BCE. The Spartans, 405BCE left Athens defenseless. was responsible for overseeing
meanwhile, established a fort at The Spartans blockaded the city, the final transfer of the Magadha
Decelea in Attica that denied the and, despite a determined royal capital to Pataliputra.
Athenians access to the rich silver resistance, the Athenians were The Shishunaga dynasty lasted
mines. An alliance with Persia forced to surrender. Athens was only 500 years.
further strengthened Sparta’s deprived of its fleet and in 404BCE
position in 412BCE, and a year later a pro-Spartan Council of Thirty Etruscan tomb painting
the democratic regime in Athens was installed to govern it. The Etruscan language has never been deciphered, so it is through the
frescoes in their tombs that much has been learned of their culture.

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53

700BCE–599CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

plain boss connected circular plate at base
with sliding catch of buckle tongue
on backplate
animal interlace
picked out in circles

Sutton Hoo buckle

Sutton Hoo buckle bird’s head central interlace animal interlace with
Made of solid gold and decorated with an in profile pattern a biting head and tail
interlaced animal pattern, the Anglo-Saxon
Sutton Hoo belt buckle was found in a 7th-
century ship burial in East Anglia, England.

Prehistory Copper ore c. 1500–1200 BCE Shang c. 900 BCE–100 CE Weapon heads c. 100–700
Use of copper ore Refinement of cauldron Using iron Anglo-Saxon
In western Iran and Ironworking spreads
Anatolia, copper ore is bronze casting from western Anatolia, metalworking
ground or beaten into New techniques are reaching Greece around The Anglo-Saxons
shape to make small developed for casting 900 BCE and West Africa bring a new level
objects such as beads. and adorning bronze about 400 BCE, enabling of sophistication to
vessels, such as stronger tools and metalworking, often
decorating them by weapons to be made. using animal forms
beating on the inside. as decoration.

2600–2400 BCE Sumerian copper bull c. 1500–30 BCE c. 640–500 BCE Greek coin
Use of beaten Purifying gold Metal as money
copper plate The ancient Egyptians learn how Metal coins (made of an
Early copper smelting to separate pure gold from silver alloy of gold and silver)
methods are refined, in around 1500 BCE and begin to are first used in Lydia (in
allowing the beating use it more extensively for present-day Turkey) around
of copper while still decorative purposes. 640 BCE. The ancient Greeks
hot into more adopt the idea and spread it
complex shapes. Funeral mask of around the Mediterranean.
Tutankhamun

54

THE STORY OF METALWORKING

THE STORY OF

METALWORKING

FROM EVERYDAY OBJECTS TO COMPLEX MACHINES, METALS ARE VITAL FOR OUR CIVILIZATION

Since their earliest known use in the 8th millennium BCE, metals have
played a crucial role in the production of a vast range of objects, and even
today, with the availability of sophisticated polymers and composites,
they still permeate every aspect of modern civilization.

Around 7000BCE, naturally occurring metals, together in a furnace. This method of production

notably copper, began to be used for small continued until the introduction of blast furnaces

items such as pins in western Iran and in Europe in the 15th century. The Industrial

eastern Anatolia. These were made by Revolution in the 18th century brought new

simply grinding or beating the metal techniques and the use of coking coal in blast

into shape. Heating copper furnaces, but it was English inventor Henry

to make it more malleable was Bessemer’s invention of the Bessemer converter

probably discovered by accidentally in 1856 that permitted the large-scale production

dropping the metal in fire, but it was of steel, a strong, high-quality, iron–carbon alloy.

the introduction of smelting in a Later in the Industrial Revolution, further advances

crucible around 3800BCE that led to the made it possible to produce other metals, such as

large-scale use of metals. aluminum, magnesium, and titanium, whose light

weight and strength played a vital role in the

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ALLOYS development of the aviation and space industries.

About 3000BCE, the first alloy—bronze—was

produced. Made by smelting tin and copper 1,981°F HOW ALLOYS ARE MADE
together in a crucible, bronze is stronger and
more easily worked than either of its individual An alloy is a mixture of metals or of a metal with
constituents, and it remained the principal metal a nonmetal (such as iron with carbon in steel).
Many metals occur naturally in alloyed form, but
for tools and weapons until the invention of THE MELTING POINT OF synthetic alloys were not produced until around
ironworking around 1250 BCE. The technology to 3000BCE, when copper was melted with tin to
produce bronze. The technique spread, reaching
melt pure iron was not invented until the 19th COPPER. WHEN COPPER Mesopotamia soon after 3000BCE and Egypt by
century, so early iron objects were made by first IS ALLOYED WITH TIN, 2000BCE or possibly earlier.
smelting iron ore to an impure iron “bloom,” then THIS DROPS TO 1,742°F
separating out the iron pieces and welding them

700–800 Viking c. 15th century Medieval 1950s
Sword-making sword Weapons from cast metal cannon Titanium aircraft
In Europe, sword-makers Cast iron is developed. Because Because of its high
develop stronger swords by it is strong and can be used strength-to-weight
welding together successive to make shapes such ratio, titanium starts to
layers of iron with carbon added, as tubes, it finds an be used extensively in
or by beating out thin iron strips immediate use in military aircraft. It is
then welding them together. making artillery. now also widely used in
commercial aircraft.
Lockheed Blackbird

800–1300/1450 The Verdun Altar 1810 1856 1910
Christian objects in Tin can Bessemer converter Aluminum foil
precious metals English inventor Peter Englishman Henry The first aluminum foil
Medieval Christians make Durand patents the tin Bessemer invents a is produced. It was made
sacred objects, such as can for preserving food. converter that enables possible by the invention in
crucifixes and reliquaries, His patent was for a can large-scale production 1886 of a method of mass-
from gold and other made of iron and coated of high-quality steel. producing the metal by
precious metals, sometimes with tin to inhibit rusting passing an electric current
encrusted with gemstones. of the iron. Bessemer converter through molten ore.

55

380–371 BCE 370–356 BCE

A carving showing the pharaoh Nectanebo I, founder of the 30th Dynasty, making offerings to gods, The ruins of Thebes, Greece’s
including the crocodile-headed Sobek. dominant city-state in the 360sBCE.

EGYPT HAD BROKEN AWAY FROM 150 ALTHOUGH THE ATHENIANS
Persian control after the revolt brokered a general peace in
of Amyrtaeus, who founded the Greece in 371BCE, the Thebans did
28th Dynasty in 404BCE. However, not participate. Thebes built up a
coalition of allies and invaded
the Persians had not given up on COUPLES Sparta in 370–369BCE. As a result,
Egypt. Nectanebo I established Messenia was finally detached
the 30th Egyptian Dynasty in FORMED from Spartan control, but further
380BCE. He was able to repel a Theban success was hampered
force sent by the Persians and THE ELITE by the temporary deposition of
their Greek allies in 373BCE. Epaminondas, who was tried for
allegedly sparing the city of Sparta
Persia was diverted from further MILITARY UNIT in exchange for a bribe. Once
attempts to bring Egypt to heel by THE SACRED Epaminondas was back in control,
the Great Rebellion of the the Thebans won Persian backing
for their anti-Spartan alliance in
Satraps in the 360sBCE. This BAND OF alarmed enough to revive the Temple of Thoth 367BCE, and a further invasion of
rebellion was partially aggravated THEBES Theban alliance and try to Situated at Hermopolis in Upper the Peloponnese in 366BCE gained
by the campaigns of Tachos, son of establish a Second Athenian Egypt, the temple of Thoth dates recruits for the Theban coalition.
Confederacy in opposition to from the New Kingdom but was However, Theban successes relied
Nectanebo I, in Persian-ruled Sparta. In 375BCE the Thebans, renovated in the 4th century BCE. too narrowly on the personality of
Athenians, and Spartans signed a one man, and when Epaminondas
Palestine from 361–360BCE. “Common Peace,” but it broke Dionysius I (402–367BCE), who
down almost immediately. The fought the third in a series of wars Ancient theater
Nectanebo II (r. 360–343BCE) into the Nile Delta region in Thebans then took the offensive, against the Carthaginians from 383 The Odeon was a temple built in the
aided by a new elite force of citizen to 375BCE. At first, the war went town of Messene, which was founded
succeeded Nectanebo I, and 343BCE, and Egypt was defeated soldiers, the Sacred Band, which badly for Dionysius, whose fleet by Epaminondas of Thebes in 367BCE.
consisted of 150 male couples. The was wrecked in a storm.
continued to meddle in the Persian within two years. Now under Sacred Band supplemented the Carthaginian efforts to mount an
mercenaries who largely fought expedition to Sicily were hampered
civil wars. In an ill-judged Persian rule, Egypt was never Greek city-states’ wars by this by plague in 379BCE and a revolt by
period. Theban attempts to subject cities in Libya, so that it
intervention in 346BCE, he sent again ruled by a native dynasty. conquer the region of Phocis and was only in 377BCE that an army
retain dominance in Boeotia was landed. Dionysius, who had
troops to aid an uprising in Sidon In Greece, the Spartan rankled with Sparta, and been campaigning against
scuppered Athenian attempts to Carthage’s allies in southern Italy,
(Lebanon). In response, occupation of Thebes, which had broker a peace in 372BCE. At returned to Sicily and crushed
Leuctra in 371BCE, the Theban Mago’s force—10,000 are said to
Artaxerxes III of Persia marched begun in 382BCE, was short-lived. army under the general have died. Dionysius allowed the
Epaminondas fought a tactically remnants to slip away, and they
In 379BCE, the Spartan polemarch brilliant battle to smash the regrouped and returned the
Spartan phalanx. At Sparta’s following year under Mago’s son
(governor) of Thebes was mercy just eight years before, Himilco to deliver a stinging defeat
Thebes was now the dominant to the Syracusans. Both sides were
assassinated, and the Thebans power in Greece. war-weary and in 375BCE made
peace, leaving Dionysius in
11,000 drove out the Spartan garrison In Sicily, Syracuse continued to possession of most of eastern
with the aid of two Athenian flourish under the strong rule of Sicily and parts of southern Italy.

SPARTANS generals who arrived on their own
initiative to help. In retaliation,
9,000 the Spartans mounted an
expedition under King
THEBANS AND Cleombrotus (r. 380–371BCE). This
ALLIES expedition failed to retake Thebes,

but it so alarmed the Athenians

Battle of Leuctra that they executed one general and
At Leuctra in central Greece, the exiled the other, and temporarily
Thebans exploited the tendency of abandoned the alliance with
the Spartans to shift right by Thebes. The Spartans invaded
concentrating their attack on the left, the region of Boeotia in 378–
enabling them to defeat an enemy 377BCE but made little headway,

with larger numbers than theirs. although the Athenians were

c.i3ro8bn0yinBmBCrateEehntgFeatiauolWlr-numseropsgifentyeAagrkifsranininscZgdpaarpmeeabodepzlei 38b0epBchCo3Eam0rNtaeheoscDhtthyaonenfaeEfisbgrtosyytpt’s 37II3iEBsCgbdEyaepAcftrekitnaautxnaeetddtreexarmeftPsepertrtisnoivabanrdicninoggnittrol 37N0aBnCdEaFoduynndasattyi3oin6nin9oIvnBfaCdtdEhiaeeEspMamesinsoenndiaas
371 BmCEaAktehepeneisgahcaetn-,dyeenSadpriancrogtanaflnict
38W0aBCllEiTshbeuSilet ravrioaRunnomd e 378uBCpEruiEnsxdinielgerdaErgTpuahalieimnnbgsgiaatnnprtorhandiresedtoympan.rsTooalch-ebScreaaaiptdnStyasdparooantfanrTntsahtnehbees EopfaLm3e7tiuhn1ceoBtnrCAdaEracTasahgdweaibiainnanssnsttgrSheepevnaSoBerlptrataaata,rtlgtlaeaannidnrsutle 36o0fBtChEeP(bgReseoeragvsvteiionraralsnntpoiensrmst)hpeire of M3a6n2fitBinSnCaEeplaaBeramcttaltianplreskpesoowfer

56

,,355–337 BCE

,,AN ARMY OF DEER LED BY A LION

IS MORE TO BE FEARED THAN AN ARMY
OF LIONS LED BY A DEER.

Attributed to Philip II, king of Macedonia, 4th century BCE

was killed in battle in 362BCE, IN 359 BCE PERDICCAS III OF PHILIP OF MACEDONIA (382–336 BCE)
Theban power was rapidly eclipsed. Macedonia died and his successor,
Philip II (r. 359–337BCE) began to Philip II reformed the
In India, the Nanda dynasty transform the position of what Macedonian army and forced
began its expansion in the had been regarded by other the Greek states to join a
370sBCE, and continued to expand Greeks as a very minor kingdom. League of Corinth under
until it was able to take power from In 357BCE, he made his first major Macedonian control. After his
conquest, Amphipolis in Thrace. return to Macedonia, he took a
88the Shishunaga in 345BCE. The He became involved in the Third new wife, Cleopatra, but was
dynasty’s founder Mahapadma THE AGE OF Sacred War (356–346BCE), which stabbed to death at his wedding
Nanda conquered much of north was fought over perceived feast, possibly on the orders of
violations by Sparta and Phocis of his son, Alexander the Great,
India, building up a huge army. MAGAPADMA the sacred oracle at Delphi, using who stood to lose his position
He operated an efficient NANDA AT this to cement his position as an if Cleopatra bore another heir.
administrative system with important player in the power
centrally appointed tax collectors HIS DEATH politics of central Greece and the
and undertook irrigation works. Peloponnese. In the 340s, Philip
strengthened his position in
However, the deposition of Dhana Thessaly and became involved in
petty disputes between the
Nanda in 321BCE was followed by Wei, followed by another defeat of city-states, as rival factions
turned either to him or to Athens
the absorption of the Nanda Wei at the battle of Shimen in for support. In 340BCE open war
broke out between Philip and the
empire into the Mauryan empire. 364BCE led to Chu’s decline and the Athenian-Theban alliance. Just Athenians and annihilated the advantage of Rome’s exhausted
two years later, at Chaeronea in Theban Sacred Band (see state to launch an attack. During
The state of Chu was the most shift eastward of Wei’s royal center Boeotia, Philip defeated the 380–371BCE). Macedonian power the first year of the war, at a battle
in Greece was now unchallenged. near Vesuvius, the consul Publius
southerly of China’s Warring to Daliang. A rejuvenated Wei was Mausoleum of Halicarnassus Decius Mus is said to have
Mausolus was the Persian satrap Rome’s steady expansion in dedicated his body to the gods
States, centered on the Middle strong enough to force the rulers of (governor) of a region of south- central Italy had caused alarm of the underworld and then
western Turkey. After his death in among its neighbors. This led to a undertaken a suicidal charge
Yangzi River. Throughout the 5th four other Warring States to attend 353BCE his wife built a tomb for bitter six-year struggle with the against the Latin ranks that
him, which became one of town of Tibur from 360BCE, among turned the tide of battle in the
century BCE it annexed a number of its court in 356BCE. Wei’s the Seven Wonders of the other conflicts. In 340BCE, a Romans’ favor. By 338BCE, the
Ancient World. general war broke out between Romans had defeated the Latin
states, becoming the dominant supremacy was short-lived, and Rome and the Latins, who League. The peace terms were
inhabited the modern region favorable, with many Latins being
power by 380BCE. In 366BCE a defeats inflicted on it by Qi armies granted Roman citizenship. The
of Lazio around Rome. The League was then dissolved, and
resounding victory by the state of at Guiling in 353BCE and Maling in Romans had just emerged from many of the former Latin cities
a war with the Samnites, a were absorbed into the Roman
Qin against the armies of Hann and 341BCE reduced it to a Qi vassal. people who inhabited the state, moving Rome further
toward complete dominance of
central Apennines, and central Italy.
the Latins took
In Peru, the Nazca culture
began around 350BCE. These
people created mysterious
geoglyphs, huge lines in the
desert creating animal and
abstract shapes, which cannot be
made out from the ground.

36S1ptBahCrceEtitaAPineejsorfsoioniraftcnPeE-hgacoyotetpnanttciirackonislal-e3d5b9eMBcCoaEmcPeehdsiolknipiinaIgI of 35A8rABtCarrEtxeaeIhvxnrioesxPlretxwe.serhFssIeoIiIIaalIes,rauifnnacgdmcepeielonydsdmsssibathslesearsicvaratelrdsa,phse’ has 34M8acBocCCenEhdtPraoohlnlciiloiaidpfigtcoahefienpsenins3u4bl6aeMBtwCaEecPeenedaoPncheailnipdoAfthens 34s3uwBrCrhmEeonDeldreiocedenranyssabtirouaiesnTsdiImItooofSleiocinly3, 4p2uiBtnsCdEaePnpeeernnsddieatnnocieEngvaypstioiann33d8isBsCoElRveosmtehedeLfaetaints3L3aeIn8IaIdpBgooCufbEiePsyAoeArnrtrsiansixaeges,dr,aixheneisdssoiysforuenpglaecresdon

359BCEIEINgaeyspcctteiaannndestbhtorhosentcaehtaenocrfeeQlflioonrr,moin3fst5t;roh6ohfedBecuCweiEcnneeSctssrrhtaeeawlarinzisnrdgeeiageCdsYno-hadgtrrihnoaoniegunnvee,stgsprreioopnnwdegmuneecarenl stcoade P3h5o6tbcoBeisCtthEwbe“eeSsegaaninccAsrreetoohddrveaetWnecrlsmaearacpo”nclfeedDsasenldphi beDcoiom3n4ey6ssBiTuoCysEfrSIaIinctily Ma3ce4d2oBnCiEaPchoinliqpTuohefrrasce34ao1nuBdtCtEbheWetwaLreaetbinrneRLaoekmsageue 338 BdsCetEfaePtaehtsislaicpnodoaflgiMtaiomianncsoeoscdftooGonnfrtierGaoerlkeoefce anIon3no3iua7nnBcCGeErsPepehlkialincpsitoitefosMliiabnceAerdsaiotaenMitahineor

57

336–330 BCE 329–323 BCE

Despite being heavily outnumbered at Issus, Alexander the Great, depicted here on his horse
Bucephalus, made brilliant use of his cavalry to win a stunning victory over King Darius III.

AFTER THE ASSASSINATION OF Ruins of Persepolis AFTER HIS MURDER OF DARIUS, of Macaranda (Samarkand) and 30
PHILIP OF MACEDONIA in 336BCE The Persian ceremonial capital of Bessus declared himself the new pacify Sogdiana, although the
(see 355–337BCE), his 20-year-old Persepolis was burned to the ground king of Persia (as Artaxerxes V), fortress of the “Sogdian Rock” THE AGE OF
son Alexander (often referred to by Alexander’s troops in 330BCE. but some of the Persian satraps managed to hold out against the ALEXANDER’S
as Alexander the Great) became submitted to Alexander instead of Macedonian forces until 327BCE. FAVORITE
commander of the major Greek led by Darius III himself. In 331BCE, Bessus. During 330–329BCE, Alexander then crossed into the HORSE,
city states. The next year Alexander the Macedonians defeated Darius Alexander pursued Bessus into Kabul Valley, and the following BUCEPHALUS,
invaded Thrace, but a rumor that III again at Gaugamela (in the easternmost regions of the year, at the Hydaspes River, he WHEN IT DIED
he had been killed caused a major modern Iraq). The next year Darius Persian Empire, beyond the Hindu overcame the local ruler Porus.
revolt centered on the Greek city of was stabbed to death by Bessus, Kush and into Bactria. Finally, His plans to push further into advance of the Romans
Thebes, supported by Darius III of one of his generals. Alexander in Sogdiana, north of the Oxus India were stymied by his soldiers into Campania after
Persia (r. 336–330BCE). Alexander now seemed to have acquired the River, the local nobles, led by the who, demoralized and disease- their abolition of the
reacted swiftly; the Thebans were whole of the vast Persian Empire. Sogdian warlord Spitamenes, ridden, mutinied and demanded Latin League
defeated and their city razed. betrayed Bessus and handed him to go home. Part of the army in 338 BCE
The other states soon submitted. Aristotle over to Alexander. Once Alexander returned home by sea under alarmed the
In 334BCE, Alexander hurried to The philosopher Aristotle was had continued his march north, Nearchus, but a detachment Samnites, and
Anatolia, where a Macedonian employed by Philip of Macedonia however, Spitamenes revolted. It under Alexander marched the Roman placing
army was already established, as Alexander the Great’s tutor. took Alexander a year of bitter through the harsh Gedrosian of a colony in their land in
totaling perhaps 43,000 infantry campaigning to relieve the siege desert, suffering heavy losses. 328BCE and tensions over the
and 6,000 cavalry. Although this His army reached central Persia control of Neapolis (Naples) led
figure was dwarfed by the forces Alexander the Great’s conquests early in 324BCE, but Alexander, to the outbreak of war in 326BCE.
of the local Persian satraps Alexander penetrated the farthest still planning new expeditions In 321BCE, the Samnites defeated
(governors), Alexander’s cavalry corners of the Persian empire. To into Arabia, died of a fever at a Roman army at the Caudine
smashed the lines of the satrap cement his rule, he founded a series Babylon in May 323BCE, at age 33. Forks. The Romans were
Arsites at the Granicus River in of new cities, almost all named after humiliated by being forced to bow
northwest Turkey. He pushed on himself, notably Alexandria in Egypt. In central Italy, the Samnites of down and “pass under the yoke”
toward the heart of the Persian the central-southern Apennines, (an arch made from their captured
Empire. In 333BCE, at Issus, CONQUEST OF ALEXANDER who had lost a war against the spears). Four years of peace
northern Syria, he routed an army Romans in 342–340BCE, fought followed before the Romans
Macedonian Empire 336-323BCE them once more in the Second renewed the war and, despite
Samnite War (326–304BCE). The dogged resistance by the
Route taken by Alexander’s forces Samnites, finally emerged
victorious in 304BCE.
SCYTHIA Alexandria Eschate
SOGDIANA
Caspian Sea
CSyMprPeaeeHnrMdSCltEeilaArtaALEeeCLtprHEeArhTTDaASAerHOnolseRReNyuxaAsIaAAnCnEEdSGSGrCeoaTiYyaarJrhPBpddePeBrTyiirubIMuszGlSuHsaeamaeIsTesncDzamyrktaIlraiAeupeScmmhlCeeisaAMaPESPSYOARPDIABOAORTaPCACbMNAMIeyOAiEIlrnnLAoNaeCinvnIBbHAeAsiIhBaSuPYMnlLEaOERDSISIASuEPscAeabrlseAaixatlaaenAPnxnPPleGadaAearnruxRssidalaeaTfrnpriAHdagorIraleaAiidasidAoalnOeexxuaBmnNAdaCQrAGdiTHuaRw-ReiiAn-atAAIdACAtdrlauelaHaiAxKrcOarhuSSnasoIdhebtAoraBiinaPaunacteaplahala
PALESTINE
NIA
Red Sea

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PcoeD3mra3sre6iaisuBnCtsoEtIhItIrhoene333 BAClEexDBabaanertditaueltesrenoIaIfItbItyshseus 332cBoCnE qAuleexrasdnEedgfeeyraptBt3ead3t1btlByeCAEolfPeGxeaarsnuidgaeanrmsaaet3srl3asea0bseBslCiEsnaDattareardipubsByeIItsIhseus 32C8leBjioCtCEiunosMtmotcuhofpremdAaenlBmeriloxaaoancnfnkCdd,eaervra’slry 32c6raoBnCsHdEsyeAwadslideantvxshswaapenBnehcIdaserneeet,ndtvrbilushoeuslihtstoahaftlrittsoeTodapxsila 32L6ycBuCArEtghDtuehesnea,itagohnrneoeoafrotaeftsotrs Alerxeatnrdeteah3rtde2s’se5GtsahBeerrCdrmoEPrtuoeytgosrhsiwaeanprodlis M3a2c4meBadaCroErrnraAiynaltenghxeooeMasffndfiePfdoadceerueerrrgsa9sihn0attnneoorasbnidlity

58

322–301 BCE ,,TO THE STRONGEST!

,,Alexander the Great, on his deathbed in reply to a

question about who would succeed him

ALEXANDER THE GREAT had not 80,000 outlying regions of the Nanda Confucian tradition. His surviving
provided for an orderly succession Empire, pushing his control as work, the Shi Ji, is written in the
after his death in 323BCE, and his ANTIGONUS far as Gujarat and the Punjab. form of dialogues with several
most experienced generals were In 305BCE, he began a campaign contemporary kings. Meng Zi
also dead—except for Antipater, 75,000 against one of Alexander’s stresses the value of de (virtue)
who had been left as regent in successors, Seleucus, which for a king and, more practically,
Macedonia. Alexander’s wife LYSIMACHUS ended in a treaty in 303BCE, under recommends lower taxes, less
which the Greeks ceded control harsh punishments, and ensuring
Roxane was pregnant, and he Battle of Ipsus of eastern Afghanistan and that the people have enough to
had a half-brother Arrhidaeus, Although slightly outnumbered, Baluchistan to Chandragupta. eat. He believed that if a king
who was, unfortunately, Lysimachus deployed his archers Having established the Mauryan acted benevolently, everyone
mentally unstable. A clique of against his enemy’s flank, causing Empire in 307 BCE, Chandragupta would want to be ruled by him,
generals who were present at Antigonus’s infantry to flee in panic. decided to abdicate in favor of and he would have no need of
Alexander’s deathbed— his son Bindusara (r. 297– conquest. Meng Zi’s benevolent
Ptolemy, Cassander, against the four remaining 272BCE). He then retired to view of human nature had a
Seleucus, and Lysimachus— principal players: Cassander in become a Jain monk, ultimately widespread appeal, and politically
engineered a solution by which Macedonia, Ptolemy in Egypt, starving himself to death. his views were most influential in
Roxane’s newborn son Alexander Lysimachus in Thrace, and the time of the Song dynasty
IV (323–310 BCE) notionally shared Seleucus in Babylon. War between In China, Meng Zi (or Mencius) (960–1279 CE).
power with Arrhidaeus, who the parties raged inconclusively (c. 372–289BCE) arrived at the Wei
became Philip III. In reality, this until 311BCE. But when it was court around 320BCE and rapidly
military clique carved up the renewed again in 308BCE, it earned himself a reputation as
empire between themselves and looked as if Antigonus might the “second sage” of the
four other generals. Perdiccas overcome all the others. Then, in
Samnite-style helmet emerged as the main power in 301BCE, Lysimachus crushed the ALEXANDER THE GREAT (356–323 BCE)
The Romans admired the Samnites Antigonid army at Ipsus, and
as fighters. This gladiator helmet is the center; Antipater and annexed most of Antigonus’s At age 20, Alexander inherited much of Greece from his father; by
based on the Samnite style of armor. Craterus took former territories, so cementing a his death just 13 years later, he had extended this to cover a vast
Europe; tripartite division of Alexander’s area from the Indus River in the east to Illyria in the west. He
Antigonus empire between himself, Ptolemy, was a brilliant general but prone to acts of impetuous violence.
Monopthalmus and Seleucus. His adoption of Persian court ritual alienated many native
Macedonians, and his not naming an heir proved catastrophic.
(“the one-eyed”) was given In India, in around 320BCE,
Phrygia; Ptolemy got Egypt; Chandragupta Maurya (r. c. 320–
and Seleucus and Cassander 297BCE) overthrew the last of the
were promoted to senior Nandas (see 370–356BCE) to
military commands. become ruler of Magadha and the
These generals, who became Ganges plain. An energetic ruler,
known as the Diadochoi he then gradually absorbed the
(“successors”), then fought a long
series of wars for dominance in
Alexander’s former empire, at
first pitting the others against
Perdiccas, who was assassinated
in 320 BCE. Antipater rose to
power next, but he died of natural
causes in 318 BCE, leaving
Antigonus to make a bid for power

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59

300–281 BCE 280–266 BCE 265–241 BCE
,,
,,ANOTHER SUCH

VICTORY AND WE
ARE UNDONE.

Pyrrhus, king of the Greek state of Epirus, 279 BCE

The Pharos lighthouse was built under Ptolemy II in around At the Battle of Mylae, in 260BCE,
280BCE. It guided ships into Alexandria harbor at night. Rome defeated the Carthaginian navy.

IN ITALY, A THIRD WAR broke Demetrius Poliorcetes (c.337– IN 281 BCE, THE APPEAL by envoys 500 20 IN INDIA, the accession of Ashoka
out between the Romans and 283 BCE), the son of Antigonus from the southern Italian city of (c. 294–232BCE) to the throne in
Samnites in 298BCE, apparently (see 322–301BCE), was now Tarentum for protection against 3,000 2,000 268BCE had marked a watershed
provoked by Samnite harassment rebuilding his strength from bases the Romans provided Pyrrhus, for the Mauryan Empire. On his
of their neighbors, the Lucanians. in the Aegean islands and in the king of the Greek state of 20,000 father Bindusara’s death (see
Despite two Roman victories in Cyprus. He was able to exploit the Epirus, with a perfect excuse 322–301BCE), Ashoka had to fight
297BCE, the Samnites, this time need of Seleucus, in Babylon, for for fulfilling his ambitions and KEY Slingers a four-year civil war with his
allied with the Gauls, could still allies against the now overmighty intervening there. He arrived with Infantry War elephants brothers before he was enthroned.
field a huge army against the Lysimachus. In 294BCE, Demetrius an army more than 25,000 strong, Cavalry Around eight years later, he
Romans at Sentinum in 295BCE. invaded Macedon, whose ruler including war elephants. He beat Archers launched a campaign against
Cassander had died three years the Romans at the River Siris in Kalinga (modern Orissa), which
275 before, leaving his two young 280BCE, but the Roman senate Pyrrhus's army was so bloody that around 100,000
sons to engage in a bitter civil refused to make peace. Pyrrhus The army that Pyrrhus took over to people are said to have died. So
THE NUMBER war. Demetrius then attacked vanquished another Roman army Italy included a small number of war struck with remorse was Ashoka
OF YEARS Lysimachus’s Asian territories, at Asculum the next year, but his elephants, whose presence caused at this slaughter, that he ever after
THE but in 292BCE he was brought losses were so severe that it the Roman cavalry to panic and flee. rejected war and promoted the
PTOLEMAIC back to Greece by a revolt in seemed more like a defeat. After Buddhist concept of dharma,
DYNASTY Aetolia. By 289BCE, Demetrius invading Sicily, Pyrrhus retreated against Seleucus, and the latter’s meaning mercy or piety. He set up
RULED EGYPT had suppressed the revolt, but he back to Epirus in 275BCE, nursing assassination, soon led to a series of edicts carved in rock
had lost most of his island bases huge losses in troops and having instability on the frontier between throughout the empire—many of
The equally vast Roman army—at to Ptolemy’s Egyptian fleet. He made no territorial gains. the Seleucid Empire (now ruled them on pillars topped with a
45,000, the largest they had ever retreated to Asia, and died in by his son Antiochus I) and the lion—promoting his adherence to
fielded—was threatened with 283BCE, a captive of Seleucus. The defeat and death of Egyptian ruler Ptolemy II dharma. Under his patronage the
defeat until the Roman consul Lysimachus in 281BCE in battle Philadelphos. Finally, in 274BCE Third Buddhist Council met at
Publius Decius Mus (d. 295BCE) Of Alexander’s successors, the First Syrian War broke out Pataliputra around 250BCE, and
dedicated himself and the enemy Ptolemy inherited the weakest Pyrrhus of Epirus between them. The Egyptians Ashoka sought to export his ideas
army as sacrificial victims to the position. A naval defeat in 306BCE Despite his many campaigns, when emerged victorious, annexing abroad, exchanging diplomatic
gods of the underworld and led a by Demetrius Poliorcetes confined Pyrrhus died he ruled little more parts of the Syrian coast and missions with foreign rulers, such
suicidal charge that shattered the his ambitions temporarily to Egypt. than the kingdom he had inherited. southern Anatolia. This position as Antiochus II of Syria and
Samnite line. A string of Roman Yet here he shrewdly chose to was in part reversed by Egyptian Ptolemy II of Egypt. At his death
successes followed in 293 and exploit the existing mechanisms losses in the Second Syrian War in 232BCE, the Mauryan Empire
292BCE, and two years later the of power, establishing himself as (260–253BCE) and then renewed had reached its greatest extent
Samnites finally surrendered and a pharaoh in the old style and in the Third Syrian War (246–241 and seemed securely established.
their lands were annexed. Roman setting up an administration that BCE), which was fought between
territory now stretched across the melded the best of Greek and the Seleucid Antiochus II and In China, Zhao Zheng succeeded
Italian peninsula to the Adriatic Sea. Egyptian traditions. By 295BCE, Ptolemy III. These three his father to the throne of Qin in
Ptolemy’s naval forces had debilitating wars left the Seleucids 246BCE. From 228BCE, ably advised
recovered and conquered much of particularly vulnerable to the now by chancellor Li Si, Zhao Zheng
the Aegean. In Egypt, Ptolemy’s growing power of Parthia. unleashed a final war of conquest
position was sufficiently secure against the remaining Warring
that, at his death in 283BCE, aged States (see 370–356BCE). Zhao
84, he passed the kingdom on to and Yan soon fell to his forces, the
his son Ptolemy II Philadelphos Qin armies captured Wei and, in
(r. 283–245BCE), the second king 223BCE, overcame Chu. Only Qi
of a Ptolemaic dynasty that would still held out but, in 221BCE, Zhao
rule Egypt until 30BCE. Zheng finally annexed it, leaving

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A3n0t0ioBcbChyE SfCoeiutlyen2uodR9cfeo8udmBsCaIEnSTtaehmrirrnidtiotSerasy,mast(tnttaaiortcet2kin9Wg0aBrCE) 28e6xBopCfEaanBnseiegorinannionifnCQghinina 28Gt1haBellCiSEceRpnoeomonpaelrensus;lkeRndnsooeoomwfrevtneaehtreanrsaonlwlIotaf ly 2o8f 0EBptcCoirEituhiPeseys,lrpsoredfhnaesudgfosesau,nittkndrhisoneGtogrrRpnesoeImtkaalyns invadde2es7pMo3sBaeCcsEeAPdonyrntriighaouansnuds II 272DBeCElpCheilitnsGsraecekcec. 2A7sa0hg–oa2bki6lnao0sofitBdgKCyhEatwlsianrga 263 BCE PEeeusrmtgianaebdmnleiespushemk,enisndagesdnotm 262 BCcEoAnBsvuhedortkdsahtiosm

60

23YEARS
THE LENGTH OF
THE FIRST PUNIC
WAR

ROMAN RELIGION little headway. However, after they ,,Aegades Islands. This defeat
had built their first-ever fleet, the caused Hamilcar Barca, the
Early Roman religion combined Romans’ fortunes changed. In Carthaginian general, to sue for
the worship of the great gods, 260BCE, they won an important peace. The peace terms involved
such as Neptune (shown here), victory over the Carthaginians at the Carthaginians leaving Sicily.
with that of more local deities. Mylae. A Roman invasion of North The two sides’ spheres of
There were several different Africa in 256BCE failed to capture influence remained uncomfortably
types of priest: haruspices Carthage only through the overlapping, creating the seeds
made predictions from the ineptitude of the consul, Regulus. of two future conflicts.
entrails of sacrificed animals; On land, the Romans took the
augures determined the divine Carthaginian strongholds in Sicily ,,IF THEY WILL
will from signs, such as the one by one until, by 249BCE, only
flight of birds; and pontifices Drepana, in western Sicily, held NOT EAT, LET
controlled the complex out against them. A massive THEM DRINK!
calendar of religious festivals. Carthaginian naval victory there
In their homes, Romans had set back the Roman cause, but Publius Claudius Pulcher, Roman
shrines to household gods and in 241BCE, a new Roman fleet consul and general, ordering the
the spirits of their ancestors. appeared off Drepana, took it, drowning of the sacred chickens
and the next year smashed when they refused to eat grain
a Carthaginian fleet at the before the Battle of Drepana, 249BCE

him the master of all China. The expelled the nomads, but wars the nomadic Parni, led by E U R O P E Alps
same year he proclaimed himself with Egypt (280–272BCE and Arsaces, entered Parthia in the
the “First Emperor” as Qin Shi 260–253BCE) overstretched the mid-240s BCE. P y r Tolosa Placentia
Huangdi, and the first ruler of the kingdom’s resources. On the eNe asrbo
new Qin dynasty. death of Antiochus II (r. 261–246 Rivalry over Sicily, where the Numantia e n Massalia
BCE), civil war broke out between Carthaginians had possessed Iberian
In Persia, the Greek Seleucid the king’s widow Berenice and his colonies since the 8th century BCE, Emporiae Rhodae Pisae Ariminum
dynasty, which had inherited the former wife Laodice. This led to was at the root of the First Punic
region after Alexander the Great’s the breakaway of Bactria under War (264–241BCE), a conflict P e n i n s u l a Dertosa Tarraco Corsica Aleria PerusiaA d r
death in 323BCE, faced a series of between Rome and the North to Rome 238 Ostia Rome
nomad incursions Diodotus and Parthia African power of Carthage. In 264 Saguntum Baleares i a t ic
after 280BCE. under Andragoras. BCE, the Romans sent an army to Olbia
Antiochus I (reign Taking advantage help the Mamertines—a group Gades Sardinia Capua Sea
c. 292–261BCE) of this instability, of south-Italian mercenaries
occupying the Sicilian city of Malaca M ed to Rome 238 Tarentum
Messana—in their conflict with Iol
the city of Syracuse, which was Tingis i t e r ranean Carales Panormus Thurii
in turn aided by Carthage. The
Carthaginian’s resistance was so Rusaddir Cartenna Sea 241BCE 260BCE Croton
stubborn that the Romans made Saldae Agrigentum Mylae
Rhegium
Great Stupa at Sanchi Utica 256BCE
This Buddhist stupa in central India Carthage Ecnomus
was begun by the Mauryan ruler Syracuse
Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. Hadrumetum
Sicily

to Rome 241

AFRICA

Leptis Magna

Charax

KEY The First Punic War
Carthaginian Empire in 264 BCE The two decades of fighting was
Roman gains by 264 BCE concentrated around Sicily, but
Roman gains by 238 BCE also saw Roman invasions of
Roman victory North Africa and Sardinia.

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61

240–220 BCE 219–211 BCE

36 THE NUMBER OF
COMMANDERIES
(REGIONS) SET UP
BY EMPEROR QIN
SHI HUANGDI

This rendition of Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps is attributed to Italian artist
Jacopo Ripanda. Amazingly, all 37 elephants survived the mountain passage.

IN 221 BCE, QIN SHI HUANGDI, the In the aftermath of the First Second Punic War AT L A N T I C EUROPE
first emperor of China, divided his Punic War (see 264–241 BCE), There were three principal theaters OCEAN
empire into 36 commanderies on which Sicily and Sardinia lost, of conflict: Spain, Italy, and North
the advice of his minister Li Ssu. Carthage turned its attention Africa. By 203 BCE, the Carthaginians ALPS
The dispossessed aristocrats and to Spain. In 238 BCE, Hamilcar were confined to Africa. Tolosa
nobles of Qin’s former enemies was sent there, and he conquered TPay rrreanceoeN2s1a8rbEomRphoordiaaeeMaTsCsroearbls2iiia1aca0218 Placentia
were moved to the capital Xianyang almost all of southern Spain. He Numantia
to keep them under close control. died in battle against the Oretani, 207
To further encourage a sense of a Celtic tribe, in 229 BCE, but by I b e r i a n 208 Pisae Ariminum
unity, Li Ssu commissioned a then he had won a new empire Peninsula
single script and a standardized for Carthage and a strong power River Metaurus 207
system of weights and measures base for his family, the Barcids. Perusia Lake Trasimene 217
for China. Further conquests were SAedariatic
made to the north and south in Despite their victory in the First Baecula 208 Saguntum Dertosa Aleria Rome
219 and 214BCE, and thousands of Punic War, the Romans’ position Ilipa 206 209 Ostia
colonists were sent to the new in northern Italy was still weak. In Olbia
territories. Shi Huangdi dealt 225BCE, the Celtic Insubres and Gades Sardinia Capua Cannae 216
firmly with opposition. In 213BCE, Boii tribes tried to drive them out.
he ordered the “burning of the At the Battle of Telamon, the Celts THE SECOND PUNIC WAR Baleares Tarentum
books,” by which the writings of were trapped between two Roman 218–202 BCE
philosophers opposed to the Qin armies and routed. Although the Tingis Malaca Carthago M e d i terr Carales
state were burned, and in 212BCE Boii accepted defeat in 224BCE and Carthaginian Empire 281BCE Nova Iol Saldae a n Motya
he had many intellectuals who the Insubres sued for peace two Carthaginian territory 200BCE C a n e Utica Thurii
opposed him brutally killed. years later, the Romans rebuffed Roman territory 218BCE R
them and pushed on for total Roman gains by 200BCE H Rusaddir Cartenna Croton
Suppressing opposition victory. The king of the Boii was Massalian territory 218BCE H Messina
This watercolor-on-silk painting killed in single combat against a Carthaginian victory S Mylae Rhegium
shows Shi Huangdi, China’s first Roman consul, and their capital Roman victory
emperor, overseeing the burning of Mediolanum (Milan) captured. Hannibal (219–202) 204 Sicily Agrigentum
books and the execution of scholars. The Romans established colonies Hasdrubal (208–207
in the Celtic territories in 218BCE, Scipio Africanus (210–206 Zama 202 Carthage Syracuse
including at Piacenza. and 204–202) Melita
Hadrumetum 203
A revolt led by Arsaces (see
265–241BCE) in Parthava, a Sea
former satrapy in the northeast of
the Seleucid Empire, could not be AFRICA
quelled by Seleucus II (r. 246–225
BCE), and a separate Parthian Leptis Magna
kingdom emerged in the region
of modern Iran. The Parthians Charax
gradually annexed more territory
to the west, especially under ALARMED AT CARTHAGINIAN decided to strike first. He Romans—including one of theFORCES IN THOUSANDS
Mithridates I (r. 171–138 BCE). By EXPANSION IN SPAIN, in 226 BCE marched with 50,000 infantry, consuls. Faced with many
the early 1st century BCE, only a the Romans sent an embassy to 9,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants defections among the allied
small area of Syria was under Hasdrubal—son of Hamilcar and into northern Spain, across the cities, the Romans turned to
Seleucid control. the new Barcid commander Pyrenees, through southern delaying tactics to hold Hannibal
there—and secured an Gaul and—to the Romans’ at bay. But this was a temporary
agreement that the Carthaginians astonishment—crossed the Alps. measure, and the Romans
would not move north of the Ebro Although he now had only around suffered one of their worst ever
River. In return, the Romans half the force he had started with, defeats at Cannae in 216BCE, when
pledged not to move south— his presence encouraged the
although they did forge alliances north Italian Celts to revolt and, 100
with cities in the south, such as at Trebia in late 218 BCE, he 50,000 casualties
Saguntum. In 221 BCE, Hasdrubal routed a Roman army. The
was assassinated; two years following year he smashed 80
later, Hannibal, his brother and another large Roman force at 6,000
successor, attacked Saguntum, Lake Trasimene, killing 15,000
rapidly leading to the Second 60 casualties
Punic War (219–201 BCE). Battle of Canae
Some 35,000 Romans survived the 40
With the prospect of the battle of Cannae, but half of those
Romans sending one army to were captured by the Carthaginians, 20
Spain and another via Sicily to and many were sold into slavery.
invade North Africa, Hannibal 0
Roman Carthaginian
TROOPS

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62

210–201 BCE

After his death, the First Qin Emperor was buried in a vast mausoleum, in which
an army of 8,000 terracotta warriors, each around 6ft 6in (2m) tall, were placed.

HANNIBAL (247–182 BCE) WHEN THE FIRST QIN EMPEROR position there. The Roman senate at Utica in North Africa, the fleet was reduced to a mere 10
DIED IN 210 BCE, resentment sent the young general Publius Carthaginians recalled Hannibal ships; they were not allowed to
A brilliant tactician, Hannibal’s against his autocratic rule erupted Cornelius Scipio (c. 236–183BCE) to head off a threat to Carthage make war outside Africa at all,
string of victories against the in a series of peasant revolts. A to Spain, where he captured the itself. The Romans offered and inside it they needed Roman
Romans from 218BCE was number of new kingdoms broke Carthaginian capital of Carthage relatively lenient peace terms, but permission to do so. An annual
not matched by the strategic away from the center, while the Nova. In 206BCE, he crushed a the Carthaginians rejected them, tribute of 10,000 talents payable
judgment to convert them anti-Qin forces found a talented large Carthaginian force at Illipa. and Scipio captured their towns to the Romans completed the
into final victory. Following military leader in Xiang Yu. In one by one. Aided by the Numidian humiliation of what had once
the surrender of Carthage in 208BCE, Li Ssu was executed and In 207BCE, Hannibal’s brother prince, Massinissa, Scipio been Rome’s greatest enemy.
201BCE, Hannibal served a new army, led by Liu Bang, a Hasdrubal was defeated and defeated Hannibal’s last army at
as the city’s suffete (chief man of peasant origins, emerged killed at the Metaurus River in Zama in 202BCE. The peace terms The Continence of Scipio
magistrate) until the Romans to challenge the Qin. By 206BCE, northern Italy, denying Hannibal the Carthaginians now had to Scipio was noted for his mercy. In
had him exiled in 195BCE. the Qin Empire was fragmented crucial reinforcements. By 204BCE, accept were much harsher. All of this 19th-century painting, he is
He then offered his service and Xiang Yu and Liu Bang were at many of Hannibal’s south-Italian their territory was forfeit save a seen handing back a captured
to a succession of Rome’s war with one another. In 202BCE, allies had deserted him, and when band around Carthage itself; their Carthaginian woman to her fiancé.
enemies before poisoning Xiang Yu committed suicide after Scipio landed with a Roman army
himself in Bithynia. being defeated at Gaixia. With no
one left to oppose him, Liu Bang
Hannibal’s army massacred up to had himself declared emperor as
50,000 of them. But Hannibal Gaozu, the first ruler of the Han
did not march immediately on dynasty (see 200–171BCE).
Rome, and his campaign lost
momentum. Although Hannibal With Hannibal making little
captured much of southern Italy, headway in southern Italy, the
including the key city of Capua in Romans embarked on a policy of
211BCE, by 212BCE the Romans picking off the allies of Carthage.
had raised 25 fresh legions and Their first target was Philip V of
stood ready to carry the war back Macedonia, whose attacks on
to the Carthaginians. Illyria in 215 BCE had provoked the
First Macedonian War (215–205
BCE) with Rome. In 211BCE, the
Romans allied with the Aetolians,
who fought the Macedonians on
land while the Romans launched
naval attacks. Philip’s invasion
of Aetolia in 207BCE forced the
Aetolians to sue for peace the next
year, and though the Romans sent
fresh forces in 205BCE, the war
ended with a recognition of the
status quo between the two sides.

In Spain, the Romans had
retaken Saguntum in 212BCE, but
a disastrous defeat the following
year in which both consuls died
looked set to destroy the Roman

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63

700 BCE–599 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE owl, the sacred
bird of Athena
crescent symbol in
post-490 BCE coins

Athenian coin
The Athenian
silver tetradrachm
has an image of an
owl on one side and
a helmeted head on
the other. It was also
stamped with the Greek
letters for “ATHE” to identify
the city of its origin.

1200 BCE Cowrie shells 465–454 BCE
Shells as money Greek coins
Beginning from the Almost every Greek city-state
Maldives, the use issues its own coinage, often with
of cowrie shells the name of the state inscribed on
as money spreads it. Silver replaces electrum as the
throughout the Pacific, main metal used.
and, by the 19th century,
into Africa.

Prehistory 1000–500 BCE c. 640–630 BCE Lydian coins 27 BCE–14 CE
Cattle as capital Tool money First true coins
Prehistoric people In China, common The state of Lydia Augustan aureus
use cattle as money, tools are cast in produces the first true
with animals such as metal, punched coins, made of electrum Emperor Augustus
sheep or chickens with holes (for (an alloy of gold and
sometimes acting stringing several silver) and stamped with reforms the Roman
as small change. together), and an image of a lion or stag.
used as money. coinage system and

issues a new version of

Cattle the standard gold coin,

Knife Gold the aureus, worth
money
aureus 25 silver denarii.

64

THE STORY OF MONEY

THE STORY OF

MONEY

THE ADOPTION OF MONEY ENABLED EARLY SOCIETIES TO FLOURISH AND GROW INTO COMPLEX CIVILIZATIONS

As societies became more complex, a need arose for a uniform medium of
exchange to acquire goods. Money was created to fulfill this role, and it evolved
from cattle to precious metals, and finally, to coins and bank notes. Today, money
is exchanged more abstractly, through credit cards or electronic transfers.

PERCENTAGE OF SILVERThe earliest forms of money—used in ritual code mentions loans paid in silver. In 640 BCE, TRADE AND PAPER MONEY
exchanges (for example, as a dowry) and in paying in the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor, the
fines—included physical items such as cattle. development of money went a stage further with The growth in paper money in Europe after
In the 4th millennium BCE, the growth of trade in the invention of coinage, which later spread to the Middle Ages was fueled by the needs of
Egypt and Mesopotamia led to more compact and the Greek world. By the Roman era, a tri-metallic merchants. Traders would deposit funds in a
portable forms of money. For thousands of years, system had been adopted, with coins of gold, bank in one city and receive a promissory note,
precious metals were used, often in the forms of silver, and bronze (of least value) circulating across which allowed them to withdraw the amount
bars and ingots. Babylonian king Hammurabi’s law the empire. All had the head of the ruler stamped in any other city where the bank had a branch.
on them, for propaganda as well as fiscal use. Great Italian banking houses, such as the Medici,
100 were rich enough to fund the military campaigns
90 EXCHANGE NOTES of European kings through their loans.
80 In 1189, paper money came into use in China during
70 Jin rule. Notes could express larger denominations
and, therefore, were more convenient than coins.
60 Gradually, government-backed banks began to issue
50 notes, which were, in theory, exchangeable for an
40 equivalent amount in bullion (a system known as
the Gold Standard). However, the economic crisis
30 following World War I forced countries to abandon
20 the Gold Standard. Subsequently, the “real” value of
notes and coins became nominal, relying instead on
10 a sense of trust that they could be exchanged for
goods. The growth of credit cards from 1950 took
0 this a stage further, as the purchaser passed on
160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 nothing save the promise of payment at a later date.

YEAR

The debasement of Roman coins
Due to inflation, excessive expenditure, and weak control
of minting, the purity of the Roman denarius fell from
around 90 percent silver under Marcus Aurelius
(r. 161–180) to 4 percent during Gallienus’s rule (r. 260–268).

806–821 Song 1519 Joachimsthal 1694 1949 Credit cards
Paper money dynasty Thalers thaler First bank note Credit and debit cards
In China, Emperor note Coin minted from The Bank of England
Xianzong issues the silver found in the is founded to fund The first credit cards
earliest bank notes during Joachimsthal mine, England’s growing appear in the US in
a period of copper Bohemia, becomes national debt. It issues 1949. By the 1980s,
shortage. The Jin dynasty standard in the its first bank notes, debit cards, which
issues the first true bank Spanish and Austrian backed by the bank’s
notes around 1189. Habsburg empires. own gold reserves. operate as electronic
cash (without deferred

payment) appear.

1158 17th century 1862
Making change Modern check First dollar bill
Henry II of England By the 17th century, the use The US Treasury
creates high-quality of checks, often backed issues the first
coinage, based on a by goldsmiths, becomes dollar bills for
silver penny, with widespread in national circulation.
a cross design that Europe. These are known
will last over the next as “greenbacks”
100 years. Henricus penny British check for their vivid green color. First one dollar bill
from 1659

65

200–171 BCE 170–147 BCE

The royal entourage of Gaozu, the first emperor of the Han, depicted in the mountains of China. This wall painting shows Judah
Gaozu was one of the few Chinese rulers to come from a peasant background. Maccabee’s revolt in Jerusalem.

THE FIRST HAN EMPEROR OF the beginnings of political Mauryan general, assassinated including the Satavahanas, the THE THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR
CHINA, GAOZU, died in 195BCE, consolidation in central Japan, the last Mauryan ruler (see Kalingas, and the Indo-Greek ended In 168BCE, when Paullus
when his successor, Hui Ti, was especially around the lower Nara 265BCE). He is said to have kingdoms of Bactria. defeated Perseus at the Battle of
just 15. Hui Ti fell under the sway basin (near Osaka). persecuted Buddhists, marking Pydna. A purge of anti-Roman
of his mother, the empress Lu, the beginning of the religion’s Bactria (in modern Afghanistan) elements swept through the
who took power for herself on In India, the Sunga dynasty decline in its Indian homeland. had broken away from Seleucid Greek cities, and Macedonia was
his premature death in 188BCE. took power in Magadha in 185BCE, He also fought a long series of control around 275BCE, but a broken up into four republics to
Under her rule China was when its founder Pusyamitra wars with Magadha’s neighbors, series of Greek kings continued prevent it recovering its strength.
invaded by the Hsiung-nu from Sunga (r. 185–151BCE), a former to rule there, starting with
the north and the kingdom of Diodotus around 250 BCE. Another In 150BCE, Spartan attempts
Nan-yueh to the south, and it Indo-Greek dynasty emerged in to get the Romans to intervene
was only under Gaozu’s grandson India, and became powerful in a quarrel with the Achaean
under Menander I (c. 165– League (a group of Greek
13 geometrical 130 BCE), an important patron of city-states) coincided with an
THE NUMBER patterns Buddhism. Under the Indo-Greek anti-Roman revolt in Macedonia.
OF REGIONS kings, a new school of art By 148BCE, the Macedonians had
THAT MADE UP and shapes emerged around Gandhara, which been defeated and the Romans
HAN CHINA fused Buddhist iconography and turned their attention to the
Greek naturalism. Gradually, Achaeans. The Roman consul
these easternmost Greeks came L. Mummius quickly routed the
under pressure from Scythian Archaeans and took Corinth,
and Yuezhi nomads and in 125BCE which he razed to the ground. The
Bactria collapsed. The last various leagues of Greek cities
Indo-Greek kingdom of the were dissolved and Greece lost
Punjab survived until 10CE. its independence, becoming the
Roman province of Achaea.
The Roman victory against
Wen Ti (r. 180–157BCE) that Philip V of Macedon (see NUMBER OF SOLIDERS (IN 1,000s) 50 Total
stability was restored. 210 BCE) in the Second 40 Total Captured
By 143BCE, the number of Macedonian War (200–197 BCE) 30
commanderies (regions)
under central Han control had did not lead to permanent 20
risen from 13 to a total of 40. acquisitions in Greece,
and the Romans withdrew Killed
In Japan, the Middle Yayoi their army in 194 BCE. 10
period (c. 200–100BCE) saw an After the death of Philip V
increase in population—possibly in 179 BCE, his son Perseus Killed
to as high as 600,000 people—and presided over worsening
relations with Rome, and 0
Yayoi vase in 171 BCE a Third Macedonian Romans Macedonians
The Yayoi period in Japanese history War broke out. Initial Roman COMBATANTS
(c. 300 BCE to 250 CE) is named for campaigning achieved little
the site near Tokyo where its pottery except the alienation of their Battle of Pydna
was first found. Greek allies, but a more Philip V of Macedon’s army was
disciplined approach under completely destroyed at the Battle
the consul Aemilius Paullus of Pydna. The Romans killed 20,000
(see 170 BCE) yielded better Macedonians and captured 11,000.
results.

c. c2u0Cl0teuBnrCteErsaRalepAgpn2ieod0Jane0urasBdliCnaEeAanfrtioomchPu2tso0WlI0eIIamBtrCaiE(ektSsoees1c9o7nBd1CM9El7)iabcBrCeaEdroFynoaiuatnnPdeartgioanmoufm19ine6lAeiBncnCrtEaCeetHafdooralrstinhamunafsfigbeettaoelap(nmudbamlgicaiskfiternasatnec) es 19w2iBdthCeEafAenRnadottemMiodaacagnhtnuwTeshasrieIaIrIm.(1Ho9ep01yBisl8aCc2eoEm)BCmE Hitasnsnuiibcaidle 18C0h2Bi3CnpE-eeyWsreeieaoenrdm-rotepifiebgsretnoacrbpo.irmlHoit1vieysi7sdP9ehsBilCiEpPVearssekuinsgsuocf cMeaecd1es7Md2oa(BntcoCeE1dT6oh7nirBidaCnE)War c. o1f6fifo5crCiBathClhEineeFxesiasresmeltecicni1vtaii6otlei4nosnnBetoCerfErvsaJnuJtedsrauhsMalaecmcabee

66 Mecv.xaic2clo0loem0’ysBmmTCeuEeonSrltimgatihiereagustleaolircnfaosntramtes f1r9e6edBoCEmIRsootfhmtmheeudsGeocr1reflea9eCvr3koeosBrslCtianEattTghhaeinAsteaRtloloylmiwaanitnhLreAuanlgetiuoaecnhd1u9s1BlaCEwTshaeremaobsotlrisighoerdouinscaC.Qn1hidn8in1satBaCrEt Eonf dSinuonnfogMratahdueyr1rnyn7aa7nsIntBiydnCEitaoAHdveannacneroefgHiosniuonf gn1-on7ru5thBoneCrorEdnmGeArCraneidhnetisigkoncapchuigulstsuitIrnoVeJbiimenewpJsiuaoscdshreaiTsefieacm,edp1l7e1 BCEbeMcioPthmerreisdsiaaktLiensegaIogfue 161kMBilCalEecdcJauibndeabehaitstle of Per1bg6eaKc0moiBnmuCgmEeETs,cuhruameulrtlceeueindrntayeoblswycIneI,endter

146–131 BCE

The ruins of Carthage, which was burned and ritually cursed after its capture
in 146BCE. A new Roman town was founded near the city around 48BCE.

,,After the end of the Second Punic the Elder, who made a series of I SHUDDER TO THINK
War, in 202BCE, the Romans had speeches to the Senate calling for
,,allowed their ally King Massinissa the destruction of Carthage. ,,THAT ONE DAY SOMEONE
of Numidia to encroach on The first two years of the Third
Carthaginian territory. The peace Punic war saw ineffective Roman MAY GIVE THE SAME ORDER
conditions that ended the war attacks on towns around Carthage. FOR ROME.
forbade the Carthaginians to wage In 147BCE, a new commander was
appointed, Scipio Aemilianus, Scipio Aemilianus, Roman general and consul, on giving the order
CARTHAGE who transformed Rome’s fortunes to burn Carthage, from Plutarch’s Apothegmata
MUST BE in the war within a year.
Carthaginean tophet IN CHINA, RAIDS BY NOMADIC capital, under which a Jewish
,,DESTROYED. A memorial stone from the tophet In 167BCE, the Seleucid ruler HSIUNG-NU TRIBES from 177BCE dynasty ruled until Jerusalem was
(cemetery) at Carthage, showing Antiochus IV outlawed Jewish gravely threatened the Han captured by the Romans in 63BCE.
Cato the Elder, Roman statesman Tanit, the goddess of the heavens. religious practices in Judaea, dynasty’s northern borders. In
leading to the revolt of Judah 139BCE the imperial envoy, Zhang On the Iberian Peninsula, the
war without Roman approval. made to pay an annual fine Maccabee and his brothers in Qian, set out to Central Asia to Romans had conquered most of
Unable to act, the Carthaginians of 500 talents. In 151BCE, the 164BCE. Judah Maccabee entered seek out possible allies against southern Spain and parts of
were reduced to sending Carthaginian government sent a Jerusalem, reconsecrated the the Hsiung-nu. His epic journey Portugal (where the Lusitanians
embassies to Rome to protest military force to relieve a town that temple, and reestablished helped scout the way for Chinese vigorously resisted them) by
Massinissa’s behavior. However, had been besieged by Massinissa, Judaism. The Seleucid kingdom expansion as far as Dunhuang, and 174 BCE. A revolt by the Lusitanian
Rome sided with its ally, and one and the Romans reacted by then continued to decline (see the foundation of a number of new leader Viriathus from 147BCE was
Carthaginian embassy in 162BCE declaring war. This was the Third also 280BCE), with the overthrow Central Asian commanderies by joined by several Celtiberian
even resulted in Carthage being Punic War (149–146BCE). Rome’s of its ruler Demetrius I in 150BCE 104BCE. Zhang Qian was held tribes in 144BCE. This rebellion
war was encouraged by the by Alexander Balas rapidly leading captive by the Hsiung-nu for some petered out after Viriathus was
anti-Carthaginian senator Cato to the loss of the key satrapies years during his journey before he murdered in 140BCE. In 133BCE,
(provinces) of Media and Susiana. was able to make an escape. Numantia, the main center of the
Under emperor Wu (141–87BCE) revolt, finally fell to the Romans
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC the Chinese launched several after a bitter siege. Its population
offensives against the Hsiung-nu, was sold into slavery and Rome
After the overthrow of the last king in 507BCE, orders. Later elections for the consulate became particularly in 121BCE and 119BCE, was left in control of all of Iberia,
Rome became a republic, ruled by two annually bitterly contested as the office provided great after which the frontier was quiet except the far north of Spain.
elected consuls. Over time the consuls came potential for enrichment and personal and family for almost 20 years.
to be supported by other magistrates (praetors glory. After Augustus became emperor in 27BCE The Third Punic War came to
and quaestors), and tribunes of the plebs who had the office of consul lost any real power, being In the Near East, the shrunken an end when Scipio Aemilianus
a special role in protecting the rights of the lower increasingly awarded to imperial favourites. and near-helpless Seleucid blocked Carthage’s harbor then
realm (see 170BCE) was riven by launched a successful attack on
civil wars and prey to interference the city itself in spring 146 BCE.
from the Parthians, the The last Carthaginian defenders
Hasmonaeans, and, increasingly, died in an inferno in the city’s
the Romans. In 142BCE, the main temple. The defeat of
Maccabees succeeded in wresting Carthage brought its 118-year
Jerusalem from Seleucid control struggle against Rome to an end.
and established a Hasmonaean The Romans burned the whole
kingdom, with Jerusalem as its city and deported its population to
prevent any Carthaginian revival.

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6 7co1n4tr1oBlCME ePsaorp1thbo3iet6aacnBmosCmEiaeCsonstfautceiarneoilfsigmCiohnin1a33 BCoEfRNoummaannstitaakaeftIebrelroian1ng3cs1iiteByCgtEoeRPoemrgaasunmlnaarvureemmAsrrtyetifsoovstoleoqpllnonurtwtieeclletiultendhsnge,bdtyethhrertoone

130–111 BCE 110–91 BCE

,,
,,
HOWEVER MUCH YOU MAY
TRY TO DELAY, YOU ARE FATED TO

,,MEET THE SAME DEATH AS I DID.

Tiberius Gracchus, Roman official, speaking in a dream to his

brother Gaius; from an account by Cicero

This 17th-century silk painting from a history of Chinese emperors
shows the Emperor Wudi greeting a scholar.

SAKA (SCYTHIAN) TRIBESMEN In southern and central India, IN PALESTINE, THE HASMONEAN In North Africa, the Romans YOU DO
invaded Punjab, northern India, the Satavahanas began their KINGDOM (see 146–131BCE) had faced a serious challenge when WELL TO
in about 125BCE. They gradually rise to power after the breakup of continued its expansion until the Micipsa, the son of their former CONSIDER
occupied more territory, ending the Mauryan Empire in the 2nd fall of Jerusalem to the Seleucid ally Massinissa of Numidia (see THE OFFICE
a brief period of Indo-Greek unity century BCE (see 200–171BCE). Antiochus VII in 131BCE. However, 170–147BCE), died in 118BCE. The
(see 200–171BCE) under the reign From his capital in the Deccan, the during the reign of John Hyrcanus Romans ordered the kingdom be ,,YOUR OWN,
of Antialcidas around 110BCE. Led third Satavahana king, Satakarni, (r. 134–104 BCE) it recovered much divided between Micipsa’s nephew
by King Maues, the Sakas took extended his sway considerably of the ground that had been lost. Jugurtha and his sons. Jugurtha FOR YOU
the kingdom of Gandhara and its around 50BCE, although he and Alexander Jannaeus (r. 103–76 rejected this, killing one cousin BOUGHT IT.
capital Taxila in about 80BCE. later Satavahana rulers struggled BCE) enlarged the kingdom until it and attacking the other, Adherbal,
After Maues died (c. 60BCE), the to contain the Saka and Kushan occupied most of modern Israel who fled to Rome. After a brief Julius Caesar’s father chastising
Saka kingdom collapsed, but it threats from the northwest. and the West Bank. After defeats division of Numidia between the future dictator Sulla for having
was revived under his son Azes I by the Nabataean king Aretas III in Jugurtha and Adherbal, Jugurtha corruptly bought office in 94 BCE;
(r. 58–c. 30BCE), who conquered In Rome, social turmoil had 84BCE and internal strife following renewed his attack on his cousin from Lives by Plutarch
much of northwest India. The erupted over the distribution of Alexander’s death, the and the Romans became involved.
Sakas held this region until the public land held by the Senate. Hasmoneans were Following several disastrous
rise of the Kushan Empire during Tiberius Gracchus, who was increasingly vulnerable years of campaigning from
the 1st century CE. tribune of the plebs in 133BCE, to Roman interference. 111BCE, the Romans sent Quintus
sought to ensure that plots of this Caecilius Metellus, who captured
land would be handed over to ROMAN MILITARY REFORMS Jugurtha’s strongholds one by
poorer families. When the Senate one. In 108BCE, Gaius Marius
obstructed his plans, he tried to By the late 2nd century BCE, the Roman army was experiencing replaced Metellus. Finally,
extend his tribunate so that he difficulty recruiting from the traditional propertied classes. Gaius trapped in the far west of his
could pursue his aim. A mob Marius changed this by opening the army to those who fell below territory, Jugurtha was handed to
organized by senators opposed the normal property qualification. The eagle became the universal the Romans by his father-in-law
to the plans beat him to death in legionary standard for the first time, and the legions themselves Bocchus of Mauretania.
the Forum. Tiberius’s brother were reformed as a heavy infantry force. From this point onward
Gaius became tribune in 123BCE Roman light infantry and cavalry were organized into “auxiliary” In Gaul, two Germanic tribes,
and tried to carry on his brother’s units, which were recruited from noncitizens. the Cimbri and Teutones, had
work. He also reduced the been defeating the Romans since
Senate’s role in dispensing justice, 107BCE, notably at Arausio in
and pushed through a law to allow 105BCE, where Roman losses
the sale of subsidized grain to the reached 80,000. Marius took
poor. In 122BCE, the Senate command of the defense against
declared Gaius an enemy of the the Germans on his return from
state, due to his plans to extend North Africa, and in 102BCE
Roman citizenship more widely vanquished the Teutones at Aquae
in Italy. He killed himself, and Sextiae in Gaul. He next crushed
thousands of his political the Cimbri at the Battle of
supporters were executed. Vercellae in 101BCE. He was
rewarded with an unprecedented
Amravati relief carving sixth consulship in 100BCE.
This carving depicts the life of the
Buddha. It comes from Amravati in In China, Emperor Wudi (r.
Andra Pradesh, southeast India, one 141–87BCE) strengthened the Han
of the capitals of the Satavahanas. Empire’s administrative system

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68

90–71 BCE

Maiden Castle hill-fort in Britain underwent several phases of rebuilding after
it was begun around 600BCE, reaching its final form about 500 years later.

Captured in stone AFTER HIS VICTORY AT VERCELLAE, Senate had voted to put Marius in
The Danzante carvings at Monte (see 110–91BCE) Marius became charge of the campaign. Enraged,
Alban, Mexico, were once thought Rome’s dominant politician, but Sulla entered Rome with his troops
to be of dancers, but they are now the brutal behavior of his ally and seized power. He moved
believed to represent the mutilated Saturninus, tribune of the plebs, against Mithridates in 89BCE, and
bodies of enemies captured in war. provoked the Senate. Political had driven him out of Greece by
violence flared, and in 100 BCE 84BCE. Sulla returned to Rome,
by beginning civil service Marius had to march an army into defeated his remaining opponents
examinations. Official positions Rome. Saturninus was killed in the (including the aged Marius), and
for academics had been ensuing riot. As Marius’s power was appointed dictator in 82 BCE.
established in 136BCE, waned, discontent rose among
consolidating the ruling house’s Italians without Roman citizenship. Sulla took savage revenge on the
stranglehold on the intellectual In 91BCE, this erupted into the Marians, packed the Senate with
life of China. In 106BCE, Wudi Social War. A protégé of Marius, his supporters, and curtailed the
appointed 13 regional Lucius Sulla (c. 138–78BCE), took a powers of the tribunes. Anti-Sullan
inspectors to monitor the key role in suppressing the revolt, forces regrouped around Quintus
behavior of government officials, which was largely over by 88BCE, Sertorius, who had fled to Spain.
raised taxes, and forbade private albeit with some concessions After Sulla died in 78BCE, the
coin-minting. His armies pushed offered by Rome to the rebels. Senate sent Pompey to deal with
deep into Central Asia. By 108 BCE, Sertorius. His military efforts were
the Han Empire had reached its Sulla was elected consul in 88 ineffective; only the assassination
largest extent. BCE. That same year, while waiting of Sertorius allowed Pompey to
to sail with his army to Greece to return victorious to Italy in 71BCE.
In Mexico, the population of counter the threat posed by the
Monte Albán had reached about king of Pontus, Mithridates VI In 73BCE, a slave revolt led by
17,000 by around 100BCE. Monte (134–63BCE), Sulla heard that the the gladiator Spartacus broke
Albán’s control began to reach out near Naples and grew into the
beyond the immediate vicinity of 70,000 most serious revolt Rome had ever
the Valley of Oaxaca, and many faced. Eventually, the rebel slaves
large stone platforms and public SPARTACAN were trapped in southern Italy and
monuments were built in the city. REBELS defeated by the Roman general
Marcus Licinius Crassus in 71BCE.
6,000
By the 1st century BCE, the Celtic
spartican rebels peoples of southern Britain had
crucified started to expand their existing
hill-forts into oppida (“towns”)
The rebellion by Spartacus that were defended by extensive
Crassus crucified slaves along the fortifications. The greatest oppida
Appian Way, which led to Rome, as were formidable obstacles to
a warning to any others who might attackers and some were royal
plan a similar insurrection. capitals, complete with palaces.

Sacred offering
This 1st-century BCE British Celtic
shield was discovered in the Thames
River, where it had probably been
thrown as an offering to a river god.

10v0ioiBnlCeERnPoccmoe.l(1eflint0aoic0rraetBhlsCeEaRsitsAeforifcAa)k9s9uuBpmeCrEaissSitenergrioninuCshina 90bBeoCcEfoPCmateerssthicpiaahpointal 88cBohCnEidsRupocrtmos-aaMnsacarovianansgueolppSpuuorlngl8aee8nkoBtilsCflEedMbityhSricdyattheisanIIionfvaPdae8rrt6thsaBikaCEesMcaorniutrso’sl oafrmRoyme VwIaernwdsith SpuulrlgaeisnsintigRaotmese c.c8o0onBfqCGuEaeTnrhdkehinaSgraadkoianmsBactria76sBuCpEpPreosmspioeny obfeSgeinrstoria7n3srBleaeCvEvnoCedSlrtspraeawsvrsitotuahlsctdabinenefg7ei1antBsbC;Ey
84MBiCtEhrRidoamteasn 82nBeCwE

ch. 1il0l-0foBirCntEsnCoseprltrthieEcwaudersotpe W9a1rBCbEreSaoiknc(stioRaolo8um9t BeCE) 88 BaCtEtaMcVkpitIsrhootrvfhiidPneaocRteneotsomufsaAnsia 87 BCE SulalnadinbveasdieegseGsrAetehcee8n5sBCEMSituhlrlaOidrdacethefoesamVtIseantuM8s3itBhCrEidSae(ttcoico8nW1daBrCE) 80 BCE JEualriluyscCaamepsaairgsniunspAoRpsfroieams7sa8ensBcCroEenvPsooulmtl bLpyeeptyhideus 74AnBCaEtRoBloiimath)aybnneicpaor(ominveinscPeo7n3tuBsCEaRndomflMeaietnhssrtoiodcaActurempsyeVn7Ii2aBCE Semrutorrdieursed

69

70–61 BCE 60–51 BCE

Mound City, Ohio contains a cluster of more than A reconstruction of the Roman ramparts at Alesia,
20 Hopewell earthwork burial mounds. where Caesar forced Vercingetorix to surrender.

AFTER POMPEY’S RETURN TO ITALY 3 GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR BECAME area of southern Gaul. He took
(see 90–71BCE), he was elected CONSUL OF ROME for the first time advantage of the migration of the
consul for the year, despite still THE NUMBER in 59BCE. Having served a term as Germanic Helvetii across Gaul
being below the legal minimum OF MILITARY governor of Spain, he was popular toward Italy to cross over the Alps
age. When war broke out with TRIUMPHS among the equestrians (wealthy and defeat Ariovistus, the
Mithridates of Pontus again, the AWARDED nonsenators), but resistance to Helvetian king. Caesar returned to
Romans, under general Lucullus, TO POMPEY him from the Senate (and the Rome, but his deputy, Labienus,
forced Mithridates to retreat to obstructiveness of his coconsul stayed in Gaul and the following
Armenia, which was ruled by his in Central Asia were replaced by Bibulus) led him to join with year he pressed on to conquer the
son-in-law Tigranes. However, the establishment of small, Pompey and Crassus, Belgae of northwestern Gaul. By
Lucullus’s troops mutinied in permanent colonies. and the three 55BCE, Caesar had subdued most
68BCE, and Pompey was sent to dominated Rome of Gaul and had acquired a vast
replace him. Tigranes surrendered In Mexico, the city of Cuiculco in until 53BCE new province for Rome, without
and Mithridates retired north of the the south of the Valley of Mexico as the “First ever receiving any approval
Black Sea. Having achieved his was destroyed by a volcano some Triumvirate.” from the Senate.
aim, Pompey entered Syria, where time in the 1st century BCE. Its
he deposed the last Seleucid king, disappearance opened the way for In 58BCE, In 56BCE, an anti-Roman revolt
and then captured Jerusalem. Teotihuacán, to assert its control Caesar was broke out among the Veneti of
over the whole valley and become appointed northern Gaul, apparently
In China, the Han Dynasty Mexico’s dominant power for governor of supported by the Celtic tribes of
retreated from modernizing more than 500 years. Narbonensis, Britain. Caesar responded by
policies under Zhaodi (r. 87–74BCE) the Roman- crossing over to Britain in 55BCE
and Xuandi (r. 74–49BCE). The By the end of the 1st century occupied with two legions. A storm
Huo family, which had dominated BCE, the Adena peoples of Ohio,
the government for decades, was in eastern North America, were Caesar at
removed from power, and its beginning to develop into the the Louvre
leading members executed. Hopewell culture. These people Wearing the laurel
Government expenditure was lived by hunting and gathering, wreath of a victorious
cut, and aggressive expeditions general, this statue is
but they also built large, part of Caesar’s cult
Hopewell bird elaborate burial mounds of personality.
Clay pipes, often in for their chieftains.
the shape of birds,
are one of the most
characteristic products
of the Hopewell culture.

70cBoaClEltatoPapfcasAkrertssmhbiaeayfntTeiairgranes69LBuCacEguAaRlrilSonmumyssertaincTanaiiagmtg;orehpatnaehneieegrrsenaSslosetfloeruecsids 63cBaaCpEntudProaemnsnpJeeexyre6us3seJaBluleCedEcmtaCeeidcaecroonsul 59FBiCPrEsotCmTapreieusyamarvnfiodrraCmtresawsthsituehs 58CBaoCeEfscBaoern’gsqinuGneaislnltigc(tooWf5a0rsBCE) 56VBeaCnEgeaRtiienivsnotlBRtrooitmfttaahnneyrule 55XBisCoEontuBgrtinrbheuueatrckanourntyprfteiobodfeCetshrhbaeinceayc;ome 54sBeoCcEfoBCnrdaietiasniavnra’ssion
61 mBrCeiEclpieJtriuavorlepiysuracsfioerCmtsoatmremsfaoaanrrjdoSrpasain
defePao6tns5tuMBsCiEtahPnrodidmoTafiptgeAersryamonfeesnia XdkIeIiI6pn,o4gtshBaeeCansElRdaPAosmnomtmtaSioakpecneelhesypuurSscoyivdriinace 5R9oBmCXEIeIP,, iatsonflereaxomlpmlyeyloElfegdypt defe5a7tsBCtEhCeaanBedeslNagrearevii 55 BCE RePEsttgooylrpeatmtiaioynnXtIhoIfrtoone i5n5vaBbdCuEetsCwaBietrhsitadarrianw, s 54BECEbRubreyovnotheltess,SaianernenGdopaNnuuetelsrd,voiwi n

70

,,50–44 BCE

,, ,,…[CAESAR] DREAMED THAT HE WAS FLYING

ABOVE THE CLOUDS, AND NOW THAT HE WAS
CLASPING THE HAND OF JUPITER.

Suetonius, recounting Julius Caesar’s dream the night before his
murder in the Senate House in 44 BCE; from Lives of the Caesars

prevented the arrival of Gallia EUROPE KEY just before a session of the
reinforcements, causing him to Transalpina Caesar’s movements Senate. If they had hoped to seize
retreat, but he returned the next Gallia Siege power, the conspirators were
year with five legions (around Cisalpina Caesar’s victories disappointed: Mark Antony, one
30,000 men). The Britons did not of Caesar’s leading supporters,
resist at first, but later, led by Massilia 47BCEBlack Sea Roman Civil Wars came to the fore in Rome, while
Cassivelaunus, chief of the 48BCE Caesar won Italy easily, but he had Caesar’s great-nephew and
Catuvellauni, they vigorously Hisp4a5nBiaCE Tarraco Rome 47BCE to fight hard to overcome Pompey adoptive son Octavian received
opposed the Romans all the Gades 49BCE Zela in his Greek stronghold, and then widespread support in a bid to
way to the Thames River. When Carthago 47BCE PARTHIAN Pompey’s sons and remaining take up the mantle of his father.
Cassivelaunus’s stronghold at Antioch EMPIRE supporters in Africa and Spain.
Wheathampstead fell, he sued Nova 45BCE 46BCE Brundisium Pharsalus Cyprus In India, Kalinga (modern
for peace, and Caesar returned Ephesus Syria March 45 BCE he defeated Gnaeus Orissa), which had been a client
to Rome with hostages and the Munda Pompey at Munda, effectively kingdom of the Mauryas (see
promise of tribute. MAURETANIA 48BCE ending the civil war. 200–171 BCE), rose to prominence
Sicily Athenae under Kharavela in the mid-1st
At the end of 54BCE, shortly after Carthage Caesar was now all-powerful. century BCE. Kharavela expanded
Caesar’s second expedition to M e d He was made dictator in 48BCE, Kalinga far to the north and east,
Britain, another revolt in Gaul, this i t and in 44 BCE he was given the conquering the Sunga capital of
time led by the Senones, wiped out Thapsus e r r a n office for life. Concerns over Pataliputra in Magadha. A strong
much of the Roman force there. 46BCE e a n Caesar’s power—in particular, patron of the Indian religion of
After putting down the revolt, Sea fears that he planned to make Jainism, Kharavela established
Caesar’s attentions were diverted Hierosolyma himself king—led a group of about trading contacts as far afield
to Rome, where political violence Cyrene 60 conspirators to form around as Southeast Asia.
had resulted in the murder of his senators Cassius and Marcus
former ally Clodius, and where AFRICA Cyrenaica Alexandria Brutus. They murdered Caesar Murder of Caesar
Pompey had been elected sole PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM on the Ides of March (March 14) Conspirators struck Caesar down
consul in 52BCE, rupturing the with daggers. As he fell, Caesar saw
Triumvirate. Emboldened by the OF EGYPT Marcus Brutus, a former protégé,
turmoil in Rome, the Carnutes and cried out “you too, child?”
revolted in Gaul. They were CAESAR ENDED THE GALLIC REVOLT 49 BCE, he forced the Pompeians
joined by the Averni, led by by the end of 51 BCE, but by this there to surrender. In December,
Vercingetorix, who won several point the Triumvirate had ended: Caesar set off for Greece in
skirmishes against Labienus. Pompey’s supporters had turned pursuit of Pompey. A military
Vercingetorix also defeated Caesar against Caesar, and Crassus had engagement at Dyrrachium in
himself at Gergovia, but was then been killed in battle in 53 BCE. The July went against Caesar, but he
trapped at Alesia in September Senate ordered Caesar to disband fought back before Pompey’s
52BCE. The Romans constructed his army or be declared an enemy support could grow, and won a
an encircling rampart around the of the state. Instead, he crossed resounding victory at Pharsalus.
Gauls’ position and managed to the Rubicon River into Italy with Pompey took refuge in Egypt,
beat off a Gaulish relief force. With his troops in 49BCE. This was where he was murdered on the
no hope left, Vercingetorix illegal, constituting a declaration orders of Ptolemy XIII, who
surrendered and was taken back of war against the Senate. hoped (in vain) to ingratiate
to Rome, where he was strangled himself with Caesar.
in 46BCE after appearing in As Caesar marched toward
Caesar’s triumphal parade. Rome, town after town submitted After a short time in Egypt,
to him. Fearing Caesar, Pompey Caesar returned to Rome,
left Rome and fled to Greece. where he raised money by
Caesar turned first to Spain, confiscating property from the
where seven legions had supporters of Pompey. In late
declared for Pompey. In August 47 BCE, Caesar set sail for Africa,
where he defeated a new
,,THE DIE Pompeian army at Thapsus
(in modern Tunisia). Pompey’s
IS CAST. sons Gnaeus and Sextus escaped
to Spain to continue the
Julius Caesar to his troops on resistance from there, and
crossing the Rubicon in 49 BCE; Caesar annexed the kingdom of
from Plutarch’s Parallel Lives King Juba of Mauretania, who
had supported them. Caesar then
proceeded to Spain, where in

53CBriCanEswdEsiixMupspsaeeesdtsdtooeoitpPrui,ooatatnraasttomhhCfiiaisaaerarnrhdmasey is c. M50einxBpiCtchoEopeTiuesAloamtthtiieheorunliacaoarcfgsáe5,ns0wit,ni0tc0hit0ya c. K5a0elBminCpEgiaKrehcaainrravIenvesdlioaauotfan 48flBeaCeEnsdPtoiosmEkpgileyleypdt there 47PBhCoaEfrMCnaaitechserasidroadfteePfsoe)naatttsuZse(slaon 46NBusCmEuTiJichduiiasdibapeaascnauoonffsmtee;xrmheiddistesbkfeyinaRgtodamotme 46aBpCpEoCinateesdadrictator 44oBfCCEaMeusardrer
in

le5a2dBsCEneVwerbGcuiantlgliisectdroeerfvieoxaltt,ed 50 BCE oCfoannsterwucifntoiorRunomme 4R9uBbcCicrEooCsnasieensstaotrhItealy bGeac4loi8lmeBeCe,EsepHrnoHuedwalrieseonrmrdgoootffhnteehaens 4o6frBCeCmaE rRoatfoihnmPaingoagemnsfpcoueoupylnopaddnoteeryTftdehe;aratspesdus 46 BoCfE“tYhJeeualcriaaonlfernChedoafansorfr4u;m4tsh5ioedna”ys 45 BCEPCoameBspaaetrtyl’deseosffeoaMntsusantda 44 BbCEecColemoepsaortfruEalgeyrpt

71

43–28 BCE 27–20 BCE

This 18th-century painting shows Mark Antony fleeing from the battle scene at Actium Augustus built a new Forum at Rome,
in 31BCE. Many of his supporters defected to Octavian’s side as a result. with an imposing new temple to Mars.

IN ROME, THE PERIOD AFTER THE agreed, with Mark Antony ruling 500NUMBER OF WARSHIPS HAVING DEFEATED HIS ENEMIES,
ASSASSINATION of Julius Caesar the east and Octavian governing Octavian did not take on the title
saw rising tensions between Mark the west; Lepidus had to make do 400 of dictator, as Julius Caesar had.
with Africa. The Triumvirate was He instead ruled informally as the
10Antony and Octavian, whom many renewed in 38BCE for a further 350 princeps—the first man of the
viewed as Caesar’s rightful heir. THE NUMBER five years, but it was clear that state. Having acquired control of
The two almost came to blows conflict between Octavian and 200 Antony’s legions, he now had an
Mark Antony could not long army of about 500,000 men. He
early in 43BCE, when Octavian OF YEARS be postponed. 100 disbanded more than half of these,
marched to raise the siege of THE SECOND retaining 28 legions (about 150,000
Mutina (Modena, Italy), where Mark TRIUMVIRATE However, Mark Antony was 0 soldiers), settling the remainder
Antony was besieging Decimus occupied with a war against Octavian Anthony and in colonies in Italy and abroad. In
Brutus, one of Caesar’s assassins. the Parthians, who were allied Cleopatra 27BCE, Octavian gave up all his
with remnants of Cassius’s army powers, ostensibly restoring the
RULED ROMEMark Antony was forced to retreat and attacked Syria in 39 BCE. In Battle of Actium Republic. The Senate responded
36BCE, Mark Antony invaded Octavian’s fleet outnumbered that of by granting him personal control
to Gaul. When the Senate voted Parthia itself—ostensibly to Mark Antony and Cleopatra, with of Egypt, Gaul, Germany, Spain,
recover the legionary eagles smaller more manoeuvrable ships, and Syria. He was also given the
to transfer Octavian’s legions to captured by the Parthians at the and fresher, better trained crews. title “Augustus” and, cementing
Battle of Carrhae (see 53BCE)— his position further, he was consul
Decimus Brutus, Octavian realized them at Philippi, in northern and advanced to the capital sufficient resources to besiege it. each year from 27 to 23BCE. Over
Phraata, but he did not have In 33BCE, the Triumvirate time, the Senate voted Augustus
he was being sidelined and formed Greece, after which Cassius further powers, including that of
Suicide of Cleopatra expired and Octavian had the imperium maius in 23 BCE, which
a three-way alliance with Mark committed suicide. Three weeks This 19th-century painting depicts Senate declare Mark Antony a gave him supreme authority in the
the death of Cleopatra, who killed public enemy. The latter had lost provinces he had not previously
Antony and Marcus Lepidus, the later, they destroyed the remnants herself to avoid being captured by popularity through his relationship governed, and the permanent
Octavian and taken to Rome. with Cleopatra, the Egyptian powers of a tribune of the plebs
governor of Transalpine Gaul. This of Marcus Brutus’s army. Mark queen, and Octavian quickly in 23BCE. Although the Senate was,
rallied public opinion to himself. in theory, the supreme authority
became the Second Triumvirate. Antony stayed in the east until A fleet was rapidly assembled, in Rome, in practice no one could
and this destroyed Mark Antony’s match Augustus’s power, and he is
The Triumvirate conducted a war 40BCE, when he returned to Italy to naval force at Actium, off western seen as the first Roman emperor.
Greece, in September 31BCE.
against Cassius and Marcus try to undermine the Mark Antony’s land army then North Africa had been a center
defected to Octavian, and Antony of strong resistance to both Julius
Brutus, two more of Caesar’s growing power of and Cleopatra fled to Greece, Caesar and Augustus, who settled
where Octavian caught up with many army veterans there. In
assassins, who had seized much Octavian. Their two them in the summer of 30BCE. 25BCE, Augustus gave Mauretania
The Roman warlord and the (western North Africa) to Juba II
of the territory in the east. armies refused to fight, Egyptian queen both committed of Numidia. Juba, whose wife
suicide, and Egypt was annexed to was the daughter of Mark Antony
In 42BCE, Mark Antony and a de facto division the Roman empire. Octavian was and Cleopatra, proved a reliable
now the unchallenged master of Roman ally. Augustus still sent a
and Octavian defeated of the Roman world was the whole Roman world. legion to garrison North Africa,
where it stayed for over 300 years.

43SBeMCcEoaOnrkcdtAaTvnriitauonmnyfvoairrnmadtseLwepitih4du2dsBeBCfEercauRottemeupdsmuaabitntlPidschuaCiinclaiispfdosperiiuc;ses 40cBaCpEtuPraertJheiarunstarol3eo9mPpBsaCrEthAinatnosniyndCei3flei7cPaBitaaaCsrEntdhRioraemnssatonorsuetdHoriefvrJeoedrutosat3hle6rbmoBynrCteEehtAerenPataotsrntythoiiasAndrsemafeenandtiead 36foBroCcEueTOtsrociuLftamevpviiaidrnautse 32CBhHCeEanInngdeCmihbipenecaro,omr esc.k3i0nagrBteCdrEoiobImvneesdsrmoro-ufeGnBnrbeaoyecftktSrhicaeytShaiaka 27thBbCeEetficOitrolcsemttaAiRvnuiogagmnuinastanteukfefesem,sctptehreor 26C–an1n9ortraBetCbRvhErooeilmartnnaasSgnoaprfiaunilsnet

be4c0oBmCeEsHteoerftorGadarIcl4idhl0eivBeiCdEeRdobmetawneteenrarOintcdotraAievnisatonny3b9eBtCwE eTaernnedaAtSnyetooxfntuMyss,oiOsPnecootnmafuvPpmiaeonimu,sp,ey mar3r7ieqBsCuECeleAennotopofanEtyrgay,pt 36BCaEgCaainmsptPaSoiemgxnptsuesius Ar3m4eBnCEiaAanrntuodlnecyra,ipAntrvutaradevesassitdses d3e1fBeBaCaEttstOleAcntoatfvoAinacyntiautm 30CsBuleCicEoipdAaeRnt;otroEmangcayyonpamtpnmmrdoaivtdinece Agr2iRp7opoBfmaCnEcaoMonrmtachrpoecnlrueqnstueSsepsatinGall2uA5sr–afb2aii4alsBFCteoElAicxoe(nlYfioqeurumseReronm) e

72

20–10 BCE 9–1 BCE

,, ,,THOSE WHO SLEW MY FATHER

,, I DROVE INTO EXILE… AND…
DEFEATED THEM IN BATTLE.

Augustus, from the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, the testament
of Augustus, in Ankara, Turkey

La Maison Carré, in Nîmes, southern France, is one of the finest surviving
Roman temples. It was built around 16BCE by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.

In western Asia, the ruler of HE COULD JUSTLY BY 9 BCE, DRUSUS HAD DEFEATED
Galilee, Herod I, was allowed to THE MAIN GERMAN TRIBES and
retain his position by Octavian, ,,BOAST THAT HE HAD FOUND had reached the Elbe River. After
even though he had supported his death, Augustus appointed
Mark Antony. He was even given IT BUILT OF BRICK AND Tiberius to replace him. Tiberius
extra territories, including parts LEFT IT IN MARBLE. won a series of victories in 8BCE,
of Syria and Gaza. Herod had been but then mysteriously resigned
appointed by Mark Antony in 42BCE,
and by 37BCE he had conquered his offices and went into exile in
the remains of the Hasmonean
kingdom (see 146–131BCE). Suetonius, on Augustus’s embellishment of the Rhodes. This left Gaius and Lucius
Herod remained a reliable ally
of Rome until his death in 4BCE. city of Rome; from Lives of the Caesars Caesar (both underage) as heirs

Emperor Augustus apparent to the Roman Empire.
Augustus, seen here dressed as a
priest, acquired the title of pontifex In China, the reign of Yuandi
maximus (chief priest) on the death
of Lepidus in 12 BCE. AUGUSTUS’S MILITARY AND when he died. Around this time, (49–33BCE) saw the economic

POLITICAL SUCCESSES had relied the Romans annexed the provinces retrenchment begun under Xuandi

largely on the abilities of Marcus of Raetia (in modern Switzerland) (see 70–61BCE) continue. Some

Vipsanius Agrippa, who rose from and Noricum (between the Alps semi-independent kingdoms that

a minor family to become consul in and the Danube), moving the the early Han had suppressed

37, 28, and 27BCE. After Agrippa empire’s frontiers almost to a line began to reappear. Yuandi and his Khazneh at Petra
The Khazneh is one of Petra’s finest
had married Augustus’s daughter along the Rhine and the Danube. successors Chengdi (r. 33–7BCE) monuments. Carved out of a sheer
cliff-face, it was probably a royal tomb,
Julia, he received numerous Supporters of Tiberius, now the and Aidi (r. 7–1BCE) also created perhaps of Aretas IV (c.9BCE–40CE).

promotions, including tribune of most high-profile general, tried numerous marquisates, many of the succession of his half-nephew
Aidi in 7BCE. This caused dissent
the plebs in 18BCE. Augustus’s own to have him displace Lucius and which were granted to the sons of among nobles whose candidates
for the throne had been overlooked.
appointed heir had died in 25BCE, Gaius Caesar as Augustus’s heir. the new kings, weakening the
The Nabataean kingdom of
so he adopted Agrippa’s children, Augustus himself did little to state’s central control. Chengdi northern Arabia grew rich on its
control of the spice trade from
renaming them Gaius and Lucius resolve the question of succession. lacked a male heir, resulting in southern Arabia, reaching its
height in the mid-1st centuryBCE
Caesar. Agrippa seemed likely to under Malichos I (c. 59–c. 30 BCE).
It then faced a growing threat on
succeed Augustus, but in 12BCE he ROMAN LITERATURE AT THE TIME OF AUGUSTUS its northern borders from Herod I.
A disputed succession in 9/8BCE
died unexpectedly, throwing open between Aretas IV and his chief
minister Syllaeus led the Romans
the question of succession. The end of the Republic and to take an interest in the area. An
expedition led by Gaius, grandson
By threatening to invade Parthia the reign of Augustus saw a of Augustus, may even have
briefly annexed Nabataea in
in 20BCE, Augustus had engineered golden age in Latin literature. 3–1BCE, but the Romans pulled
back, allowing Nabataea another
the return of legionary standards The orator Cicero and the century of independence.

captured by the Parthians at historian Sallust marked the

Carrhae (see 53BCE). In 16BCE, the height of late Republican

Roman governor of Macedonia literature. After Augustus’s

began pushing toward the River rise to power, the poets Virgil

Danube, and from 12 BCE Tiberius, (right; 70–19 BCE), author of

Augustus’s stepson, the son of his the Eclogues and the epic

second wife Livia, moved north poem The Aeneid, and Horace

from Illyria to create the Roman (65–8BCE), author of the

province of Pannonia (modern Odes and Carmen Saeculare,

Austria and Hungary). Tiberius’s both flourished under the

brother Drusus pushed Roman patronage of Maecenas, a

control across the Rhine toward close confidant of Augustus.

the Elbe between 12 and 9BCE,

25oBfCsJEiagtDhnnoeuifoysRrinisongmtRopaoetnhmaewceeoTaertrhlmderopculleo2gsh5keoBidunbC,tEgy JAoufubMgauasIuItrumestaadneia 20PBatCrhEtcehRaiRoopafmotmuCmeraaeaarkdnrnehasdapttaeetnhaadecraeeBr;rdaestttulerned 18aBsCmsEoaAcdigaerttiepriopbfauA,ncuelgoousfsettuh1se,4puBlpeCrEbissMinagjoirnpCehaisnaant 12c–o9GnBeqaCrusEmetRshaotenmoyEfaalbnsefar 9BRCoEGmDebrrerum’tosostauchsnaseumrtccrcoTpibemiabeeipegsdlr;neAihutaueesggsdaauiissentsslue,tsaledaaisnviegnmgc8ophBineniCstrEteooTnreidbxeeirlreiuins gRoheosdes 4 BdCaEtePorof bJaebsluesbCirhtrhist 4 BhCiEsdHikvheiiindsregotdddhorbImeedetiwiessseo;enns

cc.a2nf5oornBCtwhE reBitufiterdsndthSdtiriosmiwtLenainnk2a3thBCeEMReorm(omiatonicdsekinrinnvgaSdduoedman) rebu1il9dBsCatEhtHeJeetreroumdspaIlleem con1q5uBeCsaEtnRodfoNRmoaarenitciuamlike1l2yoBspCuEecnDceswesauisltplohsrqouutfcoecAsAegtueirogdinpuApsouatfug,wsu,hsotus com1p0lBeCteEosfHsbeeuraCoilpddaoeiInrstgaartea caMmaMp9raaoBirbCgcEonodRsmuoauamgtsnahanoiennifsDatthlaoennugbe Em7pBCeEroiIsnr sCCubhhhcyeiacnnlAeafg-ei,dnddieie,pdhhisew 2 BCEthAeugpursaitmeutspoereirsaitanalbgbluoisadhryedgsuaasrd

73

700 BCE–599 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

THE RISE OF THE

ROMAN EMPIRE

FROM CITY, TO REPUBLIC, TO DOMINANT EUROPEAN EMPIRE

Soon after its foundation in 753 BCE, the city of Rome began fighting its AT L A N T I C
neighbors to gain new territory. Gradually, the Romans became entangled OCEAN
in campaigns in the Italian Peninsula and beyond. By the 1st century CE,
the Roman Empire had become the largest Europe had ever seen.

The early growth of Roman territories was slow, with wars their military successes to bolster their position in Rome. T ARRACON

against neighbors often threatening the survival of Rome itself. It was in this period that Pompey annexed Syria and Julius

By 290 BCE the Romans dominated central Italy and began Caesar conquered much of Gaul, between 58 and 51 BCE.

expanding into the Italian Peninsula. Rivalry with Carthage led The collapse of the Roman Republic and the accession of

to the three Punic Wars between 264 and 146 BCE, but victories the first emperor, Augustus, in 27 BCE did not end the empire’s LUSITANIA

brought the acquisition of territory in Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, and expansion. The quest for security along the existing frontiers Olisipo Toletum
Emerita
then North Africa itself. resulted in the frontiers being pushed even farther forward. Augusta

In the early 2nd century BCE the Romans fought campaigns in Rome's final large-scale acquisitions were made in the reigns BAETICA

the Balkans, leading to the annexation of most of Greece in of Claudius, who oversaw the invasion of Britain in 43 CE, and

146 BCE. The pace of acquisition quickened in the later years of Trajan, who conquered new provinces in Dacia (modern

,,BOUTNODTHAERIREOSMINATNIMS IESOERT SNPOACE. ,,the Republic, as generals competed for political power and used Romania) and Mesopotamia between 106 and 117CE. Tingis

MAURETANIA
TINGITANA

Virgil, Roman poet (70–19 BCE), the god Jupiter, prophesying the future
greatness of Rome, from the Aeneid

MILL4I.O5N 100 CE
By around 100 CE, the Mediterranean had
7:1 Roman population KEY become a Roman “lake," and the acquisition
Around 1CE, the Roman Roman territory of territories in northwest and Central Europe
Empire contained about had brought the northern Roman frontier as
one-seventh of the world’s population— far as the Rhine and the Danube.
45 million out of 300 million people.
45 A GROWING EMPIRE
1,900,000 mi² It took the Romans nearly 500
MILLION years to complete the conquest
117 CE of Italy, but only half that time to
An empire of noncitizens enlarge their territories to include
In 1CE, only a tenth of the Spain, Gaul, parts of Germany,
Roman population were full most of the Balkans, much of North
citizens. The rest were slaves Africa, and large parts of western
or had limited civic rights. Asia. Over the following 100 years
they acquired Morocco, Britain, and
1,000,000 mi² Expanding empire Dacia, and made small advances 240BCE The Romans dominated most of
Between the accession of Augustus and into western Asia, but the empire the Italian Peninsula. Victory in the First
25 BCE the death of Trajan, the Roman Empire began to contract after 250 CE. Punic War (264–241BCE) brought new
almost doubled in size, acquiring vast territory in Sicily, but the Romans still faced
new territories in northwestern Europe resistance to their rule in northern Italy.
and western Asia.

74

Hibernia
Caledonia

Sea
North

60,000S e a
Eburacum Baltic MILES
Camulodunum THE APPROXIMATE LENGTH
Lindum
BRITANNIA G e r Burgundians OF THE ROMAN FRONTIERS
Londinium Colonia AT THEIR MAXIMUM EXTENT
Agrippina m
a
GERMANIA Augusta n i
INFERIOR Treverorum
a

Durocortorum Mogontiacum Sarmatians

A
D
BELGICA
LUGDUNENSIS GERMANIA M a r c o m a n n i Q u a d i
SUPERIOR Vindobona Carnuntum
TIA MOSIA BOSPORAN
PENRIOONIRA KINGDOM
Lugdunum RAE I CUM Brigetio INFERIOR
Virunun
AQUITANIA NO R Aquineum Apulum

ALPS GRAIAE Aquileia PANNONIA Roxolani
ET POENINAE INFERIOR
Mediolanum PASNU Black Sea
DACIA Durostorum
ALPS COTTIAE Trapezus

NARBONES I S ALPS Ravenna Sirmium Viminacium
L
M MODESIA
ENSIS MARITIMAE A SUPERIOR Byzantium PONTUS
A
Massilia T I Philippopolis A ET
Corsica THRACIA CIA
Rome BITHYNI

Baleares Aleria ITALIA Thessalonica Ancyra CAPPADO Samosata

Sardinia MACEDONIA ASIA

Valentia Carales EPIRUS GALATIA I A Zeugma
Carthago Nova Antioch
Messana Delphi Ephesus L C
MAURETANIA Miletus
CAESARIENSIS Utica M Corinth LYCIA CI L

Carthage e d i Sicilia ACHAIA
Thugga Sparta
te r r Syracuse Athens Cyprus SYRIA
S e a Creta
a nean Damascus
Tyrus

JUDEA

Sabratha Jerusalem Bostra

F R Leptis Magna Ptolemais
A ICA

S Cyrene Alexandria ARABIA Petra
a Memphis
CYRENE
ET CRETA

h AEGYPTUS

a Red Sea

r
a

200 BCE The Roman defeat of Carthage 120 BCE Most of Spain had fallen 60 BCE New North African territories 14 CE The Roman borders had expanded
in the Second Punic War brought new into Roman possession, as well as were gained in 96 BCE, and in 63 BCE Syria to include Gaul beyond the Alps, as well
possessions in Spain and Sardinia. By Carthaginian territory in North Africa. and parts of Palestine were annexed. as new provinces in Raetia and Noricum
200 BCE, a toehold had also been gained Greece and parts of western Anatolia The frontiers in Anatolia were also (Switzerland, south Germany, and
in northwestern Greece. were also acquired. pushed forward. Austria), and Pannonia (Hungary).

75

1–23 24–40

,, QUINCTILIUS VARUS, GIVE

,,ME BACK MY LEGIONS.

Emperor Augustus, on hearing of the Roman defeat in the Teutoberg Forest, 9 CE

WANG MANG WAS IN CHARGE OF (China’s administrative regions), Consolidating ruler Guard, took day-to-day power, but GENGSHI’S REIGN AS CHINESE
BOTH THE CHINESE ARMY and the and reimposed several state Rather than extending his rule was tyrannical and in 31 EMPEROR WAS SHORT. He
government under Emperor Ping monopolies. Serious floods on the Roman territory through foreign Tiberius suddenly reasserted alienated the Red Eyebrows and
Di (r. 1BCE–6CE). He strengthened Yellow River in 4–11 led to famine conquests, Tiberius concentrated on himself and had Sejanus executed. angered many of China’s nobility
his influence by marrying his and revolts in rural areas. In 23, strengthening the existing empire. and bureaucrats by moving the
daughter to the young emperor. the peasant rebels called the “Red Ponte di Tiberio, Rimini, Italy capital from Luoyang back to
On Ping Di’s death, many of the Eyebrows” joined forces with Han When Emperor Augustus (see Completed in the reign of Tiberius, Chang’an. Much of China had
loyalists and overwhelmed Wang 20–2BCE) died in 14, Tiberius was this bridge carried the Via Aemilia already slipped from Gengshi’s
28 Mang’s armies. When the capital his obvious heir (Lucius and Gaius (which ran from Riminia to Piacenza) grasp by 25, when Chang’an was
Chang’an fell, Gengshi became Caesar having died). Tiberius across the Marecchia River. sacked by the Red Eyebrows. The
THE NUMBER the first emperor of the restored already possessed most of emperor was deposed and
OF DIFFERENT Han dynasty. One of his first acts Augustus’s powers and had the replaced by Guang Wudi (25–57),
TYPES OF COIN was to make Luoyang his capital. loyalty of the Praetorian who is regarded as the first
ISSUED BY Guard—the elite army unit based Eastern Han emperor. The new
WANG MANG In Europe, Tiberius (see 20–2 in Rome, which Augustus had ruler had first to face a civil war;
BCE) returned to Germany in 4 to established. Although there were by 27, he had defeated the Red
nobility rejected Wang Mang’s subdue the tribes there. The moves in the senate to restore Eyebrows, but it took him until
choice of successor and rose up Marcomanni resisted, but a the Republic, Tiberius rapidly 36 to overcome the last of the
in revolt. Wang Mang easily put planned attack on them in 6 was squashed them. His reign (to 37) warlords who opposed him. In 37,
them down, and in 9 he took the postponed because of a revolt in was quiet at home. Germanicus, he abolished all except three of
title of first Xin emperor. He Pannonia, which took three years Tiberius’s nephew, campaigned the kingdoms that had sprung up
reissued the currency, forbade to quell. A new Roman commander, extensively in Germany up to 16,
the selling of private slaves, Quinctilius Varus, was sent to but his efforts led to no permanent MONGOLIA Sea
reorganized the commanderies Germany, but his corrupt rule reacquisition of territory beyond Gobi of
angered the German tribes. In 9, the Rhine and he died of poisoning Japan
Varus was ambushed in the in 19. After Drusus, Tiberius’s son,
Teutoberg Forest, and his three died in 23, the emperor tired of Pingchang KOREA JAPAN
legions were annihilated. Augustus public life and retired to the
then ordered a withdrawal to the island of Capri, off Naples. Chang’an Luoyang
Rhine, where the Roman frontier Sejanus, head of the Praetorian Mawangdui
remained for the next 400 years. Gaixia
East
China
Sea

Guanzhou Taiwan

South
China
Sea

KEY

Qin China in 206BCE

Territory added by Former
Han Dynasty 206BCE–9CE

Great Wall under the Han

Chinese Han Empire
When Guang Wudi began the
Eastern Han Dynasty in 25, Chinese
control extended deep into Central
Asia. Much of this territory had been
won under the Western Han Dynasty.

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spacrr.ee1aadBsAsuostdfioadsnchooiumsatmshatieanallsafltnodurishce. 1s iMnoncohrethceurlntaupPrpeeoruin6tRedomtoagnopvreorcnuJrua9SdtMouKardeeinaargnob)eNus(atiialnkdrapittnsragemlsaperargnnoetig--ordsfaacmaylme e 9 WangCMhanianndegesessXtetiainhzbredloissynhneeassty14hDe eaisadtsohupcotecfdeAesudogenudsTbtiubyseh;risius a1n7neCxaepdpatodoR1Oco7ivmaiRdeodmieasn(binp.4oe3exBtilCeE) X2in3redCsyotnloalraseptdys;,ewHoaiftnhCdhitayisntncaLaa’ossputiyytaalng b2e6coPmonestiupsroPocifulJaruatetdoarea c. 33 JCersuucisfiCxihornist
of
76

41–50

This ornamental brick from China’s Eastern Han period shows
a procession that includes horse-drawn carriages.

JESUS CHRIST (c. 4 BCE–33 CE) IN INDIA, GROUPS OF YUEZHI Colchester, the capital of the EMPEROR CLAUDIUS
NOMADS occupying land in Bactria principal British resistance leader, (10 BCE–54 CE)
Jesus, a carpenter from united under Kujula Kadphises Caractacus. Claudius himself
Nazareth, began his ministry in (30–80), who founded the Kushan made a brief appearance at the Caligula’s uncle, Claudius,
his early 30s. He taught in the Empire and conquered parts of fall of Colchester, before returning was an unlikely candidate for
Jewish tradition, calling for Gandhara. Although few details to Rome to bask in the glory of Roman emperor. However, he
the reform of the Temple and of Kujula’s reign are known, he having acquired a new province. turned out to be intelligent
for the love of one’s neighbour minted coins in imitation of both In 47, the Romans paused briefly and forceful, putting down
to take precedence over the Greek and Roman models, in their conquest of Britain, having two revolts in 42, after which
strict observance of religious demonstrating that Bactria and reached a line roughly between he executed more than 300
law. Jesus gathered a group of northwestern India remained very the Humber River in the east and senators. He was unfortunate
twelve disciples around him, much a cultural crossroads. the Severn River in the west. They in his choice of wives: he had
but was targeted by Jewish began establishing legionary his wife Messalina executed
conservatives afraid of his In northwestern Europe, a group fortresses in their new province, after she had an affair, and
growing influence. In 33, the of disgruntled officers of Rome’s including at Exeter and Lincoln. her successor Agrippina
Roman authorities in Judaea Praetorian Guard assassinated Aulus Plautius’s replacement, (Caligula’s sister) is reputed
executed Jesus by crucifixion, Caligula in January 41, tired of Ostorius Scapula invaded Wales, to have poisoned him.
but the disciples, convinced his cruel and irrational behavior where Caractacus was continuing
that Jesus had risen from the (see 24–40). In 43, the new the resistance. In 50, he defeated the Jews within the Roman
dead, continued his teaching. emperor, Claudius (r. 41–54), sent an army of Silurian and Ordovician empire, Paul ensured that
an invasion force of four legions tribesmen, and Caractacus fled Christianity spread sufficiently
under his predecessors, and legions in 39, Caligula marched led by Aulus Plautius, governor to the imagined safety of the to help it weather the storms of
reinstated Luoyang as the capital. them to the coast opposite Britain of Pannonia, to conquer Britain. Brigantes tribe in northern persecution that began under the
He faced renewed tension with to launch an invasion; when they The Romans landed unopposed England. However, the Brigantian Emperor Nero in 64. By the late
the Hsiung-nu on China’s got there, he merely had them at Richborough, pushed on to queen, Cartimandua, handed 4th century, Christianity would be
northern frontier, but failed to take collect seashells along the beach. London, and then captured Caractacus over to the Romans, the majority religion within the
advantage of their split into two and Roman Britain remained Roman Empire.
rival chiefdoms in 49. Independent Jewish kingdoms Christian catacomb, Rome relatively trouble free during the
in Palestine collapsed as Roman At first, Roman Christians did not following decade.
The Roman Empire once again power grew, creating a powerful have their own cemeteries. Later,
faced an unclear succession at ferment of religious change. they buried their dead in underground The 40s saw a struggle in the
the death of Tiberius in 37. He had John the Baptist preached in complexes called catacombs. early Christian community
named two heirs, but Gemellus the 20s, followed in around 30 between those who wanted to
was soon pushed aside because by a new preacher, Jesus. After remain within the Jewish tradition
Gaius, nicknamed Caligula (“little Jesus’s death in 33, his disciples and those, led by Paul, who
boots”), was popular with the began to spread his message favored the inclusion of gentiles
senate and the army. Caligula’s more widely. By around 50, (non-Jews) in the Christian church.
behavior as emperor became communities of Christians, Paul began a series of missionary
increasingly erratic—he had as Jesus’s followers were known, journeys in 46 which led him
Gemellus executed, and had many would be established throughout through Anatolia and Greece to
of Tiberius’s supporters killed. Western Asia, with particularly Rome, where he was martyred
He also had his sister’s husband— large groups in Antioch and around 62. A charismatic preacher,
his heir apparent—condemned to the first appearance of Paul also wrote a powerful series
death. After visiting the Rhineland Christians in Rome. of epistles (letters) to various
fledgling Christian groups. In
appealing to a wider group than

35PAebrrystsaihuabipsaopnvcoeourrusttsohIiIfnrIoR,owwof mnithe 37anTbidbyneihseripissuhusgecrdcweeiaeeCtsdaelidgula 40ofKaMisnMsagauaaPsrugsetraoitenialnetanasmtitneaydRia;ontmshearenvroullte 41inVbiAoelJlteeewxnweaciensendhrGiinarheaebkitaanndts 42MRaMouamarueRartnaoensmtaicaanrnniuarspebhrveoocvliotn;mcees 43oRfPBolmarainutadatniiuenisanu;svnbtadyaseri4oer7n,Asmuubloujsustgoaftesdouth46kiRnogmdoamnsoafnTnherxace 47ROoinsmtnBoaorrHnriiututchasmoiamSnbs,cemaafrapda–ruvnSaaldeansev,cerersn line

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77

51–61 62–72

70 THOUSAND
THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE KILLED
BY BOUDICCA’S ARMY DURING
THE ICENI REVOLT

The ruins at Masada, the last outpost of the Jewish revolt against the Romans,
which began in 66.

WHEN CLAUDIUS DIED IN 54, the Roman procurator (chief Britain, was away on campaign in IN THE EAST, Rome faced further After Nero’s suicide, four men
the Roman imperial throne fell to financial official) ruled that Wales, and by the time he troubles with Parthia over the became emperor in rapid
Nero (37–68), his adopted son and Boudicca could not inherit her returned, Camulodunum had border region of Armenia, where succession, making 69 the “Year
son-in-law. The young emperor’s lands, and that they would be been sacked by the Iceni. The the Parthian king had installed of the Four Emperors.” First,
reign began well when he rebels then burned Londinium his own candidate, Tiridates, the praetorian guard recognized
promised the senate he would annexed by Rome. (London) and Verulamium (St. as king in 53. A Roman force Galba (3 BCE–69 CE) as emperor,
avoid making any arbitrary Boudicca raised an Albans) before they were finally invaded Armenia in 59, took its but he made himself unpopular
measures. However, the first sign army and marched on trapped and defeated by capital cities of Artaxata and by refusing to give the praetorians
of Nero’s tyranny surfaced in 59, Camulodunum Paullinus. It is said the Iceni lost Tigranocerta and put in place a the donative, a customary bonus
when he had his mother (Colchester). pro-Roman king, Tigranes VI. His payable on the accession of a
Agrippina (15–59) murdered. In Suetonius Paullinus, 80,000 warriors and ill-advised invasion of a Parthian new emperor. In January 69, the
62, a new praetorian prefect the governor of Boudicca herself was ally in 61 led to his removal, and governor of Upper Germany,
(commander of the imperial captured, though she Tiridates was restored. A new Aulus Vitellius, revolted, and
bodyguard), Tigellinus (c. 10–69), died, possibly poisoned, Roman army was then roundly one of Galba’s former supporters,
took office. Tigellinus pandered to soon after. beaten by the Parthians in 62, and Salvius Otho (32–69), angered
the less desirable side of only a Roman push into Armenia when Galba recognized another
Nero’s personality, Boudicca the following year ended the war. senator as his heir, had the
whose rule became This statue of Boudicca emperor murdered and took the
increasingly stands outside the Tiridates was allowed to keep throne. In April 69, the armies of
despotic. Following a Houses of the throne, as long as he Otho and Vitellius clashed at
fire that destroyed Parliament in travelled to Rome to seek Bedriacum near Cremona in
much of Rome in 64, London, a city Nero’s approval, which he northern Italy, and the Vitellian
Nero is said to have that the Iceni army won. Otho committed
taken terrible queen razed to eventually did in 66. suicide, but Vitellius soon faced
retribution on Rome’s Nero’s position as emperor a further conspiracy when
small Christian the ground. became increasingly precarious T. Flavius Vespasianus
population, who proved when Calpurnius Piso led a
convenient scapegoats. conspiracy in 64, which prompted 960
Later, during the Nero to order further
reconstruction of Rome, COMMITED
Nero alienated senators executions, including those of SUICIDE
by seizing their land to many senators. In early 68,
build himself a new a revolt broke out, led by 7
palace. He also ordered
additional taxes in Gaius Julius Vindex, Survivors
Palestine, which sparked governor of Gallia
a Jewish revolt in 66. Lugdunensis. Roman invasion
Shortly after the When the Romans finally breached
In Britain, the Romans revolt of Vindex, the the walls of Masada, all except seven
faced a serious Iceni defenders committed suicide rather
revolt in 60. When the legion based in Spain than fall into Roman hands.
king of the Iceni died, proclaimed the
he left his lands to his governor, Sulpicius
queen, Boudicca. Galba, as emperor. Vindex’s
The revolt was revolt was put down by Verginius
triggered when Rufus, the governor of Germany,
but Nero panicked and
committed suicide, believing
Rufus would be the next to try to
claim his throne.

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78

73–90

A fresco from Pompei—many of Pompei’s elaborate frescoes survived for
nearly 2,000 years buried under the ash.

Jewish revolts between Ptolemais Sea of BY THE MID-70S, CIVILIS’S REVOLT destroyed by a volcanic eruption. far into Scotland, until a final
66 and 74 GALILEE Galilee had fizzled out and the rest of Showers of ash came raining defeat of the Caledonii at Mons
Although the Jewish Vespasian’s reign was largely down from Vesuvius, and those Graupius (possibly near
rebels of 66 initially Nazareth peaceful. With a reputation for who did not escape in time were Aberdeen) made it likely that all of
managed to gain control frugality, he restored the empire’s overwhelmed by the pyroclastic Scotland would be annexed. But
of a large part of Caesarea finances, imposing levies on a flow (a fast-moving mass of hot emperor Domitian (81–96) was
Palestine, by 69 they had Mediterranean Sea number of provinces, including gases, ash, and debris) from the facing trouble on the Danube and
lost control of all but the SAMARIA tadiniEgypt. By the time he died in 79, volcano. Perhaps a tenth of the a legion was withdrawn from
area around Jerusalem. Dead Sea DECAPOLIS stability had been restored to population of 20,000 died, Britain around 86, leaving an
JUDAEA such an extent that the succession including the naturalist Pliny the insufficient force to garrison
KEY of his eldest son, Titus (r. 79–81), Elder, who was commanding a northern Scotland, which was
Emmaus Gadara was unopposed. naval unit nearby and perished in evacuated.
Area of major revolt 66 Bethlehem Beth a failed rescue attempt.
Horton Two months after the accession Domitian had managed to fend
Area of revolt in 69 of Titus as Roman emperor, on In Britain, the Roman- off the threat from the
Jericho August 25, 79 the city of Pompeii, controlled area continued to Sarmatians, Marcomanni, and
Siege Jerusalem near modern Naples, was expand, with governor Petillius Quadi along the Danube by 84,
70 CE Cerialis (71–74) occupying the but war then erupted with the
Jewish victory Figure from Pompeii northern English kingdom of Dacians (of modern Romania)
Gaza The bodies of those who died in the Brigantia. Julius Frontinus who crossed the Danube and
(Vespasian) (9–79)—the Pompeii eruption were coated in (74–77) completed the subjugation killed the governor of Roman
general in charge of Machaerus volcanic ash, which then solidified, of Wales, defeating the Silures, Moesia. By 86, Domitian had
suppressing the Jewish leaving their outlines behind. but it was left to Julius Agricola defeated the Dacians, under their
revolt—set himself up as yet Masada (77–83/4) to send Roman armies new king, Decebalus. Dacia was
another rival emperor. The whole 74 CE not occupied by Rome, leaving
of the East and the Balkans Caledonii Decebalus in place to cause the
defected immediately to Jewish laws caused great Romans further trouble.
Vespasian. At a second battle discontent. In 60, the rebuilding Inchtuthil
near Cremona in October, of the Temple that Herod had
Vitellius’s forces were crushed. ordered built decades before was Dumnonii Vo North KEY
By December Vespasian’s army finished, and 20,000 unemployed Sea Atrebates, absorbed 70s
had taken Rome and Vitellius workmen added to the rising Selgovae Iceni, conquered 60–61
was executed shortly afterward. tension. The Roman procurator Brigantes, conquered 69–74
Rome had an unchallenged of Judaea aggravated these Novantae
ruler once again. feelings with his heavy-handed
rule, and in 66 an uprising broke Stanwick Roman expansion 43–47
Vespasian moved quickly to out. Although the commanders of Brigantes Roman expansion 47–50
reestablish the loyalty of the army, the uprising were competent, it Roman expansion 69–74
dismissing Vitellius’s praetorian lacked political leadership and Eboracum
guard and recruiting another. He the Jewish strongholds were
also had to face a serious revolt gradually reduced, first by Irish Sea
along the Rhine, where Julius Vespasian and then by his son
Civilis, a noble of the Batavian Titus (39–81). In 70, Jerusalem Anglesey SiluOrredBsouvircreisumIsDCcVeoairrvGcanloeoVnDvveiouiuribmumulCnaConmaritiutiuavnemlilauLniniLTdrouinInmcodeviannniCitueasmmRuolomduannumexpaBRnsyoiom7n4a7, n9R–so8mi4naBnrlietagiionns
people, joined forces with came under siege, and in late Calleva
dissident legionaries and almost August the city fell and the had reached the north
established an independent Temple was destroyed. Perhaps Dumnonii Durotriges Cantiaci of England. They then
Gallic empire. as many as 200,000 people died,
many sacred Jewish treasures Isca Dumnoniorum Noviomagus pushed north into
Judaea had been under direct were taken to Rome, and Gallia Scotland until 83.
Roman rule since the death of thousands of Jews were Maiden Castle Hengistbury
King Agrippa I in 44. Foreign rule enslaved. Resistance continued
and Roman insensitivity toward at Masada until 74, when it fell
after a two-year siege.

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79

91–100 101–117
,,
[AN EMPEROR] UNDER
WHOM EVERYBODY WAS
PERMITTED TO DO

,,EVERYTHING.

Fronto, Roman orator, on Emperor Nerva, from Cassius Dio’s
History of Rome

Trajan’s Column, in Rome, gives a visual account of Trajan’s campaigns
against Decebalus in the Dacian Wars.

DOMITIAN (51–96) BECAME ROMAN Emperor Domitian EMPEROR TRAJAN (98–117) WAS and building a bridge across the 331,000 kg
EMPEROR after the unexpected Domitian’s reign began well, but FROM A ROMAN FAMILY who had Danube at Drobeta to allow easier
death of his brother, Titus (39–81). his descent into tyranny proved too settled in Spain—he was the first access across the river. Three SILVER
Domitian had never commanded much for his opponents, who had emperor to come from a Roman years later, in 105, the Senate
armies and was unprepared for him assassinated. province rather than Italy. Having declared that Decebalus had 165,500 kg
the exercise of supreme returned to Rome from Germany violated the treaty, and Trajan
power. He had some success In Central Asia, the northern in 100 to claim his throne, he embarked on his Second Dacian GOLD
in his early campaigns, but Hsiung-nu confederation (see started a new Dacian War against War. This time the legions
he over-extended himself 146–131BCE) collapsed in 89, Decebalus in 101. From a base at reached, and took, Sarmizegetusa The Dacian Fortune
against the Dacians, and in allowing the Han to make large Viminacium (in modern Serbia), in 106. Decebalus fled and then The large amount of treasure Trajan
putting down a legionary gains in the region, led by general he pushed into central Dacia, and committed suicide to avoid acquired in Dacia allowed him to
revolt led by Saturninus, Ban Chao (32–102). Ban Chao fought a major engagement at capture. The Romans acquired build impressive monuments to
the governor of Germania became protector-general of the Tapae, in which both sides an enormous amount of treasure commemorate his Dacian victory.
Superior. This distraction Western Regions in 92, and suffered serious losses. When in Dacia, which allowed Trajan to
allowed Decebalus, King of reestablished control over the key Trajan’s legions neared the Dacian embark on a building spree, campaign against Parthia itself
the Dacians (r. 87–106), to renew oases along the Silk Route. By royal capital at Sarmizegetusa including the construction of a that gave him greater success
his war against Rome, and the time he retired in 102 the Regia, Decebalus sued for peace, new Forum in Rome. Dacia was in the east than any previous
Domitian was forced to pay off the Han controlled most of the agreeing to give up his army’s annexed as Rome’s first province Roman emperor. By late 114 the
Dacians with an annual subsidy. Tarim Basin. Chinese state weapons and siege equipment, across the Danube. It remained in Armenians had submitted to him,
organization became very and to demolish his remaining imperial hands for over 160 years. and he pushed into Mesopotamia,
The conspiracy of Saturninus complicated under the Han. Three forts. The Roman army did not capturing the Parthian capital of
led Domitian to become supreme officials supervised withdraw totally, establishing a Some time around 106 the Ctesiphon. By the end of 115,
paranoid and he had many large, complex departments. Each legionary base near the mountains Roman governor of Syria annexed Trajan had reached the Persian
senators executed for treason. of these was subdivided into nine the Nabataean kingdom, which
In September 96, he was ministries. Governors oversaw Sacred city became the Roman province of
murdered in a palace conspiracy each region, with regions divided This ruined temple is in the Dacian Arabia. It was not Trajan’s last
and the Senate chose the aged into over 1,000 counties, each capital, Sarmizegetusa Regia (in acquisition in the east—in 113 he
M. Cocceius Nerva (30–98) to supervised by a magistrate. modern-day Romania). It contained set off on a campaign against
replace him. The Senate then Eunuchs became increasingly the kingdom’s most sacred shrines. Parthia. He began by attacking
voted to destroy all statues of influential at the Han court. Armenia in 113–114, but it was his
Domitian and to recall those he
had exiled. However, in 97 Nerva
faced a mutiny of the praetorian
guard, who demanded the
punishment of Domitian’s
murderers. Nerva was forced
to give in, weakening his
authority. His position was
further diminished by his lack
of an heir. To rectify this he
adopted M. Ulpius Traianus
(Trajan), the governor of Upper
Germany, a man with a strong
military backing. Nerva died
soon afterwards and Trajan
became emperor.

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96 AssaosfsDinoamt9ioi7tngiaPuanrgaaraedintrosertviaNonlet9rsv9aIndairarniveesmibnaRsosmy e c. 10a0ndPyMTreaoomotniihdcusoanocfsáttnrhueincStMeudnexaitco 105 TrajanD’saSceiacnonWdar ki1n0g6dRoTomhmperiesNoavaainnbndancteebaxeeoecafdonAmbryaebsia 113 TrabjuainlFdocinrougmmopflaeattenRseowme 114 TrajianAnvramadneennseiPaxeaasrntdhia

80

118–135

The remains of Hadrian’s Wall in northern England. The central portion of the
wall occupies a high position that vastly enhances its defensive value.

Gulf near modern Basra, Iraq, TRAJAN’S SUCCESSOR HADRIAN 985 are found from the Oxus river in slaughter, after which the revolt
where he is said to have remarked (r. 117–135) rejected his Afghanistan to as far south as petered out. Hadrian proceeded
that, had he been younger, he predecessor’s policy of expansion THE NUMBER Varanasi and Sanchi. He was a with his plan to outlaw Judaism
might have pressed on to India. and concentrated on better OF VILLAGES strong patron of Buddhism and in Palestine, and many of the
The newly conquered territories defense of the imperial RAZED presided over the fourth Jews who had survived the
were organized as the provinces frontiers. In 122, Hadrian visited DURING THE Buddhist Council, as well as rebellion fled abroad.
of Mesopotamia and Assyria, but Britain, where there had been BAR-KOCHBA building a great stupa
they were already in revolt when frontier troubles. He ordered the REVOLT at his capital Treasured goblet
Trajan returned home in 117. The building of a huge barrier from Purushapura This beautiful vase was found in
Parthians rejected Trajan’s puppet the Solway Firth in the west to III (r. 105–147) who ruled the (Peshawar). Kapisa (Bagram) near Kabul, which
king Parthamaspates, and by the the Tyne River in the east. It took eastern portion, and Osroes was the Kushan summer capital in
time Trajan died in August 117 governor Aulus Platorius Nepos (r. 117–129) then Mithridates Hadrian’s ban the 1st century.
almost all of his gains in the east two years to complete Hadrian’s IV (r. 129–140) in the west. on circumcision,
had been lost. On his death-bed Wall (part in stone, and part in There was no further conflict his plan to turn
Trajan adopted Publius Aelius turf), which ran 76 Roman miles between Parthia and Rome for Jerusalem into the
Hadrianus (Hadrian), the governor (113 km), and was equipped with the time being. Roman town of Aelia
of Syria, effectively appointing a series of forts and milecastles Capitolina, and his
Hadrian as his successor. for its garrison. Hadrian’s Wall In India, the Kushan empire intent to ban Jewish
acted as the northern frontier expanded enormously under religious practices in
In 109, Trajan appointed the line of Roman Britain for the Kanishka (127–140), who Jerusalem caused a
historian Pliny the Younger next 40 years. conquered Magadha and furious revolt in
(61–c. 112) as his personal campaigned against the Chinese Jerusalem in 132, as
representative to govern Bithynia- The Parthian kingdom was left in Central Asia; his inscriptions religious Jews rose up
Pontus on the Black Sea coast of in some confusion by the against religious
Anatolia. This was a controversial campaigns of Trajan. His puppet reforms. Led by Shimon
move, as Bithynia-Pontus was king, Parthamaspates, was Bar Kochba, the rebels
theoretically a senatorial province. expelled in 117, but the Parthian had early successes
The provinces of the empire had kingdom then seems to have against Rome. They set
been divided between the emperor been divided between Vologeses up the beginnings of an
and the senate at the accession independent government
of Augustus in 27BCE, with the HADRIAN (76–138) and minted their own coins.
emperor receiving only the In response, Hadrian
provinces that held legionary Hadrian came from a Spanish summoned Julius Severus,
garrisons. This division of the background and was the the governor of Britain, to
provinces persisted into the time adopted son of his predecessor, conduct a war against the
of Trajan. Pliny stayed in Bithynia- Trajan. He was mocked by rebels. Severus commanded
Pontus for at least two years, some for his grecophile an army formed of
trying to sort out the finances of tendencies, and was the first detachments from 12
the main cities, which had fallen emperor to sport a beard—a legions. The rebels had no
into confusion. His letters to Trajan Greek fashion. Hadrian was the large towns under their
are an invaluable insight into the first emperor to travel widely control, and so adopted
imperial government of the time. throughout the Roman empire, guerrilla warfare while still
giving him first-hand attempting to defend the smaller
knowledge of the provinces, forts they held. In 135, the rebel’s
from Britain to North Africa. last main stronghold at Bethar
was captured amid great

11i5nRJCeoymwreiansnhairrcuealveaogltainst 11d8ooHwfainntdharMeniaoRuneopspxriuoaistlsainngi 12S5adGtyaaInknuaadktsriiaanntmy)gi ddoi(pieofnusmtthetrreaaoosfyAtsMenrtdahnhheDraaSreahcsachaktnar,a 12G5erCneheBcioranoanseflqisnCPueaeefrnnrostYmrotahnlteghAeTsaiHarsimiung-nu 13r5eJcHeaearpxdutpprusoiearaplelnsueslimatstiaJonendwish

117 Traja1n1d7ieHsaMdreisaonpaobtaamndiAoansassnydria emba1r2k0st–oo1un2r7soeHfvhaeidnsr-eiyamenaprire 122WBaublilledigninungnoo(rcftohHmearpdnlreBiatrenidt’sa1in26) 1R3e2vSoShleitmc(otoonnd1B3J5ae)rwlKeisodhcbhyba 13t5oBKcaauspsinthurarenepaethtltleeemdTaCbprhytimitnheese

81

136–160 161–170

200THOUSAND
THE TOTAL
POPULATION OF
TEOTIHUACÁN
AT ITS PEAK

The Pyramid of the Sun at The ruins of Hatra, which was
Teotihuacán in modern Mexico. a Parthian-controlled city.

THE CITY OF TEOTIHUACÁN famed for his moderation ,,MARCUS AURELIUS SUCCEEDED
and rarely left Rome. TO THE ROMAN THRONE jointly
IN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO Disturbances in Dacia (in with Lucius Verus in 161. Marcus
experienced massive present-day Romania) was the more capable of the two,
growth during the 1st and around 140 and an uprising but it was Lucius who was sent,
2nd centuries, with its in North Africa in 145 did in 162, to rescue the situation in
population reaching over not unduly disturb the the east after the governor of
80,000 before 200. The city empire’s calm. Antoninus Cappadocia was defeated and
was planned on a grid, extended the frontier in killed by the Persians following a
with two huge both Scotland and Upper disastrous invasion of Armenia.
pyramids—of the Germany, ordering the By 163–164 Lucius had brought
Moon and the Sun—at construction of a new Armenia back under Roman
either end of the main turf barrier around control, and renamed its capital
street. The Teotihuacán 100 miles (160km) to the Kaine Polis (“New City”). A new
II phase of the city north of Hadrian’s Wall pro-Roman king was installed
(0–350) saw the building (see 188–135BCE) in there before the legions moved
of the enormous Britain. This Antonine on, pushing deeper into Persian
Temple of Quetzalcoatl Wall was 39 miles (63km)
and the acquisition of an in length. The Hadrian’s IF IT IS NOT
empire, with Teotihuacán Wall garrison was moved RIGHT, DO NOT
dominating vast areas of north to a new set of forts, but
Mexico and overseeing their stay was short—Marcus ,,DO IT: IF IT IS
client kingdoms as far south Aurelius, Antoninus Pius’s
as Guatemala. successor, ordered a pull-back NOT TRUE, DO
to Hadrian’s Wall around 161, NOT SAY IT.
Hadrian had adopted Antoninus where the Roman frontier
Pius (86–161) as his son and of Britain remained until the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, from
successor, a stop-gap until 5th century. Meditations, 161–180
Antoninus’s relative, Marcus As Christianity grew, so did the
Aurelius (121–80), was old enough problem of defining a single territory, taking Edessa in
to rule, but Antoninus survived doctrine. Among the alternative Mesopotamia, and reaching the
Hadrian by 23 years, and became doctrines that sprang up in the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon in
Roman emperor in 138. He was 2nd century was Marcionism, 165. The Roman general Avidius
which taught that the God of Cassius (c. 130–175) burned the
39 turquoise Christians was distinct from the Parthian palace and then turned
mosaic pieces Jewish God of the Old Testament back westward. A swathe of
and that Jesus Christ did not have Parthian territory down the
MILES Mexican mask necklace made a human nature. Justin Martyr Euphrates River was annexed as
THE LENGTH OF This sumptuous from coral beads (c. 103–165) argued that far east as Dura Europos (in
mask from Teotihuacán Christianity was the fulfillment southeastern Syria). However,
THE ANTONINE bears the smooth, flat of Jewish prophecy and that victory celebrations were
WALL IN features that are Christians were the new chosen short-lived, for the troops
SCOTLAND characteristic of work people. Justin also wrote to brought the plague back to
from the city. Marcus Aurelius, seeking to Rome and by 167 it had spread
explain Christian doctrine.

13C6a–fpr1opR3mau7dssIosnociavuiaatfhsabeiiyolasntshtoeefrAnlans 13s8uscHocanedeArdinaetndonbiynaudsoPpituivse c.v1a5s0saKlussohfathnes bPeacrothmiaens c.s1p5r0eaCdhsriisntNiaonritthy Africa 15B4rB–ig1rai5tna5tinReseavgooaflintnoosrftttRhheoermnan rule 15o9fiRenuiHsneauntcohCphfoainwcateiorns 16b1eeMcmoVameprcreeuursossRr,AaowsumricteaohlneiLumuspceiursor 16t2hAePiraramrnctedahnniaaidatnitndasactpthkelraPoocenneresia
c.t1h5ien0NNPoiegkaeckruioalfture

14B3riRttaooimnthaisenmAfrnootvnoetndieinnreoinrWthall147 Cthelee9bo0raf0tttihhoentahsfnoenhucienviltdedyarfostoiaforrRnyoomf e c. 150ovHearnCrdeeonemstrtiaanlbioAlinssihaed 155 RoPmapraetcnhao–icanePnqafuoaretltlthroeiwAmarnipnmtgetonia 1fr6o0nTtihtehereReNxmotemeocndakdenasrrRnbvheGaiylneloeernmyd(ainny) caW.b1aa6lnl1dlTiofnhrneoeenidnAtainBeHntrrodainrtdaReirnitoniueamrnisna’ssnwtoall 16th2eRGeevromlt Caonhf iactti

82

171–180

A painted stucco of the Moche’s most important god, Al Apaec, who is often
depicted with the fangs of a snake.

widely throughout the THE MOCHE CULTURE EMERGED THE GERMANIC TRIBES
Mediterranean. ON THE COAST OF NORTHERN
PERU between 100 and 200. From The Romans had faced Germanic tribes ever since they had
Barely had the Parthian War their bases in the Peruvian reached the Rhine at the time of Julius Caesar. German groups
ended than the Marcomannic valleys of Moche, Chicama, and across the Danube, such as the Quadi and Marcomanni, proved
War began. In early 167, a group Virú, these people spread to troublesome in the 2nd century, but by the late 3rd century new
of Germanic warriors from the dominate almost the whole and more dangerous confederations of Germanic tribes arose,
Langobardi and Obii tribes northern coastline. A warlike such as the Franks, Alamanns, and Goths, who overran much of
crossed the Danube to attack the people, they sacrificed those the Roman Empire by the mid-5th century.
Roman province of Pannonia. whom they captured to their
They were pushed back deities, including Al Apaec had died while on campaign governor of Cappadocia, whom he
fairly easily, but in spring (“the decapitator”). They were prompted a revolt by Avidius had fought alongside during
168 Marcus Aurelius skilled workers in gold and their Cassius, the governor of Syria. the Parthian War.
resolved to visit the region pottery has an extraordinarily Avidius was declared emperor in
to assess the situation. realistic quality. Egypt, and received support in As Martius’s army approached,
Two more Germanic tribes, Arabia, as well as in his own the loyalty of the usurper’s troops
the Marcomanni and The Roman Empire was in province of Syria. Critically, wavered, and in July Avidius
Quadi were threatening to crisis in 170—the however, he failed to Cassius was murdered by a
force their way across the Marcomanni and Quadi had secure the support of disaffected centurion, putting an
frontier unless they were Martius Verus, the
admitted to settle in the occupied parts of northern Italy, end to his short-lived but
empire, but Marcus’s Marcus Aurelius and an invasion by the Iazyges dangerous rebellion. There
presence deterred them. This statue shows Marcus Aurelius and Costobocci had overun large were suggestions that Marcus’s
However, the expedition adopting a pose of victory, something parts of the Balkans. The Romans wife Faustina encouraged
was cut short by the death he claimed but never quite achieved trapped the Marcomanni as they Avidius, as she feared for her
of Lucius Verus from in his Marcomannic Wars. returned across the Danube and husband’s health and worried
plague in early 169. Marcus killed many of them. The Quadi her own son Commodus was
returned to Italy, but was back in of the central government, and the sued for peace later in 171, but
Pannonia later in the year to emperor relinquished active the Marcommani remained unfit to rule.
launch a massive offensive control of government to the recalcitrant, forcing a new Free from the distraction of
across the Danube. It was a eunuchs. In 168, an attempt by offensive in 172. The forces of
disaster, with the Romans Dou Xian, regent for the 12-year- Marcus Aurelius could never Avidius’s revolt, Marcus
suffering around 20,000 dead and old emperor Lingdi (r. 168–89), quite strike the killer blow, Aurelius returned to the
the Marcomanni and Quadi to have the eunuchs massacred and by 175 the war had Danube in 177. In the winter
pouring into Italy, where they laid failed—the plot was betrayed reached a of 179–80, the Roman army
siege to Aquileia. Far from and Dou Xian was forced to stalemate. occupied positions deep across
providing an easy victory for commit suicide. Several hundred the Danube, and it looked as
Marcus, the war dragged on for of Dou Xian’s supporters were In May that
another 10 years. executed and, with its enemies year, rumors that if Marcus might be able to
now dead, the eunuch faction Marcus Aurelius create two new Roman
In China, the eunuch faction at was able to exercise power provinces—Marcomannia
court had become increasingly almost unopposed. Moche stirrup jar and Samartia. However,
powerful and had even engineered This jar has a typical Marcus was old and
the murder of the emperor Shaodi Moche “stirrup” attached tired—he died in March
in 125. Under Emperor Huandi to the back of it. The 180. His son Commodus
(146–68) a series of natural realism of the paddling brought the war to a rapid
disasters weakened the authority figure is characteristic of conclusion, allowing him to
the culture’s ceramics. return to Rome.

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16e3xPpaerlltehAdiarfmnrosemnia 167trGnibeoerrtsmhieanrnv1nia6cdI6tea(o“lRyf Somyraiananr”rmeivmeersbcahinsasCnythsi)na Em1p6eH8sraoeDnrreiHeoaumtuhsapondifrdeeic;linine 173 SerioupslaoguutberienaCkhoifna1hC7ima5ssRseieulvfsoR,HlwotoemofhifhosaAinkdsvieeioldlcmweliaudnprsebesrysoolord.nieers 177 M4t7haeCrthRyroridmsotaimannaoastfriLenynoans 180 ThenGeoatrhsthfiersBtlascekttlSeea

83

700 BCE–599 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

Gold dolphin earrings decorative Plumb line
female head
Earrings adorned with This bronze weighted
animal-head motifs were plumb line was attached
especially popular in the to a groma, an instrument
eastern Roman empire. used by the Romans to
This pair bears a symbol survey straight lines.
of the sea god Neptune.

Precious necklace

This necklace, made up
of gold and red garnets,
seems to form the shape
of a spectacular fruit tree.

garnet shaped like
a fruit or berry

gold in the form Bone pin bronze
of a leaf weight
This flat, thin blade or pin is topped
by a female head, an ornamental cart carrying
touch for an otherwise humdrum worshipers
household item.
Bronze dividers and foot rule
ANCIENT ROME Dividers allowed engineers to
copy scale plans or models at
THE ROMANS SPREAD A RICH MATERIAL CULTURE THROUGHOUT THEIR VAST EMPIRE twice or half their size—the
gap between the lower points
As Roman political control steadily expanded outside Italy, in its wake came is always twice that between
the Roman way of life. Roman surveyors laid out new cities, local elites took the upper points. The rule,
up Roman practices, and the masses attended gladiatorial spectacles. On which was one Roman foot
a domestic level, Roman fashions in clothing and accessories also spread. long (11¾ in/29.6 cm), folded
for easy carrying.
Although many of the territories that the Romans conquered initially resisted, the populations of central
these provinces, particularly the former ruling classes, gradually adopted many Roman customs. pivot metal crest to
deflect blows
Influential men became Roman citizens, towns were given new public buildings such as baths and
lower
courthouses, Roman legionary garrisons were established in strategic places, and new trade routes point

brought luxury goods from Rome. As a result, similar Roman artifacts have been found across Europe,

the Middle East, and North Africa, dating from around the 1st century BCE to the 5th century CE.

head of
Oceanus

cursive
letter forms

Ocean baths Wooden tablet foot rule

The most important Roman This type of tablet, made from
baths were adorned with very thin wood, was used by
lavish mosaics, such as the Roman military for
this one of Oceanus, the everyday letters and record-
ocean god, from Sabratha keeping. This one was found
in Libya. at Vindolanda in England.

Procession bowl ANCIENT ROME
This lekane, a type of shallow
dish, is decorated with flask
a scene of half-man, containing oil
half-goat satyrs
in a procession in strigil for
honor of Bacchus, scraping
the god of wine. Bathing tools
At the baths, a Roman’s skin
modern- was oiled and then scraped to
looking grater remove sweat and dirt. A ring
was used to transport the tools.
Ancient grater Amphora
Cheese played an important The Romans transported liquid ivory grip
part in the Roman diet. Graters goods such as oil and wine
such as this one were invented in amphoras, a type of large,
to allow cheese to be used as double-handled storage jar.
a topping on other foodstuffs.
short blade
Short sword
The Roman military sword, or gladius, had a
short blade—ideal for attacks at close range.
It was used by soldiers and some gladiators.

satyr carrying
cymbals

Military javelin long iron handle shaped for
Each Roman legionary carried two of these pila (javelins). shank throwing
The javelin’s iron head was designed to break off on
impact to prevent an opponent throwing it back. Latin
text
Imperial coins
Coins bearing the head of the
current emperor (here Augustus
and Claudius) acted as powerful
propaganda tools across the
empire, showing even the masses
an image of their ruler.

Proof of citizenship
Noncitizens who served 25 years
in the Roman army were awarded
citizenship and given bronze
diplomas such as this one to
record the grant.

extended Sling pellets
neck-plate Roman legionaries normally
relied on their swords, but
gridded visor auxiliary light infantry used
to protect face other weapons to devastating
effect, such as these metal
Gladiator helmet sling pellets.
Roman gladiators bore a variety of arms
and armor. This sort of helmet was small size would
worn by a Thracian, a type of gladiator have offered little
whose equipment was modeled on
that of ancient Thracian warriors. protection

Bronze gladiator shield
Thracian gladiators—a class of lightly
armed gladiator—carried lightweight,
round shields such as this one for
defense, and a scimitar, with a short,
curved blade, to attack their opponents.

181–192 193–211

In this engraving by Giovanni Stradano, Emperor Commodus shoots an arrow The Severan arch in Leptis Magna (in modern Libya) commemorates a visit
to subdue a leopard. Fighting in the arena as a gladiator was his great passion. by the North African emperor to his home town.

IN CHINA, INCREASING DISSENT Commodus (r. 180–92), Marcus ,, BE HARMONIOUS WITH
caused by the corruption of the Aurelius’s son, was the first
eunuchs at the court of Han Roman emperor to succeed his ,,EACH OTHER, ENRICH
Emperor Lindi (r. 168–89) and a father for 90 years, but he proved
succession of natural disasters to be a disastrous choice. In 182, THE SOLDIERS, IGNORE
led to the outbreak in 184 of a after an assassination attempt on ALL OTHERS…
major insurrection, named the him, apparently organized by his
Yellow Turban revolt for the sister Lucilla, Commodus became Septimius Severus, dying words as quoted in Book 77 of Roman historian
color of its supporters’ headgear. increasingly despotic. Many Dio Cassius’s Roman History, 211
Up to 400,000 rebels swept senators who were implicated in
westward towards the capital. the plot were executed and control IN 193, AFTER THE MURDER OF his reign was short, as almost JULIA DOMNA (170–217)
Another uprising fueled by the of the government fell into the COMMODUS, Helvius Pertinax immediately the frontier armies
Five Pecks of Rice sect then hands of Tigidius Perennis, the (126–93), the prefect of the city, rebelled: the army on the Danube The daughter of a Syrian high
succeeded in taking over Sichuan praetorian prefect (the was declared emperor, but he was proclaimed Septimius Severus priest, Julia Domna married
in the southwest. Although the commander of the imperial murdered after three months. This (c. 145–211) emperor, while the Septimius Severus in 187. A
Yellow Turbans had been largely bodyguard). There were minor was followed by rival claimants to Syrian legions raised their prophecy had predicted that
crushed by early 185, the control wars in Britain and in Dacia (much the throne engaging in an auction commander Pescennius Niger she would wed an emperor,
of the Han emperor was ever of modern Romania), but in 185 outside the praetorian camp to (c. 135–94) to the imperial throne. and so it turned out. Forceful
weakening. After Lingdi died in Perennis was suspected of a plot decide who would be emperor. Severus reached Rome first and, and intelligent, she failed to
189, he was replaced by his to make his own son emperor and Didius Julianus (133–93) won, but after granting the title of Caesar mediate between her sons
younger half-brother Xiandi was executed by his troops. (junior emperor) to Clodius Caracalla and Geta after
(r. 189–220) but he never exercised Commodus increasingly devoted Money offered to each Albinus, governor of Britain, he their father’s death and to
real power. Instead, control of the himself to fighting in the arena as soldier by Didius Julianus turned east where, in spring 194, prevent Geta’s murder. When
empire fell to Han general Cao a gladiator, while the imperial his armies defeated Niger at the Caracalla was killed, she
Cao, who contended for 30 years chamberlain Cleander dominated 25,000 Battle of Issus in Syria. Severus deliberately starved herself
with a series of rival warlords, government and sold public offices stayed in the east and in 195 to death in protest, a move
notably Liu Bei in the southwest to the highest bidder. The man in SESTERCES attacked the Parthian Empire. But that rallied support for the
and Sun Quan in the south. charge of the grain supply, he was forced to return west to remaining Severan family.
Papirius Dionysius, engineered a 20,000 deal with Albinus, who had
18 shortage that led to Cleander’s revolted, and who was killed near but they soon broke the peace and
THE AGE downfall. This did not result in a SESTERCES Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France) a new campaign was launched in
AT WHICH more stable government, as his in 197. Severus then returned to 210. Severus was by now very ill,
COMMODUS replacement only lasted a short Money offered to each soldier Parthia, this time occupying the and his son Caracalla took over.
BECAME SOLE time before being murdered. by Flavius Sulpicianus capital Ctesiphon in 197. He In February 211 Severus died in
EMPEROR Commodus increasingly identified Buying loyalty pushed the line of Roman control Eboracum (modern York, England)
himself with Hercules (the Greek The larger bribes offered to the toward the Tigris and created the and handed succession jointly to
hero) and renamed Rome after troops by Didius Julianus meant that new province of Mesopotamia. sons Caracalla and Geta. After the
himself—colonia Commodiana. he won the auction to be emperor. Scottish war, both rushed back to
At the end of 192, the praetorian Trouble in Britain brought the Rome, but their joint rule was
prefect Laetus was convinced that aging emperor to the province in short-lived: Caracalla had Geta
Commodus was planning to have 208. A large-scale Roman murdered in December 211.
him killed and on New Year’s Day advance forced the Caledonians
193 took the initiative and had the and Maetae north of the provincial
emperor poisoned and, when that frontier to come to terms in 209,
did not work, strangled.

18m3PaPdreaereeptnorneriifasenctGoufatrhd1e8g5reoAxwsaesgCcatuoyitnmreasdmtntnfoohidcreuaseslu,m’ssPppreueer1crleeot8neer9nduiGnspueliosncthesrraullDeoinngChZihnuao e1n9dl0assAtcHceasnseiomcn.ps1ope9farr0XsoeBiIraaZrodnoimtsdnsiwwba,asaobnrfawkariensagonudth 19o3feACmsoJsumpSaleimsearsovnoierundrbsauuu;tssict;oibdPnveeielipnrwotgiasndreaedlxecbcalyahdrosDesitddeoineuSmseppteimro1iru9sP4eeSsxectewevcenourntpueiursdos;dvSNienyficgereiaeastrsd, wivhidoei1ds9iCn7ltLoSoudeignivudvesaurdAnueulsbsmdinPe(uafLesryatoahtntsia); then c. p2r0Mo0maRyinaisenencctioetyoocf.fi2Ts0itlkh0aaerTlgeAeomsttiehcruiitacyac2iásn0no8f –S2e1v0erCuasminpaSicgontsland

Tuo1rfb8ta3hnReseYivneolCllothw1icn8oa7nDquoemsittmioafontdcheoermn1C8pGh9laeetCrttemoisd(aiinnfiyc)athtieonlMaoiwsfhssnaboayyfihMnR,gaocsbsaberfrrisoiY,emetdhhoeuudtah c. 192CEhsatmabplaSisokhuimnthgeednaotsmotfAinsia 193 PeRemsocmpeSenayrnnroiiguraosbpvyNreorhigcnisleoarrlie,mogfeiodns 1b9eM8ceoNsmooreptsohteRapromrnomivaainncec. 20K0sotCarehteainseeonsafdenKsdoo;cgSncuiaulrtlpayivaoest,tiKPoaranoteroetkofacnhgero, w Bu2ll0a6Fr–ee2ilg0ixn8scooBofuanttnehddreurirctontrsIitnalysuC2cac1reG1aeetScdotaeaealvdlaseansbrmuduymshCuirdeasdirseseaosocrl;snaelsGlpaeo.twaer

86

212–230

A carving of the Buddha from Sarnath in North India, where a school of
Buddhist art flourished under the Kushans.

IN INDIA, THE AREA CONTROLLED which citizenship was granted to 2,000 Arch of Caracalla
BY THE KUSHAN DYNASTY began almost all free males in the Originally the arch
to shrink after the death of King empire. After a successful THE NUMBER was topped by a
Kanishka in 140, and particularly campaign on the Rhine (in 213), OF BATHERS figure of the
severe territorial losses were Caracalla ventured further afield, THAT COULD emperor riding in a
suffered under Huvishka arriving in Egypt in 215. For some USE THE BATHS chariot. It stands in
(r. 160–90). Kushan rule finally unknown reason, he became OF CARACALLA Volubilis, the main
collapsed under Vasudeva enraged and ordered the town of Roman
(r. 190–225) when Persian invaders massacre of the citizens of to the Severan family, and a revolt Mauretania Tingitana
swept through northwestern Alexandria. The next year he broke out in Syria, which aimed (in modern Morocco).
India. Although Kushan kings launched an invasion of Parthia. to put Elagabalus (203–22),
continued to rule a much-reduced His praetorian prefect Opellius grandson of Julia Domna’s sister divided into two Persia was temporarily weakened
realm for a further century, their Macrinus came to suspect that Julia Maesa, on the throne. when Vologeses by a civil war, the Sasanians
influence was purely local and Caracalla wanted him dead, so he Macrinus lost support and in June VI’s brother set proved to be much tougher
their heyday was at an end. persuaded a disaffected soldier to 218 he fled to Cappadocia, where himself up as a adversaries to the Romans than
murder the emperor. After rival king, the Parthians ever had been.
In Rome, Caracalla’s Caracalla’s murder, the army he was killed. In 221, Elagabalus Artabanus V; and a further
government was unpopular. declared Macrinus emperor. adopted as his heir his cousin Roman invasion in 216 ravaged In China in 220, Cao Cao’s son
Among his measures was the There was much residual loyalty much of the province of Media. Cao Pi forced Xiandi to abdicate.
Antonine Constitution of 212, by Alexianus. When the two fell Taking advantage of this disorder, Within two years Cao Pi, Liu Bei,
out in 222, the army backed the ruler of the southwestern and Sun Quan would each declare
Alexianus and Elagabalus province of Pars, Ardashir, himself emperor. The Han dynasty
was murdered. Alexianus expanded his territory and finally and China’s unity were at an end.
became Emperor defeated Artabanus V c. 224.
Alexander Severus Ardashir I was then declared king
at age 13. (r. 224–42) as the first ruler of
In Persia, Parthian rule the Sasanian dynasty. Although
had been weakened,
both by plague and by Black Sea Caucasus Caspian Sea
the effects of successive Byzantium
Roman invasions. In 207,
the kingdom had been (Constantinople) Balkh
NMiesrhvapuBr ACTRIHAindu
Bronze diploma ARMENIA h
Diplomas were issued to Kus
auxiliary soldiers in the ROMAN EMPIRE Taxila
Roman army, granting Kabul
them citizenship. This Cyprus Antioch
practice ceased after the Barbalissus Ecbatana KHURASAN
Antonine Constitution.
MeditASelreerxaDaaannmedarainsacDuJuserSraYuREsauIAlreoLmApaSoksUAShBRelmalQIbeSiayuTddlcAosiisnaNJiyaaMluCEltaeDSsHhiupANhNQoeanhrSKauvHesUFanAZdRISSTPAeNrsepKoEliRSsMAEAMSNAPNI RI AEN
Arabian Pers
Peninsula ian Gulf MAKRAN

BAHRAIN Arabian Sea

MAZUN

The Sasanian Empire in Persia KEY
After rapidly acquiring the former Sasanian Empire at greatest extent
Parthian Empire, the Sasanians East Roman Empire in 3rd century
fought a series of wars with the
Romans over control of Mesopotamia.

21c3a/Am2lG1ap4meariCagmnanarnsnaia,cicgaaalcnlioanenwsftetdheeracy 21m5caCistasirzaaeccnrasellooaffoAtrhldeeexrasndria 21a7sEsCdaaoesrfssdaPiscenraacaa;lltelaMeatrdoaercndiraeeinanmruGpsue,ahrroedra, d c.c2o2kl0linaWHpgusda,enoasmdn;ysdrneoWapfsleSatiycheud, by 22P2rbaEyelathogisraiabcnoaulGususinakrAidlll;eerxdeapbnlydaecredSev2er2cu4osAlPlraPadpraaSstrsheashiss,aiarwnanIfhr,tiouaegnrlofeovrdueeyvrnnondalostsrottohyffe 22e6m(Cbp.he1irn8oe7rs)CedaieosPi
230inAvraddaesshSiryrIia
21g2racCniaattilsrzlaeiRfncrnoaetsmlhelhaeaimpneatmolepsireMesopo2t1a4mREioadmebseascnaocmionleosny i2n1v6a2dR1eo8PmMaaarntchsriianreussJgiusrdatleainafnedbMcaseetoacenroedamsElaallei,faetswgedearhbmboyaspleeursor 222 PdoupreinCgaallnisrttiiu-oCstshkriinlisleRtdiaonme 224 Ardashi“rkpinrogcolafiikmninPegdesrt”shiaeolo2g2ia5(nbC.Thcer.ri1stu6til0al)niadnies

87

231–244 245–260

25THE NUMBER OF
ROMAN EMPERORS
THAT RULED
BETWEEN
235 AND 284

Roman emperor Gordian III A mural of St. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage at the height of the Decian

succeeded his father and grandfather. persecution. He was martyred in 257 during a campaign under Valerian.

IN CHINA, THE FINAL COLLAPSE OF Africa proclaimed the province’s GOBI DESERT PERSIA ATTAINED A POSITION OF in disarray and Shapur’s armies
THE HAN DYNASTY IN 220 was elderly governor as Emperor RENEWED STRENGTH under advanced as far as Iconium
followed by 350 years of instability. Gordian I, but he was quickly and Chang’an WEI Yellow Shapur I (r. 241–72). In 244, he (modern Konya, Turkey).
The Three Kingdoms period brutally put down. The Senate won a decisive battle against
(220–80) saw China divided into the declared Maximinus deposed and Chengdu Luoyang Sea Gordian III at Misiche near The western part of the Roman
Wei kingdom of the north; (initially proposed Pupienus and Balbinus SHU Ctesiphon. Shortly after, Gordian Empire also faced increasing
under Wei Wendi (r. 220–26); the as candidates. Popular sentiment HAN Jiankang III was killed and replaced by his pressure. The Romans suffered
Shu Han kingdom in the west favored Gordian I’s grandson army commander Philip (or Philip invasions of Dacia (much of
whose first ruler was Shu Han WU “the Arab”). Philip made peace modern Romania) by the Carpi
Xuande (r. 221–23); and the with Shapur but had to pay a large people from c. 214. The Carpi,
southern Wu kingdom under Wu Taiwan ransom to escape Sasanian together with a new group, the
Wudi (r. 222–52). Wei Wendi was a territory. His successors broke Goths, took part in a raid across
capable ruler, but his successors South the terms of the agreement, so in the Danube in 239–40. In 248,
struggled to contain attacks by China 256 Shapur I invaded Syria and Emperor Philip withdrew an
northern tribesmen. Hainan Sea captured the towns of Antioch and annual tribute he had been
Europos Dura. Valerian, who by paying the Carpi and the Goths,
In 235, the Roman KEY Wu, 222–280 then was emperor (r. 253–60), prompting them to pour into
emperor Alexander Wei, 220–225 soon retook Antioch. In 260, he fell Moesia (modern Bulgaria). Philip
Severus and his Shu Han, 221–263 into a trap and was imprisoned sent Quintus Decius to deal with
mother Julia Mamaea by Shapur. The Romans were left the invasion; he was so successful
were murdered by China under the Three Kingdoms that his troops declared him
mutinous troops, Although the Wei kingdom faced the Relief of Shapur I emperor. Early in 249, Decius
putting an end to the greatest challenges among the three In this relief, Shapur I triumphs over marched to Rome and defeated
Severan dynasty. The kingdoms, it would eventually the Roman emperors Gordian III and and killed Philip. Hearing of the
uprising’s ringleader, conquer the Wu and the Shu Han. Valerian. After Valerian’s capture, Roman civil war, the Goths
Maximinus Thrax Shapur is said to have used him as a invaded again, causing Decius to
(r. 235–38), an officer from Gordian III (r. 238–44), so all footstool for mounting his horse. return to the Balkans in 250.
a humble background, was three briefly shared the Under their warleader Cniva, the
proclaimed emperor, but he throne. Balbinus and
spent most of his reign raising Pupienus were
funds to reward his troops for killed soon after,
their support. This time marks leaving Gordian III
the start of a period of “military to rule alone. His
anarchy” in which Rome had six-year reign briefly
dozens of emperors, most of them
short-lived rulers who were restored some semblance of
raised up by the frontier armies stability to the empire, but
and just as quickly deposed and he was killed while leading an
killed. A rebellion in 238 in North invasion of Persia in 243–44.

Art from the Three Kingdoms Compounding the Roman
High artistic achievements, such as Empire’s difficulties was the
this fine statue, were a feature of the
late Han dynasty. Its collapse in 220 appearance of barbarian
did not result in an equivalent confederacies among
decline in China’s artistic output. the Germanic peoples
of the Rhine and
Danube frontiers.
Principal among these

were the Alemanni. In
213, Caracalla campaigned
against them; by 260 they
were able to invade Italy itself.

23e2xopRfeMoPlmeeCAsraarsonpdipsapaoasftrdhaooimrmciIiaa and 23A5loaSnmetrmhioeaunusipcprearidRshine 23d8ebcGulGoatrorlRdearoiddsgamtirneasamanInonndIpIelfeIyamrbto2hepr2ceeordr’maosyredsose;nathhis 24r1ulSehraopfuPreIrsbieacomes 24s2ouGtohtehrsndRoumsisniaate 24p7r1eP,s0hcied0ille0iepstbh“ortavahenteirnoAiRnvroseamrbs”ea’rsy 24d9ynCaoslltaypisneCo2hf4iRnW9aoheDmeiearceniuveosmlbtspeeaccorg.omai2mri5nebap0ssefottgTrePitinraahnhniliutnipaugnrsbaoacfnoCcbleaenscsoteimcr eMinsaPyear2cu5ia;v3niblAdiazilaFrnabtrvGmiaaaoarnadnuiknealinnsssh
2Y4aH7miImnatiJkoakoQpinauaKgtnetdua,eoncnmkuskoofkuc. 2A5k0suEmxte(innsumiononddeoerfrKpnoiEnwgtheAiropophfiaiDl)ae2sc5i1usRoismakgaialnilneesdmtitnpheberaoGtrtoleths256 fSoarscaensitaankPeeArnstiaionch
8 8235 Smatnaeoarmrrtecpothefhyr“a”omnrinsi2l0iiRtnaRo5rmo0ym2eyc3;aer8naorsCssatrhpeiraDanavdanguGeboeMthaosnedsi2ac3a9pStuarseasnciaitnieAs rodfaaCnsadhriNrrhiIsaiebis (fbo2eu4gn1idnTeshrpeorfepaMrocaphnhiniecgthMianeaPinsemirs)ia 242 SKaussahnainasn ipnorfvoaBvdianeccteria244PhGioolnirpdP“ieathrnseIiIaAInRmraoeubxmrp”daebenderiecteiomdomnp;eesror

261–275

The main colonnade at Palmyra, which grew rich on tariffs paid by merchants
who plied the desert route that passed through the Syrian city.

SHAPUR I (d.272) VALERIAN’S CAPTURE BY THE Germany. Postumus declared Balkans to deal with Gaul. Only Sepulchral relief from Palmyra
PERSIANS in 260 proved himself emperor, but unlike under Aurelian (r. 270–74) was The Palmyrenes buried their dead
Shapur’s early leadership disastrous for the western part of previous usurpers did not march the Roman Empire strong enough, with exquisite and realistic personal
experience came in a role the Roman Empire as well as the on Rome, instead setting up a and by then the Gallic Empire was portrayals; the dead were interred in
assisting his father, Ardashir, east. Valerian’s son Gallienus separate Gallic Empire; this weakened, with its last ruler, tower tombs outside the city.
in mopping up support for (r. 260–68), struggling to contain initially controlled Britain, Spain, Tetricus (r. 270–74), facing splits in
the Parthian Arsacid dynasty. an invasion of Italy by the parts of western Germany, and the army. In 274, Tetricus was In China, Yuandi (r. 260–64)
Shapur’s defeats of Gordian Germanic Iuthungi had no Gaul. He established a form of captured near Châlons, and the restored Wei’s fortunes by
III in 244 and of Valerian in resources to reinforce the Rhine government that mirrored that of Gallic Empire was reabsorbed. conquering the Shu Han. But
260 established a temporary frontier, which was being the official empire, complete with soon after he was overthrown by
Persian dominance in Syria breached by Alemmanic and its own Senate. In 269, Postumus In the east, a serious challenge one of his own generals, Sima
and Mesopotamia. He used Frankish raiders. The Governor was murdered by his own troops to Roman rule emerged after 260. Yuan, who founded the Western
the many Roman prisoners of Germania Inferior, Marcus and replaced by his praetorian The city of Palmyra (in Syria) Jin dynasty and took the title
captured in 256 at Antioch to Postumus, revolted and killed prefect Victorinus. Gallienus— proved Rome’s only reliable ally Wudi (r. 265–89). His armies
build the new town of Veh Gallienus’s son Saloninus, who faced with Gothic invasions and against the Sasanian advances of crushed and annexed the Wu
Antiok Shapur (“Shapur’s had been left in charge of Gaul and the revolt of Zenobia of Palmyra Persia. Its ruler Septimius kingdom in 280, thus briefly
town, better than Antioch”). in the east—was never strong Odaenathus (c. 220–67) received a reuniting China.
The Gallic Empire enough to put an end to the Gallic number of Roman titles, including
Goths ravaged the province of Postumus began the Gallic Empire Empire. In 268 he was murdered Corrector Totius Orientis (“Marshal
Moesia, laying siege to the main in control of Gaul, Germany, Britain, by the army and replaced by of the entire East”), and invaded
town of Nicopolis (modern and Spain. By its collapse in 274, the Claudius II Gothicus (r. 268–70), the Sasanian Empire in 262 and
Nikopol, Bulgaria). The campaign last ruler, Tetricus, had lost Spain. who was too busy fighting in the 266. Odaenathus died in 267; and
went badly for the Romans, ending his wife Zenobia (r. 267–73)
in defeat and Decius’s death at the Eburacum N o r t h created an empire of her own. By
Battle of Abrittus in 251. Sea 269, her armies had taken Syria
and Egypt, and in 271 she declared
In Japan, the Yamato kingdom KEY BRITANNIA her son Vaballathus emperor.
emerged on the plain of Nara (in Aurelian marched east and soon
central Japan) around 250. Its Gallic Empire under Saxons Lombards rolled back the Palmyrene gains,
rulers were interred in large burial Postumus, 260–68 F besieging Palmyra in spring 272.
mounds, and its armies conquered Zenobia was captured while trying
most of central Japan. Much of Gallic Empire under Colonia Agrippina Alemanni Burgundians to escape, and Palmyra was
what is known comes from Tetricus, 270–74 Mogontiacum ranks sacked in 273 when it tried to
Chinese sources, who name the Marcomanni throw off Roman rule again.
Queen of Yamato in 238 as Himiko. Roman Empire, 260 Durocortorum Iuthungi

Augusta
Treverorum

GALLIA

Burdigala Lugdunum P

Vienna Mediolanum ,,
ANNONIA
VIENNENSIS I YOU DEMAND MY SURRENDER
AS THOUGH YOU WERE NOT AWARE
L
I TA ,,THAT CLEOPATRA PREFERRED TO
Emerita H I S PA N I A Narbo Ravenna
Corsica DIE A QUEEN RATHER THAN
Augusta Tarraco A REMAIN ALIVE.

Corduba Baleares Rome Tarentum Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, to Aurelian Augustus
from Historia Augusta c. 375–400
Gades Sardinia Syracuse

Tingis Mediterranean Sea
Caesarea Carthage

MAUR ETANIA

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2B5is8hMopaorfotfCyCrydpaorrmitahna,ge 260GBeasrleltiaacbkElaiPmwsohapseyitrduembyus i2n6c7urMsiaosnMsiianvceteoGdToohntrhiaaiGc,ceare,nedce wpidoowaw2eg6raZ7iiennOnsPodtmabaRleiuomancmcayhorethoam, ,fuaerAsnes’sdsvitoatoaltMkseinsor 271ARuervoeamlchiauaenanrteeioomcrndopevoerefrsrDosftraohEcregiRay;opmt e rs2euv7po3plrtAeousfrsePelaisalmtnhyera sucocf eA2eu7dr5eedlMiabunyr;Tdhaeecriitsus 8 9deresotef2rrh7eti5aslitSfsfeut,t.tounAreaneatsrhmootlohintneayarssyitteery

276–283 284–300

,, PROBUS WAS ALMOST A
SECOND HANNIBAL BECAUSE OF

,,HIS KNOWLEDGE OF WARFARE…

Aurelius Victor, Roman historian and official, in
De Caesaribus, c. 360

The Pyramid of the Moon at Teotihuacán (near modern Mexico City) was built some time after 200 at one end of
the city’s Avenue of the Dead; the Pyramid of the Sun sits at the other end.

IN CHINA, THE FIRST EMPEROR OF short-lived emperors—Tacitus IN 284, THE ROMAN ARMY IN ASIA
THE WESTERN JIN DYNASTY, Wudi and Florianus—before Probus MINOR PROCLAIMED DIOCLES, the
(r. 265–89), was a strong ruler who took power in 276. Within two former commander of the
secured trade routes to the West years, Probus had defeated the imperial bodyguard, Emperor
and built a bridge over the Yellow Goths on the Danube and pushed Diocletian (r. 284–305). In 285,
River to improve communications. back the Franks from the Rhine. he defeated Carinus (the then
However, the wars of the Three A planned campaign against emperor of the Western Empire)
Kingdoms period (see 231–244) Persia was frustrated in 281 by and started a radical
had impoverished the state and the revolt of two usurpers in the reorganization of the empire,
as the tax burden rose, many West: Bonosus and Proculus. reforming the army, and
peasants fled to landowners for Despite his military successes, in subdividing provinces. The
protection, resulting in the rise of 282 Probus was murdered by his challenges on the frontier were
private armies. own troops, who were resentful too great to be faced alone; in 285,
at being forced to work on civil he appointed Maximian (250–310)
In the Roman Empire, Emperor engineering projects near to rule alongside him, first as
Aurelian—who was murdered in Sirmium (in modern Serbia). Caesar (junior emperor) then as
275—was followed by two Augustus (senior emperor). Other
problems with Britain’s break
Jin sitting bear sculpture from the empire under Carausius
The first half of the Jin dynasty in 286 convinced Diocletian that
under Wudi gave China a more changes were necessary. In
period of comparative 293, he and Maximian appointed
peace and stability, two Caesars: Constantius
which allowed the Chlorus (r. 293–306) to assist
arts to flourish. Diocletian in the Western Empire
and Galerius (r. 293–311) to be
Maximian’s junior in the East. This Persian frieze to the Romans. He launched a
tetrarchy (four emperor system) The Paikuli frieze celebrates the major invasion in 296, defeating
enjoyed early successes in Britain victories of Narseh in Armenia and the Caesar Galerius in 297. The
(296) and in Egypt (298). In 294, justifies his deposition of next year, however, Galerius
Diocletian reformed the coinage, predecessor Vahram III. smashed Narseh’s army in
reissuing new bronze and silver Armenia and captured the Persian
coins, and in 301 he issued an After the death of Shapur I in ruler’s family. Galerius marched
Edict on Maximum Prices to try 272 Persia faced a period of as far as Ctesiphon, which he
to curb rising inflation. Unlike his political instability. In 293, captured in 298. Narseh was
other measures, this one failed. Narseh (r. 293–302) ascended to forced to make peace (Treaty of
the Persian throne. He resolved to Nisibis). Persia remained at peace
recover land in Armenia and with the Romans for 40 years.
Mesopotamia that had been lost
In the Valley of Mexico, the city of
12 SQUARE Teotihuacán reached the peak of
MILES its power around 300. Its main
THE AREA OF street—the Avenue of the
TEOTIHUACAN CITY Dead—ran between the Pyramid
AT ITS PEAK of the Moon and the Ciudadela
(which may have been the palace
of the ruler) and was lined with the
residences of the lords of the city.

27R6obPmrroiaeofnfbTsuaeiscxmi-btmpueescoronomtrhearsfeteigrn 27t7ha–en7FEd9rgapPynuprkottsbsaudnfrsodoweImlnxlypGureinaalursel,st in 28c0oanWnqtdehuseeutirnertirltheneeaJtdshineoeru,ctSohiumonfat2CrY8yhaa2ituonaPSnafitdrreoemrbraiuusmmkuiiltnlienIldylyria 28e4moDfpNiCeouracomlreruetsair’afsitnaesnrdouentshcelamreudr2d8et5hrbeDeeirtomuwcMlelpeeasietrxinetaihm,ntedwiriaEeovnaioedsrtmiogtnaagrpnnuepidlrzeooeawtrsphsepe;rohWineetss2t8p8eaDcioecwleittiha2nP9pem1erWasWoikpaaeellslesttseorfrsnoeJmtitnlneaoilnrlotshwid2oes9fttt3CeehtphDerpiainGoeracrcelheayttian establ2is9Ah7reemPsmeeprnseiiraaonarsnGdiandlveeacrfd.ieui3enas0tA0RkoFsmiurmsatn(micn.inia3ntn0hiAnc0efigerrBdinocatfacnEcatbouttehtilngpieosienpoitpaol)es

9 0277oMf aMniasin(cficotrhhuueanceidPfiieseermrds)biTaynibseri2Ja7es9wpiJusebhwlilsaishwhsasaccnohldoleldatcohrtcsieotinrTnianolefms,ud invaS2de8el3esuEPhcmeiearpdsaeiineraosdarnmCneCtdayaesrtrstauiCepksrtheeioossunips;hlyon con2t8r7olCoafrBaourfistniauoinsrtsaheneidrznepsaGratulbucr. i2a9ls0aEtliSteipMánofi,cPr2hse9etr3muSotneculaaml2ee9nnadttawTrititihkhneastlch“irLesiopMtnthigae2oyn9Da6aotfNe”arsreuhlebreocfoPmeerssci.ac3o0u0nAtrrymtoenaicacaebspeatcoCsmthareYtiesastmrfiieacranls.tit3igot0iyso0tnaGtcer.o3iwn0tJ0haSopefatNntlueim(EeansttoefrRIsalpanad)

301–319

This early 16th-century fresco of the Battle of Milvian Bridge is in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. Before the battle,
the emperor Constantine is said to have seen a Christian monogram in a dream predicting his victory.

SINCE PERSECUTIONS IN THE 250S 75,000 In 311, Galerius died and over the Eastern provinces. The Chi-Rho symbol
AND 260S, THE CHRISTIAN Maximin became Augustus in alliance between Constantine and The monogram of Chi-Rho, the first
COMMUNITY had experienced MAXENTIUS the East. He ordered renewed Licinius broke down in 316; they two letters of Christ’s name in
some 40 years of tranquillity in measures against Christians. patched up a peace in 317, and for Greek, became an important early
the Roman Empire. All this 50,000 Constantine, meanwhile, invaded six years the Roman Empire symbol of Christianity.
changed in 303 when Diocletian Italy and in October 312 defeated relapsed into an uneasy calm.
issued an edict ordering the CONSTANTINE and killed Maxentius at the Battle
destruction of churches and the of Milvian Bridge. Before the In China, Wudi’s successor Huidi
handing over and burning of Battle numbers at Milvian Bridge battle, Constantine is said to have (r. 290–306) was mentally disabled
Christian books. A sterner edict Maxentius’s forces outnumbered dreamed of the Chi-Rho symbol and so a succession of regents
followed, calling for the arrest of those of Constantine, but his and ordered his troops to mark it contended for imperial control.
Christian clergy, and one in 304 army became trapped between on their shields. Huidi’s brother Huaidi (r. 307–12)
ordered that all Christians offer Constantine’s men and the river. invited the northern Xiongnu
a sacrifice to the pagan gods. Licinius and Constantine met at tribesmen to help him against
Devout Christians could not (Galerius’s army colleague). The Mediolanum (modern Milan) in the competing Chinese factions,
accede to these demands, and new tetrarchy soon unraveled. 313, where they agreed to share but they took him prisoner. The
many of them were martyred. Constantius died in Eboracum power and issued the Edict of last Western Jin emperor Mindi
(modern York, England) in July Milan, which granted toleration to (r. 313–16) saw the Xiongnu sack
In 304, Diocletian fell seriously 306 and the troops there all forms of worship, in effect the capital of Chang’an (modern
ill, and in 305 he announced that proclaimed his son Constantine legalizing Christianity. Licinius Xi’an); the Jin moved south, where
he and Maximian would abdicate. the new Augustus. By October, then turned East and defeated Yuandi (r. 317–23) became the
Constantius Chlorus and Maxentius (r. 306–12), the son of Maximin Daia, securing control first Eastern Jin emperor in 317.
Galerius would take over as Maximian, was crowned emperor
Augusti, while the new Caesars in Rome. Severus was killed trying Londinium Colonia EUROPE Caspian
were to be Maximinus (Galerius’s to retake Rome from Maxentius, Agrippina Sea
nephew) and Flavius Severus and Maximian restored himself to
the position of Augustus. In 308, Augusta
Palace of Diocletian the Conference of Carnuntum Treverorum
Diocletian built the great palace at was called to settle the disputes,
Split, Croatia, for his retirement presided over by Diocletian, who Aguontum Poetovio Black Sea
after his abdication in 305. Here, came out of retirement. Aquileia Sirmium
he tended his cabbages. Constantine accepted a demotion AT L A N T I C Augustodunum Sinope Amisus
to Caesar in the West, with Lugdunum Amasia Neocaesarea
Licinius as Augustus (r. 308–24), OCEAN Mediolanum Chalcedon
while Maximin Daia became Vienna Constantinople Caesarea
Galerius’s Caesar in the East Burdigala Valentia Ravenna Salonae Nicomedia Cappadociae
(r. 310–13). This new arrangement Pisa Florentia Nyssa
was no more succesful than Nemausus Philippi
the old one. Edessa
Biterrae Massilia Rome Stobi Nicaea Anazarbus
Thessalonica Troas Cyzicus Tarsus
Antioch Dura-Europos
Barcino Neapolis Sardes Hierapolis
Messina Ephesus
Nicopolis Athens Miletus Myra Seleucia Palmyra

Carales Rhegium Corinth Cos Salamis Tripolis
Paphos Damascus

Hippo Rhodes Tyre Berytus

Corduba Carthago Regius Syracusa Sidon
Hispalis Nova Tipasa Jerusalem
Carthage Mediterranean Sea Bethlehem
Melita Petra
Illiberris Sicca Veneria
Tingis Alexandria

Ptolemais Cyrene

Leptis Magna

AFRICA Coptus

Early spread of Christianity KEY
Christianity spread in the 2nd and 3rd centuries until there Areas strongly Christian by 325
were strong Christian communities in Anatolia, southern
Gaul, Italy, Egypt, and the province of Africa (Tunisia).

30is1seDudtieioocsctclhoeinintsiataprnnorilacitentefl3ma0Dt3piiootoBnfcelCeghtiinrainnsitinciagpnoesfrsecution30a5nddDoCifooloicrknlceesewttsaiiasnMnetai;auxGbsimadrlieeicapranlituaetcsoseatnhdem 30t7hdeCeRPicvorlilaamwereataondrreEibammrneppaGeikurrseao;rordMubtayixnte3hn0eSt9ihuAaspccuersIsIiionnPoefrsia 31s1cAhDfiotrshinmcmoaasttbaeiohsdrvaeeCteevahRroskroiassidsmctaotrpiatiuaefiuntnrcssisgeneooswcfdtuhostoitoon 31C3ofEnredsweitcoadrtrnuosoRtlmehifnoriMpmeoo.fiafalLrafnEeifincalrEi:ismgnmtiieouspursinsries sole 31a6btJaoinenXdmidoopynnnesgarnnosuotry;rMtlhaisentrdnWi (Cer.hs3tin1ea3rn–311Jp68iun)dAdtesirnenifausoietsruswroteafhrAoedflfedCuxolhalcyrntirsdditinrvieiantehat

brne3oa0rKk4tdhinXoCagiwhondnnidnogoamsnf,tusaloerrpiantdedveorairfinodSgidenitx(totthoeee4n39)ca3m06paCigoCnneosimnntasBpnteartiirnutoatsriinndbe;iyehdtsiehsocesnlatorrnoeodp3ds0ec8laCroensfeMraelerxnegecpineWtlitamioeucfsaesCttdedearebrenpynmoRuLsponiceemtidurnoamiaurnnsidEnamtshpeire 311 XLiuoonygannug,sCahckinC3a1o2nsaBtnaadnttttlieankeoefdsMecfieolvanittasrnoRMloBoamrfxideaWnngeetEsi;utmesrpnire Con3s1t4anWtialnoresbearsnedlaakLnsidcosinuiintubsthe; teLwiBceiaenlnikuasns317 YuEaansdtiebrencJoimn eesmfipresrtor ConasgtaainntsintebacarbmaprtaihaigennsRsohnine 91
319

320–330 331–355

,, ,,IN OTHER MEN... TASTE FOR SLAUGHTER

SOMETIMES LOSES ITS FORCE... IN
CONSTANTIUS IT BECAME MORE VIOLENT.

Ammianus Marcellinus (d. c. 330) writing on the character of the Emperor
Constantius II in The Later Roman Empire

It was largely Eastern Church leaders who gathered at the Council of Nicaea
(depicted here) in 325; only eight Western bishops made the journey there.

CHANDRAGUPTA I ASCENDED TO Having taken up the cause of 8 governed the Eastern Empire. Augustodunum in southern Gaul
THE THRONE of a small kingdom Christianity in 313, the Roman Their reigns began with a (modern Autun, France) and
in the western Ganges Plain in Emperor Constantine (r. 280–337) THE NUMBER massacre at Constantinople in Constans was killed. Distracted
320. Through an advantageous found that Christians themselves which almost all of their father’s by a war against Persia,
marriage to Princess Kumaradevi were far from united in doctrine OF TYPES OF other male relatives were killed in Constantius II tolerated the
of the powerful Liccachevi dynasty or organization. Constantine PURE-GOLD order to remove any possible upstart initially, but in 351 he
and by conquest, he expanded his called a church council at Nicaea COINS ISSUED rivals. Constantine II, who was the moved against him. Since
realm to include most of the in western Asia Minor in 325 to BY SAMUDRA- eldest, tried to assert his seniority, Constantius II had no heir, he
central Ganges, from Magadha establish (and impose) orthodoxy GUPTA but died during an invasion of promoted his cousin Gallus—one
(in southern Bihar) to Prayaga (in in the face of a division over Italy in 340. Constans then took of the few survivors of the
Uttar Pradesh). His descendants, Arianism (the theology of Arius, control of the entire Western massacre of 337—to the rank of
the Guptas, ruled northern India who held that Jesus Christ was Empire, where he was faced with Caesar in 351 and left him in
for almost 150 years. subordinate to God the Father). As a series of hard-fought campaigns charge in the East, while he
well as Constantine, about 300 against Frankish invaders in campaigned against Magnentius
church leaders attended, and Gaul, and problems in Britain, in the West. Magnentius’s army
Arius’s views were condemned. which led him to visit the far-flung was defeated at Mursa (in
province (the last undisputed present-day Croatia); Italy and
14 IN 335, SAMUDRAGUPTA (r. 335– Roman Emperor to do so) in 343. North Africa were rapidly
THE NUMBER OF 75) SUCCEEDED HIS FATHER recovered, and in 353 Magnentius
DISTRICTS IN Chandragupta I as ruler of the Disputes between the two committed suicide in Gaul.
CONSTANTINOPLE Gupta domains in northern India. surviving brothers, particularly
An inscription he set up in one over the status of Athanasius, For the next seven years
The Column of Constantine After defeating Licinius (r. 308– Prayaga survives, recounting a Bishop of Alexandria (whom Constantius II ruled the empire
The sole surviving monument from 24) in 324, Constantine founded series of campaigns he fought in Constantius II had exiled, but alone, mainly preoccupied with
the forum that Constantine built for a new capital for the Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Mathura, Constans wanted restored), Frankish incursions into Gaul, the
his new city is this column, which Roman Empire at the ancient city both of which were annexed to the soured all relations between revolt of the usurper Silvanus in
sits in central Istanbul today. of Byzantium, strategically sited Gupta kingdom. He also made them. In 350, a senior military 355, and a series of church
between Europe and Asia. He conquests down the east coast of officer, Magnentius, revolted at councils that sought to resolve
demolished pagan temples and India, as far as Madras, and doctrinal disputes (Constantius II
built new churches, such as Hagia subdued West Bengal as well as Gold Gupta coin favored Arianism over the
Sophia, providing public buildings parts of Rajasthan and the Many Gupta coins contain images traditional orthodoxy).
to rival those of Rome. The city of Punjab. Various other regions of horses, a possible reference to
Constantinople (modern Istanbul) acknowledged his suzerainty, the ritual horse sacrifice performed In the end, Gallus proved too
was publicly dedicated on April 2, making him the most powerful by some Gupta rulers. ambitious and in 354 he was
330. It was the seat of the Eastern Indian ruler since the Mauryas. deposed and executed.
Emperors for over 1,000 years. Constantius II turned instead to
Constantine died in 337, having Gallus’s brother Julian, a studious
accepted Christian baptism only youth with a penchant for pagan
on his deathbed. He had made no philosophy. In 355, after Silvanus’s
definite provision for succession, revolt, Julian was despatched to
leaving his sons to divide the Gaul as Caesar, where he proved
empire between them: surprisingly effective at combating
Constantine II (r. 337–40) held Frankish raiders.
Spain, Gaul, and Britain;
Constans (r. 337–50) ruled Italy,
and Constantius II (r. 337–61)

32o0fEAAzckacsneuasmsi3iot2enfo0kuoCinnfhdIgnaednridaor,faatghsucepeGtnaudpIs,ttah3Er2com1anRmpCeoiorpmneasaigtnannpstriionnveifnocrme oefrDa3c2ima5toPhnaeacsEhtgoeymrpytiuioasfnTfodauebnseednrsnt3e2h7inistCosodonensatCathrnitsfiopnruepshlopatustting 335 CthoenHseoclyraStieopnuolcfhCrheu, rJcehru3s3Ta6ylperCaemhhtcriusiorancarhdtctheictmououdfnneAscltAeiolxtaAhatnarindaranissai,ufso3,r3n7etSwhhewaRpaorumragaIIansisntasrtts 34d0eCCfeotoanantkWsssteteahsansnittsthseinberenrwoIEIthhmaoenlperdire 35b0yMCmaoignlinstaetarnyntiscuomsmumrdaenrde3ed5rin5vcAaaldsueeismovenaassnowtfnaitGidcioeansupl read
of

92 324LCicoinnisRutfsooamuntontaidnbnseeecnCdmoeeomwpfneeescartasotasoprnli;tethianleoaptCleo3u2n5coiCrltoohnfosNdtoaicxnatCeinhaertiossutdimaentmedroom3nc2sitnr9einSeainitnPReotemre’scboAamk3ss3ipult3liomecEtaCezchdaornnisavteoiarftnsity c. 335SCacmhraeunsadutdercrtashacgeegaueunGpdpaetetanmad,gIpbweiysrheopi3lna3in7thDreeaethsoonfsCdoinvsidteantthienee;mhpisipreersecu3t4ioi1nnWPoefidrCeshisarpnir3seEt4aima6drnepBssiirtseohroepd AtothAalenxaasniudsria (3Wc5.h03it5HeP0eHepUruhslnfiitBashla)aiabsilnnlitetdveraiaIsndnntedsoilaGatoetshic 355eJmupliearnoGrmo(vCaedareensojuarnro)iofarGnadul

356–360

The acropolis at Tikal, one of the greatest surviving series of
ruins in the Mayan world.

IN ETHIOPIA, THE KINGDOM OF Shapur II hunts a stag began to push across the Rhine,
AKSUM became one of the Sasanian rulers commissioned lavish and in the early 350s they overran
earliest states to embrace
Christianity outside the Roman silver items depicting themselves part of the Rhine frontier,
Empire. The Syrian Christian hunting wild beasts as a display occupying some old Roman
missionary Frumentius of their royal power. fortresses. Caesar Julian
converted the king,
Ezana (r. 320–60) to engaged in a series of campaigns
Monophysitism (a
doctrine emphasizing palace complexes set in a against the Franks (356–59) and
a single nature of
Christ, the divine). central “acropolis.” The drove them from most of the
A letter from
Constantius II to Mayans developed a territory they had taken.
Ezana in 357 has
survived, urging hieroglyphic form of In the East, conflict broke
Ezana to shift his
allegiance to writing that survives on out again between the Romans
Arianism and to
replace Frumentius many of the stelae and the Persians, under Shapur
with an Arian bishop—
evidence that the (carved stone slabs) II (r. 309–79), who took advantage
Roman emperors took
seriously the religious they set up to of the political turmoil in the
loyalties of their neighbors.
Ezana conducted military commemorate Roman Empire in the 350s. In
campaigns beyond his borders;
an inscription speaks of important events; in 359, Shapur II advanced farther

6 Tikal the first such west and took the great Roman

SQUARE MILES dated monument is fortress of Amida (modern
THE AREA
OF THE CITY from 292. The first Diyarbakir, Turkey). Other towns
OF TIKAL,
c. 400 named king of Tikal is were captured and their

Siyaj Chan K’awiil I populations deported to Persia,

(c. 305), and by the reign of threatening the Roman position

Chak Tok Ich’aak I (r. 360– in the East.

78), Tikal was by far the

largest and most powerful of

the Classic Maya cities.

The Roman Empire faced

invasions on both its western and

its eastern borders in the 340s

and 350s. In the West, the Franks
Gulf of Mexico
KEY NORTHERN MAYA
expeditions against neighboring some time in 200–300, with
“Gaze, then the Agame, and the populations declining and Northern Maya Yucatan Caribbean Sea
Siguene,” and it seems his building activity ceasing. But the Peninsula
armies may have occupied Meroë region soon recovered, with the
city (in northern Sudan). Enriched emergence of a new phase in Central Maya Palenque CENTRAL
by such conquests and the control Maya civilization, the Classic Southern Maya MAYA
of trade from sub-Saharan Africa Mayan site
and Arabia, Aksum would Trade route Tikal
dominate the region until the
7th century. Peten

The pre-Classic Maya period (300–900), in which a
kingdoms of Guatemala and
Mexico underwent a collapse series of powerful kingdoms Maya kingdoms PACIF SOUTHERN MAYA
emerged. Their great urban Classic Maya culture IC
centers, such as those at Tikal (in originated in lowland cities,
Guatemala) and Palenque (in such as Uaxactun and Tikal, OC E A N
Mexico), are characterized by but spread to the highlands
huge pyramidal temples and and the Yucatán peninsula.

35A6tAhBlaoeinsxnhaacosneipdumrsioaorfeexiled 35is6sd–ui5vae7innsdCaltaociwonlonssstaiabnnnagdtnipunsasiangcIgaIrnifitceems,ples 35d8eAvHsauisagtaeMteeinsaorwrtheqsutearkne 35in9vcSaahdpateupsrueSrsyIrIAiamaidnad 36t0rohJoiumipnlsiPaednmae’rscpislearroer
357atCShpiurrrmoch-iuAcmroiauisnnsccuirleesed 35c8amCopDnaasingtaunnbsteiaQuScasuargaroIaImdsinsiasattniadns 35b9isChhoupacrosgc)mrheapencrdotoohumraentthichsSoieoledsmlboeaxeoutticNwRsiaiiefcmoeeinrninnmeCAi ui(Crloliihcaafirn—aisaatniadns
356 mStion.nAEangstytoipcntyma,nFoleadva(teb“hdmDoeereerr,nsn”etcdr.ite2s51) 3C6o0nCpsportoaruo-nnAmtcirinuilaolongpfalcetreesed
of

93

361–375 376–382

Here Emperor Julian is seen in religious debate. He attempted to sow discord among The church of Hagia Eirene in
Christians by decreeing the return of those who had been exiled for religious reasons. Istanbul was built by Constantine I.

IN CHINA, THE EASTERN JIN Constantius to meet but he ceded key border ,, … THE
DYNASTY (317–420) brought immediately. He provinces to Persia, which BARBARIANS,
comparative stability to the south died in November lost him popularity, [ARE] LIKE BEASTS
of the country. Although many of 361 as he was and he died (probably … BROKEN
the emperors were short-lived, finally marching murdered) within LOOSE… OVER
the bureaucracy in the southern west to deal with the months. An officer of the
revolt. Now sole ,,THE VAST
16capital of Nanjing functioned emperor, Julian imperial bodyguard,
efficiently and the period saw immediately set about Valentinian (r. 364–75), was EXTENT…
restoring the role of then raised to the throne, and OF COUNTRY.
THE NUMBERa cultural flowering. Artists such paganism in the Roman he selected his brother Valens
as Gu Kaizhi (c. 345–406) painted Empire, trying to (r. 364–78) to be his co-ruler. Ammianus Marcellinus, on the
masterpieces such as the OF KINGDOMS establish a kind of pagan Valentinian spent much of his Gothic invasion of the Balkans c. 390
Admonitions of the Instructress IN CHINA orthodoxy and an official reign along the Rhine dealing
to the Palace Ladies, as well as FROM 304 pagan hierarchy of priests with Frankish and Alemannic IN 376, LARGE GROUPS OF GOTHS
producing works on the theory of to counter Christianity’s invaders. He died in 375 after ARRIVED AT THE DANUBE
strengths. He reopened suffering some type of seizure, FRONTIER, pressing to be admitted
TO 439painting. Northern China, on the pagan brought on by his anger at to the Roman Empire. The Huns, a
temples, new nomadic group from Central
other hand, was highly unstable, and barbarian Quadi Asia, were at their rear, and the
restored the envoys thought to Goths feared being squeezed
divided between the Sixteen right to sacrifice. have insulted him. between them and the imperial
frontier. Emperor Valens did not
Kingdoms, most of them ruled by (under Xiaouwudi) would be In 363, Julian set The Western wait for reinforcements before
out on a campaign Roman marching out to meet the Gothic
nomadic groups. The Eastern Jin forced to repel a major invasion against Persia, Empire army. On August 9, 378, near
planning to punish was then Adrianople, the Romans met the
emperors alternated between a in the north of the country. its leader, Shapur II, Goths, under Fritigern. Misled by
for his attacks on the subdivided between the temporary absence of the
defensive stance towards the In the Roman Empire, Julian empire in 359–60. He Valentinian’s two sons Gothic cavalry, Valens attacked but
reached Ctesiphon, Gratian (r. 375–83) and his army was surrounded by the
Sixteen Kingdoms and aggressive was proclaimed Augustus by his but was then forced Valentinian II (r. 375–92). returning barbarian horsemen.
to retreat up the In the Eastern Empire, Valens was killed and the Eastern
campaigns, notably under Mudi troops in 360, so he was a direct Tigris River. Being Valens was forced to army destroyed, leaving the
short of supplies, the spend most of the early Balkans open to the Goths.
(r. 345–61) who retook Sichuan challenge to Constantius. The Roman army 370s in Syria to contain
suffered constant the Persian threat, but Gratian reacted by turning to
and Luoyang. All these gains were threat from the Persians, who harassment from growing trouble with Theodosius, a Spanish military
the Persians and, in barbarians along the officer, who he appointed as his
lost, however, under Emperor Aidi were advancing through Asia one such skirmish, Danube later forced him imperial colleague. For the next
Julian was killed. to turn to the Balkans. three years Theodosius patiently
(r. 362–65). In 383, the Eastern Jin Minor, was too great for The pagan reaction negotiated, bought off some
was over. Sarmatian dagger groups, and struck militarily
JULIAN THE APOSTATE (331–63) This dagger belonged to where he could. In 382, the two
On Julian’s death the the Sarmatians, a tribe
The nephew of Constantine I, army chose Jovian of Iranian origin who
Julian was educated as a (r. 363–64) as emperor, specialized in horseback
Christian but c. 351 became a fighting, and were defeated
pagan under the influence of by Valentinian I.
Maximus of Ephesus. When
Julian unexpectedly became
emperor in 363, he tried to
restore paganism in the
empire, including banning
Christians from teaching
literature. He became known
by Christian writers as “the
Apostate” for his perceived
betrayal of Christianity.

36c2armJeuwspltaioRoairgronsenmhbpiteapoagngiinnEasmnthpeire 36J4oavOniaendnmdV,epaVaelaetrlhonersnostfbineicaonmIe 36a8geaCniandmsitnptahRiegonmAslaenmvainctnoiry c. f3o7rac0teMJeaismptaaanbnelaisseihneinssvoaaudtchion3elg7oronn3fyfidKRcoooewrmrenTaaahnermeovdioloilttsaiirunysMpourtoscco 37t3hkeFinuFYugoJrdnimaonnmae,nrsr,)Juaiolnnecdrc(ouopnpfaeiretossfSo13fi6c7Gbh5euucYiazaonhxm,oNeusuurnulAeyriionf Tikal 37t6heeFxuFitnoeJtrnoimadCnsee,rcnooJtfnrinat,rl oA3ls7ita6otGahloelotRhwsotmpheeatnmitEitomonspVeiarteltelenisn

9 4363nJeualriaCnt3ek6si3lilpeJhdoovnian sutrtehrererniPdtoeerrryssitaonsi3nSb6vay8axPsoLiinoacCsrtnsogio,uesSfn-dsBctecoTrfatiehstlaeae,tioaendndodbsiyus 36S9haSpausarnIIiaoicnnc.Acvk3uari7nmpd0gieeeHEsnuaiansstebrnegEinurtoope 373eMsttaahrbetlifiincsrohWosmeftesTmmsootuouennnrrensiatosiEeftuiscrionpe d3i7e5swuThhnileeewxonipdteheoQgcsbuotiaatueirdsadbitlaiyenrngiavonysChGau3np7dtr5aaSgEaummpnptouairdrIterIhasngauouncwpdctedcaeeoddnmsite;risnat;hal teIensdia 3Vt7ha8leeGRnsootmahtasAnddserfuieanandtoeprle

383–391 392–400

,, ,,THE THICKER

THE HAY, THE EASIER
IT IS MOWED.

Alaric the Goth, speaking of his enemies c. 400

St. Jerome (c. 347–420) completed the Vulgate, the first definitive
translation of the Bible into Latin, c. 405.

sides agreed a truce, whereby the IN CENTRAL AMERICA, THE MAYAN St. Ambrose IN 392, VALENTINIAN II, WHO HAD western one. Although there was
Goths were allowed to settle in CITY OF TIKAL had reached the A Roman nobleman by birth, CONTINUED TO RULE OVER ITALY, no clear intention to do so, this
the empire in return for providing peak of its influence in the late 4th Ambrose was Bishop of Milan from was found hanged. His military split marked a permanent
troops for the Roman army. century. In 378, a foreign lord 374 to 397. He exercised a powerful commander Arbogast—suspected division; after 395 no one emperor
called Siyaj Kak arrived in the city, influence over Theodosius I. by some of Valentinian’s murder— ruled the whole empire again.
The Gupta Empire continued to possibly from Teotihuacán. His promptly made Flavius Eugenius,
expand under Chandragupta II arrival, which may represent a freed Theodosius to react when a middle-ranking official, The Goths had taken part on
(r. 375–415) in northern India. military conquest, led to the death Maximus invaded Italy in 387. In emperor. Theodosius refused to Theodosius’s side at the Battle of
He fought against the Sakas, of Tikal’s ruler Chak Tok Ich’aak August 388, he marched swiftly recognize Eugenius, and in 393 he the Frigidus River and felt they
annexing much of northwestern and the destruction of most of into northern Italy, capturing invaded Italy. To gain support in had not been sufficiently rewarded
India. He also made an astute Tikal’s public monuments. Siyaj Maximus near Aquileia and the Senate—where paganism for their losses. In 395, they rose
marriage alliance that extended Kak installed a new dynasty having him executed. was still strong—the Christian up, led by Alaric (r. 395–410).
his realm to the southwest. on the throne of Tikal, possibly Eugenius revoked all of Despite an attempt by Stilicho
drawn from the ruling house of As well as campaigning against Theodosius’s anti-pagan laws. (c. 365–408), the half-Vandal
Iron pillar of Delhi Teotihuacán, with Yax Nuun Ayiin the Goths and Maximus, But, in August 394, he was commander of the Western
This iron pillar at Qutb complex on (“Curl Snout”; r. 379–404) as the Theodosius was preoccupied with defeated by the Theodosian army Roman army, to suppress them,
the outskirts of Delhi is said to have first ruler. Monuments depict him the imposition of Orthodox at the Frigidus River near the Goths escaped and marauded
been erected on the orders of in northern Mexican, rather than Christianity. He moved against Aquileia. Theodosius did not enjoy throughout Greece in 396. Stilicho
Chandragupta II. Mayan, dress. Under his rule, the Arians, deposing the Bishop of his rule as sole emperor long, moved against Alaric again in 397,
Tikal’s direct influence extended Constantinople in 380 and calling dying in January 395. The empire but once more failed to defeat
some 30miles (50km) away. a council in 381 in the capital, was then divided between his two him. A brief halt to the Gothic
which reaffirmed the anti-Arian sons: the older, Arcadius, taking rampage came after Alaric’s
In the Western Roman Empire, decisions of the Council of Nicaea the eastern part and his younger appointment by the Eastern
Gratian had spent much of (see 325). He connived in the brother, Honorius, taking the Roman government to magister
his time since the Battle of destruction of many pagan militum (a senior general).
Adrianople (378) in northern temples, including the great
Italy, where he continued to temple of Serapis in Alexandria, North
act against pagans in Rome, and in 391 he forbade all pagan
ordering the removal of the Altar sacrifices throughout the empire. AT L A N T I C Sea AalnekmsanniBurgundians
of Victory from the Senate House OCEAN BRITANNIA Iuthungi
in 382. In 383, he led an army P
north to face an invasion of Gaul Fr O s trogo thHse r u li
by the Alemanni, but was then Gepidae
faced with a revolt in Britain, GALLIA
where the legions declared their
commander Magnus Maximus MOESIAIazyges Alans
emperor. Many of Gratian’s ANNONIA sigoths
commanders defected and in VIENNENSIS
August 383 he was captured and I TALIA
executed by Maximus, who had HISPANIA Corsica Vi Black Sea
crossed over to Gaul. Theodosius, THRACIA
fearful of trouble with Persia or BalearSeasrdinia Rome SEAMSPAINRIEA N
a Gothic revolt in the Balkans if PONTUS
he moved west, recognized Me d i t e
Maximus as his colleague. A MAURETANIA Byzantium
peace with Persia in 386, however, r r a Sicilia (Constantinople)

ASIANA

Berbers n ean Sea

Creta Cyprus S

N

E Syrian
Desert
LIBYA I

Sahara OR
Arabs

Red Sea
AEGYPTUS

Divided in two KEY
The split of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Eastern Roman Empire
Western divisions in 395 was permanent. By 476, Western Roman Empire
its Western part would be overrun by barbarians.

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700 BCE–600 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

CLASSICAL TRADE tic Sea
FLOURISHING TRADE BETWEEN CONTINENTS A WORLD APART
Peoples
BRITAIN North Bal
Sea
Baltic
The growth of Roman power in the Mediterranean, the unification of China Celts
under the Qin and Han, and the establishment of the Parthian Empire in Iran EUROPE
created three large political blocs that provided stable conditions under
which very long-distance trade routes could flourish. Augusta GERMANY
Treverorum
OCEAN
GAUL M p sA Aquileia DACIA

Massilia RO Al N Byzantium
IBERIA E
The expansion of Han power westward in the that lay on them were able to exact heavy tolls M THRACE
2nd century BCE brought the Chinese into contact from merchants, which they used to build AT L A N T I C Rome Ostia P
with new powers they called An-hsi (Persia) and spectacular public monuments. IR
Li-chien (Rome). A Chinese embassy reached the E
court of Mithridates II of Parthia around 115 BCE. In Farther west, in the Mediterranean, expensive
the wake of diplomats came merchants, carrying goods such as fine wine were carried by sea; Gades Carthage
the Chinese silk for which both Parthia and Rome in general land transportation was expensive, Caesarea
had an insatiable appetite. The main Silk Route and bulky, low-value products tended to be
ran from China through Central Asia, down into produced and consumed locally. Tingis M GREECE
Persia and then across Roman-controlled Syria
toward the ports of the Mediterranean. 8,000 TAMNoI Au t a i n s edite Crete

A thriving trade also spanned the Indian Ocean, MILES MA U R E n Leptis r r a n e Sea
transporting spices from the East Indies and THE LENGTH OF THE At l a s
southern India to ports in Africa and southern TRADE ROUTE FROM a n
Arabia; from here a land route led up through CHANG’AN TO ROME
Petra, in present-day Jordan, to Syria. Control of Magna Cyrene
these trade routes was very lucrative, and towns
Sijilmassa

Berbers Garamantes Alexandria
Sahar
a
Murzuk
EGYPT

Ahaggar

Tamanrasset

Tibesti

S AF R I C A

a h el

ROMAN TRADE Chadians
The expansion of the Roman Empire to cover much of Europe,
western Asia, and North Africa created largely peaceful conditions
in which both internal and external trade could flourish.

Amomum SLAVES ANIMALS WINE WGALRAESS-
Balsam of Judea
Daphnitis FOOD SPICES GOLD OLIVE OIL
Cardamom (high-grade cinnamon) SILK COTTON
Cinnamon (uncultivated) Malabathrum
(finest cinnamon leaf) INCENSE IVORY SILVER
Cassia (Chinese cinnamon)
The price of spice Roman imports Roman exports
Frankincense (first quality) According to the Roman author Pliny, the finest The Romans imported huge quantities The Romans paid for their imports
Ginger grade of spices such as cinnamon could fetch of raw materials, including luxury with precious metal and coins, and
Myrrh (Ethiopian) 300 denarii a Roman pound (12oz/340g), which goods such as gold and ivory and exported products such as wine
was nearly enough to purchase a male slave. cheaper goods such as food. and glassware.
Nard (Indian)
Nutmeg
Pepper

0 50 100 150 200 250 250 300 350 400 450 500
PRICE IN DENARII

96

(SEeaas o f J
t A
P

Lake J N
Baikal A
a

pa
Se

n
a

)

a KOREA
Yel low
i

r A gnu
I Gobi
e o n Sea

b X i East China Sea
i
Ural Mountains S Kaifeng IC
IF
S Altai Mountains Wuwei Hangzhou C
Ningbo A
A DZUNGARIATurfan Kitai Anxi Luoyang Hankou P
Jiaohei Dunhuang Chang’an
Lake
Balkhash

Kuldja Shan eIMNs aeKkr Iat An N G HAN Fuzhou
Quanzhou
FERGHANA Aksu
A Kashgar Tien Takl S Chengdu EMPIRE O
a Nalanda
C YT H I an s Aral To cha D Philippi C
Sea
S a rma t i a ns r i a n Nanhai E
Iran (Guang-
S s Yarkand Plateau
SHAN zhou)
i Khotan of Tibet Kunming ne A
BOSPORAN
E TRANSOXIANA Pa m i rs
KINGDOM Marakanda Cattigara N

Panticapaeum K U SOGDIANA Tibetans Islands
(Kerch)
Ca ush
Bactra
Caucasus spian Sea Merv BACTRIA Taxila Himalayas South China Sea
S ea ARMENIA M Begram Ma l ay s
Black Hindu Pataliputra Cha Indi e s
Trapezus PIR K
E Mon-Khmer Oc Eo
Thar Desert
Hecatompylos P A R T H I A Alexandria Mathura MAGADHA Thaton peoples ms Moluccas
Areion PAHLAVAS Tamluk
Celeb
ASIA MINOR Iranian
Plateau Java
Ctesiphon Ecbatana Kandahar Bay of Sea
Antioch Bengal
MAHA-MEGHAVAHANAS
Z a g r P e r s i a India

Cyprus Tyre o sM ou nt in s SHAKAS
Barbaricon
Damascus a

SYRIA Babylon Charax Persepolis Barygaza Andaman
Jerusalem ersian Gulf Islands
P
Nicobar
Gaza Asabon (Broach) Islands Trang es

Petra Mandagora Masulipatam M Borneo
al ays
Gerra SATAVAHANAS

Myos Hormus Ommana Poduca

Arabian Sumatra East

Leucecome P e n i n s u l a Arabian PANDCYHAOLA Java
Sea Muziris
Berenice

Arabs Colchi
Taprobane
Zenobia

Dongola e INDIAN OCEAN
KUSH S
ed a Sana
Meroe R

Sennar YEMEN Cana Socotra
Emporion
Adulis Aromata

Aksum Aden Gulf of Aden World trade HAN TRADE
AKSUM Trade routes c.1CE criss-crossed the whole The establishment of Chinese control in Central Asia
of the classical world. The means of from the late 3rd century BCE opened up a series of
Avalites transport used depended on location— routes through Persia to the Mediterranean, which
Bactrian camels were used in Central Asia, became collectively known as the Silk Route. However, it
Ethiopian Horn of while horses, bullocks, and yaks were used also involved the Han emperors in continuous and costly
Highlands Africa elsewhere. Maritime trade was also defense of their new territories.
extensive—there was an active trading
Maji network around the Indian Ocean.

Juba Sarapion

Kushites

QUANTITY 30,000 SILK
PRECIOUS25,000
KEY 20,000 HORSES SPICES
STONES15,000
Roman Empire 10,000
and client states
5000
Han Empire 0
50
Trade routes Goods traded 40 30 20 10 0
Roman gold YEAR (BCE)
Trans–Saharan silver olive oil LACQUERWARE
(rudimentary route) tin amber
Indian Ocean tortoiseshell precious KEY Silk fabric
ivory stones (pieces)
Silk Route animals silk Silk floss
China clothing (catties)
East Africa horses incense
Amber grain slaves Buying safety Han imports Han exports
Incense spices To guarantee security on their frontiers The Han valued spices as much as Knowledge of silk in China
Other timber and along trade routes, the Han were the Romans did, but they also sent goes back to at least 2600BCE,
(rudimentary route) wine forced to pay large bribes in silk to trade expeditions to Ferghana in but under the Han it became
barbarian groups such as the Hsiung-nu. Central Asia in search of what a staple export item, alongside
they called “heavenly horses.” lacquerware.

97

401–423 424–433
,,
SO THE VANDALS, HAVING

,,WRESTED LIBYA FROM THE

ROMANS IN THIS WAY, MADE
IT THEIR OWN...

Procopius, Byzantine scholar, from
History of the Wars, III iv 1, c. 500–550

Around 200 stone heads decorated Tiwanaku’s Semi-Subterranean Temple. They may represent
the group that founded the city—their flat headdresses denote high status.

ALTHOUGH THE WESTERN ROMAN commander Stilicho persuaded Visigoths ride on Rome THE BARBARIANS WHO HAD On the other side of the
EMPIRE SEEMED RELATIVELY the Senate to agree to pay Alaric Alaric’s sack of Rome in 410 was INITIALLY CROSSED THE RHINE IN Mediterranean in 429, Boniface,
SECURE IN 400, within a decade it a huge bribe in exchange for particularly shocking, as it was the 401 had gone on to sack a number the Roman Governor of North
had suffered a series of disasters. leaving the city, but there seems first time the city had fallen since the of cities before moving southwest Africa, revolted against his
Gothic raids in 401 and again in to have been a coup d’état and Gauls took it in 390BCE. into Aquitania and then crossing long-term adversary Aëtius, and
405 ravaged northern Italy. Then Stilicho was overthrown and the Pyrenees into Spain, where called on the Siling Vandals for
on the last day of 406, hordes of killed. In 409, Alaric had Attalus, of Lake Titicaca (on the border they occupied large swaths of help. The Vandal king, Gaiseric
Vandals, joined by two other the prefect of Rome, declared between modern Peru and Roman territory. In 416–18, (r. 428–77), crossed over the
barbarian groups, the Alans and emperor in an attempt to seize Bolivia), reached its greatest the Roman army commander Straits of Gibraltar with—it was
Sueves, crossed the frozen Rhine the initiative, but all negotiations size in the 5th century, covering Constantius persuaded the said—80,000 of his people and, far
near Mainz, sacked Treveri failed. So, on August 24, 410, the an area some 3sq miles (8sq km) Visigoths under Wallia (r. 415– from helping Boniface, swiftly
(modern Trier, Germany) and Visigoths entered Rome and in extent. Its central area 18) to invade Spain. There he occupied most of North Africa. In
Remi (modern Reims, France), subjected it to a three-day sack. contained a lavish series of smashed the Alans and the Siling 435, he made a treaty with the
and forced their way southwest The event shook the entire Roman ceremonial buildings and Vandals, but allowed some of Romans, recognizing his
until they reached the Pyrenees. world, but Alaric was unable to temples. These included the them to settle in southern Spain occupation of Mauretania
secure domination over Italy, as Semi-Subterranean Temple, and left the Asing Vandals and (modern Algeria and Morocco).
Meanwhile, the armies of he died later the same year. decorated with stone heads of Sueves in possession of Gaiseric broke this and in 439 his
Britain had raised up a series humans and supernatural beings, northwestern Spain. Wallia was warriors captured Carthage, the
of usurpers as emperor from 406. In South America, the city of and structures such as the rewarded with official possession Roman capital there, and set up
The last of these, Constantine III Tiwanaku, 15miles (25km) south massive and beautifully decorated of much of southwestern Spain. an independent Vandal kingdom.
(r. 407–11), took most of the Gateway of the Sun. These
remaining Roman troops in Britain were erected by a major pre- North
and crossed to Gaul in spring 407, Columbian culture that Sea
aiming to seize the throne from the dominated the Altiplano (flat
then head of the Western Roman high plateau) of Peru and Bolivia, EUROPE
Empire, Honorius. Although he and whose influence extended
was defeated and captured at Arles into northern Bolivia. KINGDOM OF THE EMPIRE OF
in 412, native leaders in Britain had BURGUNDIANS THE HUNS
already expelled the last Roman Bay of
officials there in 410—probably in Biscay Rome Black Sea Caspian Sea
revenge for their abandonment by Carthage
Constantine’s legion. Britain was Tolentum Constantinople
now independent from Rome. ROMAN
EMPIRE
In 408, Alaric (r. c. 395–410),
leader of the Visigoths, invaded Mediterranean Sea SASANIAN
Italy once more. The Roman EMPIRE

AFRICA

Pepper 20,000 Silver 40,000 Ransom demands The barbarian KEY Burgundians
Gold POUNDS 30,000 Alaric initially asked invasions Roman Empire Franks
for a huge ransom in Barbarian groups Sasanian Empire Jutes, Angles, Saxons
0 10,000 return for leaving took more and more Huns Irish
Rome in 410. Even Roman territory in the Goths Picts
when he moderated first half of the 5th Alans
his demands, the century, leaving the Vandals, Alans, Sueves
Senate refused, and Western emperors
so the city was sacked. virtually powerless.

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