,, THE WORKERS’ AND PEASANTS’
GOVERNMENT… PROPOSES TO
ALL WARRING PEOPLES…
NEGOTIATIONS LEADING TO
,,A JUST, DEMOCRATIC PEACE.
Lenin, November 8, 1917
These British Mark IV tanks are transported to the Cambrai offensive. They carry
bundles of wood to fill the trenches, so that they can drive across them.
The British army remained 3THE NUMBER OF CREW The British Howitzer Mark I
committed to an offensive THAT FLEW AND royal family, Used to great effect by the British
strategy. In the second half of OPERATED A GERMAN meanwhile, Army during World War I, this gun
the year, General Douglas Haig GOTHA BOMBER found it could fire two rounds of 290lb
(1856–1951) began a new push prudent to (132kg) shells every minute.
at Ypres (see pp.344–345), hoping inoperative. On harder ground at Gotha bombers and even larger change its
to break through to the ports Cambrai in November, massed “R-planes.“ These fixed-wing name from the hydraulic
where German U-boats were tanks helped British forces aircraft were faster and more Germanic recoil buffer
based. Haig’s offensive ran into advance 4 miles (6km) in one difficult to shoot down than the Saxe-Coburg and
persistent bad weather that day—three times the distance German airships (see 1915), Gotha to Windsor. carriage
reduced the battlefield to a sea achieved at Passchendaele in although defense by antiaircraft
of mud. The offensive persisted three months. Any celebrations guns and fighter aircraft soon The British public was
into November, until British were premature, however, as a forced them to attack exclusively cheered in December by
and Canadian troops reached German counterattack soon by night. Physical damage and the capture of Jerusalem
Passchendaele, the village that retook most of the lost ground. casualties were not great, but the from Turkey. This military
finally gave its name to the battle. psychological impact of these success gave practical
The long stalemate raids was considerable, as importance to the previous
The mud in Flanders rendered between Italy and Austria– citizens were driven to hide month’s Balfour
tanks, an increasingly important Hungary ended when underground in cellars and Declaration, which
element of British weaponry, German troops were subway stations. expressed British
transferred to the Italian government support for
front in October. At the In all combatant countries war Zionist aspirations to
Battle of Caporetto, an weariness and worsening “a national home for
Austro-German offensive conditions made it hard for the Jewish people in
drove Italian forces into governments to maintain Palestine.” Britain’s
retreat. A line was solidarity. Food shortages and Arab allies, fighting
stabilized in November socialist sentiments, excited alongside the British
behind the Piave River, by the revolutionary uprising in army against the
just 19 miles (30km) Russia, led to widespread strike Turks, had not been consulted.
from Venice (see p.345). action in German factories. The
German Reichstag (parliament) SHIPPING LOSS (IN TONS)600
From June, civilians living passed a resolution calling for
in Paris and London were peace negotiations in July, but it 450
subjected to sporadic air had no control over the military-
attacks by German dominated German government. 300
Dawn breaks at In France, scandals and strikes 150
Passchendaele rocked the political system
Dead and wounded soldiers through the summer and fall, 0
lie in the muddy desolation of but the appointment of the fiercely Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
the battlefield in the Ypres pro-war Georges Clemenceau MONTHS
salient, where the battle of (1841–1929) as prime minister
Passchendale was fought. in November stiffened resolve. British merchant shipping losses to U-boats
German unrestricted submarine warfare increased attacks on
merchant ships from February to April. The adoption of a convoy
system in May reduced sinkings to a sustainable level.
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royaJlunfalaymm1iel7ytBochrWiatinisnghdessCorroatDse, caltnJaodrucalSrytelioo2avnt0ee—nCYeSousergfraoubgssrl,eaevia Jluaulyinnc3Yh1poBrferfeistnisssehicvetor SucocSffeeespnsstfeiuvmleGbleaeurrmn1acathnRediga Ocktnoobwenr ai1ns5FMMraaatnragceaHraaerstih,GeeexZremeclaulent,esdpy BaclofmohNumoromivDteseelmcBalnrbaidretianarfitonP2iroatnJoNleeoaswvtsienme besrei7zeLepnoiwn’esrBinolPsehtervoigkrsadDecepSmoidwboeenrrioi5nPGPmaeoinisrleittturaaagkrlyaelscionup 3 4 9Dgoesvceeercmnrembteeprnot2lif0coeuBnoodrlgsshaCenDhvieziekaocktepaioemnnbpeera2c2ewBintheoBglGsorheeterisamvtti–kiaoLsnnitysoavtsk
battleship
Aurora
Revolutionary hero Red horsemen cavalry played an
c. 1920 important part in
DATE UNKNOWN The 1917 revolution was followed by the Russian Civil Communist victory
War, between the Bolsheviks and the “White” armies
In this painting for a poster from the 1917 led by czarist officers. This poster is dedicated “to the
Revolution period, Lenin appears in front peoples of the Caucasus Red Army.”
of the battleship Aurora, which was used
in the Bolshevik seizure of power.
SOVIET PROPAGANDA
ART FOR THE FURTHERANCE OF COMMUNIST POLITICAL IDEOLOGY AND REVOLUTIONARY IDEALS
For the Communists who seized power in Russia in
November 1917, art had to serve the socialist revolution
and disseminate its ideology. Propaganda mobilized the
populace in support of the regime and pilloried its enemies.
During the early phase of Communist rule, many avant-garde artists believed
their revolutionary ways of making art would accord with the political revolution.
However, under the dictatorship of Joseph Stalin, from the late 1920s Soviet
artists were required to depict workers and peasants in a heroic-realist style,
their images reflecting the supposed happiness and progress of Communist life.
Rapid industrialization
1928
The Communist leadership launched
an industrialization drive in the late
1920s. Workers are compelled to
increase production by this poster.
Modernist poster The Revolution needs you
1919 1928
Avant-garde artist El The labor force underwent
Lissitzky produced this Civil radical reorganization under
War poster. His red wedge the Communists. This
represents the Communist poster urges Soviet citizens
Red Army beating the anti- to become members of
Communist White armies. workers’ cooperatives.
350
SOVIET PROPAGANDA
Collectivization grand schemes
1930 to rebuild Moscow
A tractor driver and peasant woman were derailed
call on their comrades to join a by World War II
collective farm during Stalin’s
brutal drive to abolish private farms.
Life under Stalin
1930s
Celebrating the unity and
strength of the Soviet people
under the banner of Stalin,
this poster proclaims:
”Onward to the heights of joy
and happiness of mankind.“
Military strength
1940s
A poster of the World War II
era depicts bomber aircraft
and a Soviet airman displaying
the obligatory optimism of any
Communist citizen portrayed
in Stalinist art.
piglike
capitalist
being
held up
Commemorating victory Cold War propaganda Peace and progress
1940s 1950s 1970s
The slogan on this poster commemorating the This anti-American poster from the Cold War A Salyut space station is superimposed on a
Soviet victory in World War II says: “Having caricatures the Statue of Liberty, portraying dove of peace in this poster from the era of
won the war, the soldier has brought spring.” the US as bloatedly capitalist and militaristic. “peaceful coexistence” with the capitalist world.
351
1918
German prisoners of war in France—in the last three months of the war
363,000 German soldiers were captured by the advancing Allies.
ALTHOUGH THE US ENTERED Litovsk, which marked Russia’s but throughout the year ever MURDER OF THE RUSSIAN ROYAL FAMILY
WORLD WAR I IN APRIL 1917, exit from World War I. With larger areas of Russia fell out
at the start of 1918 its Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Finland, of his followers’ control. After abdicating in 1917, Czar Nicholas II, his wife, four daughters,
Expeditionary Force in Europe was and the Baltic States nominally and only son were sent to Siberia, where they lived in reasonable
still not ready for combat. Despite independent as client states of Meanwhile, relieved of the need comfort. But in April 1918 the family was moved to Ekaterinburg
this, in anticipation of victory, US Germany, the treaty deprived to fight a war on two fronts, in the Urals and placed under close guard by local Bolsheviks.
President Woodrow Wilson Russia of about a third of its Germany attempted to win a On the night of 16–17 July Bolshevik secret police had the entire
announced a 14-point program prewar population. The German decisive victory in the west before family shot in a cellar, along with their doctor and servants. Their
for a just and durable peace. His military authorities then set American manpower could bodies were buried and not discovered until 1991.
proposals included freedom of the about ruthlessly exploiting irreversibly tip the balance. On
seas and free trade, general resources in the eastern March 21, the Spring Offensive
disarmament, self-determination regions they now controlled. or “Kaiserschlacht” struck the
for European peoples who did not British line on the Somme front.
have their own nation-states, and The humiliating treaty did not
an international organization to bring peace to Russia, which was An initial bombardment by 9,000
guarantee new borders against already slipping into civil war. guns and mortars, with munitions
aggressors. Germany would have Determined to concentrate all including 2 million gas shells,
to hand back the territory it had the power in Bolshevik hands, prepared the way for an infantry
occupied during the war as well as Lenin forcibly dispersed attack spearheaded by German
Alsace–Lorraine, which was taken a democratically elected Stormtroopers, many armed with
from France in 1871. Constituent Assembly in flamethrowers. More than 20,000
January—the Bolsheviks had won British troops surrendered on the
The Germans had quite different only 25 percent of votes cast. His first day of the offensive, and by
ideas, however. In March, they regime faced opposition from March 25 the leading German
used their military dominance groups as diverse as rival socialist units had advanced 40 miles
over the newly installed Bolshevik revolutionaries, czarist generals, (65km). The stalemate that
government (see 1917) to impose Ukrainian anarchists, and Don had lasted on the Western
punitive peace terms on Russia Cossacks. Lenin survived an front since 1914 was at an end.
through the Treaty of Brest- assassination attempt in August,
In early April, the Germans
opened a fresh offensive at Lys in Allied armies, including US troops. “Flying Circus,” had an impressive
Flanders. In an emotional appeal Although the Allies made further reputation in combat and the
to his troops, British commander retreats and remained on the Baron himself was credited with
General Douglas Haig (1861– defensive until July, the Germans 80 “kills.” But the German pilots
1928) declared: “With our backs failed to achieve the decisive were overwhelmed by the sheer
to the wall and believing in the success they needed. number of allied aircraft—
justice of our cause, each one of British and French factories built
us must fight on to the end.” More One victim of the fighting in April 55,000 aircraft in 1918 alone.
practically, the French general was Germany’s most renowned
Ferdinand Foch (1851–1929) was air ace, Manfred von Richthofen By June, over a million
appointed Supreme Commander (1892–1918). The “Red Baron” American soldiers were in
to coordinate the operations of the was shot dead by ground fire France, under the command of
while engaged in a dogfight with General John Pershing (1860–
Poster of a German aircraft Canadian pilot Roy Brown over the 1948). Their contribution was vital
A German poster advertising an Allied lines. His death symbolized to stabilizing the Allied line in the
exhibition of items captured in the the exhaustion of Germany’s war face of German offensives. The
air war. Most World War I aircraft effort. Richthofen’s fighter wing, fighting qualities of the US
were made of canvas and wood. known to the British as the Marines particularly impressed
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352
,, I HOPE WE MAY ALL SAY
THAT THUS, THIS FATEFUL
MORNING, CAME TO AN
,,END ALL WARS.
David Lloyd George, British Prime Minister, November 11, 1918
British soldiers, an American sailor, and a Red Cross nurse celebrate the signing
of the armistice on November 11, ending four years of mass slaughter.
their German enemies—a They approached President 50
German reference to the Marines Wilson (1856–1924), hoping to
as “Devil Dogs” stuck as a make a deal with the US, but MILLION
nickname for the Corps. Wilson aligned himself with the
British and French, who insisted PEOPLE DIED
The turning point was an that Germany should surrender. IN THE FLU
attack at Amiens on August 8, Although German troops were PANDEMIC
spearheaded by Australian and still putting up a stubborn OF 1918–19
Canadian infantry, and supported defense, and there were not yet
by massed British and French any Allied troops on German soil, Peace celebrations erupted in
tanks. Described by the German the country was disintegrating London, Paris, and other Allied
general Erich Ludendorff from within. A mutiny in the cities, but even in the victor nations
(1865–1937) as “the black day German navy at the end of the reaction was muted by the
of the German army,” it initiated October was followed by strikes memory of the millions who had
the “Hundred Days” of relentless and socialist uprisings in major died. There were no celebrations
Allied offensives, with large-scale cities, where food shortages had in the collapsed empires
use of tanks and aircraft. fueled political discontent. destroyed by the conflict—
Germany, Austria, Russia, and
In September, Pershing achieved Germany’s main allies, Turkey Turkey—which faced an uncertain
his ambition of commanding an and Austria–Hungary, stopped future amid political turmoil.
independent US operation—the fighting. On November 9, the
capture of the St. Mihiel salient. Social Democrat Philipp Meanwhile, a global pandemic
This was followed by a combined Scheidemann declared Germany of “Spanish Flu” was at its
American and French offensive in a republic, and Kaiser Wilhelm II peak. One of the worst natural
the Argonne forest, the costliest (1859–1941) fled to the disasters in human history,
single battle in American history, Netherlands. Two days later, a the spread of the disease was
with 117,000 US casualties. German delegation signed an probably aided by large-scale
armistice in a railroad car movements of troops and by the
On September 29, with their in the Compiègne forest. The weakened immune systems
Hindenburg Line defenses guns fell silent at 11 a.m. on of populations suffering from
breached and their ally Bulgaria November 11. malnutrition. The disease killed
on the point of surrender, the more than 50 million people.
Germans sought an armistice.
Signing the armistice
TROOPS (IN MILLIONS)15 Troop numbers The Allied delegation, led by Marshal
Russia12 and deaths Foch, photographed outside the
France Around 65 million railroad carriage at Compiègne
British Empire9 men fought in where the armistice was signed.
Italy6 World War I, of
US3 whom 8.5 million
Germany died. Germany
Austria–Hungary0 suffered the
TurkeyAllied powershighest number
Bulgaria of casualties.
Central powers KEY
Military strength
Casualties
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1914–2011 TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS
retractable Rifle with bayonet
bayonet
ITALY
butt
Bolt-action M91 Carcano rifles and carbines armed
the Italian infantry in World War I. This carbine has its
bayonet fixed, for use in trench fighting in close quarters.
drum-pan magazine Lewis gun
stores ammunition
BRITAIN
antiseptics and list of contents
Originally an American painkillers of pouch
design, the Lewis gun was
steel water jacket adopted by the British Army
cools gun barrel as its standard light machine
gun in 1915. It armed aircraft
and tanks, as well as infantry.
Maxim machine gun First-aid pouch
GERMANY GERMANY
The German Army’s heavy machine German medical orderlies
gun, the Maschinengewehr ‘08, was carried a pouch containing basic
derived from the gun invented by painkillers and antiseptics, such
American Hiram Maxim in 1884. as iodine, to treat wounded men
It could fire 400 rounds a minute. before they were sent to
dressing stations.
WORLD WAR I leather
pouch
MASS-PRODUCED WEAPONRY ALLOWS THE SLAUGHTER OF MILLIONS
World War I has been described as “industrial warfare” as barrel
manpower and economic resources of industrialized states
were mobilized for fighting. Modern firearms provided
armies with firepower on an unprecedented scale.
Formidable defensive systems of trenches,
barbed wire, and machine-gun posts made offensive
operations costly and tended to lead to stalemate.
Weapons used in trench warfare ranged from
grenades and flamethrowers to homemade clubs
and knives. From 1916, the first slow and unreliable
tanks made their appearance. Aircraft added a new
dimension to warfare, carrying out reconnaissance
and bombing, and strafing ground targets.
brake
Artillery shells wheeled gun
FRANCE Howitzer carriage
Artillery ammunition in World BRITAIN
War I ranged from shrapnel to
high-explosive and gas shells. Howitzers such as this 6-inch British gun
These shells were fired by the
French 75-mm field gun. were effective in trench warfare because
they launched a shell on a high trajectory,
dropping onto the concealed enemy.
354
Officer’s compass handset WORLD WAR I
BRITAIN wooden box
A compass was vital on a night patrol or raid.
Without it, soldiers could lose their way in
the no man’s land between the trenches,
rendered featureless by shelling.
mother-of-pearl face
catches the light
screw-on metal adjustable Field telephone
filter canister eye pieces
GERMANY
Stereoscopic periscope
Although radios were also used, field
GERMANY telephones were the main communications
link in trench warfare. Where telephone cables
Soldiers in trenches used had been ripped up by shelling, runners
periscopes to keep watch on carried messages to the front line by hand.
the enemy line. Snipers quickly
picked off men who exposed
their heads above the parapet.
Gas mask Folding shovel Nail club leather face leather
mask balaclava
GERMANY ITALY BRITAIN
Aviator’s headgear
Effective masks were For an infantryman, a shovel Primitive wooden clubs, with
developed that protected the was essential equipment, nails or other metal objects BRITAIN
eyes and face from contact needed to dig trenches or at the striking end, were
with poison gas and, through temporary shelters. This used by soldiers on both Flying in open-cockpit
a filter respirator, neutralized folding shovel was used sides as a silent, deadly aircraft, many aviators in
the gas for breathing. by Italian alpine troops. weapon in trench raids. World War I wore leather
balaclavas and face masks
to protect themselves
against the cold and wind.
steel canister Turkish bayonet and grenade barrel could fire
1-pound shell
TURKEY Anti-aircraft gun
pivot changes
The Turkish Army in World War I had some obsolete BRITAIN direction and
equipment, such as swords and bayonets, but also angle of gun
state-of-the-art German-supplied weaponry such Armies adapted existing guns,
as fragmentation grenades. firing time-fused explosive 355
shells for air defense. This
leather British “pom-pom” gun,
skull cap mounted on a pedestal,
was used in defense of
London against air attack.
Desert shoes Tank helmet
BRITAIN BRITAIN
British troops fighting against the Turks in British tank crews found that
the Palestine campaign sometimes wore when bullets struck their armored
wire sand shoes over their army boots to vehicle, metal shards flew inside
facilitate marching on desert sands. the hull. Helmets protecting the
head and face were swiftly adopted
to limit injuries.
1919
The “Big Four”—David Lloyd George, Vittorio Orlando, Georges Clemenceau,
and Woodrow Wilson—meet amiably at the Paris Peace Conference.
IN JANUARY 1919, LEADERS OF area lost to area lost democratic republic, but on the outraged Germans more than any counter-revolutionary armies.
THE VICTOR COUNTRIES FROM Denmark to France streets of Germany extremism other part of the treaty. The crew The Whites had the backing of
WORLD WAR I met for a peace of right and left continued to of the German High Seas Fleet— foreign powers, who landed
conference in Paris. US President area lost flourish. In the southern German interned since the armistice at intervention forces at ports
Woodrow Wilson’s liberal idealism to Poland state of Bavaria, communists Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands around Russia—US and Japanese
was the focus for popular hopes proclaimed a Soviet regime in north of Scotland—scuttled their at Vladivostok, French at Odessa,
that a new and better world would 3,984 14,500 April, only to be crushed by the vessels as an act of defiance. and British at Murmansk and
be built on the ruins of the old. army and Freikorps in May. But left with no choice, German Arkhangelsk—but these foreign
Wilson was one of the “Big Four” 57,000 delegates signed the treaty in the interventions were half-hearted
who dominated the proceedings With Germany in no position to Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of and mostly short-lived. The
in Paris, the others being French German loss of territory resume hostilities, the victorious Versailles on June 28. Bolshevik People’s Commissar for
prime minister Georges After World War I, Germany lost Allies were able to impose peace War, Leon Trotsky (1879–1940),
Clemenceau (1841–1929), British 13 percent of its territory. Most went terms in the Versailles Treaty While peace was being formalized created a mass Red Army by
prime minister David Lloyd to the new state of Poland, while without negotiation. Germany lost in Western Europe, civil war conscripting peasants at gunpoint
George (1863–1945), and Italian France regained Alsace–Lorraine. all its colonies and substantial raged in Russia, as Lenin’s and subjecting them to harsh
prime minister Vittorio Orlando territory in Europe. The European Bolshevik government fought for discipline. Fighting between the
(1860–1952). Each European aggression and replace war with territorial loss consisted largely survival against various “White”
leader had his own agenda, negotiated settlement of disputes, of areas needed to form
inevitably dominated by issues but Clemenceau believed the best the new state of Poland,
of national self-interest. Wilson’s guarantee for the future peace and Alsace–Lorraine,
idealism expressed itself in an of France was in a permanent which Germany had
agreement to create a League weakening of Germany. taken from France
of Nations, which was to provide during the Franco–
“collective security” against Defeat in war had reduced Prussian War (see 1870).
Germany to a state of economic Tight restrictions were
Russian Red Army cap badge and social collapse. In January, placed on German
The hammer-and-plow insignia armed forces and
from the Civil War period symbolizes communist revolutionaries, the Rhineland was
the union of industrial workers and known as the Spartacists, demilitarized.
peasants in the revolutionary cause. tried to imitate the success
The Germans were
of the Bolsheviks in Russia also required to make
(see 1917) by staging an reparations payments,
uprising in Berlin. The attempted which were justified
revolution was crushed by the by the assertion that
army and right-wing paramilitary Germany had been guilty
Freikorps; the two most of starting the war. The
prominent Spartacist leaders, “war guilt” clause
Karl Liebknecht and Rosa
Luxembourg, were captured and Revolutionary leader
killed. In February, an elected Trotsky’s organizational
assembly, sitting in the city of and leadership skills were
Weimar, set about drawing up essential to Bolshevik
a constitution for an impeccably success in Russia. He
is seen here addressing
troops of the Red Army.
JaPnauCraoisrnyfPee1ra2ecnJecaeonfouiGnpaeeBrrnyemsr1la5innUicsporsmiusmpinpugJrnaeainssnsubtdesoadCrrdzyee2rc3hw–oa3srl0oivPnaoSkliailaensfidigaht FeCbhDrauoPrauliifcrgeokyluaCf5onshrdaFdpa,Ulainirnnbit,daenDdk.AsW,r.tMiGsaFrtresiWfybfiiotrlhsfupoLaeneraaypcgre1eu4cseoePonnrffetesNsrieCadntoeiMcvoneentaEnsrguacytpnohprtt9iiasAinnrngreaisntitoEangnaydlpisettxsailgseapoianfrsktsBriMtisaBhreFcnahist2oc3iMstIunmsIstoaovlleyin,mi efonutnds Aparnridlac1cUli1aSoauBflrsNereeiqjateauitnciiaontlLnitesyaCgouveenaAnpwtricitlohi3nds0frheaCrawenhnsdincefeardoamtfoteJpraeMSpaalahcoyenasn3edCcooonnmgtrmoluonfisBt arevavorliautMioanaytatbra6eicAegAksnifngBgnlhroiiant–nigAshfTfoghIrhnicradednisaW, ar
3 5 6FWJeaiennsutMmaPrisnyIDsre2uitlse1ebhrclSiJtmpnieanadetnnroeltuuitofaaosimnrermyse3ntr1tooBprsitpitrsoohtqegusoetvlsel riwFnnoemGrblkeanrneusartgtasimoro’wynea6eltGsaesarstmeWmaenbimlya(rCoMmainrctehr6nc)oTfmhoiumrndudInneidtsemtronwaptroipoorrmnloudaocnwlltdaeiedimreMleeadardcaehrSs2oh1viipHetoufrneBgpeaulrabylKicundAepcrlialr6edBaavSaorviaAielpfetoraarriedmslpes1aaru0lsblEyRslmiiecnvialoitaleundtoioiZnnaaMpprraeyotxtbaiecyAsoBtporrritisilsm1h3aaIsuansttdahAicoamrnreitrdiietssarMay 4iSntBuediepjinrnotgtdesesdpmtoasmorakngisnnataairnttaiisoottinnofwonorfsideCeighninsaeaMplaaonyf eA2t7cloaUmnStpiNcleaitnveytshCcrureMoretsaisssytissan2ogg9leasOr beETscihneliesrpovtseareiytnico’osonfnGRofiefernalmaetsriavlity
,, WE’VE HAD A TERRIBLE
VOYAGE… THE WONDER IS
,,WE ARE HERE AT ALL.
John Alcock, officer in the British RAF, after flying
nonstop across the Atlantic, June 15, 1919
John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown in the plane they flew on the first
nonstop transatlantic flight from Newfoundland in Canada to Ireland.
Red and White armies was The vision of an Italians enter Fiume expedition was intended to test
vicious, and accompanied by imminent world Gabriele D’Annunzio’s the validity of the General Theory
massacres and atrocities on revolution had some nationalist legionnaires of Relativity, a revolutionary
a vast scale. credibility at a time salute the flag of the concept in physics formulated
when radical workers’ short-lived Regency during World War I by Albert
In the midst of this mayhem, and anti-colonial of Carnaro in Fiume, Einstein (1879–1955). In
Russia hosted a congress movements were now the Croatian September it was announced
in Moscow to found the Third challenging the city of Rijeka. that the observations did indeed
International, known as established authority confirm Einstein’s theory,
Comintern. Its aim was to in many countries. garden in Amritsar, fundamentally changing the
promote the spread of communist Punjab. At least notions of time and space that
revolution worldwide; its effect Outside Russia, it 379 people were had underpinned Isaac Newton’s
was to split the international was only in Hungary killed. Although the view of the universe.
socialist movement, forcing that communists British government
people on the political left to established a condemned the ALBERT EINSTEIN
choose between social democracy national government killings and dismissed (1879–1955)
and revolutionary communism. in 1919. The collapse General Dyer, the Amritsar
of the Austro– massacre caused widespread Einstein was born to Jewish
Hungarian Empire was a disaster Conference, after failing to secure outrage in India and increased parents in southern Germany.
for Hungary, which faced the either Dalmatia or the port of pressure for independence. In 1905, he published his
loss of two-thirds of its prewar Fiume (Rijeka) for Italy. In Despite the world’s troubles, Special Theory of Relativity,
territory to Czechoslovakia, September, Gabriele D’Annunzio technological and scientific which was followed by the
Romania, and Yugoslavia. The (1863–1938), a flamboyant progress continued. On June 14, General Theory of Relativity
communist Bela Kun (1886– right-wing nationalist poet and British pilot Captain John Alcock in 1915. His theories
1938) took power in March, aviator, seized Fiume with a band (1892–1919) and his navigator revolutionized understanding
launching military offensives of armed followers. He held the Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown of the relationship between
against Czechoslovakia and port-city, ruling as dictator of the (1886–1948) took off from St. time, space, matter, and
Romania. He followed the Regency of Carnaro, until he was John’s, Newfoundland, to attempt energy. From the 1920s
Bolshevik example by forming driven out by the Italian Navy after the first nonstop flight across Einstein was fêted worldwide,
a Red Army and exercising a a peace deal between Italy and the Atlantic. After a perilous but chose exile in the US,
reign of terror against his Yugoslavia in November 1920, 16 hours 27 minutes, their Vickers away from Hitler’s Germany.
opponents, but after 133 days which made Fiume a Free State. Vimy bomber aircraft landed
in power he was defeated by the nose-down in a bog in Galway,
Romanians. Admiral Miklós Meanwhile, Britain was facing Ireland. Their feat won them a
Horthy’s counter-revolutionary opposition to its rule in India. hero’s welcome in London, but
National Army marched into The British were committed to a Alcock’s triumph was short-lived,
Budapest to suppress the promise made during World War I as he was killed in an air crash
communists with another reign to grant the Indians a measure just six months later.
of terror. In 1920, Horthy took of self-government, but they At the time when Alcock and
power in Hungary as “Regent.” suspended civil liberties in a Brown made their famous flight,
crackdown on what were described British scientists were analyzing
In Italy, people of all political as “anarchical and revolutionary the results of an expedition sent
persuasions were disgusted with crimes.” On April 13, British officer to the African island of Principe
their country’s limited share in General Reginald Dyer (1864–1927) to observe a solar eclipse. The
the spoils of victory. Orlando was ordered troops to fire on an
forced to resign as prime minister unarmed crowd of protestors at
on his return from the Paris Peace the Jallianwalla Bagh, a public
Juenxeepil2gohAdtenAabmrocmherisbiJctssauainnnvmeicai1ttatior4keare–ssn1fisA5arlsctBltoarcnintkoitsniachsnfltdoigpBhrtowJnupneMeac2ire8rotGrresearamttyVainenrsHssaaiiglllnloefsJuClhyai2ctah7go–ou3s0leaRanavdeche3o8rmiodetelsaedisnsAanusdgtaauggseatiun16sntsPGuocelcreemssaisnnfuSrliuluelepsriaising SeTproteefafidmtciysEibsaomeolflrlpySui1rtrt-ei0eoGcnoegromnf iAzaSueienissrptrrDteie’agAmnunlbnaeursrnzl1ei2odIsbtaeyliizGaeanbFriuiemOleecWtoilbseorn2diUsSabPleredsbiOdyceestnntoprtaborboeklheeris2bi8intitVoronoldsinutecUatiSdonAoctf NoUvSteoSmTrerabneteaaifrttyey1Vr9eerfsuasielslDesehcuaennmdarbrecedhrsis2ot1fssUtooScRidauelsipssotisartasnd
JiunOntreekrn2ne1eyd,GsaectrumSJtctualaenlapydtafl2bEeF3yrelzotTc,uwurrer,ukwmishtonratetoisoidsnitavAildisleltiseudmpApTeulueaagtrgnukrsseetey8mBernittiwshithreAafcghhGpaeenerAaismscutteaagabnnulsicstohn1e1sstNiWtRueetewiiopmnuabrlic p9o–li1c2eMSsatesrpsiktaeecmhsuubspeCeprtartBlesvsoignssoetCvodeonrboinnylitoderfgrr2eov7emnStAeiorpknthefaomnrbcgeeelrwskBitrhinidtirRsauhwsssia OPcettorRobegedrraA1Adr9rmamTgyrayoditonesfskfYteyuWn’sddhesiNnteiocvhemofbleefrt-7wTaihnrrogeuassctaetnidvdiissntsUS NancfiyNrAsohtsHvewteooroumrsmsbebeaeaeonctrfoitn2Cmo8oBtemarskitmeisohns GoveDArnecmtcIeaneplmdnlaoitbrawtoeniscfrsiItlp2inihnma8detriiiirtaouenncdonouifnngtry
357
1920
,,
WHAT HAVE I GOT FOR
IRELAND? SOMETHING
SHE HAS WANTED THESE
,,LAST 700 YEARS.
Michael Collins, Irish revolutionary leader, 1921
As the agitation for Irish independence mounts, an angry crowd of protestors
in Dublin try to force a street barricade manned by British soldiers.
GERMANY REMAINED IMMERSED IN France and large numbers of Russian Civil War. Asserting invaded Poland. Led by General
THE TURMOIL that had followed cattle, sheep, and horses to Bolshevik authority over Ukraine Józef Piłsudski (1867–1935),
defeat in World War I (see 1919). France and Belgium. and Belarus brought the Red the Poles mounted a counter-
In March, units of the nationalist Army into conflict with the Poles. offensive outside Warsaw that
paramilitary Freikorps occupied Farther east, war continued to After some early success against crushed the Red Army. Lenin
Berlin and declared the Weimar rage. The Bolsheviks triumphed Polish forces, the Red Army (see 1917) was forced to end the
Republic overthrown. As over the White generals in the
conservative politician Wolfgang war on Polish terms.
Kapp attempted to form a The terms imposed on
government, Weimar ministers
called for a nationwide general the Ottoman sultan by
strike to resist the Freikorps the victorious Allies in
“putsch.” Workers walked out, the Treaty of Sevres
factories and transport shut meant breaking up the
down, and within days the Kapp Turkish empire. In April,
regime had collapsed. General Mustafa Kemal
(1881–1938), the Turkish
The Weimar government hero of Gallipoli (see
reluctantly engaged in talks 1915), headed a
with the victorious Allies over nationalist parliament
implementation of the in opposition to the
Versailles peace treaty (see sultan and began a war
1919). Germany began disbanding to win control of what
much of its armed forces and he regarded as Turkish
paying war reparations in kind, national territory—much
through deliveries of coal to of which had been given
to Greece by the Allies.
5% 3% Polish Cross of Valor
Serbia Others The year saw the This military decoration was
beginning of prohibition introduced by Poland during the war
8% in the US. The 18th with Bolshevik Russia in 1920 to
Belgium Amendment to the recognize Polish deeds of heroism.
Constitution banned the
10% manufacture and sale Amendment, ratified in August,
Italy of “intoxicating liquors,” guaranteed American women
a move that had little the vote on equal terms with men.
22% 52% influence on alcohol
Britain France consumption, but The US did not take part in
provided a massive boost the initiation of the League
Dividing up reparations to organized crime. The of Nations. This international
The Allies agreed to divide up more momentous 19th body—dedicated to the peaceful
German reparations payments after resolution of disputes and
a complex calculation of the losses Victory for suffrage the collective deterrence of
they had suffered during World War I. This magazine cover aggression—was the brainchild
celebrates the passing of American president Woodrow
of the 19th amendment to Wilson, but the US Congress
the US Constitution, which
gave women voting rights.
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3 5 8RusFsKeiabonlrcluehaaardkyeer7xAeWBdchSmouMiylttsieerrahdiaarelbcvahyink8sinAdreapbesnpdBreolnaMcctlaaksirtmacaInhrtedis2Th6aIBnnsrditeaapginaeinnddseetpnIlRocyeAsAWmipnCaarorniMuldne2asct5eoilSptaouorstpruasurlmieelgemLinaPes,eabaBlaAnernsdlilottiFianenriednaannaacdnedSMtyoraiay 20ofPMreesxiidceonatsCsaarsrsainnOpAaztettauoeagmdcueastntr1eS0auwtlTytiuatohnrfktsSihsiegehvnArsellsies CAoungAsutmsitteu2ntvi6doonmTtehgeseunfat1ort9raotnwhUtoeSmesenNovepmrHebaseriddrei2nngtWiawalrienrlseencUtSion NoinvfieIrremeolbanenrfdo:2oB1tbrBaitllikolsiochllrdsfoyowBrScdrueitansisfdtohaepryaegInReAnOtsbroefagMfóDteneexrcbicdeeoemc,cobbamrdeieenrsgo1ipfnArcgelivvssaiitldraceoboninltifltyict
1921
5 MILLION
THE ESTIMATED NUMBER OF
PEOPLE WHO DIED IN THE
RUSSIAN FAMINE OF 1921
Russian famine victims receive food from a relief train. The US played
a leading role in the international effort to feed the starving.
refused to ratify it. Representatives IN 1921, RUSSIA experienced fortress of Kronstadt, demanding MAO ZEDONG (1893–1976) were reflected in tight limits on
of 41 countries attended the one of the most destructive free elections, freedom of foreign immigration. The
League’s first General Assembly famines of the 20th century. speech, and the right of peasants The son of a farmer, Mao Emergency Quota Act linked the
in Geneva in November, but Years of warfare and revolution to own land and cattle. The helped to found the Chinese right of entry to country of origin,
neither Germany nor Russia had laid waste to the Russian rebellion was crushed by Communist Party in 1921. He blocking mass immigration from
was among them. countryside, which was further Bolshevik forces, but faced with developed the idea of basing southern and eastern Europe.
devastated by drought in the Volga popular discontent and economic a revolution on support from Asians were entirely excluded.
Meanwhile, war had broken region. As hundreds of thousands devastation, the Bolsheviks had peasants, rather than
out in Ireland, where Britain was died of starvation and disease, to retreat from some of the industrial workers. From The assumption of white racial
resisting the declaration of an Lenin’s Bolshevik government communist measures they had 1949 he ruled Communist superiority suffered a severe blow
Irish Republic. British World War I reluctantly appealed for foreign adopted. Lenin’s New Economic China as party chairman. His in Morocco, which the French
veterans were recruited into two relief. The most prominent Policy (NEP) allowed a limited radical policies, including the and Spanish had casually divided
new units, the Black and Tans participant in the international capitalist market economy. Once Great Leap Forward in 1958 into “spheres of influence.”
and the Auxiliaries, to fight the humanitarian effort was the peasants were permitted to sell and the Cultural Revolution Spanish troops attempting to
Irish Republican Army (IRA). On American Relief Administration, their produce at a profit, the rural of the 1960s, caused vast control the mountainous Rif
November 21, in an operation led by future US president Herbert economy quickly recovered and disruption and loss of life. region were surrounded and
planned by IRA intelligence chief Hoover (1874–1964). Despite the food supplies were assured. massacred by local Berbers
Michael Collins (1890–1922), the distribution of food aid to around in the Anglo–Irish Treaty, which at the Battle of Annual in July.
IRA killed 13 people in Dublin. The 10 million people, millions died Despite the tribulations of the led to civil war (see 1922). The Berber leader Abd el-Krim
Auxiliaries responded the same by the time the famine abated Russian Bolshevik government, declared the region an
afternoon by firing into a Gaelic the following year. its example continued to stimulate Britain also had troubles at independent Rif republic,
soccer crowd, killing 14 people. the foundation of Communist home. A brief post-war economic but it succumbed to a combined
The Bolsheviks continued to parties across the world. This boom was followed by the French and Spanish counter-
In the same month, on the impose the will of their party included the Communist Party collapse in demand for products attack four years later.
second anniversary of the upon their devastated country. of China, which held its founding from many of the country’s
armistice ending World War I, In March, workers, soldiers, congress in Shanghai in July. traditional industries, such as
Britain and France each buried and sailors rebelled at the naval coal mining and shipbuilding.
an Unknown Soldier. The French In Ireland, Britain attempted By June, more than 2 million
soldier was entombed at the Arc AT L A N T I C to fulfill its pre-World War I people were unemployed.
de Triomphe in Paris, and the O C E A N Londonderry NORTHERN commitment to Irish Home Rule For the men who had fought in
British soldier in Westminster IRELAND (see 1914). To appease the Irish World War I, it was a bitter irony
Abbey in London. It was intended Protestants the country was to find themselves lining up for
to commemorate all those who Belfast divided. Home Rule parliaments unemployment benefits.
had given their lives, irrespective were established in Dublin and
of rank or social class. Galway Dublin Belfast, and both parts remained In the US, racism and anxieties
within the United Kingdom. This about political subversion were
The last major event of the year IRISH FREE was accepted by the Protestants, rife. In Tulsa, Oklahoma, the most
was the accession of General STATE but rejected by Irish Republicans. destructive race riot in American
Alvaro Obregón (1880–1928) as Negotiations opened in London, history saw most of the African-
president of Mexico. Obregón had Cork and on December 6 the Irish American section of the town
been one of the chief players in delegation agreed to accept the destroyed in white attacks.
the civil conflicts that had torn the Celtic division of Ireland in return for Support for the white supremacist
country apart since the Mexican Sea Dominion status within the British Ku Klux Klan rose rapidly, and
Revolution (see 1910). His armed Commonwealth. Southern Ireland concerns about the racial
overthrow of President Venustiano Division of Ireland became the Irish Free State, but makeup of the US population
Carranza (1859–1920) gave Northern Ireland, with a mainly many Irish Republicans were
Obregón the chance to establish Protestant population, was outraged by the compromises
a relatively stable government. separated from southern Ireland,
which became the Irish Free State.
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sIerDpeGaelarocnaevdtemfeorAnsrbpcomeanturrocetlrrh2nitaeet3hmaroetnfreennIsrtaesnladnd MarchN2em1waaLrlEelkocnewoitnnianoincgmttrilviiocmidtyPuitocieneldisRcfyur,esesMiaaylpa3rrog1peOe-svretcyardl8eu0drTdienuesglatsrtrauha,cscOteaikoJnrlnudiaolohytfoi1nmCaoomfmChuinniastfoPuanrStdpyedadJneuifselhyatM2o2onrRoSecpbcaeonlsiinsihAflniutcRrgtoiufohrspuketsimgn2aigio3ltinoaAFftoaniIBfinnrsraguaiqtali,lsIuhbnesdcueoprmecrelSvosiesspeiotnneaomtifobSneaarklia1sr3tasiyArbamtl,BoyTcauaktrdtokGlveniarsenAhecnkiknagra 3 5 9NPoavretmy fboeurn9deDFdeascinceimIstatblbyeerc2om9oMefsaCcpahkrnoiemfalonddlezslaioem,fwoaKirinnpi2ingos1gst2eto7rfhyteehaers
1922
,, …ONE SHOULD BE FREE TO
GIVE THE FULLEST EXPRESSION
,,TO HIS DISAFFECTION SO LONG
AS HE DOES NOT CONTEMPLATE,
PROMOTE, OR INCITE VIOLENCE.
Mohandas Gandhi, in a statement during his trial, March 18, 1922
Demonstrators gather on the streets of Delhi to protest against the arrest
of Indian nationalist leader, Mohandas Gandhi.
FOUR YEARS AFTER THE Beirut SYRIA IRAQ In India, nationalist opposition Republican Army (IRA) occupied
CONCLUSION OF THE “WAR TO ARABIA to British rule had found a leader Dublin’s Four Courts building.
END WAR,” serious progress was LEBANON Damascus in Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948). After a lengthy standoff, in June
made toward a more peaceful Winning the support of the Collins used artillery loaned by
future. Meeting in the US in Mediterranean Jordan River peasant masses for the Indian Britain to bombard the Four
February, the world’s five major Sea National Congress independence Courts, and retake the building.
naval powers—Britain, France, movement, he organized a On August 22, Collins was killed
Italy, Japan, and the US—signed Jaffa nationwide campaign of civil in an ambush on a country road
the Washington Treaty, limiting disobedience, including a boycott in County Cork. More numerous
the size of their navies. The same Jerusalem of British goods. Although Gandhi and better armed, the Free
conference also called for an end Dead Sea advocated strict nonviolence, his State troops had crushed most
to the military use of poison gas campaign generated widespread opposition by the time the treaty
and banned submarine attacks PALESTINE TRANS- disturbances, including the came into effect on December 6.
on merchant shipping. It was EGYPT JORDAN massacre of 23 police officers The Protestant northern province
the first effective arms limitation at Chauri Chaura in February. of Ulster remained part of the
agreement between major powers. Gulf of KEY Gandhi was arrested by the United Kingdom.
Britain sacrificed most, accepting Aqaba French mandate area British authorities in March
naval parity with the US after British mandate area and sentenced to six years prison, In Turkey, nationalists led
long domination of the world’s of which he served only two. by Mustafa Kemal (1881–1938)
oceans, but the treaty was most THE BRITISH MANDATE FOR PALESTINE were at war with Greece, which
controversial in Japan, where Implementation of the Anglo– aspired to create a “Greater
nationalists objected to naval Former territories of the Ottoman Empire were divided between Irish Treaty in southern Ireland Greece” including Constantinople
inferiority to Britain and America. Britain and France, an arrangement legalized by League of (see 1921) led to a vicious civil and much of western Anatolia.
Nations mandates. In accordance with the Balfour Declaration war. Michael Collins (1890–1922), In August, a Turkish offensive at
Another hopeful sign of the (see 1917), Britain had agreed to allow Jewish settlement in head of a provisional Irish Free Dumlupinar drove the Greeks
flowering of peace was the Palestine, but had also given wartime promises to the Arabs. State government in Dublin, into retreat. The predominantly
development of international In 1922, it divided its Palestinian mandate territory along the line was opposed by anti-Treaty Greek city of Smyrna (Izmir) was
air travel in Europe. Small, of the Jordan River. Jewish settlement was allowed to the west, republicans. In April, the Irish occupied by pursuing Turkish
noisy, uncomfortable aircraft had and to the east Transjordan would remain purely Arab land.
begun scheduled flights between
European cities, exploiting the immigration of Jews to Palestine A more positive side effect POPULATION 1,000,000 KEY
surplus of trained pilots and (see panel, above), which Britain of the British presence in Egypt 800,000 Jews
aircraft manufacturing capacity was committed to allowing, led to was the discovery by British 600,000 Muslims
left over from the war. Navigation clashes between Jews and Arabs archaeologists of the tomb of Christians
was primitive, and most pilots that the British could not control. Tutankhamun. The Earl of
simply followed roads or Carnavon (1866–1923) and 400,000
railroads. This resulted in the first In another former Ottoman Egyptologist Howard Carter
commercial air disaster in April, territory, Egypt, Britain faced (1874–1939) entered the tomb 200,000
when a passenger aircraft flying determined nationalist opposition to find unparalleled treasure,
from London to Paris met an to the protectorate it had including a gold face mask 0 1931 1937
aircraft following the same route established in 1914. Unable to and jewel-studded chariots. 1922
in the opposite direction. agree on a settlement, in Carnarvon’s death the following
February Britain unilaterally year inspired a myth, “the curse Population growth in Palestine
In the Middle East, Britain faced declared Egypt independent, of the tomb,” that magnified the Through immigration, the proportion of Jews in Palestine
intractable problems reorganizing while retaining the right to station impact of the discovery. increased rapidly. This provoked a violent reaction
the territories it had inherited troops there. from the Muslim majority.
from the Ottoman Empire. The
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360 JFoeybcrepu’suabnrloyisv2ehleJUadmliynsesPseasris FleimbroitufiNnathagrevywam6laTraWrsjoeahrasipthnyiasnsvtgiragtelonnpnegodtw,hesdrseFcelbbaurrteuBdarrmiinytaidl2iient8pamrEeyngapdyinrpeettnastie,nnsMcearch 1h5imFsuealdf kI ipnrgocolfaEimgyspt Abaepirtrcwirlea7eftnTcwPoloalripdisaesaisnnedmnLgiodeMnradiaroyn25 Lebnyimn adjiosrabstlerodke Junmea1cj6oairnPnitdrIyroiidi-snaThtreeFelseraectwyetiionSntaste Jmuninaeiss2stae4srnGsaWeitnarioamltnteeaardnliRsbfoatyrteGehxieetgnrrnemamuainsts
,, ,,EITHER THE GOVERNMENT WILL
BE GIVEN TO US OR WE SHALL
SEIZE IT BY MARCHING ON ROME.
Benito Mussolini, October 24, 1922
Benito Mussolini mingles with his Fascist Blackshirt paramilitaries in Rome
after being appointed prime minister by the Italian king in October.
forces and devastated by fire. power in Italy. Since the end of dismantling Italy’s system of the National Broadcasting
Britain contemplated intervening World War I, Italy’s ruling class parliamentary democracy. Company (NBC) in 1926.
against the Turks, but in an had been intimidated by waves
armistice agreed to at Mudanya of militant action, with socialist As Mussolini was muscling his New modernist trends
in October both the European workers occupying factories way to power, the first national in literature were
powers and Greece accepted the and peasants taking over large radio broadcasting company prominent in 1922. Irish
Turkish military victory. Under the estates. In this troubled situation, was being established in Britain. writer James Joyce’s
agreed to peace terms there was Mussolini founded the fasci di Like the early radio stations that novel Ulysses, published
a large-scale exchange of people, combattimento, a nationalist were starting up in the US, the in Paris in February, broke
with over a million Greeks expelled militia that attacked socialists British Broadcasting Company all literary conventions, but
from Turkey and half a million and seized power by force in (later Corporation) was financed its language and subject
Turks forced to leave Greece. some Italian towns. In October, by manufacturers of radio sets, matter ensured that it was
Abandoned Greek villages in Mussolini threatened to lead his eager to create a market for banned as obscene in
western Turkey still bear witness Fascist followers in a “March on their products. And it worked; countries with tighter
to this human tragedy. The Rome” unless he was made head by March 1923, daily broadcasts censorship rules
Republic of Turkey was founded of government. Italy’s king, Victor of concerts, news, and talks had than France. The
the following year, with Mustafa Emmanuel III (1869–1947), attracted 125,000 people to buy more decorous
Kemal as its first president. eventually gave in and Mussolini licenses from the Post Office for American
assumed office as prime minister. their “wirelesses.” The US would expatriate poet
1922 was the year when Benito Once in control, Mussolini began not have a major broadcasting T. S. Eliot caused
Mussolini (1883–1945) achieved network until the formation of a sensation with
his long and
obscure poem Early airwaves
The Waste Land, which came Early radio sets were often
with notes to help the reader impressive-looking pieces of
follow its numerous literary equipment. This one, from 1925, has
allusions. Experimentation was an unusual, star-shaped antenna.
also rife in the movies, from
German director F. W. Murnau’s (USSR), but by then the founder of
expressionist horror movie the world’s first communist state,
Nosferatu to American filmmaker Vladimir Lenin (see 1917) had
Robert Flaherty’s groundbreaking been disabled by a stroke. Despite
documentary Nanook of the North. this, he dictated a document, later
known as “Lenin’s Testament,”
Russia was entering a period of that was critical of several of
relative tranquillity, after the his colleagues. In particular, it
upheavals of revolution and warned against the rudeness
civil war. At the year’s end the and intolerance of Joseph Stalin
former Russian Empire was (1978–1953), newly installed as
reconstituted as the Union of the Soviet Communist Party’s
Soviet Socialist Republics General Secretary, and proposed
that he be removed from his
“Father of the Turks” post. After Lenin’s death,
Mustafa Kemal, the founder of the knowledge of the document was
Turkish Republic, talks with camel restricted to a communist inner
drivers during the Turko-Greek War. circle, and action against Stalin
He later took the name Ataturk. was never taken.
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1923
,, ,,WE HAVE REASON ON OUR SIDE AND,
THEREFORE, FORCE, THOUGH SO FAR WE
HAVE USED FORCE WITH MODERATION.
Miguel Primo de Rivera, Spanish dictator, September 1923
Officers of Spain’s Guardia Civil stand by debris from a bomb explosion in
Barcelona during the disturbances preceding the seizure of power by de Rivera.
IN 1922, THE GERMAN occupation, but the German VALUE OF THE MARK AGAINST THE US DOLLAR10,000,000,000,000 KEY
GOVERNMENT had declared itself government’s decision to print 1,000,000,000,000
unable to pay war reparations, banknotes to pay striking Ruhr 100,000,000,000 Exchange rate of
which were due to the victorious workers was fatal. By the summer, 10,000,000,000 the German Mark
Allies in gold Marks. The French, the Mark was almost worthless.
led by fiercely anti-German prime The exchange rate against the US 1,000,000,000
minister Raymond Poincaré dollar rose hourly, and eventually
(1860–1934), were determined reached 5.72 trillion Marks to the 100,000,000
to take action. In January 1923, dollar. By the time inflation
French and Belgian troops peaked, savings of 68,000 Marks 10,000,000
occupied the Ruhr, Germany’s would buy no more than a postage
industrial heartland. The German stamp. In contrast, those who 1,000,000
government responded by owed money had their debts
encouraging passive resistance— eradicated. In August, Gustav 100,000
strikes stopped production in Stresemann (1878–1929), a
mines and factories. respected German politician, 10,000
formed a coalition government,
The occupation triggered and the following month called off 1,000
hyperinflation, and a collapse passive resistance in the Ruhr. In
in the value of the German Mark. November, the Mark was replaced 100 ADOLF HITLER
Inflation was already out of by the Rentenmark, knocking (1889–1945)
control before the Franco–Belgian 12 zeros off the old currency and 10
restoring public confidence. Born in Austria, Hitler fought
0 Dec Jan Dec in the German army in World
The chaotic state of Germany Jan Mar Aug 1922 1923 1923 War I. An inspired orator, he
tempted a minor political won mass support for his
extremist, Adolf Hitler (see 1922 1922 1922 National Socialist (Nazi)
panel, right), to make a bid for Party from the late 1920s.
power in the Munich Putsch German hyperinflation While Hitler’s attempted coup From 1933, he established
The value of the Mark against the US failed, in Spain General Primo a ruthless dictatorship that
Worthless paper money dollar reflects the acceleration of de Rivera (1870–1930) resulted in the Holocaust
The collapse of the German German inflation. Ten years earlier succeeded in seizing power. (see 1942). His expansionist
currency resulted in the printing a dollar had been worth 2.3 Marks. In the aftermath of the Spanish policies caused a war in
of 500 million Mark notes. Smaller defeat by Abd el-Krim’s Berbers 1939 that finally led to the
notes were so worthless they were on November 8–9. Hitler had at Annual (see 1921), the Spanish destruction of his Reich.
use to light stoves. made himself leader of the parliament had launched an
Nationalist Socialist Party investigation into the army and into a modern secular state.
(Nazis). He had also won Spain’s King Alfonso XIII (1886– He banned traditional dress,
powerful allies, including war 1941) to apportion blame. Primo abolished the Muslim caliphate
hero General Erich Ludendorff de Rivera dismissed parliament system of government, and
(1865–1937). Hitler planned and established a military replaced Arabic script with the
to use the Bavarian capital, dictatorship under the king. Roman alphabet.
Munich, as the base for a Sadly, his desire to end Spain’s
“March on Berlin” in imitation economic problems and bitter In Japan, one of the worst
of Mussolini’s “March on Rome” political divisions proved far natural disasters of the century
(see 1922). But, at the last beyond his power or ability. struck on September 1. Known
moment, Bavarian leaders as the Great Kanto earthquake,
opposed the putsch. Hitler A more successful military man a tremor measuring 7.9 on the
and Ludendorff were confronted was Turkey’s Mustafa Kemal Richter scale devastated Tokyo
by the army and police on the (1881–1938), later known as and the surrounding area. The
streets of Munich. After a brief Ataturk. Victorious in the war quake started fires that were
gunfight, the attempted revolt against Greece (see 1922), Kemal whipped up by high winds into
disintegrated. Hitler was formally founded the Turkish
arrested two days later and Republic in October. He
charged with high treason embarked upon a series of radical
(see 1924). reforms designed to turn Turkey
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362
1924
Tokyo in ruins after the earthquake of 1923. More than 140,000 people were Queen Mary, wife of King George V, visits the Empire Exhibition at
killed in the disaster, which destroyed half a million buildings. Wembley, mounted to inspire enthusiasm for Britain’s imperial glory.
a firestorm. A tsunami up to 30ft Gropius (1883–1969) in 1919, VLADIMIR ILYICH LENIN (1870– with discovering “the substance of and politician Charles G. Dawes,
(10m) high struck coastal rejecting the traditional artist’s 1924), founder of the Soviet Union, his genius.” Lenin statues were arranged for the withdrawal of
districts, including the port of hostility to modern technology died of a massive stroke on erected across the Soviet Union, French and Belgian troops from
Yokohama. The death toll was and mass production. By the time January 22. Hundreds of and the city of Petrograd was the Ruhr (see 1923), and for
estimated to be close to 150,000. of its first major exhibition in 1923, thousands filed past his body in renamed Leningrad in his honour. German payment of reparations
its mission was to bring functional Moscow’s Hall of Columns. with the help of US loans.
At this time, the US appeared modernist aesthetics to the Largely at Stalin’s insistence, In Britain, the Labour Party,
as a beacon of prosperity in a dark everyday world, from the design Lenin’s body was embalmed and led by Ramsay Macdonald Meanwhile, Nazi leader Adolf
world. President Warren Harding of apartment buildings and placed on permanent display; his (1866–1937), enjoyed its first Hitler was put on trial for his
(1865–1923) died in office and was electrical appliances to tubular- brain was removed for study by brief spell in government. attempted Munich Putsch (see
succeeded by his vice president, steel chairs and typography. Soviet scientists, who were tasked Despite Macdonald’s moderation, 1923). Seizing the opportunity to
Calvin Coolidge (1872–1933). the presence of socialists in make political speeches in court,
Coolidge became notorious for government was a shock to the he became a national celebrity. He
his placid complacency, describing British establishment. When an was found guilty of high treason,
the US as enjoying “a state of election was called in October, a but given a lenient five-year prison
contentment seldom before seen.” letter, purportedly sent by Soviet sentence, of which he served less
Indeed, the US was becoming the Comintern chief Grigory Zinoviev, than a year. During his time in
world’s first modern consumer was leaked to the press. It was Landsberg prison, he dictated
society, producing nine out of used to accuse Labour of being the first volume of Mein Kampf
10 of the world’s automobiles. soft on communism, and (My Struggle), a statement of
contributed to their election defeat. his political beliefs.
African–American jazz
musicians provided the The British Empire Exhibition, Meanwhile, in Italy the murder
soundtrack to this era of held at Wembley in London from of socialist parliamentary deputy
prosperity. Concentrated in April, was a conscious attempt to Giacomo Matteotti (1885–1924)
the northern cities, such as promote the imperial idea as a drew attention to the lawless
Chicago and New York, jazz was source of strength and security in violence underpinning Benito
popularized by the new medium a troubled world. Its opening was Mussolini’s Fascist government
of radio. New York’s Harlem the first occasion that a British (see 1922). Matteotti was
district became the center of monarch, George V (1865–1936), presumed to have been killed
an African–American cultural made a speech on the radio. by Fascist Blackshirts.
explosion, in literature as well Opposition deputies withdrew
as music, and the Cotton Club Political and economic from parliament in protest,
opened there in 1923. It became conditions in Germany began to opening the way for Mussolini
one of the most famous venues recover from postwar chaos, with to move more swiftly toward
for live jazz, but black people were the help of the US. The Dawes a single-party dictatorship.
only admitted as performers. Plan, named for American banker
Despite its problems, Germany 900,000
was still culturally vibrant. The
Bauhaus crafts and design school
was founded by architect Walter
The Bauhaus exhibition THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE WHO
Joost Schmidt, a teacher at the FILED PAST LENIN’S BODY AS IT
Bauhaus, designed the poster for LAY IN STATE FOR FOUR DAYS
the 1923 exhibition, which linked
modern art to industrial technology.
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363
1914–2011 TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS Side view
THE STORY OF
FLIGHT
FROM HOT-AIR BALLOONS TO SUPERSONIC JETS, FLIGHT HAS COME A LONG WAY
Until the 20th century, human flight was an area of experiment for
enthusiasts. Ascents in balloons sparked the first flying craze but had
little practical effect. In the 19th century, engineers calculated the
forces involved in winged flight and experimented with gliders, but it
was the arrival of gasoline engines that made powered flight practicable.
wing with anhedral
angle (pointing
downward at back)
wingstrut
wooden ribs chain propeller
covered in muslin mechanism
1783 Montgolfier balloon Zeppelin airship 1903 1919
Hot-air balloon The Wright Flyer Airlines progress
French brothers 1900 On December 17, the Wright The first scheduled
Joseph and Etienne First Zeppelin flight brothers complete the first international passenger
Montgolfier complete On July 2, German sustained, controlled flight in air service is inaugurated
the first manned flight pioneer Ferdinand a powered, heavier-than-air between London and Paris;
in a hot-air balloon. von Zeppelin’s LZ-1 machine at Kill Devil Hills, the first airlines are set up.
successfully takes North Carolina, US.
to the skies.
c. 1485–1510 1852 1909 1914
Leonardo’s flying machine First powered flight Long-distance flight Aircraft in warfare
Early concepts of human flight, like those Frenchman Henri On July 25, Use of aircraft for
sketched by Leonardo da Vinci, are based Giffard attaches a steam Frenchman Louis combat transforms
on bird flight but are technically impractical. engine to a balloon filled Blériot flies across the aviation; tens of
with coal gas; powered English Channel from thousands of aircraft
Da Vinci’s ornithopter flight begins. France to England. are mass-produced
for the first time.
Giffard’s airship Louis Blériot
364
THE STORY OF FLIGHT
,, WE COULD NOT UNDERSTAND THAT THERE WAS ANYTHING
,,ABOUT A BIRD THAT COULD NOT BE BUILT ON A LARGER SCALE.
Orville Wright (1873–1948), American aviation pioneer
American brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright Wright brothers showed that winged aircraft had passengers in the comfort of pressurized cabins.
made the first viable powered winged aircraft by astounding potential for increase in size, range, Jet engines carried aircraft performance to
attaching an engine to a glider in 1903. They solved and speed. By the 1930s, high-performance supersonic speed and altitudes at the edge of
the problem of controlling an aircraft in flight and aircraft could exceed 400 mph (640 kph), while space. Rocket technology then propelled humans
by 1905 had a machine that would stay airborne the development of flying instruments improved into space itself. From the 1970s, falling prices
until its fuel ran out. In the beginning, airships safety. Long-distance flying feats made pilots turned flight into a worldwide mass transportation
outperformed winged aircraft, but they were slow heroes in the 1920s and 1930s. But, by the 1940s, system and made it accessible to the majority. Air
and fatally accident-prone. Successors to the the same flights were available to paying travel had bridged distances and shrunk the world.
uniquely designed narrow wing made
propeller blades from ash ribs
forward elevators Wright Flyer
The Wright brothers’ home-built aircraft, which they used
landing skids for trial flights in December 1903, had a complex control
system with rudders and elevators.
Sikorsky VS-300
1930s 1939 de Havilland Comet 1952 Concorde in flight
Helicopters evolve Jet aircraft First commercial jet
The first helicopters are developed Englishman Frank Whittle 1976
by Louis Breguet in France, the invents the first jet engine. The prototype de Concorde enters service
Focke-Wulf company in Germany, The first jet-propelled Havilland Comet, the Concorde, the world’s first supersonic passenger
and Igor Sikorski in the US. aircraft, the Heinkel He 178, first commercial jet, aircraft, enters commercial service.
makes successful test flight. takes off. Passenger
air travel zooms into
the jet age.
1927 1935 1947 1961 1981
First non-stop transatlantic flight Air travel Supersonic flight Manned spaceflight Reusable space craft
On May 20–21, American Charles becomes cheaper American aviator Chuck Soviet cosmonaut Yuri
Lindbergh flies solo, non-stop from New The Douglas DC-3 Yeager becomes the first Gagarin becomes the The space
passenger aircraft to pilot the rocket- shuttle Columbia
York to Paris in a single- makes flight cheaper powered Bell X-1, the first man in space, becomes the first
engine monoplane. and more viable. first aircraft to break orbiting the Earth in his shuttle to be launched
the sound barrier. into Earth’s orbit,
Vostok spacecraft.
on April 12.
Spirit of St. Louis Space shuttle Columbia
365
1925 1926
,, THE BEST OF
AMERICA DRIFTS
,,TO PARIS.
F. Scott Fitzgerald, American author
American dancer and singer Josephine Baker was described by writer Ernest Reza Khan Pahlavi on his throne after being appointed shah of Iran. His aim
Hemingway as “the most sensational woman anyone ever saw.” was to modernize his country along secular Western lines.
PARIS REASSERTED ITS CLAIM as the American Man Ray (1890– Back in the US, in Dayton, revolving disc puppet head
the world leader in taste and style 1976), were dedicated to the Tennessee, biology teacher containing lenses is filmed
with the International Exhibition exploration of dreams and John Scopes was put on trial
of Modern Industrial and unconscious impulses to for teaching Darwin’s theory of The first television camera
Decorative Arts. The exhibition subvert everyday reality. Over evolution. Scopes was backed by
gave a name—Art Deco—to the following decade Surrealism the American Civil Liberties Union Logie Baird gave the first
the design trend toward angular was to become a major to test Tennessee’s newly passed
shapes, abstract patterns, international art movement. Butler Act, which had outlawed IN JANUARY 1926, SCOTTISH demonstration of television
exuberant African, Aztec, and the teaching of evolution. using a mechanical system with
Egyptian motifs, and materials Man Ray was one of a host Christian fundamentalists
such as chromium and ivory. of American expatriates who brought in former ENGINEER JOHN LOGIE BAIRD a spinning disk as the scanner.
Art Deco soon set the style for flocked to Paris in the mid- US Secretary of State
everything from scent bottles and 1920s, lured by the vibrant William Jennings Bryan (1888–1946) made the first
skyscrapers to ocean liners and cultural scene and the favorable to act for the prosecution,
movie theaters. exchange rate. American writers and after a trial that enthralled demonstration of a television In Iran, another military
based in the city included America, Scopes was found
Less noticed at the time was Gertrude Stein (1874–1976), guilty, although the verdict was transmission in a loft in London’s strongman, Reza Khan Pahlavi
a small exhibition of works in a Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961), later quashed.
Parisian gallery by artists calling and F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896– Soho district. Fifty members of (1878–1944), established a new
themselves “Surrealists.” The 1940), whose classic work The The general world political and
group, which included the Catalan Great Gatsby was published in economic outlook was better the Royal Institution saw the dynasty by crowning himself as
artist Joan Miró (1893–1983) and 1925. African-American erotic than at any time since World War I.
dancer Josephine Baker In April, Britain’s Chancellor of indistinct, but recognizable moving shah on April 25; his intention was
Surrealist style (1906–1975) became a star of the Exchequer, Winston Churchill,
Harlequin’s Carnival exemplifies Parisian nightlife, performing at returned his country’s currency to image of a face. to modernize his country. The
the playful, anarchic style developed the Theatre des Champs-Elysées. the prewar Gold Standard. This
in the 1920s by Joan Miró, a Spanish For their part, the French took an set the value of sterling artificially In May, Britain experienced Pahlavi dynasty he founded ruled
Catalan artist living in Paris. adoring interest in American jazz. high, creating problems for British
exporters, but it was an important its only General Strike. This in Iran until the 1970s.
gesture toward the restoration of
international financial stability. nationwide industrial stoppage, in
In December, the Locarno Pact 160support of coal miners, paralyzed
was signed. This was a series
of treaties designed to restore transportation networks and
normal peacetime relations docks, and closed down factories
between Germany and the victor and newspapers. The government
states of World War I. The responded by mobilizing troops
agreement depended on the and recruiting volunteers to
relationship established between maintain essential services. After
the German and French foreign
ministers, Gustav Stresemann MILLIONnine days the unions backed down
and Aristide Briand, and opened
the way for Germany’s admission and ordered a return to work.
to the League of Nations in 1926. In Poland, the nation’s military
hero Marshal Jozef Pilsudski THE NUMBER
(1867–1935) led a coup d’état
in May, in reaction against OF WORKING
the unstable parliamentary DAYS LOST
government. Pilsudski declined TO STRIKES IN
the presidency, but effectively THE UK IN 1926
took dictatorial powers.
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July
366
1927
,, I OWNED THE
WORLD THAT HOUR AS
,,I RODE OVER IT…
Charles Lindbergh, American aviator
Aviator Charles Lindbergh poses alongside the Spirit of St Louis, the aircraft
in which he achieved the first nonstop flight from New York to Paris.
IN MAY 1927, 25-YEAR-OLD Ohio Rive Flood, which was the worst flood (1879–1940) was expelled from Stalin (1878–1953). Accused of
CHARLES LINDBERGH (1902–1974) Missouri River Mississippi River disaster in American history. the central committee of the “factionalism,” Trotsky was sent
flew solo across the Atlantic, St Louis r Many of its victims were black ruling Communist Party in into internal exile in Kazakhstan
a feat that made him the most and very poor; ill-treated and November, along with his allies the following January and finally
famous American alive. The offer ArkansasRiver Memphis neglected in refugee camps after Grigori Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev. expelled from the Soviet Union
of a cash prize for the first Red River Greenville the disaster, many thousands of Once the favorite to succeed Lenin in February 1929. Zinoviev and
nonstop flight between New Vicksburg them swelled the movement of (1870–1924) as Soviet leader, Kamenev submitted to Stalin, but
York and Paris had stimulated African-Americans from the south Trotsky had been ruthlessly he had them executed in 1936.
feverish competition. On May 8, to new lives in northern cities. outmaneuvered by the party’s
famous French war aces Charles Hamburg General Secretary Joseph
Nungesser and François Coli Baton Rouge Two of the greatest works in
attempted the flight from Paris; New Orleans cinema history were
they set off westward over the released in 1927: Fritz Lang’s
Atlantic and were never seen Gulf of Mexico futuristic Metropolis and Abel
again. Such dramas had wrought Gance’s historical epic
excitement to a high pitch when The Great Mississippi Flood Napoleon. But these hugely
the unknown Lindbergh, an Following months of heavy rain, the ambitious silent movies were
airmail pilot, took off from Mississippi broke its levees in spring upstaged by the success of Al
Roosevelt Field on May 20 aboard 1927, submerging a vast area of land Jolson (1886–1950) in a sound
a custom-built monoplane. Not (in purple) and killing 246 people. film, The Jazz Singer. A new
only did he succeed in reaching era of “talkies” had arrived.
NUMBER OF CARS (IN MILLIONS)Paris in 33 hours and 30 minutes, his life. His achievement
but he did it alone. Lindbergh was stimulated the rapid growth of Second only to the
mobbed on landing in France and commercial aviation in the US. Lindbergh flight in media
the mixed blessing of celebrity coverage in 1927 was the
accompanied him for the rest of America’s upbeat mood was controversy surrounding the
ripe for the world’s first modern execution of the anarchists
25 consumer boom, which was built Ferdinando Sacco and
around the purchase of cars and Bartolomeo Vanzetti. Italian
20.2 electrical goods. By 1927, there immigrants dubiously
20 was one car for every six convicted of a murder in
Americans—enough to ensure Massachusetts in 1920,
17.5 that even quite modest families their case became a focus
might aspire to a Model T Ford. of protests by liberals and
15 13.5 Levels of saving were high, and socialists, and their execution
many chose to invest their spare by electric chair on August 23
10 9.3 cash in the rising stock market. provoked riots in a number of
6.8 cities across the world.
Not everything was as positive,
5 however. Falling prices for Meanwhile, in the Soviet
agricultural goods were hitting Union, Leon Trotsky
0 rural areas worldwide, and the US,
1919 1921 1923 1925 1927 with almost half its population First feature-length “talkie”
working the land, was not immune. The first successful full-length
Car ownership in the US Farm owners were heavily in debt sound feature film, The Jazz
In the eight years from 1919 to 1927 and farm workers were badly paid. Singer, took $2.6 million at
the number of cars on America’s American box offices and made
roads tripled. Five-sixths of the The terrible conditions Jolson a household name.
world’s automobiles were in the US. experienced by many rural
workers was highlighted in April
1927 by the Great Mississippi
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1928 1929
Bacteriologist Sir Alexander Fleming surrounded by test tubes in his laboratory.
Fleming discovered the antibiotic properties of penicillin in 1928.
IN THE SOVIET UNION, JOSEPH government, but he still faced politics since 1920, was Of more practical Prohibition
STALIN (1878–1953) began radical resistance. Former allies of the assassinated after being elected consequence was era weapon
economic and social reform. Kuomintang, the communists president for a second term. His the discovery of A sawn-off, double-
Abandoning the compromise of suffered heavy losses when Chiang killer, José de León Toral, was a penicillin. barrelled shotgun hidden in a violin
Vladimir Lenin’s New Economic Kai-shek turned against them in member of the Catholic Cristero Scottish scientist case was a typical weapon for an
Policy (see 1921), Stalin launched 1927. Forced out of the cities they movement that had launched an Alexander American gangster of the 1920s.
a Five-Year Plan to transform continued their struggle in remote armed rebellion in response to Fleming (1881–
the Soviet Union into a major rural areas—a large area of the Mexican government’s 1955) accidentally ON FEBRUARY 14, SEVEN PEOPLE
industrial country. He cracked mountainous Jiangxi and Fujian anticlerical policies. The desire discovered the WERE SHOT DEAD in a garage
down on businessmen and provinces came under the control for stability after the shock of antibiotic mold in on Chicago’s North Side. The
successful peasants who had of the communist leader Mao Obregón’s assassination led to contaminated specimen dishes, perpetrators of the St. Valentine’s
made money out of the revolution. Zedong (see 1921). the formation of the National but the development of penicillin Day Massacre were probably
Hundreds of “bourgeois experts” Revolutionary Party, which, for medical use was the work of members of the gang headed
—people, such as engineers, who Political violence was also under a variety of names, other scientists in the 1940s. by Al Capone (1899–1947), a
had been valued for their skills widespread elsewhere. In dominated Mexican politics prominent figure in organized
rather than their involvement in Yugoslavia, hostility between for more than 70 years. JOSEPH STALIN crime. The victims belonged to
the revolution—were arrested Croats and Serbs led to the killing (1878–1953) the rival gang of Bugs Moran.
and convicted of sabotage. of Croatian Peasant Party leader In Germany, stability seemed Both Capone and Moran drew
Stjepan Radić (1871–1928). He to have been achieved after the Born Josif Dzhugashvili, in their main income from
In China, Chiang Kai-shek was shot by a Montenegrin Serb chaotic post-World War I period. Georgia, Stalin joined Lenin’s bootlegging—the illegal trade in
(1887–1975), leader of the political opponent in the Yugoslav In elections to the Reichstag in Bolsheviks in 1903. After alcoholic drinks that flourished
nationalist Kuomintang (National parliament on June 20, and died May, Adolf Hitler’s extremist Lenin’s death he cleverly under prohibition (see 1920). The
People’s Party), was close to later of his wounds. With his realm Nazi Party won less than three outmaneuvered other massacre focused public outrage
establishing his rule over the torn apart by nationalist passions, percent of the popular vote, leading Bolsheviks to achieve on the crime and violence that
entire country. The warlords who the following year Yugoslavia’s compared with almost 30 dictatorial power by 1929. was rife in American cities. The
ruled different areas of China King Alexander I (1888–1934) percent for the moderate Social He ran a ruthless police state authorities were forced to take
either became his allies or were banned political parties and Democrats. Under the German that murdered millions of its action, which led to the arrest
defeated by his army. In June, assumed dictatorial powers. Republic’s rigorous proportional citizens, yet he presided over and imprisonment of Capone on
Kuomintang forces took Beijing, representation system, the the country’s transformation charges of tax evasion in 1931.
and in October Chiang Kai-shek In Mexico, General Alvaro Nazis’ minimal support gained into a major industrial power
formally established a national Obregón (1880–1928), the them 12 seats in parliament. and led it to victory over Nazi On March 4, Republican
dominant figure in his country’s Germany in 1945. Herbert Hoover (1874–1964) was
In August, Germany was one inaugurated as US president. His
Chinese of the original signatories of an arrival in office coincided with a
suffering agreement for “the renunciation high point of complacency about
Prisoners taken of war as an instrument of US economic progress. Through
during fighting national policy.” This supremely the 1920s the US had become the
between Chinese optimistic document, commonly world’s first automobile-owning
nationalist forces known as the Kellogg-Briand society, with 26 million cars on the
and those of the Pact after US Secretary of State road by 1929. Optimism and easy
northern warlord Frank B. Kellogg (1856–1937) credit drove share prices on Wall
Zhang Zuolin. and French Foreign Minister
Aristide Briand (1862–1932),
obliged states to only resort to
war in self-defense. Within a
year it had been signed by all
the world’s major powers.
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,, ,,ANY LACK OF CONFIDENCE IN THE
ECONOMIC FUTURE OF THE UNITED
STATES IS FOOLISH.
President Herbert Hoover, in a speech after the stock market crash, November 15 1929
Herbert Hoover being sworn in as US president. His inauguration speech
foresaw “the day when poverty will be banished from this nation.”
Street in an apparently endless Moviegoing was one boom area was going through a technological they described as “the share rise faltered. By October 23,
upward curve—about 30 million of the US economy. Hollywood revolution, with the transition enslavement of the German shares prices were falling, and
Americans had some form of had become the center of film from silent to sound movies. It people.” Although only 14 the following day, “Black
stock market investment. In the production, and its “Big Five” was also becoming intensely percent of voters backed it, the Thursday,” the market dropped
prevailing mood, it was easy for studios churned out hundreds of conscious of its status and image. referendum campaign in a stampede of selling. In
the president to view problems movies a year. The film industry The Academy of Motion Picture significantly raised Hitler’s vain, President Hoover assured
in the economic scene—the ruin Arts and Sciences made its first political profile in Germany. the American public that “the
of small farmers through falling Winning movie annual “Oscar” awards in 1929, fundamental business of the
crop prices and poverty-line The first movie to win the Academy awarding Best Picture to the war The long shadow cast by country” was “on a sound and
wages of many urban workers— Award for Best Picture was Wings, a film Wings—the only silent movie World War I was also evident prosperous basis,” but the selling
as temporary problems that silent film about World War I fighter to win the accolade. in a wave of antiwar books. of shares went on, and there were
could be overcome. pilots, staring actress Clara Bow. They included American writer further sharp falls. Speculators
In Italy, Benito Mussolini’s Ernest Hemingway’s novel who had bought shares on credit
(1883–1945) Fascist regime A Farewell to Arms, British poet were ruined, as were thousands
achieved a diplomatic triumph in Robert Graves’s (1895–1985) war of modest individuals who had
signing the Lateran Treaty with memoir Goodbye to All That, and entrusted their life savings to
Pope Pius XI. Since the unification All Quiet on the Western Front, the market. Experts spoke of a
of Italy in 1871 there had been an written by German novelist Erich temporary “market correction,”
unresolved dispute between the Maria Remarque (1898–1970). and Hoover took action to
Italian state and the papacy, with Presenting war as a futile waste stimulate the economy and create
successive popes regarding of human lives, they captured jobs, but the crash was the start
themselves as “prisoners” in the popular mood of the time. of a long-lasting collapse in share
the Vatican. The Lateran Treaty prices, and the signal for the start
recognized the Vatican City as By far the most important event of a worldwide depression.
an independent state and of the year, however, was the Wall
acknowledged Catholicism as Street Crash. In September, the
Italy’s official religion. Unofficially
it assured the Fascist regime the INDEX OF NEW YORK STOCK PRICES 210
support of the Catholic Church. 190
Another attempt was made to 170
draw a line under World War I
when the wartime Allies set up a 150
committee, headed by American
industrialist Owen Young, to 130
reconsider German reparations 110
payments. Accepting that the
Dawes Plan (see 1924) had fixed 90
payments too high, the Young
Plan made proposals for 70
Germany to pay a reduced annual
sum until 1988. Although the deal 50
was accepted by the German
government, it was denounced 30 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935
by conservative nationalists 1926 1927
and by the Nazis. They forced a
referendum on reparations, which Wall Street index
Share prices on the New York stock exchange
experienced a speculative boom in the 1920s,
which was followed by an unstoppable collapse.
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369
1930
,, WE ARE 50 OR 100 YEARS BEHIND THE
ADVANCED COUNTRIES. WE MUST MAKE
,,GOOD THIS DISTANCE IN TEN YEARS.
Josef Stalin, in a speech to the first All-Union Conference
of leading personnel of Socialist Industry, February 4, 1931
Unemployed men waiting for food handouts in New York during the Depression.
There was no federal unemployment benefit or welfare in the US.
IN THE EARLY MONTHS OF 1930, their animals rather than hand slave labor to drive the developing from Ahmedabad to the Indian MOHANDAS GANDHI
THE SOVIET UNION was thrown them over to the state, and Soviet economy. Ocean. Setting out on March 12, (1869–1948)
into turmoil by the mass attacked the communists with he reached the sea on April 6,
collectivization of agriculture— stones and clubs. The authorities Collectivization failed to and scooped up a handful of salt Known as Mahatma (“Great
the replacement of privately responded with mass arrests of produce an increase in agricultural water in public defiance of the Soul”), Gandhi was born into
owned peasant farms with large, “kulaks”—better-off peasants— output, and the vision of vast Soviet government’s ban on unlicensed a privileged Indian family and
state-run farming practices. In and troublemakers. By March it prairies farmed by tractors and salt gathering. Although Gandhi studied law in London. His
the eyes of dictator Joseph Stalin was announced that 14 million mechanical harvesters remained advocated strict nonviolence, first campaigns of non-violent
(see 1928), who wanted to Soviet farms had been largely a fantasy; instead there the Salt March triggered riots civil disobedience were in
transform the Soviet Union into a collectivized, but the chaos it was famine (see 1933). But it did that redoubled after his arrest South Africa. Returning to
modern industrial state, small- created was so disruptive to stimulate a mass movement of on May 5. Despite this, the India in 1915 he led the
scale peasant agriculture was an food production that Stalin had to peasants to the cities, where they British remained committed opposition to British rule,
obstacle to be ruthlessly swept order a pause in the campaign. found work on construction sites to gradually extending India’s although many nationalists
aside—both inefficient and tainted and in factories. Soviet industrial limited self-government. rejected his non-violence.
with antisocialist self-interest. It was no coincidence that the projects, many using Gulag prison In 1948 he was assassinated
The peasants, however, were following month an agency known labor, developed on a vast scale, The exploits of adventurous by Hindu extremists, outraged
ferociously attached to their land as the Gulag was set up to run a while the rest of the world plunged aviators continued to fascinate the by his conciliatory attitude
and farm animals, and when system of forced labor camps into an economic recession. public, as they had done through toward Muslims.
communist officials were sent across the Soviet Union. Of about the 1920s. Pilots became national
to villages to organize collective one million peasants arrested in In India the wily and charismatic heroes through pioneering Australia in a second-hand De
farms, they met widespread the early 1930s, hundreds Mohandas Gandhi (see panel, long-distance flights. In May, Havilland Gypsy Moth biplane. The
resistance. Peasants slaughtered of thousands ended up in right) was mounting a campaign Jean Mermoz (1901–36), who journey, which took 19 days, was
Gulag camps, providing of civil disobedience against was employed by the French especially remarkable since she
powerful light British rule. Gandhi dramatized Aéropostale airmail company, had never even flown across the
for working his opposition to the government made the first postal flight across English Channel.
at night salt monopoly by staging a march the South Atlantic, flying a float
This amateur triumph of British
wheel studs to plane nonstop from Dakar in aviation stood in stark contrast
prevent tractor West Africa to Natal in Brazil. with the fate of an expensive
from skidding This completed an unbroken government project, the R101
airmail link that stretched airship. On its maiden voyage in
from France to Chile. October, R101 was intended to
Meanwhile, the British cheered
as amateur pilot Amy Johnson
(1903–41) flew solo from
Croydon in England to Darwin,
Soviet tractor
By the 1930s the
Soviet Union was
manufacturing its
own tractors. There
were about 200,000
tractors in the Soviet
Union by 1934.
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The burned-out wreckage of British airship R101 lies in a field outside
Beauvais in northern France. Britain’s Air Secretary was killed in the crash.
Famous flight clinging to power, ruling by populist dictatorship that pushed
British aviatrix Amy Johnson after Emergency Decree. for the industrialization of Brazil
her solo flight from England to and suppressed political dissent,
Australia. Pilots were among the Many observers outside Germany while introducing social welfare
leading celebrities of the time. were disturbed by the growing measures for the poor.
support for Hitler’s aggressive
carry the British Secretary of banks failed during the year. The In Germany, economic crisis nationalist extremism. France In Japan, radical nationalists,
State for Air and other dignitaries US unwisely sought relief for its triggered political extremism and showed its lack of trust in a including many army and navy
from England to India. The badly farmers and unemployed workers the collapse of democratic peaceful future by beginning officers, believed the answer to
designed craft only reached through blocking imports. The government. In March, the construction of formidable Japan’s economic problems lay
northern France, where it crashed Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act, which governing coalition fell apart in military conquest. The civilian
in bad weather, killing 48 of the became law in June, placed heavy because the Social Democrats defensive fortifications along its government of prime minister
54 people on board. duties on thousands of imported would not agree to cuts in border with Germany. In the Osachi Hamaguchi (1870–1931)
goods. When the US’s trading unemployment benefit. Heinrich pursuit of absolute security, outraged them further by seeking
By far the worst disaster of 1930, partners retaliated, the world was Brüning (1855–1970), leader of the Maginot Line consumed cuts in military spending to help
however, was the collapse of the set on course for a disastrous the Center Party, formed a most of France’s defense offset a budgetary deficit. On
world economy. In the US, at reduction in overall levels of trade. government without majority budget during the 1930s. November 14, Hamaguchi was
the start of the year, most support in the Reichstag. He shot at Tokyo station by a member
commentators believed that, in dissolved parliament in July, South American countries of a nationalist secret society. He
the wake of the stock market calling a general election against were especially vulnerable to the never recovered, and died nine
crash (see 1929), the country was a background of massive Depression because of their role months later. It was an ominous
facing a temporary and modest unemployment. Adolf Hitler’s as suppliers of food and raw sign of the Japanese militarists’
economic downturn. In May, Nazi Party mounted a spectacular materials to the industrialized US determination to pursue their own
President Herbert Hoover and violent election campaign, and Europe. Many experienced aggressive expansionist policies.
(1874–1964) reassured Americans blaming all of Germany’s political upheavals as economic
that they had “now passed the problems on the Versailles Treaty conditions worsened. In Japanese assassination
worst.” Instead, unemployment (see 1919). The Nazis increased Argentina, a military coup Japanese Prime Minister
continued to rise, bread lines their seats in the Reichstag from ushered in a decade of political Hamaguchi after being shot by a
became a common sight, farmers 12 to 107, becoming the second conflict and government nationalist extremist at Tokyo
began to go bankrupt in large largest party in the country. corruption. In Brazil, an army station. He died the following year.
numbers, and over 1,300 US Brüning responded to a polarized revolt brought Getúlio Vargas
Reichstag by ignoring it and (1882–1954) to power in
November. Vargas installed a
NUMBER OF VOTES (IN MILLIONS) 15
37.4%
12 33.1%
9
18.3%
6 Nazi vote in federal
elections 1928–1932
3 A minority extremist party
2.6% in 1928, the Nazi party
grew to be the largest
0 single party by summer
May Sept July Nov 1932. They peaked at 37.4
1928 1930 1932 1932 per cent of votes cast.
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deJfufielraystst3f0AoroUgtrebunagtlliuCnWauacypooinurfilnAndtaruylg’supsot p5uUlaSticoennassus12e2s.t7immSaeitleplUistoernimbubreurcto6aukJpeosisnepAoFrwegeleirxntininSaeptNemaszebiaePGtrsaer1irntm4yeHawlneiitcnlRetsiero1’isnc0sh7sttoag HOecrtboebretrHU1on7oevUmeSrCpoeplomsreytamsmbidieltietnsenhteteRsfeolrief NovVeamrgbaesrtian3kmBGeiserlaittpuzaoilrliwyoaerfrteevrolt NToavbelemofCbIoennrdfie1ar2eoFnpicerenstsoRninofuuLntoudnrdeDoenHc$eo1mo5v0beermsrtaiilsm2lkioUusnlSCaftpooernreegpsmrrieodpsjeeslnocftytosmrteont DedcTeercamsladtrbreeiekurgene1iionn6neSsrpaalin 371
1931
,, THE CAPITALIST CHAIN
IS AGAIN THREATENING TO
BREAK AT THE WEAKEST LINK.
,,SPAIN IS NEXT IN ORDER.
Leon Trotsky, Russian revolutionary,
speaking on the revolution in Spain, January 1931
Demonstrators in Madrid celebrate the revolution of April 1931 that overthrew
the Spanish monarchy. Among the new reforms was women’s right to vote.
ON APRIL 14, 1931, KING ALFONSO Austria’s largest bank, the the Conservatives and the
XIII OF SPAIN (1886–1941) Creditanstalt, failed, and by July Liberals. A Royal Navy strike over
abdicated and fled into exile, after many major German banks also pay at Invergordon panicked
his supporters were defeated in faced collapse. German foreign investors and triggered
municipal elections. The victors Chancellor Heinrich Brüning a run on the pound, reducing the
in this bloodless revolution, a proposed a customs union value of sterling by a quarter.
coalition of moderate republicans between Germany and Austria,
and socialists, set up a provisional and suggested Germany might The most ominous event of the
government headed by Niceto renege on payment of war year was Japanese aggression
Alcalá-Zamora (1877–1949). reparations. France’s hostile against China. On September 18,
The departure of the king and response was to refuse to help Japanese army officers guarding
founding of Spain’s Second prop up the German financial the South Manchurian Railway
Republic gave the urban and system. Germany and Austria carried out an attack on the
rural poor, as well as nationalists were forced to take emergency tracks, which they blamed on the
in the Basque country and measures to block foreigners Chinese. This “Mukden incident”
Catalonia, hope, but army officers, from withdrawing funds. provided the pretext for the
landowners, industrialists, and Japanese military occupation
the Catholic hierarchy were Britain had made substantial of Manchuria. The occupation
adamantly opposed to change. loans to German banks—money was condemned by the League
Spain was on the path to civil war. that was now frozen. As a crisis of Nations as an act of aggression,
loomed, financial experts but the Japanese refused to
In New York on May 1 the advised Ramsay Macdonald’s withdraw. The following year
Empire State Building was (1886–1937) Labour government Japan set up a puppet government
officially opened. Standing to cut expenditure to balance the in Manchuria under Pu Yi
1,454ft (443m) tall to the top of its budget. In August, proposals to (1906–67), China’s last emperor,
spire, it surpassed the Art Deco cut unemployment benefit and who had been deposed in 1912.
Chrysler Building, which had been government employee pay
the world’s tallest building for provoked a mass resignation by From September to December
just 11 months. Begun in 1929, at Labour ministers. Macdonald a Round Table Conference on
the height of the US stock market stayed as prime minister, forming the future of India was held in
boom, the Empire State Building a coalition National Government London. The Indian National
expressed the boundless with the other two main parties, Congress, the principal Indian
optimism of the time. But its nationalist movement, was
completion also came against a
background of farm bankruptcies USSR Occupation of
and rising unemployment. Manchuria
MONGOLIA Manchuria Korea became a
Meanwhile, the world economic (Manchukuo) Japanese colony in 1910.
recession took a sharp turn for In 1931, the Japanese
the worse through a major Vladivostok extended into Manchuria,
European banking crisis. In May, which became the puppet
Mukden state of Manchukuo.
Scaling new heights
Photographer Lewis Hine Peking KEY
documented the casual risks taken
by workers during construction of KOREA JAPAN Japanese Empire 1930
the Empire State Building. Seoul Tokyo
Japanese sphere of
CHINA Yellow influence 1930
Sea
Japanese conquests
1931–3
JaLnaupvraafiirmlrybsete2mtc7iomiPmneiieesrtserFerrfeonrch FeNbeCrwuaclaaDcrpueyitltth1aai0laroesfpoBlfarficitMceiissaadhlrispIcnoahdbr5tieadiGnieaRnnocduehn,iadhgaTrlaetbselsceitvCoiloAtnapRkfreeemirvleoo1nln2uca–etr1ioc4hnyoivnerStpharionwsMaCyrpe1rdE1eicutAairpunoisstpatterataiilantnngBbaaannckeknfinatriglascl,risis JuHnomeo2orvee0rpraUataorSdarvpituoirocmenasstioedansennpdtawymarednetbotfs AuRgafumosNrstmaai2ntsyi5oBMcnoraaiatclaldiGitnoioonvnaelrdnmeSneptpattyoeiamInnnBbvdeerbrirtegi1snoh5erfidCNtousantvlsyeMainudtinySeapbtaenmdobnesrg2o0ldBrsittaanindard OcNtaowtbiiinoensnrgal2eal7nnGedBorsrvalieitldareenilnemv’scicetitnootnry
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1932
American pilot Amelia Earhart arrives in England after her historic solo
transatlantic flight in a Lockheed Vega monoplane.
42 THE NUMBER OF the morning of May 20—the slide into the Depression gave
STATES WON BY fifth anniversary of Charles him little hope against the
ROOSEVELT IN Lindbergh’s famous flight (see Democratic challenger, and
THE 1932 US 1927)—she landed in a field in former governor of New York,
ELECTIONS Northern Ireland 14 hours and Franklin D. Roosevelt (see 1933).
THE PEAK YEAR OF THE GREAT In Ireland, Éamon de Valera 56 minutes later. During his campaign, Roosevelt
DEPRESSION saw declining output (1882–1975) became president promised “a new deal for the
and sharply reduced levels of after an election victory for his The US presidential election American people.” He won with
trade bring mass unemployment Fianna Fàil party in March. As a was held in November, against 57.4 percent of the popular vote,
to the world’s leading industrial republican who had taken part in a background of bank failures, but what Roosevelt actually
nations. At least 13 million the Easter Rising (see 1916) and farm bankruptcies, and rising intended to do about the
Americans, around 3 million had led the Irish Republican Army unemployment. Herbert Hoover’s Depression remained unclear.
Britons, and more than 5 million (IRA) in the Irish Civil War (see inability to halt his country’s
Germans were unemployed. In 1922), De Valera was renowned
Japanese troops in Manchuria Europe, national unemployment for his anti-British sentiments.
The Japanese occupation of the benefit programs helped the He revoked the Oath of Allegiance
northern Chinese province of jobless to survive, but in the US, to the British crown and entered
Manchuria can be seen as their where only piecemeal local into a trade war with Britain that
first step toward World War II. welfare programs existed, damaged both countries.
unemployment led to abject
represented by Mohandas Gandhi poverty. Thousands became In Germany, Nazi leader Adolf
(1869–1948). He had negotiated homeless, living in shanty towns Hitler (1889–1945) suffered
a pact with the British Viceroy of ironically called “Hoovervilles” frustration in his campaign to
India, Lord Irwin, to suspend the after the US president. win power through the democratic
civil disobedience campaign (see process. He stood for president
1930). The conference was not 36.3% 43.8% in the spring elections, but was THE BONUS ARMY
a success, however, and on his US GERMANY eventually beaten by the incumbent
return to India Gandhi resumed Paul von Hindenburg (1845–1934). In summer 1932, more than 20,000 unemployed World War I
his nonviolent campaign against 22.1% 15.4% Although in elections to the veterans gathered in Washington, D.C., to demand payment of a
the British. UK FRANCE Reichstag the Nazis were the “bonus” promised by the government in recognition of their
largest single party, they military service. They established a shanty town within sight of the
In contrast with the British Industrial unemployment continued to be excluded from Capitol and vowed to stay until the money was paid. Their protest
treatment of India was the German industrial workers had government. Ignoring the attracted widespread sympathy from Americans distressed at
passage of the Statute of the worst unemployment rate at Reichstag, Hindenburg installed mass unemployment, but President Hoover refused to pay out.
Westminster by the British the peak of the depression, closely a conservative clique in power. On July 28, infantry, cavalry, and tanks were deployed to attack
parliament in December. This law followed by the US. the protesters’ camp and disband the Bonus Army.
recognized full equality between There was relief from the grim
Britain and the dominions— news of the Depression when
Australia, New Zealand, Canada, American pilot Amelia Earhart
South Africa, the Irish Free State, (1897–1937) became the first
and Newfoundland. For them, the woman to fly solo across the
British Empire had truly become Atlantic. Taking off from
a Commonwealth of Nations. Newfoundland in Canada on
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373
1914–2011 TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS
THE STORY OF
COMMUNICATION
ELECTRICITY TRIGGERS A REVOLUTION IN BROADCASTING AND PERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Instant worldwide communication has become a defining characteristic of receiver
the modern world. Until 200 years ago, most long-distance messages could
travel no faster than the horse or ship carrying them. It was the advent of
electricity in the 19th century that transformed communications.
In the 18th century, the French navy developed a on-off key generating a code that was transmitted
system for transmitting orders between ships using along a wire. By the 1860s, telegraph wires spanned
semaphore flags. From the 1790s, semaphore was continents, and underwater cables enabled almost
used on land, with lines of stations relaying coded instant communication across oceans.
messages using large signalling devices, each
visible to the next station in the chain. From the In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the
1830s, the development of electric telegraph invention of the telephone enabled electronic
replaced this medium. American Samuel Morse transmission of speech. The discovery that radio
produced a robust and practical system, a simple waves could transmit sound opened the new
possibility of broadcasting. From the 1920s,
INTERNET USERS PER 100 70 “wireless sets,” providing entertainment and
KEY news, became a common feature of households.
Television, however, did not become a mass
60 Developed world medium until the 1950s.
Developing world THE INFORMATION AGE
50 Several lines of development revolutionized
communications after World War II, creating the
Global average “Information Age.” The advent of transistors made
electronic goods smaller and cheaper, and advances
40 in rocket technology allowed satellites to be placed
in space, enabling global access to communication
30 networks. The triumph of digital technology and
microprocessors from the 1980s made computers
20 almost universal. The potential flow of information
worldwide was effectively limitless.
10
0 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
1996 YEAR
The rise of the Internet Long-distance call
The increase in Internet usage in developed countries Alexander Graham Bell initiates the first
was dramatic between 1997 and 2007, but access remained telephone link between New York and
available only to a minority in the developing world. Chicago in 1892. By then, New York was
already linked to Boston and Philadelphia.
Prehistory 1st–2nd centuries Vindolanda tablet 1784 Morse
Smoke signals Letters by courier Mail coaches receiver
Fire allows smoke signals to Letters are written on Britain introduces
be sent over considerable papyrus or on wood in four-horse coaches 1837
distances. However, this the Roman Empire. The that are faster than Electric telegraphy
method is limited to a simple Vindolanda tablets from passenger-carrying American inventor Samuel Morse develops
set of prearranged messages. Roman Britain include a stagecoaches to carry the electric telegraph in the US. British
birthday invitation. post between major cities. Railways uses an electric telegraph.
3100–2500 BCE 2900–2350 BCE 17th century 1791–95
Cuneiform writing Carrier pigeons Newspapers Visual telegraphy
Pigeons are used to Newspapers, which disseminate French inventor Claude
Writing is a giant carry messages in information to a large public, Chappe pioneers a
step forward in ancient Egypt and develop in 17th-century Europe. semaphore system that
communication. Persia. They will The development of the printing allows coded messages
Mesopotamian continue to be used by press contributes to their growth. to be transmitted by
armies in World War I chains of relay stations.
cuneiform script is and World War II. The London Post
Sumerian tablet inscribed on Chappe telegraph
clay tablets.
374
THE STORY OF COMMUNICATION
ebonite earpiece ,,
mouthpiece THAT’S
AN AMAZING
INVENTION, BUT
,,WHO WOULD EVER
WANT TO USE ONE
OF THEM?
Rutherford B. Hayes, US President, to Alexander
Graham Bell after a demonstration of the telephone, 1876
crank, which drives a
dynamo to send a signal
to the exchange
bell, which rings when Early table telephone
an incoming signal is Made of metal, the Ericsson table
sent from the exchange telephone dates from 1890. It
combined the transmitter and
receiver into a single handset.
The handle cranked a generator
that rang a bell at the telephone
exchange to contact the operator.
1870s 1920s Apple Early 21st century
The telephone Airmail iPhone Mobile communication
Inventors, including American The carrying of mail by
Alexander Graham Bell, demonstrate early aircraft, initiated on a small Mobile phone usage
telephones in the US. The first telephone exchanges scale before World War I, becomes a mass
in North America and Europe date from 1878. becomes important,
transforming delivery times phenomenon in the first
on long-distance routes. decade of the 21st century.
Penny 1850s–60s Early 1900s Wireless 1920s–30s 1960s Telstar Late 20th
Black Transatlantic cable Radio Television Communication century
Telegraph cables laid Wireless Transmission of satellites The Internet
1837–40 across the Atlantic telegraphy moving images leads Telstar enables Global
Postage stamp seabed allow and sound to public television the first live computer
Britain introduces a low, messages to be transmission broadcasting, though transatlantic networks
uniform rate for postage, paid exchanged between developed, few people own television create instant
by buying an adhesive stamp. Europe and North leading to radio televisions until broadcast communication
America in minutes. broadcasting. the 1950s. in 1962. through email.
375
,,1933
… THROUGH GOD’S
POWERFUL AID, WE HAVE
BECOME ONCE MORE
,,TRUE GERMANS.
Adolf Hitler, German chancellor, 1933
Adolf Hitler being greeted by his followers at the annual Nazi Party rally at Nuremberg
in September 1933—it was a celebration of his rise to power.
IN GERMANY, AT THE END OF Jewish boycott
JANUARY, after backroom A Nazi Stormtrooper, accompanied
negotiations with the conservative by an elite Schutzstaffeln (SS) soldier,
clique of politicians and army posts a notice on a Jewish shop
officers surrounding the president window—“Don’t buy from Jews!.”
Paul von Hindenburg (1847–1934),
Nazi leader Adolf Hitler (1889– camps opened in March; in April was partly achieved through
1945) was invited to become a one-day nationwide boycott of ambitious public works
Chancellor (head of government). Jewish businesses was enforced; programs, most prominently the
The conservatives believed they and in May the German Student building of a network of autobahns
would have Hitler under their Association organized the (highways), that provided
control, since only three members burning of books described as employment. There was also a
of the coalition government were “un-German.” These highly restoration of confidence,
Nazis. Hitler, however, celebrated publicized acts were just the through the Nazis’ projected
his appointment as if it was a beginning. As the protection of image of Germany as united,
revolutionary seizure of power. the law was withdrawn from powerful, and dynamic.
communists, socialists, and Jews,
On February 28, the Reichstag hundreds of opponents of the The US also found a strong, new
building in Berlin burned down. regime were murdered and leader in the person of President
The fire was blamed on a Dutch thousands tortured and beaten. Franklin D. Roosevelt (see panel
communist named Marinus van right). In his inauguration speech
der Lubbe. It provided a pretext Nazi violence troubled many on March 4, Roosevelt told
for an Emergency Decree that Germans, but support for the Americans that “the only thing we
gave the government and its regime was guaranteed by a sharp have to fear is fear itself.” He
police almost limitless powers. turnaround in the economy and immediately applied this principle
The Nazis fell short of a majority the rapid disappearance to the tottering US banking
in elections five days later, but of mass unemployment. This system. On March 6 every bank in
on March 23, with the support of the US was closed. The president
the nationalist and Catholic parties, 8% 43.9% announced that banks would not
Hitler won a parliamentary vote DNVP Nazis reopen until the federal authorities
for an Enabling Act that had established they were solvent.
transferred all authority from the 11.2%
Reichstag to his government. The Center Party
German parliament had voted for
its own destruction; Hitler soon 12.3%
banned all other political parties, Communists
and created a single-party state.
18.3%
The consequence of Nazi rule SDP
soon became evident. The first
improvised concentration German election results
The Reichstag election of March
Reichstag fire 1933 showed stubborn support for
A Dutch communist was executed the communists and the socialist
for causing the fire at the German SDP despite intimidation.
parliament building, but many
believe the Nazis were responsible.
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,, I PLEDGE MYSELF TO
A NEW DEAL FOR THE
,,AMERICAN PEOPLE.
Franklin D. Roosevelt, at his nomination
acceptance speech, 1932
Young women in Florida having their backs decorated with the Blue Eagle of the National
Recovery Administration, a major plank of Roosevelt’s New Deal.
Americans accepted Roosevelt’s direct work creation programs 4.4 on forcibly extracting World’s Fair programme
assurance that the banks were such as those organized by the grain from starving rural The 1933 Chicago World’s Fair,
now safe and came forward Civil Works Administration. YEARS areas to feed cities. staged on the shore of Lake
to deposit their savings—a These ranged from important Michigan, took the theme of
confidence trick that worked. construction projects to THE AVERAGE At a time of widespread science, technology, and industry.
“boondoggles”—futile jobs LIFE distress and upheaval, it
Through the frenetic first to keep men employed. EXPECTANCY was perhaps ironic that A strange incident occurred
100 days of his administration, OF A MALE the Chicago World’s in January 1933. The game of
Roosevelt pushed through a raft Above all, Roosevelt’s personal CHILD BORN Fair, opening in May, cricket, the playing of which
of legislation to fulfil his promise leadership had a dramatic effect IN UKRAINE celebrated a “Century of was one of the ritual bonds
of a “New Deal.“ The measures on American morale. His warm- IN 1933 Progress.” The American holding together the British
were neither entirely coherent nor hearted radio broadcasts, known public loved the fair’s Commonwealth, led to a
uniformly successful. The wages as “fireside chats,” convinced The conference failed and, celebration of the diplomatic crisis. The English
of federal employees were cut. many Americans that they truly in the absence of international onward march of team touring Australia adopted
Farmers were paid to leave land had a friend in the White House. cooperation, all the countries that technology, but not intimidating “bodyline” tactics,
fallow and slaughter animals, to attended continued to pursue everything was devoted its fast bowler Harold Larwood
raise farm prices. The National The British, meanwhile, were aggressive nationalist policies, to “progress.” The aiming deliveries at the Australian
Recovery Administration desperate to restore international blocking the overall recovery of burlesque dancer Sally batsmen’s chests and heads.
pressured businesses to raise free trade, and to end the slide the world economy. Rand was a major hit After two Australian players were
wages and prices, to increase toward protectionism and with her “fan dance,” so injured at Adelaide, Australian
profitability and consumer devalued currencies. When a While capitalist countries too was the arrival of 24 Italian protests went to government
demand. The Tennessee Valley World Economic Conference struggled with the Depression, flying boats commanded level. Intervention by the British
Authority brought electricity and assembled in London, however, the communist Soviet Union by marshal of the Italian Air Force foreign office, eager to maintain
modernization to one of the most Roosevelt insisted on the right of seemed immune to such Italo Balbo, and a visit from the good relations with an assertive
economically backward regions the US to manipulate its own problems. Hidden from the German airship Graf Zeppelin. Commonwealth state, ensured
in the US. Most popular were exchange rate and to deploy outside world, its people suffered that the unapologetic Larwood
tariffs in its national interest. a different catastrophe. While The Chicago Fair’s emphasis never played Australia again.
Soviet propaganda celebrated on achievements in the air was
FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT (1882–1945) rising output, in 1932–33 famine timely, for this was the year in
gripped the Ukraine and other which the technology of air
Franklin Delano Roosevelt grain-producing areas, killing travel reached a critical turning
entered politics as a Democrat millions of the rural population. point. The introduction of the
before World War I. As governor It mainly came about as the all-metal, streamlined,
of New York from 1928 he led result of the collectivization of monoplane Boeing 247 airliner,
efforts to provide relief for the agriculture (see 1930). But the which was capable of cruising
unemployed. Elected president scale of the disaster was vastly at over 150mph (241kph),
four times, from his first increased by Stalin’s insistence transformed journey times. The
presidential campaign in 1932 247 could carry 10 passengers
he transformed American coast-to-coast across the US
politics by attracting the votes in just 20 hours. The Douglas
of labor unions, ethnic Aircraft Company responded
minorities, and African- with the DC-1 and DC-2, which
Americans. His New Deal shaved a further two hours off a
policies won him enduring transcontinental scheduled flight.
popularity, reinforced by his Air travel was still expensive
leadership during World War II. though and remained a form of
transport used only by the well off.
Juplryree3sfjioeUdrceeStxsnscttahpRbraooinlpoigzoseaestrvaiaeolstlntesofJuplayPr1atGi4reetAsyrmlbelxapacnonenlypiettidcNaianlzi AuBgaIutlabsllaotianM’1snd2iflscsIhoetotiaangillpaolLalnaaonkfees AudgequVusaatlse2ir-2afa’IsnscgIirosevtleaBrnlnudm,eEeSanhmtirbotanmnsovement OcAtuoEsbntserguireaarlt1nvbtieedvmreictsptDataotsolsrlafussssinatOiocwntoiotbhf deNrraa1twi4osnGfsreormmaLneyagNueoevleYeocmrtekbd(etmro 71a9yLo4ar5G)oufaNrdeiwa NoUvSreeomScfoofibgvceniieraiztl1leUy6snion Nogvolevimemrreibntaemerdrmem2na9temaaBensrnunittroiesushnocef s
JulPyot2so2tflbUyeScsooamlvoiaeatsororfiurWsnEtidclmeowynianoonrJLmluwdoilnicytdhC2ooo7nuntWbfearoegrrearlenkdecsmeuepnt Auogpuesntsm2i1onsWStlohyviwtieeittShUefnaoiroCcnae,ndbaGlulariblSatouerpCbteuecbmoambaeeftGrsee1rpr0roaevRrsedairdomtehMnoroant wcoOhfoacfdtoobSetroa9ateBtIhrrriieostnihfsolhFourymneaceoletnysatroch FroafafnOlEclcsedt,oooguvboeaevrrerdprc2aDni6vymaillIcneasundetitsrevrfaonrts WoNrokvseeAmsdtmbabeinlrisi8shtCeradivtiiinlonUSRigNhoet-vlweecmivntiigbcotenporsarir1iont9iueSsspinain 3 7 7Deccoenmstbiteruertip5oenPaarlleoadhmiibneitnUidoRSmnGobmDueyaneartcndeimamm,ifbnuairessdrtceei2rsr9stIoIpIrnnroinmDueca
1934 1935
,, VERY FEW OF THESE PANIC-
MONGERS HAVE ANY PERSONAL
,,KNOWLEDGE OF THE COUNTRIES
THAT ARE ALREADY UNDER
BLACKSHIRT GOVERNMENT.
Lord Rothermere, Daily Mirror, January 22, 1934
Black-shirted paramilitaries of Oswald Mosley’s British Union of Fascists give Ethiopian tribal warriors gather to
the Nazi salute. Mosley was inspired by the example of Mussolini and Hitler. fight for their emperor, Haile Selassie.
IN A YEAR DOMINATED BY Deputies and overthrow the gangster John Dillinger. Arrested kill himself, but refused and was THROUGH THE FIRST HALF OF THE
POLITICAL VIOLENCE and allegedly corrupt Republic. In a in January, he escaped from shot without trial by the leader 1930S, parts of the US and Canada
assassinations, the French Third night of street fighting between custody, but was tracked down by of the SS, Theodor Eicke. As well were swept by giant dust storms as
Republic was rocked by the thousands of demonstrators and federal investigation chief J. Edgar as the SA leadership, scores of topsoil blew off land ruined by a
Stavisky affair. A crooked police, 15 people were killed and Hoover. On July 22, Dillinger was individuals who had criticized the combination of persistent drought
financier, Alexandre Stavisky many more injured. The attempt gunned down by federal agents Nazi regime were also murdered. and intensive farming. The worst of
committed suicide on January 8, to force the government to resign as he left the Biograph Theater, these “black blizzards” occurred
after the collapse of a dishonest failed, and the Republic survived. a movie house in Chicago. In Austria, a Nazi attempt to in April 1935, affecting a vast area
investment scheme. The right- seize power failed. The Austrian of the plains of Kansas, Oklahoma,
wing press accused leading In the US, the public was Another man to die by the chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado.
French politicians of profiting distracted from the woes of the bullet in 1934 was Sergei Kirov, had established an authoritarian The Dust Bowl created by this
from Stavisky’s fraudulent deals. Depression by the exploits and the Communist Party boss in single-party state. In February,
On February 6, various nationalist violent deaths of outlaws and Leningrad and a close associate Dollfuss suppressed a left-wing 850
and anti-Semitic groups gangsters. Bonnie Parker and of Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin. uprising in Vienna, using artillery
assembled in Paris, intending Clyde Barrow led a gang that On December 1, a man walked up against the socialists’ stronghold MILLION
to march on the Chamber of robbed banks, stores, and gas behind Kirov in a corridor outside in the Karl Marx Hof housing TONS
his office and shot him in the back estate. He also banned the Austrian
stations, roving from Texas of the neck. The assassination Nazi Party. In July, the Nazis THE ESTIMATED
to Minnesota. was blamed on Leonid Nikolaev, attempted an armed coup, probably AMOUNT OF
Their shoot-outs an expelled party member with intending to achieve the unification TOPSOIL BLOWN
with police and a grudge, but suspicions persist of Austria with Nazi Germany. OFF THE
narrow escapes that Stalin may have arranged the Although Dollfuss was killed, the SOUTHERN
were reported assassination himself. Whatever coup failed. Kurt Schuschnigg, PLAINS OF
with feverish the truth, the Soviet dictator used a member of Dollfuss’s party, THE US BY
excitement in the Kirov’s death to pass a new succeeded him as chancellor. DECEMBER 1935
press. Parker antiterrorist law, which was
and Barrow were later used to justify the arrest Britain was a relative haven of ecological disaster could no
finally ambushed and execution of hundreds of tranquility, but even there fascism longer support small farmers,
and shot dead by thousands of people. was on the rise. Former Labour who were forced to migrate in
police at Bienville minister Oswald Mosley had their thousands. Many of them
Parish, Louisiana, In Germany, on June 30–July 1, founded the British Union of found their way to migrant camps
on May 23, 1934, Adolf Hitler confirmed his hold Fascists (BUF) in 1932, hoping to in California, where they were
sealing the legend on power by a massacre, known turn Britain into an authoritarian exploited as seasonal labor.
of “Bonnie and as the Night of the Long Knives. state under his rule. In June 1934,
Clyde.” Another The main target of the killings Mosley staged a rally at Olympia Meanwhile, President Roosevelt’s
“most wanted” was the leadership of the SA in London that degenerated into administration was pressing ahead
criminal was the (Sturmabteilung or Stormtroopers). a brawl as BUF paramilitaries with a raft of reforms often referred
These paramilitaries had provided fought with anti-fascist protestors. to as the Second New Deal. These
Bonnie and Clyde the muscle for Hitler’s rise to Such political violence had little policies were more radical than
American outlaw power, but now the disorderly appeal for the British, who were
Bonnie Parker street-fighters had become an also alienated by the fascists’ links
playfully targets her embarrassment. SA chief Ernst with the Nazis—Hitler was a guest
partner-in-crime Röhm was one of the hundreds at Mosley’s wedding. Although it
Clyde Barrow. This that were killed. He was arrested enjoyed the backing of some
photo was on a reel early on the morning of July 1 national newspapers, the BUF
of film found by by Hitler, who was accompanied remained a minority party without
police in 1933. by SS guards. Röhm was asked to significant electoral support.
JafinnuSatanparcovyiilesi8trkiycDAapelelraxcetarhcniispodiifsetaritneFsFreDabnoerclxulefcauerspyst b1haiAsnuosswatrnlilaFpnaotClhihteiacrnlaaclnepdlaloFrrtrioensMt aofrfcsoherl2Uf-4Sg-DocveoegnrrtneroeJmlulDeelnyidbltl2yPin2phgoiUleliSiprcpemgianionnergsCtashltlieycrawJgooouhnnded JuSlcychh3ua0sncKchuenrllitogrgobfeAcuosmtreisa OcUtpoCrbaiRestaeirnlpo6gunsbiailnicsAhsatkueriSaspaannidshOcctoofmrbobemmerug1Jnin6iiasLCntsoghnxirngieeptMrsreoeaavrticnhce, DeCcáperrmdeesbniedaresn1btLeocáfozMmareeoxsico JaLneucaoadKmrianycmmgo1inuneS7vnnoKiievcsiivtrteeosatdv,n’isondfcmZlcuiuondrmodinvepigerlivc,ity
3 7 8eFxetrbermuRiasicgrtoshyuta6-ptw–tie7ninmPgFpaetribsgruuearSrialylna2dl1einaNodiceaarsrsAaaugsugsuainnsatotedhJausnmmeuo2arfn9dty–eh3roee0pLdpHoooniintnngleeNGnKritengsrihmvteasnyJulyk2il5leIdn bAsueutiszaturtritaee,moDfpoptloelwfdueNsrsafzaiilsprHAedsiuitielgdeseur,nstottopH2ebineGncidenoregmmnwbeaaunFyrüOgfhocrrteoYrubgeors9laKviiansgtaasAtselaevsxisasiinntdatoeterFdorafoDnnecceemKaibrsosevorca1isaSstientaasSLlsieenirnn’sgainetgierdad rDeenTocreuemnactbieeessrWl1ima9siJhatiarinnpmggaantnomanveanlts JanuScbaaheraocyoroolf1smaG3eneesdrptmoaratnyMarcchon1s6cHriiiptnlteioorpVnieeninnrtrsdGoaedeilfiurlemacsenascTneryeoafty
1,345
THE NUMBER OF
OFFICERS AND
CREW ABOARD THE
SS NORMANDIE
BENITO MUSSOLINI (1883–1945) Red Army is an army of heroes.” Luxury liner
But for the time being these The Normandie was the largest,
Benito Mussolini imposed his “heroes” remained hunted rebels. fastest, and most luxurious of the
authoritarian, militaristic rule liners plying the Atlantic. Its interior
on Italy from 1922 to 1943. In Germany, Hitler’s Nazi regime was a riot of Art Deco features.
His Fascist state was widely formalized its anti-Semitism
admired, but dreams of through the Nuremberg Laws in Mussolini a large chunk of
conquest led to military September. Jews were deprived Ethiopian territory. When news
adventures and an alliance of German citizenship and, by of the deal leaked out, public
with Nazi Germany. Unwisely the Law for the Protection of opinion in the
leading his country into World German Blood and German democracies
War II, he was deposed as the Honor, marriage and extramarital was outraged.
Allies invaded Italy in 1943 and sexual relations between Jews British foreign
eventually killed by partisans. and non-Jews were banned. secretary Samuel
A problem in the application of Hoare and French
Roosevelt’s original New Deal Mao Zedong asserted himself as anti-Semitic legislation was prime minister slanted bow
(see 1933), favoring labor unions the foremost communist leader. identifying to whom it applied, Pierre Laval were and slim hull
over big business and the poor In December 1935, Mao declared since Jewish Germans had been forced to resign,
over the rich. The Wagner Labor that the Long March had been “a intermarrying with non-Jewish economic sanctions increased
Relations Act placed the manifesto, a propaganda force… Germans for generations. The against Italy went ship’s speed
government on the side of workers proclaiming to the world that the Nuremberg Laws formally defined ahead, and Mussolini
who went on strike to gain union a Jew as a person with three or was pushed into the
rights. The Social Security Act Long March survivors four Jewish grandparents. arms of Hitler.
provided federal pensions for the Chinese communists of the First
elderly and subsidies for state- Front Army arrive at Yan’an in Shaanxi Worried by Hitler’s plans to Despite the continuing
run unemployment and sickness province at the end of the strategic expand German forces, Britain effects of the economic
benefit schemes. Such measures, retreat known as the Long March. and France sought to enrol Italian Depression and the world’s
financed by higher taxes on the Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini grave political problems,
rich, were denounced as socialist as an ally against Germany. This there were many signs of
by most US newspapers and their policy was wrecked by Mussolini’s technological progress. The
millionaire owners, but confirmed imperialist ambitions in Africa. In Hoover Dam was the most
Roosevelt’s popularity with the October, troops from Italy’s east spectacular of a series of dam
bulk of the American people. African colonies, Eritrea and projects that would provide
Italian Somaliland, invaded the electric power and irrigation
In the civil war raging in China, independent African state of for large areas of the US. For
communist guerrillas escaped Ethiopia. Ethiopian Emperor those who could afford it,
destruction by the forces of Haile Selassie was able to raise a luxury travel—stylish ocean
Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist large army, and although his forces liners and intercontinental air
government through a series of were poorly equipped, they put up travel—flourished. For the
strategic withdrawals to remote stout resistance. Ethiopia was a masses who could not afford this
areas of the north and west. member-state of the League of kind of luxury, there was always the
During the Long March from Nations (see 1919). The League cinema. The movie Top Hat marked
Jiangxi to Shaanxi, a journey of denounced Italy as an aggressor the peak of the Hollywood musical,
around 6,200 miles (10,000km), and called for economic sanctions. Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers
The British and French transporting viewers into a magical
governments concocted a peace world of wealth and glamour.
plan that would have given
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1936
22THOUSAND
THE NUMBER OF
GERMAN TROOPS
THAT MARCHED
INTO RHINELAND
German troops march across a bridge into the demilitarized Rhineland. Hitler
feared a military response by the Western democracies that never came.
EUROPE HAD BEGUN TO SLIDE Workers unite anarchists won Spanish elections
inexorably down the slope toward Armed workers trample on Nazi and in February. The Popular Front
a major war. On March 7, Hitler Fascist symbols in this Spanish Civil government promised sweeping
sent troops into the Rhineland, War poster. Communists were initially land reforms and autonomy for
a part of Germany that had been a minority in the Republican camp. Catalonia, but events soon ran
demilitarized under the terms out of their control, with peasants
of the Locarno Pact (see 1925). (Communist International) had seizing large estates and anti-
The operation was perfectly decided that communist parties clerical attacks on convents and
stage-managed, the marching should seek to form “Popular churches. On July 13, José Calvo
soldiers greeted by cheering Front” alliances with social Sotelo, a leading anti-Popular
crowds and women throwing democrat and center parties. This Front politician, was murdered by
flowers. However, behind the policy bore fruit in France in May, socialist militants. Four days later,
scenes Hitler and his generals when the Popular Front, led by Nationalist army officers based
were racked by nervous tension. socialist Léon Blum, won a large in Spanish Morocco launched a
German rearmament was still majority in parliamentary elections. military uprising. Resisted by
in its early stages and the German At the same time, a workers’ hastily armed socialist and
army could not have resisted if strike had led to the occupation of anarchist militias, and a large
France had opted for a military factories and department stores proportion of the Spanish armed
response, but strong public across France. Blum’s first act as forces, the revolt failed across
opinion and domestic issues prime minister was to settle the much of Spain—Madrid, the
inhibited a stronger stand. By strike by negotiating the Matignon Basque country, and Catalonia
doing nothing, the Western allies agreements, which gave workers remained in Republican hands.
showed they would not act to improved conditions including a When German and Italian aircraft
uphold international agreements. 40-hour week and paid vacations. began to ferry General Francisco
Struggling to maintain the Franco’s Army of Africa from
The British and French support of communists on one Morocco into southern Spain, the
nonetheless embarked on side and centrist radicals on the military revolt turned into civil war.
expansion of their armed forces other, however, the Blum
in response to developments in government was soon bogged At first, a rapid Nationalist
Germany. In Britain, Conservative down in economic problems and victory appeared probable. While
leader Stanley Baldwin had won a the diplomatic dilemma posed by Germany and Italy provided men,
general election in 1935 partly due the outbreak of civil war in Spain. tanks, and aircraft to support the
to his promise to limit rearmament. rebels, France and Britain adopted
Despite having a mandate for A Popular Front of communists,
military expansion, Baldwin socialists, republicans, and Bay of Biscay FRANCE
continued to proceed cautiously.
to be equipped with the Spitfire occupation of Addis Ababa in May. The Spanish Civil War Oviedo Bilbao
The main focus was on achieving and the Hawker Hurricane, also Selassie fled to exile in Britain. Crossing from Spanish Morocco,
an effective defense of Britain then under development. The following month he made a Nationalist troops advanced north. Barcelona
against attack by the German memorable speech at the League The Republicans held on to Madrid
Luftwaffe (air force). Two days The importance of air power was of Nations, ending with the in desperate fighting. Salamanca Madrid Valencia
before Hitler’s occupation of the demonstrated in the conquest of ominous prophecy: “It is us today; PORTUGAL SPAIN
Rhineland, a new fighter aircraft, Ethiopia by Fascist Italy (see 1935). it will be you tomorrow.” KEY
the Supermarine Spitfire, made Italian aircraft were used to deliver Badajoz
its maiden flight. RAF Fighter poison gas onto Ethiopian troops, Confronted with the successes Republican zone
Command was created on May 1, contributing to the defeat of of Fascism and Naziism, the ATLANTIC OCSeville Granada te r r anean Sea
responsible for air defense. It was Emperor Haile Selassie and the Soviet-controlled Comintern Nationalist gains EAN ALGERIA
Med i
Initial Nationalist zone
SPANISH
MOROCCO
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380
,, IF YOU DON’T TRY TO
WIN YOU MIGHT AS WELL
HOLD THE OLYMPICS IN
,,SOMEBODY’S BACKYARD.
Jesse Owens, US athlete, at the Olympic Games, 1936
US athlete Jesse Owens stands on the podium after winning the long jump at the
Berlin Olympics. German silver medal winner Lutz Long gives the Nazi salute.
a neutral stance, leaving only the TOP SIX WINNING NATIONS US press. Its effect was zero, but it 325
Soviet Union to back the Republic. became for the British a symbol of
Franco’s Army of Africa advanced Hungary the era of mass unemployment. THE NUMBER
inexorably on Madrid, carrying out Italy OF DAYS
massacres along the way. On October 4, the black-shirted EDWARD VIII
Finland British Union of Fascists (BUF) REIGNED AS
Meanwhile, Comintern was France staged a march through a KING BEFORE
recruiting volunteers from many predominantly Jewish area of HE ABDICATED
European countries and North Germany London’s East End. There they
America to fight in Spain. The first clashed with antifascists in what presidential elections in November,
of these International Brigades 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 became known as the Battle of securing a second term and
played a vital role in the defense Cable Street. The march was confirming the popularity of his
NUMBER OF MEDALS abandoned. This humiliation for New Deal policies.
GENERAL FRANCISCO the BUF was followed by a
FRANCO (1892–1975) 1936 Olympic Games medal tally government ban on political Three weeks after Roosevelt’s
The most successful countries in the 1936 Berlin summer uniforms. British fascism never reelection, a further critical step
Franco was a career officer Olympics were Germany and the US. The Soviet Union and regained its momentum. toward a new world war was
who commanded the Spain were among countries that did not take part. taken when Germany and Japan
Spanish Foreign Legion in In the US, Roosevelt (see 1933) signed the Anti-Comintern Pact.
Morocco in the 1920s. A of Madrid in November. The The Berlin Olympics were the won a landslide victory in the Explicitly an agreement to resist
Catholic monarchist, he Nationalist advance was halted and occasion for the first live TV communist subversion, the pact
joined the military uprising Madrid remained Republican. broadcasts. Seventy hours of fuzzy Marconiphone television receiver was aimed against the Soviet
against the Republic in July black-and-white coverage were Early televisions like this one made Union. It created an ideological
1936 and was recognized as In the highly charged political shown in special viewing rooms by Marconi were luxury products— link between the Nazis and an
sole leader of the Nationalist atmosphere of 1936, the holding around the city, as well as picked the Marconiphone sold in Britain for increasingly militaristic Japan.
rebels in September. After of the summer Olympic Games up by a handful of private TV sets. 60 guineas, equivalent to about
victory in the Civil War in in Berlin—agreed to before the Later in the year, the BBC began $4,500 (£3,000) today. On November 16, Britain’s king
1939 he imposed a harsh Nazis came to power—was the first regular high-definition Edward VIII (1894–1972) informed
dictatorship. He kept Spain inevitably a propaganda coup television service, broadcast from Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin
neutral in World War II and for Hitler. He seized the Alexandra Palace in London. that he intended to marry
remained in power until his opportunity to present the Third American divorcee Mrs. Wallis
death in 1975. Reich in a favorable light. The In the fall, two events took Simpson. Political opinion was
Olympics were staged on an place that would enter Britain’s solidly behind Baldwin, who told
unprecedentedly lavish scale with political mythology. The Jarrow the king that he must choose
impeccable efficiency. Germany Crusade was a march by 200 between Simpson and the throne.
topped the medal table, but black cloth-capped jobless workers Edward abdicated and his
American athlete Jesse Owens from a Depression-blighted brother, Albert, inherited the
attracted the most attention by shipbuilding town on the Tyne throne as George VI (1895–1952).
winning four gold medals in River. Jarrow had 70 percent
sprint events and the long jump. unemployment. The workers
Hitler was accused of snubbing sought to publicize its plight
Owens because his success ran by presenting a petition to
counter to Nazi theories of Aryan parliament in Westminster.
racial superiority. Owens himself Their 280-mile (450-km) journey
felt more insulted by the lack of took almost a month, attracting
congratulations from Roosevelt. sympathetic coverage in the
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1937
George VI at his coronation in Westminster Abbey on May 12. He ascended the
throne following the abdication of his brother, Edward VIII.
,, I SEE ONE-THIRD OF A problem in Palestine, and their devastated by aircraft of the W. H. Auden from Britain, Ernest
NATION ILL-HOUSED, ILL- proposal to split it between the German Condor Legion. Hemingway from the US, and
,, Jews and Arabs was rejected by Estimates of the death toll varied André Malraux from France.
,,CLAD, ILL-NOURISHED. both sides. from 300 to 1,700. Graphically The most famous response to
described by journalists who the bombing of Guernica was
Franklin D. Roosevelt, American president, in his inauguration speech, In Spain, the ongoing civil war visited the town in the wake of the Pablo Picasso’s painting, which
January 20, 1937 (see 1936) was progressing badly attack, the event focused fears was first exhibited in the Spanish
for the Republican Loyalists. about aerial bombardment, Republic’s pavilion at the Paris
THE YEAR BEGAN WITH FRANKLIN prime minister in Downing Street, Political divisions, with specifically the impact of the International Exhibition in
D. ROOSEVELT starting his second Neville Chamberlain (1869–1940). Communists determined to German Luftwaffe in any future summer 1937.
term in office as US president. In In Ireland, a referendum in July suppress anarchists and war between the major powers.
his inauguration speech on approved a proposal for a new Trotskyists, nullified the courage The Paris Exhibition also
January 20, Roosevelt drew constitution. The Irish Free State and determination of their military In an increasingly divided world, featured grandiose Nazi German
attention to persistent poverty in became Eire (Ireland in Gaelic), efforts. The Nationalist rebels art and literature were becoming and Soviet Russian pavilions, both
America. He pledged to end this and in effect a fully independent continued to enjoy the support of politicized. Prominent writers using monumental sculpture to
injustice, denouncing “heedless country, although officially still German and Italian forces, went to Spain, either to fight in trumpet the glories of their rival
self-interest” as bad morals and a dominion of the British especially in the air. On April 26, the Civil War (mostly on the political systems. The Nazis also
bad economics. The president’s Commonwealth. British India took the Basque town of Guernica Republican side) or as war took the extraordinary decision
radical policies brought him into another step toward self- became famous worldwide when, tourists and journalists. Among to mount a show of the art they
conflict with the Supreme Court, government with implementation on a busy market day, it was these were George Orwell and despised, displaying confiscated
while across the country a wave of of the India Act, but the limited
sit-down strikes pitted workers powers of its elected assembly
against their employers. As the fell far short of satisfying Indian
number of jobless more than nationalists. The British also
doubled between 1936 and 1938, failed to find a solution to the
it was not obvious that Roosevelt’s
approach was working. This Picasso’s vision of war
period was ironically dubbed In response to the German bombing
“Roosevelt’s Depression.” of the Basque town of Guernica,
Pablo Picasso painted this large
For Britain and its empire, this mural in support of the Spanish
was a year of change. In May, the Republicans. It was displayed at
country saw a new king crowned, the 1937 Paris Exhibition.
George VI (1895–1952), and a new
AT 2 A.M. TODAY WHEN I VISITED
THE TOWN, THE WHOLE OF IT WAS
A HORRIBLE SIGHT, FLAMING
,,FROM END TO END.
George Steer, British journalist, reporting the bombing of Guernica
for The Times, April 27, 1937
JaSnoupmoaworzyear1GiAnanNracisicataatrsaaikogeusa FeCbiIvrtiuallaWiaranyr8t,rNoInoapStispoantanakilseishtMaanladga FeDbuprPauotaenrntytCs1o6nryploornatioMnavircacttohiBnr8yaS–tfpo1tlar6enRDoiseefhpfGeuCunbiasvlidiicvlaaeWlnaasjarra ApbroaimlirN2bc6areatdGifotubnseyaurGlnpisepitcrosamritnainnSgpMainaCyogm3o–vme1ru0nnUmispetr-nidstoicnmrguinasaghtaeeiddnsiRnteBpaurbcleicloanna MaCyoor1foi2GnneaBotriroigtnaeinVI Maoype2n7sGinolSdaennFGraatnecBisrciodMgaMeyap3sos0liacMcereaemnbdoarstittalrelikDbeeartyswienJeuCnSnhpceiacaan1pg9itsouhreNBatiilobnaaolists
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382
… THERE’S FLAMES, NOW, AND,,
THE FRAME IS CRASHING TO THE
,,GROUND… OH, THE HUMANITY…
Herbert Robertson, Chicago news reporter, as he watched
the Hindenberg crash, May 6, 1937
The German Zeppelin airship Hindenburg exploding into a fireball while docking
at Lakehurst in New Jersey. The cause of the disaster remains uncertain.
paintings by modernists and Jews of “Old Bolsheviks”—men who sickle is the observers, shocked the public $27,125,000
at a “Degenerate Art” exhibition had participated in the 1917 symbol of in the US and solidified the construction
in Munich, to be laughed at by the Revolution. While arrests of Old agriculture sympathy of the US government
German public. Bolsheviks continued through for the Chinese. US hostility to $4,068,000
1937, other people also came hammer Japan’s actions in China was the financing
Meanwhile, under the under suspicion. Between is the first step on the path to the
dictatorship of Joseph Stalin 1937 and 1939 almost half the symbol Pacific War (see 1941). $1,334,000
(1878–1953), the Soviet Union had senior army commanders were of industry surplus
begun the Great Terror. The executed, imprisoned, or fired. Elsewhere, the year was
Soviet regime had always been Although the fate of the Soviet marked by air disasters. German $423,000 $2,050,000
ruthless toward those it defined elite attracted most attention, airships had begun scheduled administration engineering
as enemies—for example, Stalin’s reign of terror spread transatlantic passenger flights. and preliminaries and inspection
peasants who resisted collective through the entire population. On May 6, the airship Hindenburg,
agriculture (see 1930)—but now At least 680,000 people were with 97 passengers and crew on Golden Gate Bridge building costs
the unbridled power of the secret killed during the Great Purge, board, burst into flames as it The original budget for building San
police was turned against the and some historians believe docked at Lakehurst, New Jersey. Francisco’s Golden Gate Bridge was
leadership of the Soviet armed the real figure could even be Within seconds the fire had $27 million, but the actual building
forces, and of the ruling party closer to 2 million. spread through its hydrogen-filled costs totaled $35 million.
itself. The process began in 1936, gasbag. Remarkably, only 35
with the arrest, trial, and execution In summer 1937, gradual
Japanese encroachment on people were killed, but the
Chinese territory erupted disaster brought an abrupt Guinea with co-pilot Fred Noonan
into full-scale war. Japanese and end to the brief era of for the Pacific leg of an attempted
Chinese forces clashed at the luxury airship travel. Two around-the-world flight. Their
Marco Polo Bridge outside months later, America’s aircraft was never seen again.
Beijing in July, and the most famous woman
following month large- pilot, Amelia Earhart Technology continued to
scale fighting developed in (1887–1937), took progress throughout the year,
Shanghai. Chiang Kai-shek’s off from New culminating in the race for the
Chinese Nationalist forces put first successful trials of turbojet
up much stiffer resistance than sculpture made engines, between Frank Whittle
the Japanese expected, from stainless- in Britain and Hans von Ohain in
inflicting around 50,000 steel panels Germany. Whittle won, but the
casualties on the invaders, Germans forged ahead with
but they were forced to Worker and peasant development of a jet aircraft—
abandon the city. The Japanese This giant sculpture, Ohain’s engine powering the
then advanced on the Chinese by Vera Mukhina, first jet flight in August 1939.
Nationalist capital, Nanking,
which they took in December. dominated the Another marker for progress
Nanking’s civilian population was Soviet pavilion at was the opening of the Golden
subjected to a brutal attack by the World’s Fair Gate Bridge in San Francisco. At
Japanese troops, while thousands in 1937. It is 4,200ft (1,280m), its central span
of surrendered Chinese soldiers was the longest of any suspension
were also killed. This massacre, an example bridge in the world, a record that
witnessed by Christian of Socialist stood until it was surpassed by
missionaries and other Western Realist style. the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge
in New York in 1964.
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383
1938
British prime minister Neville Chamberlain (right) visited Nazi Germany
for the Munich Conference on September 28.
WALT DISNEY’S REWORKING OF economy was performing well in PERCENT CHANGE IN GDP 180 UK Economic
THE FAIRY TALE OF SNOW WHITE the late 1930s, with high levels of KEY Japan growth
and the Seven Dwarfs marked house building, burgeoning USSR The Soviet
the transition of animated movies production of consumer goods— 160 US Union achieved
from cartoon shorts aimed from cars to vacuum cleaners— high economic
primarily at children to a major nationwide electrification, and Germany growth in the
strand in film culture. Dismissed growth in high-tech industries 140 1930s. Japan
in advance as “Disney’s Folly,” such as aircraft manufacturing. A and Germany
Snow White was an immediate hit, symbol of Britain’s technological France also recovered
briefly holding the record for the success was the performance of well from the
highest grossing movie of all the streamlined A4 Pacific-class 120 Italy Depression.
time before being overtaken by locomotive Mallard. On July 3 it
Gone with the Wind (see 1939). reached 126mph (203kph), 100 1939
The ability of Hollywood to setting a world speed record
manufacture universally for a steam engine that has never 80
appealing, mass-market films, been surpassed.
along with the influence of Animated feature 60 1931 1933 1935 1937
American big-band “swing” Walt Disney’s Snow White and The year’s first major 1929
dance music, was laying the the Seven Dwarfs was the first international crisis came in
foundations for a US-dominated, feature-length, animated movie March, with the German Austrian Chancellor Kurt accompanied by widespread
international popular culture. to be released worldwide, in 1938. annexation of Austria—the Schuschnigg (1897–1977) to back attacks by Nazis on Austria’s
Anschluss (“unification”). Hitler the Nazi movement inside Austria. large Jewish population.
All was not well with the US in unemployment in 1938 drew had been applying mounting When Schuschnigg attempted to
economy, however. A sharp rise attention to the fact that President pressure on the government of hold a referendum on Austrian Although the unification of
Roosevelt’s New Deal (see 1933) independence, Hitler forced his Germany and Austria was a major
had failed to solve the economic resignation and launched an breech of the Versailles Treaty
problems of the US Depression. invasion. German troops crossed (see 1919), Britain and France
the border unopposed; Hitler was made no attempt to intervene.
By comparison, although greeted in Vienna by cheering Instead, British prime minister
pockets of high unemployment crowds. The annexation was Neville Chamberlain embarked
persisted in Britain, the British upon an active policy of
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3 8 4FemborvuiaerStyhn4eowASenWvimehniatetDreewadlneadarfsnseaFdveablbrbeuacasoermyaet1s4SoiBnprgeiartiapstohiorenalFepbrorvuidaersy fi2r4sTtocooutmhsebmroeufrsnchiyallon MAanrascbchhsol1ur2bs–ss1,A3GuIensrttmtrhhiaeaeniRnyetoich CivMilbaWoracmrhb, 1Gin6eg–r1mo8faBInnaarScnpedal6onI7tnia0salhipakenilolsple agrebeaAmckpernoiftlsB2ir5nitcAilsnuPhgd-olehroeth–slaIdrtnioTsdrhIirneegaltaoyMnfdfiacye2r8s HhCeizteliencrthetonesdlllsosvtGaoekdrieamsbatyrnowyaJrunem1ian3jiotCJirahatoipinfnafegensneeBssaNievteatllateaiuogonnafcaihWnlissutths,an LAaJcbtuosnrewecSthsa2taig5lmndeFdilanaaaniibrmrddousrbmainnsUS
,, ,,I BELIEVE IT IS PEACE
FOR OUR TIME.
British prime minister Neville Chamberlain, on his return to London
from the Munich Conference, September 30, 1938
Arab prisoners are guarded by a British soldier in the Old City of Jerusalem,
during the suppression of the revolt against Britain’s rule in Palestine.
“appeasement,” based on the Night of broken glass
belief that a durable peace could A shopkeeper clears up
shattered glass from a looted
10,000,000be secured by settling Germany’s Jewish shop in the wake of
attacks on German and
“legitimate claims.” Attention Austrian Jews in November.
focused on the German minority THE APPROXIMATE ADDITION
in Czechoslovakia, concentrated children, without their
parents, and the US
in the Sudetenland area. Hitler TO THE GERMAN POPULATION maintained its existing
stirred up unrest among the barriers to immigration.
Jews were trapped
Sudeten Germans, while ordering BY THE ANNEXATIONS OF because, although the
Nazis were ready to let
his generals to prepare for an them leave, they had
nowhere to go.
invasion of Czechoslovakia. The AUSTRIA AND SUDETENLAND
British and French governments One potential destination
for Jews from Europe was
were desperate to avoid war, Palestine, which was
recognized by the British
but were committed to defending War seemed inevitable, and struck that preserved peace at as a site for a Jewish homeland
(see 1917). But the British were
the Czechs. In September, military preparations were under the expense of Czechoslovakia, struggling with an armed uprising
by Palestinian Arabs who were
Chamberlain embarked on an way in Britain and France when, which had to hand over the bitterly opposed to the expansion
of Jewish settlement. In an
unprecedented diplomatic on September 28, Italian dictator Sudetenland to Germany. attempt to defuse the situation,
Britain imposed tight limits on
initiative, flying twice to Germany Benito Mussolini proposed a Chamberlain and Daladier were Jewish immigration.
The high pitch of anxiety in the
for face-to-face talks with Hitler. four-nation conference. Hitler greeted as heroes when they world at the time became evident
when a radio broadcast induced
Although Britain pressured the accepted and met the French returned home, the British and mass panic in the US. Orson
Welles’s radio version of the
Czech government into making premier Édouard Daladier French people profoundly relieved The assassination of a German alien-invasion classic The War of
diplomat by a Jew in Paris served the Worlds was broadcast by CBS
major concessions, this only made (1884–1970), Chamberlain, and to have avoided war. Conservative as a pretext for Nazi-orchestrated at Halloween. The news bulletin
attacks on Jewish homes and format convinced millions of
Hitler raise his demands. Mussolini at Munich. A deal was MP Winston Churchill (1874–1965) businesses across Germany and Americans that a genuine invasion
Austria. Synagogues were burned by Martians was underway. When
was among the minority who down and sacred objects genuinely frightened listeners
desecrated; 30,000 Jewish men finally understood their mistake,
denounced the Munich were rounded up and taken to there was widespread anger.
concentration camps, where
agreement, calling it “a defeat beatings and torture were routine.
without a war.” Those countries still committed
to democracy and freedom
Post-Munich optimism only expressed outrage at Nazi
anti-Semitism, but they were not
lasted until November, when keen to provide a home for Jews
now desperate to escape Nazi
Kristallnacht (“the Night of persecution. At an international
conference on the issue held at
Broken Glass”) provided graphic Evian in July, the Australian
representative T. W. White stated
evidence of the extremist bluntly: “As we have no racial
problem, we are not desirous of
nature of the Nazi regime. importing one.” Britain agreed to
accept a limited number of Jewish
Steam record holder
Designed by Nigel
Gresley, the steam
locomotive
Mallard was
a masterly
fusion of
form and
function. It achieved
an enduring world
speed record.
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entreHpuraegrnJhoeuefluulsniyrgdch1Ho-t5tmohiwUnepaS-l9erw1dteohsroludrsRepuboliJfcfuealnnysfi2ov5recSoepnsaltnahuiesnhEScbehMrpmionteeisemttebHreiCtrolhev1are5mraBtSbrBeuitrdeilserahctiehnPntflerlaisimengsdeatdcoerinsisConfeSreeanptcteeexmkpeebenepsrse2po9ef–aC3cze0eciMnhguoEonsuvliroceohvrpanfekomOiraecpntaotrbatibetiaronn1d9oofBnPrsaitpliKeslahsantiOis-fncosehtroceebksewrtosi2toCh7udhtCruhhanwwigaeksnsigthnCigshinina On cKarrirsiteadlNlJonoeuawvtcehbsmtya,Ncbarteaotzrasicss9ka–Gasn1geda0arrimAenusastntyria SlovaakuDiateobcneeocmmobmoeuerss1satnate 3 8 5DepbcraoecvmkidibenaKesggarafiifi-o1nnsr5ashCtnUehJckSiai’aasplnawgnaerse
1939
Spanish women in Madrid, celebrating the victory of Franco’s Nationalists in the
country’s civil war. Defeated opponents of Franco faced harsh oppression.
BY 1939 MILITARY DICTATORSHIPS ,, WHEN STARTING AND EVACUATION OF THE CITIES
WERE SPREADING ACROSS
At the start of September,
EUROPE. Only a handful of ,,WAGING WAR IT IS NOT Britain and France began to
countries, chiefly Britain and evacuate civilians from danger
France, maintained a liberal RIGHT THAT MATTERS, areas. Expecting air attacks, the
democratic system. In the spring, BUT VICTORY. British evacuated 1.5 million
General Francisco Franco’s children from large cities, along
Nationalists triumphed in with mothers with babies and
young children. The French
the Spanish Civil War, occupying Adolf Hitler, military and political leader of Germany, 30 January 1939 carried out mass evacuations
the surviving Republican from the border provinces of
Alsace and Lorraine in eastern
strongholds of Barcelona and France. Germany did not carry
out mass evacuations until
Madrid. Tens of thousands of (see 1938) had left Czechoslovakia The German occupation of heavy bombing began in 1942.
Franco’s enemies were executed. a defenseless state, and the Prague forced the leaders
Others fled into exile, and many Germans encouraged Slovakian of the Western democracies to
were interned in camps in France. nationalists, who were resentful acknowledge the ruthlessness
Meanwhile, Italy’s dictator Benito of Czech domination, to declare of Nazi expansionism. It was
Mussolini (1883–1945) had independence. In March, Hitler’s obvious Poland was to be the
annexed Albania, and driven troops marched unopposed into next target. Believing a threat
out its monarch, King Zog Prague, turning the Czech lands of force would deter Hitler, the
(1895–1961). of Bohemia and Moravia into a British and French gave the 10,000 unaccompanied Jewish While all eyes were focused
children to find refuge in Britain. on Europe, the Soviet Union
More threatening for the peace German “protectorate.” After Poles a guarantee of military Adults were not allowed to was fighting an undeclared war
accompany them, however, and with Japan in Asia. Throughout
of Europe was German Führer Hungary annexed the east, support, but Hitler was not many of the children never saw the summer, clashes occurred
their parents again. along the border between
Adolf Hitler’s occupation of Czechoslovakia ceased to exist deterred. In April he began Mongolia, a Soviet client state,
and Japanese-occupied
Prague. The Munich agreement as a country. military planning for an invasion Manchuria. Soviet General
Georgy Zhukov’s hard-fought
of Poland. victory at the battle of Khalkhin
Gol decided the outcome. This
Baltic LITHUANIA Desperate Jews tried to flee defeat influenced the Japanese
Sea the expanding area coming under to pursue naval-led expansion in
the Pacific and Southeast Asia,
POMERANIA Danzig EAST Nazi control, but many countries rather than further land
refused to let them in. Among conquests in East Asia.
PRUSSIA the more fortunate were those Anticipating a war with
Germany, Britain and France
rescued by the Kindertransport unenthusiastically pursued
scheme that arranged for almost
Cracow Warsaw Invasion of Poland
German forces invaded Poland
Brest–Litovsk from East Prussia, Germany, and
Slovakia on September 1. With Nazi
Lodz USSR agreement, the Soviets occupied
POLAND eastern Poland.
GERMANY KEY
German advance/operation
SILESIA GALICIA Soviet advance
Lwow German/Soviet demarcation line
Cracow in Poland
SLOVAKIA World War II British gas mask
All British civilians were issued with
ROMANIA gas masks, for protection against
poison gas air attacks. This brightly-
colored mask is for a child.
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386
During the period known as the “phony war,” preparations for conflict in suburban
Britain often seemed bizarre, with no real enemy to fire at.
a military alliance 10-round magazine Remaining neutral, the US
with the Soviet seemed a world away from the
Union—a country Finnish Rifle cheek rest blacked-out cities of Europe. The
they disliked and distrusted. The Finnish Lahti anti-tank rifle was New York World’s Fair, opened
No one anticipated a deal used against the Soviets during the With Poland crushed, the raised two months later when the in April, taking “The World of
between Hitler and the Soviet Winter War, which began with the Western democracies entered German battleship Graf Spee was Tomorrow” as its theme. Around
leader Joseph Stalin, but on Russian invasion of Finland. the period known as the “phony driven by British cruisers to take 44 million visitors came to see
August 23 the Soviet and German war.” After the fall of Poland the refuge in the neutral port of such novelties as nylon stockings
foreign ministers, Vyacheslav itself neutral. The war was British and French rejected a Montevideo in Uruguay, where the and color photography.
Molotov (1890–1986) and Joachim greeted by all countries with peace offer from Hitler, but the Germans scuttled it.
von Ribbentrop (1893–1946), fear and resignation. There were troops they assembled in France Hollywood was enjoying a
signed a nonaggression treaty, no cheering crowds in Berlin, remained passive. The lack of At the end of November, the golden era, with classic releases
known as the Molotov–Ribbentrop London, or Paris. military action was a relief to the Soviet Union launched an attack including Gone With the Wind, The
Pact, which included a provision British and French governments. on Finland. The Winter War Wizard of Oz, and Stagecoach.
to divide Poland between them. The destruction of Poland German air attacks and massive revealed severe deficiencies in Grand picture palaces, some of
was achieved with breathtaking civilian casualties had been the organization, equipment, and which could accommodate more
German forces invaded speed. German troops reached expected, but did not occur. leadership of the Soviet Red Army. than 4,000 customers, were filled.
Poland on September 1. Two the outskirts of Warsaw within By the end of the year, the Finns The American economy was
days later, unable to escape their a week. The Poles fought with The only dramatic action in still held their Mannerheim Line poised for a decisive upturn as an
commitment to the Poles, the courage and tenacity—Germany Britain’s war against Germany defenses, and the Soviets had amendment to the Neutrality
British and French governments sustained more than 40,000 was at sea. In October, the suffered heavy losses. Act allowed US factories to equip
declared war on Germany. casualties—but once Soviet German Navy’s U-boat U-47 the British and French war effort.
Australia, New Zealand, Canada, troops moved in from the penetrated the defenses of Movie attendance
and South Africa followed. east all was lost. Warsaw Britain’s main naval base at Scapa Movies of the late 1930s achieved Off to see the Wizard
Britain brought India into the war surrendered on September Flow, in the Orkney Islands off extraordinary ticket sales. Around Julie Garland played Dorothy in
without consulting its elected 28, and the fighting stopped Scotland, and sank the battleship 80 million movie tickets were sold the 1939 movie The Wizard of Oz—
representatives, while Ireland a week later. Dividing the Royal Oak. British morale was in the US every week. perfect fantasy entertainment
and the US declared their country between them, the for hard and dangerous times.
neutrality. Much to Hitler’s Soviets and Nazis set about MOVIES Star Wars 1977
annoyance, Italy also declared imprisoning and massacring The Sound of Music 1965
Poles in large numbers.
36 Bambi 1942
Throughout the autumn the Gone with the Wind 1939
THE NUMBER Germans began confining
OF DAYS Poland’s Jews to ghettos, a Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs 1937
GERMANY major step toward the Holocaust
TOOK TO (see 1942). Hitler had already 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
OVERRUN signed an order in Germany at the MOVIE ATTENDANCE (IN MILLIONS)
POLAND start of the war for the killing of
people with incurable mental
disabilities. Over 70,000 German
mental patients were murdered
by lethal injections or gassing,
before the operation was
suspended in August 1941.
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387
NORWAY SWEDEN FINLAND
North Leningrad USSR
Sep 8, 1941–Jan 27, 1944
Glasgow Sea Stalingrad
Moscow Aug 23, 1942–Feb 2, 1943
O C E A N IRELAND Belfast DENMARK ic ESTONIA Oct 2, 1941–Jan 7, 1942
Sea ea
UNITED Minsk
KINGDOM Jun 22–29, 1941
ATLANTIC Liverpool Hull Balt LITHUANIA Kiev
Birmingham Coventry LATVIA Aug 22–Sep 26, 1941
NETHERLANDS
Cardiff London Danzig EAST
PRUSSIA
Rotterdam Hamburg
Plymouth
Essen Berlin
Dunkirk
May 26–Jun 4, 1940 Sedan BELGIUM Cologne G E R M A N Y Warsaw
Sep 8–28, 1939
May 12–15, 1940 LUXEMBOURG
Paris Prague POLAND
Bay of FRANCE Munich SLOVAKIA Caspian S
Biscay
SWITZERLAND Budapest Odessa
AUSTRIA
HUNGARY
Turin Milan ROMANIA
PORTUGAL Genoa
SPAIN Sevastapol
Oct 30, 1941–Jul 4, 1942
Rome ITALY YUGOSLAVIA Black Sea
BULGARIA
M e d Sicily TURKEY
MOROCCO i t a ALBANIA Athens
GREECE Crete
ALGERIA e r May 20–Jun 1, 1941
r
German expansion TUNISIA n
Between September 1939 and August 1942 Nazi ean
German forces conquered most of mainland Europe, Sea KEY
seizing control of an area from Norway to Crete, and German advance
from France to the Black Sea. Britain remained free of Major battle
German domination, but was subjected to air attacks. Major German air attack
Nazi U-boats also preyed on Britain's shipping lanes. Major Allied air attack
THE WAR IN China other
countries
EUROPE
France 2.61.B6IBL3IL.L2ILBOIILNOLNION
THE ALLIED BATTLE TO TURN BACK THE TIDE OF NAZI CONTROL
11.3 31.4
BILLION BILLION
The German invasion of Poland in September 1939 provoked Britain and Soviet UK
France to declare war on Germany. At first the Germans won an astonishing Union
series of victories, but from 1942 onward they were overwhelmed by the
combined strength of the US, the Soviet Union, and Britain. US lend-lease
The US provided its Allies with vast quantities
of war equipment and supplies, under the
lend-lease program. Britain and the Soviet
Union were the major beneficiaries.
After the rapid defeat of Poland in April 1940, defeat, the German army swept south to Crete and EUROPE IN 1942 By 1942 Nazi Germany
the Germans invaded Denmark and Norway. intervened in North Africa. Hitler’s invasion of the dominated mainland Europe. Its allies and
Their devastating campaign swiftly overran the Soviet Union in June 1941 brought German forces satellites included Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria,
Netherlands, Belgium, and France. British Forces to the gates of Moscow and Leningrad. But the Slovakia, Croatia, and Vichy France. Greater
escaped from Europe through an evacuation from German drive eastward came to a catastrophic Germany expanded before and during the war
Dunkirk in France. The Luftwaffe failed to end at Stalingrad in late 1942. to include Austria, French Alsace-Lorraine,
overcome the RAF in the Battle of Britain in and much of Poland (which ceased to exist as a
summer 1940, but British cities were subjected Defeated in North Africa, the Germans then state in October 1939). Although the Nazis
to night bombing raids during the Blitz. faced an Allied invasion of Italy. In summer 1944, found some willing collaborators, their
the Allies landed in Normandy and broke out to ambition to found a “New Order” in Europe
The entry of Italy into the war in June 1940 liberate France and Belgium. A final German eventually came to nothing.
spread the fighting to the Mediterranean and counterattack in the Ardennes was repulsed, and
North Africa. Needing to rescue Italian forces from Germany was finally invaded from east and west.
388
NORWAY SWEDEN FINLAND
OCEAN North DENMARK ic ESTONIA USSR
Sea
ATLANTIC IRELA Sea Balt LATVIA Moscow Stalingrad
UNITED NETHERLANDS Aug 23, 1942–
ND Feb 2, 1943
KINGDOM Hamburg EAST LITHUANIA Sea
PRUSSIA
London Allied offensives
The tide of war turned
D–day landings Arnhem Battle of Berlin Minsk Kursk with the British victory at
Jun 6, 1944 Sep 17–26, 1944 Apr 16–May 2, 1945 Jun 29–Jul 4, 1944 Jul 5–13, 1943 El Alamein in North Africa
and the Soviet triumph at
BELGIUM Stalingrad. Italy surrendered
in 1943 after the Allies landed,
Ardennes Dresden and after the Normandy
invasion on D-day in 1944,
Paris Dec 16–Jan 25, 1945 GERMANY UKRAINE Germany was crushed
Pforzheim between Soviet forces
FRANCE SLOVAKIA advancing from the east and
Bay of POLAND the Western Allies attacking Caspian
Biscay from the west.
SWITZERLAND HUNGARY
AUSTRIA
ROMANIA
Budapest
PORTUGAL Dec 29–Feb 13, 1945
SPAIN ITALY CROATIA Black Sea
MOROCCO SERBIA TURKEY
Anzio MONTE-
Jan 22–Jun 5, 1944 NEGRO
Rome ALBANIA BULGARIA
Cassino
Jan 17–May 18, 1944 Salerno
Sep 9, 1943
M e d i te
Messina
ALGERIA rra n e Sicily
GREECE
TUNISI
KEY a El Alamein
Allied advance n Sea Oct 23 –Nov 5, 1942
Major battle A EGYPT
Major Allied LIBYA
firebomb attack
UNITED FINLAND BOMBS DROPPED ON EUROPE (IN 100,000 TONS) 6 FINLAND
KINGDOM USSR KEY
NORWAY RAF UNITED NORWAY
SWEDEN KINGDOM SWEDEN ESTONIA
5 USAAF Baltic Sea
IRELAND LATVIA
4
North Sea DENMARK LITHUANIA
DENMARK 3 NETHERLANDS
USSR
NETHERLANDS 2
WEST GERBerlin POLAND BYELO-
1 EAST RUSSIA
IRELAND BEL. GERMANY
AT L A N T I C LUX. MANY CZECH. UKRAINE
OCEAN Vienna
POLAND
ATLANTIC BELGIUM GERMANY FRANCE SWITZ. AUSTRIA HUNG.
OCEAN
SWITZERLAND YUGOSLAV ROMANIA Black Sea
SPAIN FRANCE AUSTRIA SLOVAKIA IA BULGARIA
VICHY HUNGARY PORTUGAL ITALY
FRANCE SPAIN TURKEY
PORTUGAL Mediterranea
TUNISIA CROATIA ROMANIA ALBANIA
GREECE
ITALY SERBIA Black Sea Sea
n
BULGARIA
Mediterranean TURKEY 0 THE IRON CURTAIN After KEY
ALGERIA 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 World War II, Eastern European
MOROCCO ALBANIA countries that were occupied by Soviet territory
GREECE YEAR the Soviets were placed under
Sea communist governments. In Soviet-dominated
Stategic Allied bombing in Europe Yugoslavia, an independent communist states
KEY Axis satellite RAF Bomber Command and the US communist regime refused by 1949
Frontiers 1937 Italy and Italian Army Air Force carried out a sustained, Soviet tutelage. The divide
occupied territory large-scale bombing campaign on between communist east and Members of NATO
Frontiers Nov 1942 Finnish territory mainland Europe. The Allies dropped capitalist west, which ran down 1949
Neutral 3 million tons of bombs, killing around the middle of Germany, was
Greater Allied territory 500,000 people. The US bombed industrial dubbed the Iron Curtain. Independent
German Reich objectives by day, while the RAF attacked communist state
cities by night.
German occupation Iron Curtain in 1949
Cities divided into
zones of occupation
389
1940
,, WE SHALL FIGHT THEM ON THE
,,BEACHES… WE SHALL FIGHT IN THE FIELDS
AND IN THE STREETS, WE SHALL FIGHT IN
THE HILLS; WE SHALL NEVER SURRENDER.
Winston Churchill, British prime minister,
addressing Parliament on June 4, 1940
Allied soldiers form lines on the beach at Dunkirk, France, awaiting boats
to carry them to England. German air attacks harassed the evacuation.
United people were executed or deported North Rotterdam
Commonwealth to labor camps. Stalin’s ruthless Sea NETHERLANDS
A British propaganda reach extended as far as Mexico,
poster shows men where his exiled rival Leon GREAT Antwerp GERMANY
from the dominions Trotsky had found refuge. In BRITAIN
and colonies united in August, Trotsky was killed by Brussels
the war effort. Even in Ramon Mercader, an agent of Dunkirk
1940 Britain did not Stalin’s secret police. BELGIUM
“stand alone,”
On April 4, British prime minister
prime minister by Neville Chamberlain announced English
Paul Reynaud that Hitler had “missed the bus” Channel
(1878–1966). by failing to launch a major
ALTHOUGH BRITAIN AND FRANCE Also in March, Soviet dictator offensive as British rearmament Sedan LUXEMBOURG
WERE AT WAR WITH GERMANY, Joseph Stalin (see 1928) accelerated. Five days after this
the only fighting in Europe in early approved the killing of all Polish complacent speech, German forces FRANCE
1940 was between the Soviet officers who had fallen into Soviet occupied Denmark and invaded
Union and Finland (see 1939). The hands through the occupation of Norway. Britain and France sent Paris
British and French governments, western Poland (see 1939). Most troops and warships to aid the
both strongly anticommunist, of the region’s educated elite— Norwegians but could not prevent Battle of France KEY Allied front Allied front
planned to send an expeditionary doctors, lawyers, and teachers— a German victory. Norway’s King After the Dunkirk line May 21 line Jun 4
force to aid the Finns. Troops were were also murdered. Some 22,000 Haakon VII was evacuated to evacuation of the Allied German
assembled, but Soviet military victims were buried in mass Britain with his government to forces, German troops advance Allied defensive Allied front
successes led Finland to seek graves in Katyn Forest and continue the fight from exile. advanced into central line May 28 line Jun 12
peace in March. In France, the elsewhere. In June, when the and western France. Allied front
failure to help the Finns led to the Soviet Union occupied the Baltic In Britain, the disastrous line May 16
fall of the government of Edouard states—Lithuania, Latvia, and campaign in Norway destroyed
Daladier, who was replaced as Estonia—tens of thousands more confidence in the Chamberlain
government. On May 10, Winston
WINSTON CHURCHILL (1874–1965) Churchill became prime minister
at the head of a broad coalition.
Churchill led an adventurous formations of tanks and motorized The French army was driven into
life as a soldier and war On the same day, German infantry supported by Stuka retreat, allowing the Germans to
correspondent before entering forces invaded the Netherlands, dive-bombers drove northward to occupy Paris on June 14. France
politics. As First Lord of the Belgium, and Luxembourg. After reach the Channel coast and cut was also attacked by Italy,
Admiralty in World War I he Rotterdam was heavily bombed, off the Allied forces in Belgium. Mussolini belatedly entering the
was blamed for the Gallipoli the Dutch forces surrendered to The Allies established a defensive war to pick up some of the spoils
disaster. A backbench MP avoid further destruction. Dutch perimeter around the port of of German victory. The French
during the 1930s, he opposed Queen Wilhelmina defiantly set up Dunkirk and a remarkable escape government, along with much
the appeasement of Hitler. a government-in-exile in London. operation was mounted. Between of the population, fled to the
In 1939, he returned to the May 26 and June 4, 338,000 Allied southwest. In Bordeaux, a new
Admiralty before becoming Allied troops in northern France troops were evacuated by sea government was formed under
prime minister in May 1940. He advanced into Belgium to meet the before Dunkirk fell to the Germans. the defeatist Marshal Pétain
led Britain through the war but German offensive. The Germans (1856–1951). General Charles de
lost the 1945 general election. unexpectedly delivered a powerful Belgian King Leopold III Gaulle, a junior minister under
thrust through the Ardennes (1901–83) surrendered on May Reynaud and a serving army
region into France and broke 28, overruling his government’s officer, escaped to Britain and
through the French defenses at wish to continue fighting.
Sedan. Fast-moving German
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June
,, ,,FRANCE HAS LOST THE
BATTLE, BUT FRANCE HAS
NOT LOST THE WAR.
Charles de Gaulle, French General, June 18, 1940
German troops march down the Champs Elysées after the occupation of Paris
in June 1940. The French capital was an open city and taken without fighting.
launched an emotional plea for 449 Fighter Command was hard In 1940, Franklin D. Roosevelt Going underground
continued resistance, but few pressed as waves of bombers with stood for and won a third term During the Blitz, thousands of
heeded the call. Pétain sought an THE NUMBER fighter escort attacked airfields, in office. Before the election, Londoners spent the night in
armistice, which was agreed on OF GERMAN radar stations, and aircraft Roosevelt had made his hostility Underground stations to shelter
June 22. At Hitler’s insistence, the BOMBERS factories. It was a relief for the to Nazi Germany and Japan clear. from the bombing.
armistice was signed in the same INVOLVED IN RAF when the Luftwaffe switched He had begun rearmament and
railroad car in which the 1918 THE 10-HOUR to bombing London from early the US. In a “fireside chat” on
armistice had been signed. RAID ON THE September. On September 15, introduced a measure of radio, Roosevelt told Americans
BRITISH CITY attacked by over 1,000 German conscription, but he was their country was to become the
German troops occupied the OF COVENTRY aircraft, the British shot down 60 aware of the antiwar “arsenal of democracy,” its
north and west of France. Pétain for the loss of 28 of their own. feeling among people in factories providing the arms
established a regime in the town invasion. In August, the Luftwaffe Such figures meant that Germany for Britain to fight the Axis.
of Vichy that held responsibility began a sustained air campaign could not win the command of the
for all of France, although policy air needed to cover an invasion. all-metal monocoque
in the occupied part had to be over southern England, fuselage structure
agreed with the Germans. Taking initiating the Battle of Britain. German invasion plans were
almost dictatorial powers as head British air defenses were well abandoned in October, but from
of state, he affirmed conservative prepared, with radar early autumn 1940 until May 1941,
principles of religion, patriotism, warning stations linked British cities were subjected to
and the family. The Vichy French to command centers that the Blitz, a series of night raids
collaborated on some points with coordinated a response by by Luftwaffe bombers that caused
the Nazis, introducing their own Spitfire and Hurricane fighters. heavy casualties—more than
anti-Semitic laws. 40,000 civilians were killed—
Despite this, RAF and widespread destruction.
In Britain, Churchill quashed Contrary to prewar predictions,
defeatism. He encouraged a laminated wood however, the raids brought neither
popular mood of defiance with propeller blade social breakdown nor the collapse
his broadcast speeches and of morale. British stoicism under
pushed through radical fire won many admirers in the
measures to stiffen neutral US.
resistance. These
ranged from the
internment of
aliens to the creation
of the Home Guard
militia to resist
German invasion.
Since the
British refused to
negotiate a peace deal, Hitler
began preparing a cross-Channel
Supermarine Spitfire
The Spitfire, the RAF’s most famous
fighter aircraft of World War II, could
match the performance of the
German Messerschmitt 109.
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1941
,, ,,DON’T FIGHT A BATTLE
IF YOU DON’T GAIN
ANYTHING BY WINNING.
Erwin Rommel, German Field Marshal and commander of the
Afrika Korps, in his war diaries Infanterie Greift An, 1937
German tanks and infantry, belonging to Erwin Rommel’s Afrika Korps, advance
across Libya during the hard-fought campaign in North Africa.
THE ENTRY OF FASCIST ITALY INTO with an armored force—the Afrika as Einsatzgruppen, were detailed FINLAND Leningrad
WORLD WAR II IN JUNE 1940 Korps—to rescue his fascist ally. to follow the armies and kill
extended the war into the Rommel soon pushed the British communists and Jews in occupied Helsinki
Mediterranean and North Africa, back and placed Tobruk under territory. Nazi administrators
where Italy had colonies, including siege, while German aircraft anticipated the extermination of Tallinn
Libya. Early in 1941, British based in Sicily attacked British 30 million Soviet citizens to free
Commonwealth forces, advancing shipping and bombed the island up food supplies for Germany. ic Sea USSR
from Egypt, captured the Libyan of Malta, a vital British naval base. B a l t Riga
port of Tobruk and took 130,000 Launched on June 22, Operation Moscow
Italian prisoners. In response, The Italian army also attempted Barbarossa was warfare on a
Hitler sent General (later Field an invasion of Greece in 1940, vast scale. Hitler had assembled EAST Smolensk
Marshal) Erwin Rommel but once again the Germans had more than 4 million troops, PRUSSIA
(1891–1944) to North Africa to step in. Axis forces invaded including a million from his Axis Minsk
Yugoslavia in April, which was allies. At first the invasion was Warsaw
Airborne operation an overwhelming success. In a BYELORUSSIA
The Germans used paratroopers German series of encirclements, around POLAND
to great success in their invasion parachute badge 3 million Soviet soldiers were Kiev
of Greece at Corinth, and in the German taken prisoner. The invaders
subsequent attack on Crete. paratroopers, reached the gates of Leningrad HUNGARY UKRAINE
like airborne and thrust toward Moscow, but
forces all over the Axis advance slowed with the Rustov
the world, were autumn rains and eventually
considered to be ground to a halt in the snow. The ROMANIA Sea of
an elite, a status Soviets launched furious, often Azov
reflected in their suicidal, counterattacks to drive Operation Barbarossa
stylish badge. the enemy back from the outskirts The Axis invasion of the Soviet Union Black CRIMEA
of Moscow. For the first time made great progress in the second Sevastopol
rapidly defeated and dismembered, half of 1941. It inflicted heavy losses Sea
creating an independent Croatia 800 on Soviet forces, but failed to achieve
under the rule of the fascist the quick victory that Hitler needed. KEY
Ustaše movement. 650 German/Axis advances
Germany had failed to achieve Front line June 21, 1941
German troops pressed south 400 a lightning victory. Front line Sept 1, 1941
into Greece, which was swiftly Front line Nov 15, 1941
overrun. British Commonwealth 200 In the Baltic republics (Estonia, Front line Dec 5, 1941
forces attempted to defend the Latvia, and Lithuania), Belarus,
Greek island of Crete, but it fell DEATHS (IN THOUSANDS) 0 and Ukraine, much of the captured by the Axis were
to the Germans after an initial 1939 1940 1941 population initially welcomed the executed or perished from
assault by paratroopers. Germans as liberators from starvation and neglect.
Axis war casualties Stalinist rule. However, few
For Hitler, the Mediterranean The casualties suffered by Germany maintained their enthusiasm once The Jews suffered the worst. At
was merely a sideshow. He had and its Axis allies rose dramatically they experienced the brutality of Babi Yar, outside the Ukrainian
already set in motion preparations between 1939 and 1941, as the war Nazi rule. In Leningrad, placed capital Kiev, more than 30,000
for an invasion of the Soviet widened its grip on Europe. under siege by German and Jewish people were murdered in
Union, codenamed Operation Finnish forces, thousands died two days. The Nazis also began
Barbarossa. Nazi intentions were every day, mostly from starvation. systematic killing of Jews in
genocidal. Hitler told his generals Almost all the prisoners of war Poland, using gas vans at an
to plan “a war of annihilation,” extermination center at Chelmno.
Special SS death squads, known
Throughout 1941, Britain fought
on against the Nazis, ignoring a
bizarre peace initiative by
Hitler’s Deputy Führer Rudolf
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,, THAT THE PEARL HARBOR
,,ATTACK SHOULD HAVE SUCCEEDED
IN ACHIEVING SURPRISE SEEMS A
BLESSING FROM HEAVEN.
Hideki Tojo, Japanese Prime Minister
Battleships USS West Virginia and USS Tennessee are engulfed in smoke
and flames during the surprise Japanese raid on Pearl Harbor.
Hess (1894–1987). On May 10, Roosevelt felt he lacked the
Hess parachuted into rural popular support needed for
a declaration of war.
1,000,000Scotland, convinced that he could
Roosevelt’s dilemma was
persuade the British government resolved by the Japanese.
to ally itself with Germany. Instead, The US opposed Japan’s
he was arrested and remained a THE NUMBER OF LENINGRAD’S expansion into Asia, and
after Japanese troops
prisoner for the rest of his life. RESIDENTS THOUGHT TO HAVE entered French Indochina
The chief threat to Britain at this in July Roosevelt imposed
an oil embargo. Since Japan
stage in the war lay in the Battle DIED DURING THE SIEGE was entirely dependent on
imported oil, its government had
of the Atlantic—German the choice of abandoning its
military ambitions or fighting a
attempts to cut off the country’s war with the US.
seaborne supplies of food and Canadian navies were less Churchill’s (see 1940) strong Following a plan advocated by
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, on
war material. In May, the German successful at protecting merchant dislike of Soviet communism.
ISOROKU YAMAMOTO
battleship Bismarck sortied into convoys against German But the British really needed (1884–1943) Pearl Harbor badge
The slogan “Remember Pearl
the Atlantic. After sinking the submarines, however, and losses the US to enter the war. In the 1930s, Japanese Harbor” was widely used in the
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto US to inspire patriotic support for
Royal Navy battle cruiser HMS were soon mounting. The British President Roosevelt (see 1933) became a leading advocate the war against the Japanese.
of naval air power. As naval
Hood, Bismarck was tracked people felt the effect of this in made no pretense of neutrality. In commander-in-chief he was December 7, Japanese carrier
the architect of the raid on aircraft delivered a surprise
down, halted by torpedoes dropped reduced food rations. March, he introduced Lend-Lease Pearl Harbor in 1941. He attack on the American naval
was killed in April 1943 when base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.
from Swordfish biplane aircraft, Britain did not hesitate to ally to supply Britain with military his aircraft, identified by The raid sank or damaged 18
American intelligence, was warships and destroyed around
and then sunk by British itself with the Soviet Union, equipment paid for by the US shot down over Bougainville 300 aircraft, which severely
Island in the Pacific. damaged the US Pacific fleet.
battleships. The British and despite Prime Minister Winston government. American shipyards Other Japanese forces invaded
the Philippines and the British
and factories benefited greatly colony of Malaya.
from this, as did American workers The shock of the raid on Pearl
Harbor ensured popular American
with plentiful and well-paid jobs. support for war against Japan, but
not against Germany. To the relief
Later in the year, free military of both Churchill and Roosevelt,
Hitler chose to declare war on
aid from the US was extended to the US in support of his Japanese
allies. At the Arcadia Conference
the Soviet Union. in Washington at the end of the
year, Britain and the US agreed a
In August, Roosevelt and military strategy that gave priority
to defeating the Germans. The
Churchill met at Placentia Bay two countries also agreed to unify
their military command under the
in Newfoundland, Canada, where Combined Chiefs of Staff.
they signed the Atlantic Charter,
a statement of joint war aims
embodying liberal democratic
principles. American warships
were already escorting convoys
in the eastern Atlantic, and in
October a US destroyer was
sunk by a German torpedo, but
Fighting in the snow
A German soldier experiencing the
Russian winter during the invasion
of the Soviet Union. Axis forces
were ill-equipped to cope with the
conditions.
Juolvyfeo7rrIcUrdeeSelsaftpenaondkncefesrsiobomfilitByritainAuimgeupmsootfsb1eoasirUlgatSoonoJnapsaanle AuRgoCuohssAutetarlv9caeswhnlttitaalialtrcensaCmidighmenansrtteorf, SefopretceneLmcseirbncceiolnemrgm8rpaelAednxtteisof SeinpvUteakdmreabrinesiracna1p9ctaAuprxieitsal, KievOcbteoagbnineorOff2peneAsrxaiivsteifootnorcwOTeyacsLprtedohaboMsoeeonrsa,3ciod0wUtoSSeoxvtieetnUdsDnieLofoecnrcencomdeou-snbnletMaeruor6-nsoccSfohofwevmniefsartoijvonert DeBcrPeitmriRisnebhcpeewuroal1sfre0sWhsaiuplnessk abnydJapanDeeAsceroecpmawedbhnaiaeesgrrrCiene2oeBWn2jrfoaeitisranheitninnscatgerntaodtneU,gSy
JulyF1re4tnrJcoahoppIansndeeosncetheirna ASfuoorgvciueeststUi5nnvSiAoamxndiisotnalgeknesk SAouvgieutsfot r2c6esBirnitvisahdeanISrdeaIpnratenmiaanbntedorurSal1eob6vrdiiBRecterasitztefiaosoihSrnfchhefaaishvosroSnepJteewmsbmeras2s9aa–tc3rB0eadObibveYyarGr3en0re,m0aO0rac0nKtosiHebivedrek1i8bmGeiecnonismetreearsloTpNforoJjimovaepeACamrrnmubseyarlda1eu8rn,BcthroietrissehlOiepEveiegrhaTttohiboDrneuacikrecmrabfteaarttP7taeJcaakrplUaHnSaenrsbaeovnaral, vHbaaalsweaii DecemItbaelyrd1e1cGlaerremwaanry oanndUS DeBcreoimtfisHbhsoeunctroorg2rlJoKe5annopydnaegnresse
393
1914–2011 TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS
WAR IN THE MILITARY DEATHS IN PACIFIC 100
BATTLES (IN THOUSANDS) 90
PACIFIC
80
THE ALLIES DEFEAT IMPERIAL JAPAN IN THE PACIFIC 70
At war with China since 1937, the Japanese decided in 1941 to take a gamble 60
that, if successful, would secure them an empire in Asia and the Pacific. On 50
December 7, they attacked the US base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii and launched
an invasion of the Philippines and European colonies in Southeast Asia. 40
30
20
10
0
Tarawa Saipan Iwo Jima Okinawa
1943 1944 1945 1945
Price of the Pacific KEY
The human cost of victory in the Pacific US
rose sharply, but the Japanese death toll JAPANESE
was always far higher than that of the US.
The British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia Battle of the Coral Sea. A new phase of the war The Japanese navy was routed at the battles of the
proved easy prey for Japan—the British base at began with an ambitious thrust by the Japanese Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf, while the seizure of
Singapore fell with virtually no resistance. Within navy against Midway Island, which led to heavy the Mariana Islands brought the Japanese within
five months, the Japanese had reached the border losses. From August 1942, the most intense fighting range of US bomber aircraft. In August 1945,
of British India in Burma. Australia seemed focused around Guadalcanal, which the US defeated in Burma and Okinawa, facing a Soviet
threatened, but Japan's southward push was eventually held. It was not until 1944 that the US had invasion of Manchuria, and the destruction of cities
checked by a clash with US aircraft carriers at the built up sufficient strength for a sustained advance. by atom bombs, the Japanese surrendered.
USSR Sea of Attu Aleutian Islands Dutch Harbour
Okhotsk Kiska Jun 3, 1942
uth China Sea MANCHURIA Kurile Islan Japan on the offensive
The Japanese onslaught, begun in
kyu IslandsBeijingKOREASea of December 1941, gave their armies
dsJapan control of the Philippines, Indonesia,
Malaya, and Burma, while their navy
Yellow Tokyo established a defensive perimeter in
Sea the mid-Pacific. A naval defeat at
JAPAN Midway in June 1942 ended the
East period of Japanese expansion.
China
INDIA CHINA Sea Midway Hawaiian
Battle of Midway Islands
BURMA FRENCH Ryu Jun 4–6, 1942
INDOCHINA Formosa Pearl Harbor
Dec 7, 1941
Hong Kong
Hainan Wake
Rangoon Mariana Islands
Bangkok SIAM Manila Saipan
Bataan Guam
Jan 7–Apr 9, 1942 Marshall PACIFIC
Saigon Islands OCEAN
PHILIPPINE
So ISLANDS Kwajalein
MALAYA Palau Caroline Islands Gilbert
Islands
Sarawak Celebes
Borneo
Sumatr D NEW
GUINEA
Singapore a New Guinea Rabaul Solomon KEY
Feb 8–15, 1942 Major land battle
T New Major Japanese air attack
U I Java Sea Britain Islands Major sea battle
Japanese advance
Java Bali Japanese sphere of influence
Battle of Java Sea CH E A T Timor
Feb 27, 1942 E S
S Darwin
N D Feb 19, 1942 Port
Moresby
I
Battle of the Coral Sea
May 7–9, 1942 New Hebrides
AUSTRALIA Coral Sea
394
WAR IN THE PACIFIC
City Number of Percentage of The Big Six Sea of Japan ,, I REALIZE
raids city destroyed Between (East Sea) THE TRAGIC
Tokyo March 10 and SIGNIFICANCE
Nagoya 5 50% June 15, 1945, six OF THE ATOM
Kobe 4 31% major Japanese BOMB… WE
Osaka 2 56% cities, including THANK GOD
Yokohama 4 26% Tokyo and Kobe, IT HAS COME
Kawasaki 2 44% were decimated
1 33% by heavy US ,,TO US INSTEAD
bombing raids.
OF OUR
KOREA Tokyo ENEMIES…
Kawasaki
US president Harry S. Truman, August 9, 1945
Hiroshima Nagoya Yokohama
Kobe
Osaka
PACIFIC
Nagasaki OCEAN
KEY
“Big Six” fire bomb target
3:2 Burma campaign Attacks on Japan Atomic bomb target
Sixty percent (three in five) of the
Japanese troops who fought in the Taking off from bases in the Mariana Islands, US B-29
Burma campaign in 1942–45 lost their lives. Total
Japanese casualties numbered around 200,000, Superfortress bombers devastated Japanese cities with
compared with the 71,000 British and British
Indian men who were killed and wounded. incendiary devices from March 1945. The dropping of
atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 6
and 9, 1945) was followed by Japanese surrender.
USSR Sea of Attu Aleutian Islands Dutch Harbour
Okhotsk Kiska
Manchuria P Kurile Islan Allied counterattack
Aug 8–21, 1945 AN The US army led a fightback against the
Japanese in the southwest Pacific, from
MANCHURIA ds New Guinea to the Philippines. In the
Central Pacific, the US navy and marines
Beijing KOREA Sea of spearheaded a thrust from the Gilbert
Japan Islands to the Marianas. The loss of
NA Okinawa in June 1945 placed Japan under
CHI Yellow Tokyo imminent threat of an Allied invasion.
Hong Kong Sea
Kohima Hainan nds JA Midway
Mar 7–Jul 18, 1944 East
China Okinawa
BURMA Sea Apr 1–Jun 22, 1945
INDIA Rangoon Ryukyu Isla Iwo Jima PACIFIC Hawaiian
Feb 19 –Mar 26, 1945 OCEAN Islands
SIAM Formosa
Mariana Marshall Islands Pearl Harbor
Bangkok Battle of the Islands
h China Sea Philippine Sea
Jun 19–20, 1944 Saipan
Manila Jun 15 –Jul 9, 1944
Feb 3–Mar 3, 1945
PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS
FRENCH Saigon Battle of Guam
INDOCHINA Leyte Gulf Jul 21–Aug 8, 1944
Sout Oct 23–25, 1944
Kwajalein
MALAYA
Sarawak Mindanao
Sumatr Celebes Halmahera
C Borneo Bismarck Gilbert
T
DU Balikpapan Archipelago Rabaul Islands Tarawa
a Jan 4–23, 1942 Nov 20–23, 1943
H Hollandia Solomon Islands
Java Sea New
E Java Bali Guinea Guadalcanal KEY
A Aug 7, 1942–Feb 9, 1943 Major land battle
ST Timor Port Major sea battle
Moresby Allied advance
INDIES
Darwin Santa Cruz
Islands
New Hebrides
AUSTRALIA Coral Sea
395
1942
Wounded Allied soldiers are carried through the jungle by New Guineans. The harsh ,,
environment was as deadly an enemy as the Japanese.
ON JANUARY 20, 1942, SS GENERAL in February after token resistance, worried that their country might ,,I CAME OUT OF
REINHARD HEYDRICH (1904–1942) was a blow to the prestige of the be next. An attack by Japanese
chaired a conference at Wannsee, British Empire. About 80,000 naval aircraft on the port of BATAAN AND I SHALL
a suburb of Berlin. The purpose British, Australian, and Indian Darwin in Northern Australia RETURN.
of the meeting was to brief troops were taken prisoner. in February caused over 500
German civil servants and foreign casualties, and Japanese midget General Douglas MacArthur, US commanding officer, after his
ministry officials on plans to Determined resistance by submarines penetrated Sydney escape to Australia following defeat in Bataan, March 20, 1942
systematically deport Jews American and Filipino soldiers Harbor at the start of June. In
en masse from every country on the Bataan peninsula in the a sharp change of attitude, battles in which both sides Movement, demanding full
in Europe. The Jews were to be Philippines ended in April. Large Australia began to look on the suffered heavy losses. In New independence. Their campaign
transported to camps—chiefly in numbers of the troops died as US, rather than Britain, as its Guinea, Australian troops played of civil disobedience was
Poland—from which, it was made prisoners of the Japanese on the chief military ally. a leading role in fighting in hostile ruthlessly repressed by the British
clear, none would return. brutal Bataan Death March—a jungle terrain. authorities, and more than
62-mile (100-km) trek that was Amid intense anti-Japanese 100,000 Indians were arrested,
Meanwhile, a Japanese tide of forced upon the malnourished feeling, in February President In India, the British faced a including Gandhi. Some Indian
conquest flowed across Southeast and disease-ridden men. Roosevelt signed Executive political as well as a military nationalists joined Subhas
Asia. The fall of Singapore, a Order 9066, which allowed challenge. With Japanese troops Chandra Bose’s Indian National
major British base that was As the Japanese advance swept Japanese Americans living in the threatening an invasion from Army, which fought alongside the
surrendered to the Japanese over Dutch-ruled Indonesia and western United States to be Burma, in August Mohandas Japanese, but far more fought for
British-ruled Burma, Australians deported to internment camps. Gandhi (1869–1948) and other Britain: around 2.5 million Indians
About 120,000 ethnic Japanese National Congress leaders volunteered for the British army.
were interned during the war. launched the Quit India
As the United States geared up SWEDEN Riga
for total war, the fight back
against Japan began. The naval North Jungerhof
battles in the Coral Sea in May Sea
and at Midway in June were DENMARK Baltic
duels between aircraft carriers,
fought without the Japanese and Sea
American fleets coming within
sight of each other. The Coral Sea NETHERLANDS Minsk
encounter brought neither side BELGIUM Maly Trostinets
decisive advantage, but Midway
was a disaster for the Japanese POLAND
Navy, which lost four aircraft
carriers to American dive- Berlin Treblinka USSR
bombers and torpedo aircraft.
Chelmno Warsaw
The American victory at Midway
was a turning point, but far from GREATER GERMANY Majdanek Sobibor
decisive in itself. When American
THE HOLOCAUST forces landed on Guadalcanal in Auschwitz- Belzec
the Solomon Islands in August, Prague Birkenau Cracow
The Nazis murdered people from many groups, including Slavs, the Japanese responded with
homosexuals, and gypsies, but their treatment of the Jews was ferocious determination, landing FRANCE CZECH. SLOV. ROMANIA
without parallel. By 1942 they had embarked upon the total their own troops to counterattack SWITZERLAND Vienna Bratislava
extermination of European Jews. To achieve this “final solution,” and initiating a series of naval AUSTRIA
the Nazis transported Jews to specially built camps equipped with HUNGARY
gas chambers. Most were killed within hours of arrival, but some
were kept alive and used as slave labor. About 6 million Jews Nazi death camps KEY
were murdered, two-thirds of Europe’s Jewish population. The Germans built death camps, mostly in
occupied Poland, expressly for the killing of Nazi extermination
Jews. There were many other concentration camp
camps in which tens of thousands died.
Jafnoruincaetrshyec2aPpJhtaiulpirpaepnMiensaeensila,JaWnuaGnaeenrrxmsytee2aren0mCAoionftnfiacfteiioarnlesnopcfleJa,enws FeJbaarptuatDaanacNrerkysowetr1iotn9ahw,ierinnrcnorAafTufetsrtrriatoliray’FsenbaarvtuyBadraeytftel2ae7tosJfAaMJplalaariveanradNiecdShsafleNeze2aaeo7itrr–em2i8annBOdrciiectiudspohiceCkdoaFmtrmSanta.cnedAopsMraFilnild1yipi5eAi–nmo2one9prBricaisatoannaaennrdsdeoaftwhamrarMchaAymc8learJsiahcpaiannnaBeiasrcettrlaaenftodcfathrreieMCroaFsryrtaea2lnnd6Scek–hessJaetuirnrontoNeapot1srB1triheFrsrAHeifsaerMtkicAaefiaxyirnmBiss3to0“m–th3bo1eurCsCoalonomdgnmbeoaimsndbtaerrgeratiodf” byJRuanApmeFpr1Milo7lvadioeRnenshvoeboainlustoitedtpaivganeaelltPt$torf9moo0rjieccbtotmo b
3 9 6Fseubrrrueanrdyer15StoiBnJrgaiatpipsaohnreeFseebRrouoasreiynvet1el9trosnUrimdSgenePrsnraeetuxsoteifhdcJoeuAanrtmpiitzvaeiennregicsaens Mcaaprtcuhre8RJaanpganoeosneintrBooAuprtprmsroioalp9sinAsBmuarertraeiacnnadnePraentnodinJFsaiulpPilpaahin,inlieionpsptehinees blAoampurnbicelhr1esi8ndaCDAttaomarocrelkiiretiJtrcla-aepnRanaid Mays1u2f–fe2r8omifSnfeaofnsvasisieliievvtedefoaclrotocsuKesnshetaesrrk-HoeMvybadyyriB2c7hritNfiasathaza-ilgtlRryeaenwiintnosehudiannrCdPdzeredacghueJuhneeav4y–lo7nsaUsvSeaslcBoarnartJitealrepsaoinfneMflsiicedtwatay reJatuafntkeeer2TR6oobAmrxumiskefioln’sracLvetiibscGytaoazrayla
Soviet infantry fight amid the ruined buildings of Stalingrad. German defeat in
the city was a decisive turning point in World War II.
Naval power Operation Torch. Opposition Yank tank
US Navy dive-bombers fly over from French colonial forces American-built Grant tanks were
Midway Island in the Pacific. This loyal to the Vichy supplied to the British in North
was the location of a decisive duel government (see 1940) Africa. This one was used by General
between American and Japanese was easily overcome, Montgomery as an observation post.
aircraft carriers in June 1942. leaving Rommel
trapped between the city of Stalingrad—of
In the desert war in North armies to his east symbolic importance because
Africa, after suffering repeated and west. The of its name. German soldiers
defeats at the hands of Field Germans responded entered the city in September,
Marshal Erwin Rommel (1891– by extending their but the Soviets defended it
1944), the British Eighth Army, military occupation of street-by-street amid the
commanded by General Bernard France to the Vichy-ruled area. ruined buildings. In November,
Montgomery (1887–1976), won a Soviet General Giorgi Zhukov
great offensive victory at Alamein The war being fought in the (1896–1974) masterminded a
in October–November. Soviet Union (see 1941) came counterattack. Striking from
to its climactic turning point at north and south, his armies
As Rommel’s Axis army the Battle of Stalingrad. The encircled the Axis forces,
retreated westward across Libya, eastward advance of Axis forces trapping a quarter of a million
Allied forces, including a large had continued through most of men inside Stalingrad. Ordered
contingent of American troops the year, reaching the Caucasus by Hitler to stay and fight, by
commanded by General Dwight D. by July and threatening the vital the end of the year they were
Eisenhower (1890–1969), landed oilfields of Azerbaijan. Hitler starving, freezing, and short
in French North Africa during insisted his troops capture of ammunition. The German
commander, Field Marshal
NUMBER (IN THOUSANDS OF TONS) 3,500 1943 NUMBER (IN THOUSANDS) 140 1943 Friedrich Paulus, was among
3,000 1944 120 1944 the 90,000 men who lived to
2,500 100 surrender the following
2,000 February—and one of only
80 a handful who then survived
Soviet imprisonment.
1,500 60
1,000 1941 40 1941
1942 1942
1945 1945
500 20
0 0
WARSHIPS PLANES
American industrial miracle
The output of US factories and shipyards soared during World War II.
The number of workers employed in shipbuilding alone rose from
around 100,000 in 1940 to 1.7 million late in the war.
JuployGr4tesroSimefogSvaeienevstaCasrfttoimeproeelaifngahllts-mtoonJthuAlryAm2xayi7sthBAfaorllraittcmsiesahsediiEnnviatgonhcEthegyopft AuMgaGurusinat ed7saUllcaSanndaoAl nuMgocuonsEmttgigm1oh3mathGnederAynroemtfarByakrleistish AuSgerupesatptetu3mAls1lbae–meRroH2ma5lmfBaerilt’sisfhorces SeApxdtieseomffefonbSrcsetaeirvlsei1na3pgtetraracidmk eteOrcBtorRibtoiSesmerhcm2Eo3eing–ld’hNstBoAhavxAteitsrmlmefoboyNrefcdrooeAev4cslfecaeaummatptesbieiendr b1y1GVeicrhmyaFnrafonrccees NoLvoMesmeaAxtbloiacemmor,ob1cso6h,moNsbeewrnefsoerarchDe“ccaehtmarwienbaoercrertlado2cr’stAiinfiotonrCms”htaiicnccuahgcieloevaerd
3 9 71J3u,0l0yu0p1J6feoIwrndsFteorrpoaAounurnctsedac,etJhdiCouwonlimytz3m1itFteoeunfodrinFgamofinOexf(RoOAerxdulfiaeagffmutes)rtc8aGdlliaisnnogdbfheodiriaemrnraceessstinecdiIvnidlAliaousgstrueossotipn1s9rsaCuidaffnAeoarundghDAiueauinasesvJtptyarp2ape5la–ianSneestpreotaeotmpMsNbdeielwenrfee5GBautainy,eOacftoorbGeerr3mSauncAce4sbsafulNlliostcevtaisecrtmrmflybiiogseuhsrittinl7tehF–er8eTAnoclrlhicehNdlotarrNnothodohvipAneesfgamrsvicbyaelores1ns2ec–os1uo5nntUeJSraspNNoaaofnfvveyGesiumenlaaflflbduieeancerlctctsh1aie9nnsaScloovuGineetterGmreoanffneesrnasinlivZSehttuaoklitonrvgaRrpDaeedpcowermteplbfraeorpreo2sstBeaDsetevepecoirnesidmtB-pgwrbreiieatmarrieDn2am4riFlnaoinsrmtaesersrAaVdsisimcnihniAyraaltgleiedrs
1943
US President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill meet at French Resistance fighters pose for a group portrait. The Resistance carried out acts
Casablanca in January to discuss the conduct of the war. of sabotage, gathered intelligence, and mounted guerrilla warfare operations.
IN JANUARY 1943, Franklin D. Casablanca ,, ,,GERMANY IS A FORTRESS,
Roosevelt met British prime The general release of the film
minister Winston Churchill for Casablanca was timed to take BUT IT IS A FORTRESS
a conference in Casablanca, advantage of the widely reported WITHOUT A ROOF.
Morocco, which set the future Casablanca Conference.
course of World War II in Europe. Franklin D. Roosevelt, US President, 1944
Britain persuaded the US to plan fought hard against the Germans,
for an invasion of Sicily, knowing to conscript French men to work in but were also actively hostile to disaster at Stalingrad, Axis forces totaled over 2 million men, with
this meant an invasion of northern German factories. To avoid forced the Chetnik guerrillas, led by Serb were able to mount a successful more than 6,000 tanks and 5,000
France would have to be labor, thousands of young men nationalist and monarchist Draza counteroffensive at Kharkov in aircraft. The Axis onslaught began
postponed until 1944. The Allied slipped away to form guerrilla Mihailovic. In France, Resistance the spring. This left the Soviets on July 5, initiating the largest
leaders also agreed that their air bands in remote rural regions. leader Jean Moulin strove to unite holding an exposed bulge of tank battle in history. Soviet
forces would mount a combined rival factions, but in May he was territory, or salient, at Kursk. losses were heavy, but after four
bomber offensive against Germany. Resistance movements were arrested, tortured by Gestapo chief German generals planned to days the Axis offensive had stalled
At the end of the conference, plagued by political divisions. In Klaus Barbie, and died in captivity. attack from north and south to and the Red Army launched a
Roosevelt announced that the the Balkans, partisans led by the trap the Soviet forces inside the counterattack. The Germans
Allies would accept nothing less communist Tito (see panel, below) Spring 1943 brought the climax salient and destroy them. But organized a fighting withdrawal
than the “unconditional of the struggle against German deputy supreme commander but the tide of the war in the east
surrender” of their enemies. U-boats known as the Battle of Georgi Zhukov anticipated the had turned for good.
the Atlantic. In March, the Allies German offensive and prepared a
The surrender of Axis forces at lost 285,000 tons (260,000 metric formidable defensive system. The While the battle of Kursk was
Stalingrad (see 1942) in February tons) of merchant shipping to forces assembled at Kursk were at its height, the Western Allies
was a massive setback for German submarine attacks and huge—the two sides together mounted a large-scale invasion
Germany, but the Germans there seemed a risk that Britain’s of Sicily. US and British armies
remained in occupation of most lifeline of seaborne supplies would Soviet badge were put ashore and advanced
of Europe. In many places, be severed. German U-boats This badge was awarded to Soviet around opposite sides of the island,
armed resistance movements operated in groups known as “wolf tank crewmen during World War II. receiving little opposition from
contested the occupation. A packs,” coordinated by radio. But The Soviets lost around 5,000 tanks Italian forces, who quickly
turning point for the resistance in then, a combination of factors, at Kursk in summer 1943. surrendered. The campaign turned
France was the decision in 1943 including increased use of aircraft into a race between US general
on ocean patrols, intelligence from George S. Patton and British
JOSIP BROZ TITO (1892–1980) decrypted German naval general Bernard Montgomery.
messages, and the equipping of Patton was first to reach Messina,
Born in Croatia, Josip Broz convoy escorts with improved but between them the two armies
adopted the name Tito as a radar and radio direction-finding allowed most of the Axis forces
communist activist in the 1930s. equipment, tilted the balance to escape to mainland Italy.
After the German occupation of against the submarines. By May,
Yugoslavia in 1941, Tito led a U-boat losses were so high that The loss of Sicily was a fatal blow
guerrilla movement that took submarine commander Admiral to the Italian dictator Benito
control of the country in 1945. Karl Dönitz had to withdraw his Mussolini. After a vote of no
He made Yugoslavia a forces from the Atlantic. The confidence from the Fascist
communist state, but resisted U-boat offensive never regained Grand Council, Mussolini was
the dominance of the Soviet its momentum. dismissed by King Victor
Union. He remained Yugoslav Emmanuel III (1869–1947) and
president until his death. By far the heaviest land fighting arrested. His replacement,
of 1943 was on Germany’s
eastern front. Despite the
JaRnouCoahsCrueayrvsce1ahl2btil–lala2nmn3dceaetCaotnJfeaFrneiusenulacadrretrMyeS3anta1rdlseiGnhregasrlrtmaPodaaSunolvuisets FeAblblriyuePdatahrfseoysrA,1cTx4eius–sn2dai2setifKaeaatsesderMinaCeroficmvhnemi5-gmahRntoAdnaFtbthtBeagoccamiknmssbpoeanrMigthafnoerroccRfheus2h6art–2M7arAelltihesLidneef,eATapYutranAsimilxhsi1iaosa8mt dJooatwpoanknibellyseeAdm,Ahdeimsricairaiarncl rfiagfAht tpAerrldifslrepe2srd2corHpSibeowerfifstsmisehsaacnhlolefumLciSnisDotgenic MaWyau1rp6sraiJsweinwggihsdehetfteoatedMaRybA1oFa6mnL–“dba1Den7EarcdmsaesbbrtruseeesratecedhrasM”mörsahiinnde JuAnnsege4eMrlvIeeinincsxei,L“cmwzoaoshneoi–nttAesamuttieatrcrikcioatnss”
3 9 8JabnoumaoFrbniyrisnG2tge7UrrmSaiadnyFcteormboorpuplesatrferyow7mitJhGadpuraaandweaaslcleaonJfAaalpuasMtnraearslceiahtnr2oia–noi4rpBcUtrisrSaamfnatanssrpdicnokkrtMSseaarcUh-s1bsi6onh–aki1pts9s“2wGi2noemltrfhmeperaaAccnhtklaa”nntticMarcUKhSo2mw7aaJnrasdphoairpnsskeNicsiloesarlastahhnnddPosfafcinific WaArpsraiwl 1ga9hgeJaetitnwossutbpGeregirsimninagny Msuaryre1n3dAexrisinfMoTruAacndyeimss2i4iaraFlaDceödniUwtz-itbohordmaetosrusfnrwotiimnthgtdhlroeaswAsetalsla,onftCicomLmibGJietuerteanneteeiroo3anflFsNcrraGeetniairocatDenhuedadlGbaaynudlle Junerc2ioa0tu–ss2ien23DR4eadtcreeoaitths
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