1992
Residents of Sarajevo, Bosnia, duck sniper shots at a peace march during
the Bosnian War as radical Serbs open fire on them.
AUSTRIA THE IDEA OF A UNITED EUROPE 6,000 Salvation Front, a fundamentalist
CAME CLOSER TO REALIZATION party, whom many believed was
HUNGARY when leaders of 12 European THE NUMBER responsible for the assassination.
countries signed the treaty on OF BOSNIANS
Ljubljana Zagreb European Union and the AND CROATS US Marines waded onto the
SLOVENIA CROATIA Maastricht Final Act on HELD IN shores of Somalia on December 9.
February 7. It heralded common OMARSKA Somalia was stricken by famine,
Vojvodina ROMANIA citizenship, and common DEATH CAMP but extortion and looting prevented
Novi Sad economic and defence policies. foreign aid from getting through.
Yugoslav army under Slobodan The US-led operation aimed to
BOSNIA AND Belgrade The break up of Yugoslavia Milosevic attacked the Muslim hold Mogadishu’s airport to
HERZEGOVINA SERBIA continued as Bosnia and population of Bosnia. The capital, enable supplies to be airlifted to
Herzegovina declared Sarajevo, came under siege from starving locals.
Sarajevo independence on March 3. Serbs Bosnian Serbs. Supplies became
living in Bosnia, however, resisted short and people struggled for The Los Angeles police
Adr the move. War broke out and the survival (see 1996). department was accused of
iatic Sea MONTENEGRO racism and excessive force after
Titograd Pristina BULGARIA UN PEACEKEEPING In August, footage of Serbian a video of four policemen savagely
I TA LY Kosovo prison camps, showing starving beating a black man, Rodney
United Nations Peacekeeping men behind barbed-wire fences, King, was broadcast in 1991. The
Skopje emerged out of World War II sparked outrage around the world. officers were acquitted in a trial,
as a way to place military The camps, mostly in Bosnia, were triggering race riots on April 29,
MACEDONIA personnel between warring part of Serbia’s “ethnic cleansing which led to 55 casualties.
countries or communities to policy” that called for the removal
ALBANIA GREECE stop fighting. UN forces were of other ethnic groups from On November 4, Democrat
first used as an observer to Serb-dominated communities. Bill Clinton (b. 1946) beat
The division of Yugoslavia KEY monitor the armistice George Bush (b. 1924) in the
After 72 years, Yugoslavia disappeared from the New Countries between Israel and the Arab On December 20, Slobodan US presidential elections.
map of Europe after war and political upheaval states in 1948. Its role has Milosevic was reelected as Clinton promised to lift the
led to the formation of six independent countries. grown substantially since Serbian president. Prime minister US out of economic stagnation.
then: supervising elections, Milan Panic called for fresh
(see 1990). He refused to comply, killed by a bomb in the town of checking human rights, elections, citing fraud. After nine 18.5%
and on January 17, the US and Sriperumbudur while campaigning clearing land mines, and days, Panic lost a parliamentary ROSS PEROT
coalition forces launched with his party for the forthcoming intervening in failed states. vote of no confidence.
“Operation Desert Storm,” also elections. A female suicide By 1992, UN Peacekeeping 37.5%
known as the First Gulf War bomber from Liberation Tigers forces had made 26 Algerian president Mohammed
(1990–91). Kuwait was liberated of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a guerilla interventions worldwide. Boudiaf was assassinated on GEORGE
after five weeks. group in Sri Lanka also known as June 29 at a rally in Annaba. BUSH
the “Tamil Tigers,” was later Boudiaf had been instrumental in
The First Gulf War left Saddam found to have been responsible. the Algerian uprising against 43%
Hussein vulnerable in Iraq. There France (see 1958). He had recently BILL CLINTON
were antigovernment uprisings On August 8, John McCarthy, a returned from exile to help the
by Shi’ite Muslims in the south of British journalist held hostage by government combat the Islamic Clinton’s victory
the country and by Kurds in the an Islamic extremist group in Bill Clinton became the 42nd
north. During March and April, Lebanon, was released after five president of the US by beating
thousands of people were killed years in captivity (see 1986). Later opponents Ross Perot and
as Saddam crushed the revolts. in the year, fellow British hostage George Bush.
Terry Waite, and Americans Terry
In India, Rajiv Gandhi (b. 1944), Anderson and Tom Sutherland
the former prime minister, was were also freed.
assassinated on May 21. He was
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for
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449
1993 1994
Prague, famed for its architecturally diverse castle district shown above, became the capital Refugees flee the civil war in Rwanda
of the newly formed Czech Republic. The castle is the official seat of the Czech head of state. and head for refugee camps in Zaire.
THE SINGLE MARKET CAME INTO opposition to his “shock therapy” A series of bomb blasts rocked 187 IN SOUTH AFRICA, ZULUS AND
FORCE across European Union program of reforms, which he had India’s financial capital Mumbai KILLED AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS
(EU) countries in January. It gave initiated in 1992. The measures (formerly Bombay) on March 12, 437 (ANC) supporters clashed on
greater freedom to citizens of were aimed at loosening the state’s killing 257 people and injuring 713 WOUNDED March 28—more than 18 people
member states to live and work in grip on the economy and moving others. They were carried out by were killed. The Zulus were
other EU countries and paved the towards a market-driven model, an underworld crime syndicate. Coup casualties responding to calls by their
way for a single currency, the Euro. but they were widely regarded as Russian president Boris Yeltsin leaders to boycott the forthcoming
being capitalist and “Western.” The Irish Republican Army seized absolute authority by storming national elections. The elections
On January 1, Czechoslovakia The Russian parliament tried to (IRA) exploded a massive bomb in the parliament in Moscow, ending a went ahead, and on May 10,
was split into Slovakia and the impeach Yeltsin, who responded the City of London, the economic rebellion by hardline opponents. Nelson Mandela became South
Czech Republic, dissolving the with a decree dissolving the heart of the English capital, on 24 Africa’s first black president
74-year-old federation. The parliament on September 21. April. This came a month after an Palestine Liberation Organization after more than three centuries of
creation of the Czech Republic, IRA blast in Warrington, which (PLO). They signed the Oslo white rule. His party, the ANC (see
with its capital in Prague, and Under increasing pressure from killed two children. Later in the Accords in Washington, DC in panel, opposite), won 252 of the
Slovakia, with its capital in his political opponents, Yeltsin year, on December 15, the leaders the presence of the US president 400 seats in the first democratic
Bratislava, became known as the ordered parliamentarians to of Northern Ireland and Britain Bill Clinton in September. Aimed elections in South Africa’s history.
“Velvet Divorce” following the vacate the parliament building. signed a peace declaration, aiming at mutual recognition, the
Velvet Revolution (see 1989). When they refused, Yeltsin to end violence in the province. accords were preceded by secret Elsewhere in Africa, the
ordered the army to seize talks between the two parties, president of Rwanda, Juvenal
Russian president Boris Yeltsin the building. Moves toward peace were also encouraged by the Norwegian Habyarimana (b.1937), a Hutu,
(1931–2007) faced mounting underway between Israel and the government. was killed when his plane was
shot down above Kigali airport
On April 19, a siege at the on April 6. The incident catalyzed
headquarters of a US religious a mass genocide. Between April
sect, the Branch Davidian, near and June, about 800,000
Waco, Texas killed at least 70 Rwandans were killed, most
people, including its leader, David of them Tutsis killed by Hutus.
Koresh, when it ended in a fire.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation On July 1, PLO chairman Yasser
(FBI) had surrounded the building Arafat (1929–2004) returned to
since February, when four agents the Gaza Strip after 27 years in
with the Bureau of Alcohol, exile. It marked the start of the
Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) were enactment of the Declaration
killed while trying to arrest Koresh of Principles agreed at the Oslo
for illegally possessing firearms. Accords, signed in Washington,
DC the previous year (see 1993).
Mostar Bridge
A 16th-century bridge spanned the Israel and Jordan signed a
Neretva River for 427 years before it historic peace deal on October 26,
was destroyed during the fighting ending 46 years of war. US
between Croats and Muslims. president Bill Clinton witnessed
the treaty between Israeli prime
minister Yitzhak Rabin (1922–95)
and King Hussein at a ceremony
in Wadi Araba, on the Israel–
Jordan border.
On August 31, the IRA declared
a ceasefire after 25 years of
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,,1995
,,…THE GREATEST
FAILURE OF THE WEST
SINCE THE 1930S.
Richard Holbrooke, US Assistant Secretary of State,
on the Bosnian crisis
armed struggle against British Eurostar’s maiden run An investigation into the accident THE CITY OF KOBE IN JAPAN WAS Oklahoma bombing
rule in Northern Ireland. The The high-speed rail service, Eurostar, found that stormy weather, poor DEVASTATED BY AN EARTHQUAKE A massive truck bomb exploded in
ceasefire indicated the IRA’s which travels through the Channel maintenance, and high speed on January 17. Measuring 7.2 on front of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal
willingness to enter into peace Tunnel, linking England and France, contributed to the disaster. the Richter scale, it resulted in Building in Oklahoma City on April 19.
talks on the political future of the made its maiden voyage in 1994. hundreds of deaths and over It was felt 30 miles (48km) away.
province. The Irish prime minister, Millions watched in horror as 13,000 injuries.
Albert Reynolds, asked loyalist was believed to have been carried the Formula One racing champion, The Turkish government hold the
paramilitaries to toe the out by Serbians. Ayrton Senna, plowed off the Barings, a British investment separatist Kurdistan Worker’s
same line. However, loyalists track at the San Marino Grand bank, was declared bankrupt Party (PKK) responsible for more
were suspicious of this On December 11, Russian Prix on May 1, in a fatal crash. after an employee, Nick Leeson, than 30,000 deaths over the
declaration and feared that president Boris Yeltsin ordered A state funeral was held in his risked huge amounts of money on course of the conflict. Repeated
Northern Ireland’s position in troops into the rebel region of home city of São Paulo. Senna the Nikkei, the Japanese stock military operations by Turkey
Great Britain would be threatened, Chechnya to prevent it from was a national hero in Brazil and market index. The index collapsed against the PKK have not proved
but in the end, on October 13, they breaking away from the country. had given millions to help the after the Kobe earthquake. effective and the conflict continues.
announced their own ceasefire. This Muslim-dominated region country’s underprivileged children.
On March 20, Turkey launched A powerful bomb exploded
War continued in Bosnia and had declared its independence AFRICAN NATIONAL a major military offensive, in Oklahoma City on April 19,
Herzegovina, and on February 5, from Moscow three years before CONGRESS involving 35,000 troops, against killing 168 people. Timothy
a marketplace in downtown under the leadership of General the Kurds in northern Iraq. This McVeigh, a Gulf War veteran,
Sarajevo was devastated by a Dzhokhar Dudayev. Founded in 1912 with the aim was an attempt to pursue rebel was convicted of the attack. The
mortar bomb, killing 68 people On September 19, the US led of increasing the rights of Turkish Kurds who had fled into bombing was in reaction to the
and injuring a further 200. The an invasion force in Haiti to black South Africans, the the region and prevent them from government’s handling of the
international community bring the military junta to an end African National Congress setting up permanent bases Waco siege (see 1993).
condemned the atrocity, which and restore democracy under (ANC) came to power in there. The Kurds had been
President Aristide, exiled three 1994, when Nelson Mandela engaged in an armed struggle for Srebrenica, a Muslim enclave
Brazil’s Samba Boys years earlier. No shots were fired. was elected president of a separate homeland since 1984 and UN-designated safe haven,
Marcio Santos of Brazil holds the On May 6, Queen Elizabeth South Africa. The ANC still and had grievances over the lack was overrun by Bosnian Serbs
FIFA World Cup trophy to celebrate of Britain and President Francois enjoys majority support, but of rights for Kurds within Turkey. on July 10 and “ethnically
victory. Brazil, known as the Samba Mitterand (1916–96) of France is troubled by internal power cleansed.” In December, the
Boys, beat Italy in the final. formally opened the Channel struggles between Thabo 315 cases leaders of Bosnia, Serbia, and
Tunnel. Linking England and Mbeki and Jacob Zuma, the Croatia signed the Dayton Peace
France, the tunnel took eight two successors of Mandela, 254 Accord in Paris, bringing three
years to build. and the challenges of poverty deaths years of war in Bosnia to an end.
MS Estonia, a car and passenger and AIDS.
ferry, sank in the Baltic Sea on The Ebola scare
September 28—852 passengers An outbreak of Ebola occurred in
died, half of whom were Swedes. 1995 in Zaire. Of the 315 cases
identified, 254 died, giving a fatality
rate of 81 percent.
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451
1914–2011 TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS
THE GROWTH OF THE EU
North North North North North
Sea Sea Sea Sea Sea
1957 The Treaty of Rome is 1973 The Treaty of Accession: 1981 Greece becomes the 10th 1986 Spain and Portugal join 1995 Austria, Finland, and
signed, establishing the Denmark, Ireland, and the member of the EU. It had applied the EU. The Single European Act Sweden join the EU, bringing
European Economic Community United Kingdom join the EU, to join in 1975, after the is signed in 1987, aiming to membership of the EU up to
(EEC), with six members. giving nine member states. restoration of its democracy. create a single market. 15 countries.
THE EUROPEAN
UNION Ireland
GDP: $172.3 billion
FROM THE RUINS OF WAR, A CONTINENT UNITED Population: 4,670,976
Europe emerged from World War II impoverished, war weary, and politically Portugal
unstable. Born of a desire for peace and unity that would make another GDP: $247 billion
European war unthinkable, in 1957 six European countries joined in economic Population: 10,760,305
17union. Since then, the European Union has grown substantially.
The modern age of the European Union (EU) began in work, travel, and do business with other member THE NUMBER
1987 with the Single European Act, an attempt to unify states, and the EU has become the largest economy in OF COUNTRIES
Europe further and create a “single market” for trade. the world. Supporters of enlargement of the EU WITH THE
The EU works toward increased cooperation in areas highlight this, and the benefits of political stability. EURO AS THEIR
such as the environment, transportation, and Critics worry about immigration issues, the economic OFFICIAL
employment. European citizenship and the introduction burden of supporting poorer countries, and the huge
of the euro, a common currency, have made it easier to bureaucracy needed to run the organization. CURRENCY
People of Europe 7.3% EU Population comparison
The EU has over half population The population of the EU is
a billion people, which the world’s third largest,
is 7.3 percent of the 3:4 City living CHINA after China and India.
world's population. The EU has a mainly
It is less than half the urban population, 1,340,000,000 INDIA
size of the US, but with 75 percent living in cities rather
its population is over 92.7% than in the countryside. By contrast, 1,210,000,000
50 percent larger. only around 45 percent of Africa’s
population lives in cities.
World
population
,, EUROPE IS THE FORCE THAT PREVENTS HATE EU
FROM BEING ETERNAL. WE MUST OPEN OUR
501,000,000
,,HEARTS TO THIS NEW EUROPE.
Jean-Pierre Raffarin, French prime minister, 2004
452
North 2007 The Lisbon Reform European parliament
Sea Treaty is signed. Bulgaria The European Parliament is the
and Romania join the only part of the EU that is directly
EU, bringing the total elected by the citizens of its
membership up to 27. member states. It manages the
The Treaty aimed to make budget and drafts legislation.
the EU more democratic It has 736 seats, which are divided
and better able to tackle between member states in
important issues. such proportion to their population.
as security and climate
change, jointly. 20 0
NUMBER OF SEATS Germany
100 80 60 40 France
Italy
2004 On May 1, the EU takes in Sweden Finland United Kingdom
10 new members, most of them GDP: $354 billion GDP: $187.6 billion Poland
former communist countries, in Population: Population: 5,259,250 Spain
its biggest enlargement. 9,088,728 Romania
Estonia Netherlands
Denmark GDP: $24.65 billion Belgium
GDP: $201.4 billion Population: 1,282,963 Greece
Population: 5,529,888 Hungary
Latvia Czech Republic
GDP: $32.2 billion Portugal
Population: 2,204,708 Sweden
Austria
Netherlands Lithuania Bulgaria
GDP: $680.4 billion GDP: $56.22 billion Luxembourg
Population: 16,847,007 Population: 3,535,547 Slovakia
Denmark
UK Germany Poland Czech Republic Ireland
GDP: $2.189 trillion GDP: $2.96 trillion GDP: $725.2 billion GDP: $262.8 billion Lithuania
Population: Population: 81,471,834 Population: 38,441,588 Population: 10,190,213 Latvia
62,698,362 Slovenia
Finland
Estonia
Cyprus
Malta
Luxembourg Slovakia
GDP: $40.81 billion GDP: $121.3 billion
Population: 503,302 Population: 5,477,038
Belgium
GDP: $396.9 billion
Population: 10,431,477
France Hungary Romania
GDP: $2.16 trillion GDP: $190 billion GDP: $253.3 billion
Population: 65,102,719 Population: 9,976,062 Population: 21,904,551
Austria Slovenia
GDP: $332.6 billion GDP: $56.81 billion
Population: 8,217,280 Population: 2,000,092
Spain Bulgaria
GDP: $1.36 trillion GDP: $92.21 billion
Population: 46,754,784 Population: 7,093,635
Italy
GDP: $1.782 trillion
Population: 61,016,804
Malta Greece Cyprus
GDP: $10.21 billion GDP: $321.7 billion GDP: $23.18 billion
Population: 408,333 Population: 10,760,136 Population: 1,120,489
453
1996 1997
$1,835,300,000
THE GROSS REVENUE EARNED AT THE
BOX OFFICE BY THE FILM TITANIC
Dolly the sheep, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult animal’s
DNA, in her pen at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland.
CHECHNYAN REBEL LEADER 1,353 VIOLENCE IN ZAIRE ESCALATED in government insurgents began October. The inspectors had been
Salman Raduyev was shot on Ireland February, intensifying the misery nearing the capital Tirana, those sent in the aftermath of the 1991
March 6 and reported dead (he of Rwandan–Hutu refugees who loyal to President Sali Berisha Gulf War with a remit to destroy
had in fact disappeared abroad 900 had fled there to escape the civil armed civilians in Tirana, Iraq’s nuclear, biological, and
for medical treatment). A France war in Rwanda. In April, rebel opening up stores of guns and chemical weapons arsenal. This
ceasefire was signed between soldiers, mainly Tutsis, sealed off ammunition. The result was action provoked a diplomatic
Russia and Chechnya (see 1994) 183,841 camps in eastern Zaire, where chaos, and foreign nationals were crisis which was defused by a
on August 31. UK refugees were trapped in urged to leave. Russian-brokered compromise.
appalling conditions. Thousands
Romanian elections were won BSE cases were massacred. The government Hong Kong was handed back to In Japan, the Kyoto Protocol
by the Romanian Democratic Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, of Zaire collapsed on April 3, and the Chinese authorities on July 1 was signed on December 11. It
Convention, bringing 48 years or “mad-cow disease”, caused a Etienne Tshisekedi (b. 1932) after 150 years of British rule. The committed industrialized nations
of communist rule to an end. major health scare in Europe. Most became prime minister of the new new chief executive, Tung Chee to reducing emissions of
cases of BSE occurred in the UK. government. As the violence Hwa, formulated a policy based greenhouse gases, principally
Civil war began in Afghanistan, escalated 56,000 Zaireans fled on “one country, two systems,” to carbon dioxide, in an attempt to
when Taliban rebels seized Kabul sides to find a solution to Northern into Tanzania. preserve Hong Kong’s role as a combat global warming.
on September 27, forcing Ireland’s political problems. capitalist center in Asia.
hundreds to flee the war-torn city. Albania was consumed by The film Titanic, about the
US president Bill Clinton anarchy during March and April, Diana, Princess of Wales, ill-fated voyage of the famous
The Kurdish civil war continued, won another term in office on as law and order collapsed. When died in a car crash on August 31 passenger liner that sank in 1912,
and Iraq seized a city inside the November 6. When Clinton in a Paris underpass. The news was premiered in December. At the
Kurdish “safe haven” protected by reshuffled his cabinet on Guggenheim museum of her death was greeted with time, it was the most expensive
December 12, Madeleine This museum in Bilbao, Spain, unprecedented scenes of film ever made, but also the
17 Albright became the first female designed by US architect Frank mourning around the world. most successful, grossing over
American Secretary of State. Gehry, was opened on October 18. $1.8 billion. It also won 11
THE NUMBER Iraq refused to allow UN Academy Awards (Oscars).
OF MONTHS Science fact met science weapons inspectors entry in
THE IRA fiction when Dolly, a sheep, was
CEASEFIRE born on July 5 in Edinburgh,
LASTED Scotland. Dolly was the first
mammal to be cloned from
an adult cell.
US-led troops on August 31. In Online shopping
response, America launched The online auction site eBay boomed
Operation Desert Strike, in 1996 with clever technology and a
firing missiles at Iraqi forum for rating buyers and sellers. It
military targets. is now a global phenomenon.
The IRA (Irish Republican
Army) exploded a bomb in
the Docklands area of East
London on February 10, ending
a 17-month ceasefire (see 1994),
which had tried to enable both
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1998 1999
Bill Clinton hugs White House intern Monica Lewinsky the day after his reelection Police confront demonstrators at the WTO conference in Seattle, northwest
in 1996. The image was later said to be evidence of their relationship. US. The protests were against large corporations and globalization.
IN JANUARY, US PRESIDENT BILL be impeached (Andrew Johnson Tanzania and Kenya earlier in the A SINGLE EUROPEAN CURRENCY, Solar eclipse
CLINTON became the center of a was the first, in 1868). Clinton was month. America said one target the Euro, was launched on A total solar eclipse occurred
scandal involving his relationship charged with committing perjury was a base for Osama Bin Laden, January 1. Eleven European Union on August 11, 1999. It was
with a former White House intern, in front of a grand jury, but founder of the Islamic extremist member states decided to adopt watched by over 350 million
Monica Lewinsky. Clinton was acquitted the following year. organization al-Qaeda. the Euro, which became a full people in Asia and Europe.
already implicated in a sexual economic currency in 2002.
harassment case and was being A devastating earthquake General Pinochet, former (b. 1943), who took the role
investigated by independent hit northern Afghanistan on Chilean dictator (see 1973), was The international community of “chief executive.” The
counsel Kenneth Starr. The February 4. It killed an estimated arrested in London on October accused President Slobodan international community
president denied the relationship. 4,000 people, and left around 16 by police acting on behalf of Milosevic of “ethnic cleansing” condemned the coup and many
In December, he became only the 30,000 homeless. Spain, who alleged Pinochet had when 45 ethnic Albanians were nations imposed sanctions
second president in US history to committed atrocities against found dead, apparently executed by against Pakistan.
The Good Friday Agreement Spanish citizens. Pinochet was Serbs. Kosovo peace talks ended
6.1 was signed on April 10. It marked deemed too ill for extradition and without agreement on February 23 The World Trade Organization
a major breakthrough in the released in 2000. and a week later NATO forces (WTO) held a conference in
THE MAGNITUDE Northern Ireland peace process. announced they would escalate Seattle, US, late in the year, which
OF THE A referendum held in Northern On May 1, Saddam Hussein their bombardment of was delayed by protesters
AFGHANISTAN Ireland and the Republic of Ireland wrote an open letter to the UN Yugoslavia. The purging of campaigning for environmental
EARTHQUAKE on May 22 was overwhelmingly in Security Council threatening “grave Albanians by Serbian troops issues and against globalization.
favour of the accord. consequences” if sanctions against increased, and half a million Demonstrators clashed with
Iraq were not lifted. The attemptsGDP GROWTH (IN PERCENTAGE) Albanians fled Kosovo. Milosevic police before being dispersed.
Pol Pot, former Khmer Rouge by UN weapons inspectors to agreed to withdraw his troops on
ruler of Cambodia (see 1978), verify the weapons arsenal in Iraq June 9, in response to unrelenting NASA lost contact with its Mars
died on April 15. The Khmer ended on December 16, when the NATO bombing. Polar Lander shortly before its
Rouge had deposed him as Iraqis refused to co-operate. US planned entry into the Martian
leader and sentenced him to life and British air strikes on Iraq, Thabo Mbeki won the South atmosphere. The failure of the
imprisonment in 1997. known as Operation Desert Fox, African presidential elections mission was blamed on a
began hours later. on June 2, succeeding Nelson software error.
Eritrean and Ethiopian border Mandela. He faced huge economic
clashes turned into a full-scale war 2.5 and social challenges, including Macau reverted from
in May. Both countries, among the the terrible impact of HIV/AIDS. Portuguese to Chinese rule on
poorest in the world, spent millions 2.0 December 20, after 442 years of
on sophisticated weaponry. East Timor, in Southeast Asia, Portuguese control. Macau was
1.5 asked for intervention from the last remaining colonial state
India and Pakistan went international troops after a in Asia. Edmond Ho Hau-wah
nuclear this year. India performed 1.0 complete breakdown in law and (b. 1955), a banker, became leader
underground nuclear explosions order in September. This followed of the new government.
on May 12 near the Pakistani 0.5 a referendum, which voted for
border; Pakistan responded independence from Indonesia.
by carrying out its own tests 0 Anti-independence Timorese
on May 28. 1996 1997 1998 1999 rebels, supported by the
Indonesian military, killed
Japan officially entered a Recession in Japan an estimated 1,400 Timorese,
recession on June 12. It was the Japan’s recession was at its worst and 300,000 people fled to
first time its economy had shrunk in 1998. It was caused by a drop in neighboring West Timor.
in 12 years. The news caused exports, weak domestic demand,
global stock markets to slump. and a fall in property prices. A military coup in Pakistan on
October 12 brought to power
US missiles pounded targets in General Pervez Musharraf
Afghanistan and Sudan on
August 20, in retaliation for the
bombing of US Embassies in
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2000 2001
A trader despairs at the fall of the Nasdaq Stock Market and the New York Stock Exchange George W. Bush was elected president of the US in 2001. Here he shakes hands with
when the dot-com bubble burst. The Nasdaq never fully recovered. Al Gore, the defeated Democrat candidate, outside the US Capitol in Washington.
Millennium celebrations $11BILLION
Fireworks explode in a spectacular THE AMOUNT
display over Sydney Harbor Bridge
and Opera House as Australia OF MONEY LOST
welcomed in the new millennium. BY ENRON
SHAREHOLDERS
Israel announced its withdrawal THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA 17 were infected. The suspect
IN JANUARY, THE UN WAR CRIMES running between the Danish from South Lebanon in May, 22 WAS ON THE BRINK OF WAR committed suicide.
TRIBUNAL in The Hague capital, Copenhagen, and the years after occupying it. The in March, as ethnic Albanian
sentenced five Bosnian Croat Swedish port of Malmo—was occupation had become unpopular rebels demanding equal rights In October, the US and Britain
militiamen to 25 years in prison opened to traffic this year. with the Israeli electorate. clashed with government launched attacks on targets in
for a 1993 murder spree that forces. In August, NATO Afghanistan, where Osama Bin
emptied a Bosnian village of all In March, stock markets around North and South Korea held a announced it would send a Laden (1957–2011), head of the
its Muslim inhabitants during the the world crashed when internet summit in June, the first since the peacekeeping force to this militant Islamic organization
Bosnian War (1992–95). companies began to fail and the peninsula was divided in 1945. former Yugoslavian republic. al-Qaeda, was believed to be
dot-com bubble, caused by The South Korean president Kim hiding. Operation “Enduring
Opposition supporters from speculative investment into Dae-jung received the Nobel The US experienced an Freedom” aimed to remove the
Serbia stormed the Yugoslav internet-based companies, burst. Peace Prize for his efforts. unprecedented day of terror on Taliban regime and replace it with
parliament building in Belgrade September 11, when 19 al-Qaeda a democratic government.
on October 5 using a bulldozer, Antiglobalization protestors More than 800 followers of a terrorists hijacked four passenger
proclaiming Vojislav Kostunica descended on Prague in Ugandan cult known as the airlines. Two flew into the twin Large parts of the world were
as the new Yugoslav president September during meetings Restoration of the Ten towers of the World Trade tipped into recession after the
after discrepancies in September between the World Bank and the Commandments of God died in Center, another into the 9/11 terror attacks, and many in
elections caused outrage. International Monetary Fund. their churches in March. It is Pentagon. The fourth crashed the business community were
President Milosevic announced The police presence was huge, uncertain whether they committed into a field near Pittsburgh. mourning deceased colleagues.
his resignation the next day. and more than 600 people were mass suicide or were murdered Nearly 3,000 people were killed. Economic problems worsened
injured in riots. by the leaders of the cult. These events left America, and when Enron, an American
In 1991, Denmark and Sweden the world, in a profound state of power-trading company, went bust
agreed to build a bridge connecting The first crew arrived at the The year ended in bloodshed shock. The devastating impact of in December in the world’s biggest
the two countries. The 10-mile International Space Station as a series of terrorist bombs what became known simply as corporate collapse.
(16-km) long Oresund Link— in November, with NASA astronaut went off on December 30 in the “9/11,” September 11, prompted
Bill Shepherd as commander. Philippines. They became known President Bush to declare a “war In December, Argentina
as the Rizal Day bombings on terror.” NATO met the day plunged into financial ruin.
because of the national holiday after the attacks, offering full The government announced
celebrated on this day. support and invoking a Cold that its foreign debt could not
War-era treaty clause that stated be paid back and billions of
2:1 First crew of ISS when one member is attacked; all dollars in government spending
The International members are attacked. would be cut.
Space Station received
its first crew in 2000. The crew was Only a week after 9/11, letters Another attempted terrorist
composed of three men: two containing anthrax spores were attack occurred toward the end of
Russians and one American. mailed to several news offices the year. Richard Reid, a British
and two Democratic US Senators. passenger flying from Paris to
Five people died and a further Miami, was caught trying to light a
fuse protruding from his shoe.
Reid, an Islamic fundamentalist
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,, PEACEFUL TRANSFER OF AUTHORITY
IS RARE IN HISTORY, YET COMMON
,,IN OUR COUNTRY. WITH A SIMPLE
OATH, WE AFFIRM OLD TRADITIONS,
AND MAKE NEW BEGINNINGS.
George W. Bush, opening his inaugration speech, January 20, 2001
and supporter of al-Qaeda, was
sentenced to life imprisonment.
As the terrorist threat from
al-Qaeda took center stage,
the Irish Republican Army (IRA)
made an historic announcement.
On October 23, it stated that it had
begun to disarm and had put
some of its weapons “beyond use.”
In India, the state of Gujarat was
rocked by an earthquake on
January 26, which registered 7.9
on the Richter scale. More than
20,000 people died and 400,000
homes were destroyed.
The free online encyclopedia
“Wikipedia” was launched on
January 15 by Jimmy Wales and
Larry Sanger. By the end of the
year, it held more than 20,000
articles in 18 languages. Articles
are written by volunteers and can
be edited by anyone.
The Human Genome Project
(HGP) aimed to identify all
the genes in the human body.
In February, the HGP published
its first draft: a 90-percent
complete sequence of all
three billion base pairs in
the human genome.
US technology company, Apple,
had high hopes for its new digital
music player, the iPod, which
was launched on October 23.
The device could store hundreds
of music tracks, yet was around
the same size as a pack of cards.
Terror attack
Hijacked United Airlines Flight 175
crashed into the South Tower of the
World Trade Center and exploded,
killing hundreds of people.
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2002 2003
Members of a Chechen militant group speak to journalists inside a theater
in Moscow, during a standoff with Russian troops.
THE EURO BECAME LEGAL TENDER and threatened those inside if Common currency Sierra Leone in West Africa,, THE BEGINNING OF THE YEAR
at the start of the year when 12 Russia did not withdraw from A new currency for 12 members of emerged from a decade of civil war was marred by tragedy when the
countries in the Eurozone Chechnya. Russian special forces with the help of a strong diplomatic US space shuttle Columbia
(see 1999) abolished their pumped gas into the building the European Union, the Euro, and military presence from Britain, disintegrated as it reentered
individual currencies. before engaging the rebels in a was launched in January its former colonial ruler. the Earth’s atmosphere. All seven
gun battle—118 people were killed. 2002. It has since become crew members were killed. An
Slobodan Milosevic, secure as global tender. The 26-year civil war in Angola investigation confirmed that a
the former Yugoslav A nightclub on the Indonesian ended in April when a ceasefire heat shield had malfunctioned
president, went on trial island of Bali became the target Members of a violent was agreed between the Angolan on takeoff, causing it to break
on February 12, charged of a terrorist attack in which Islamist group, Jemaah Army and UNITA (National Union up upon reentry.
with crimes against more than 200 people died. Islamiyah, were convicted for the Total Independence of
humanity. He chose to defend of the attack. Angola). The civil war had been The last commercial flight of
himself, and the trial faced many US-led forces began the first ongoing since independence from Concorde, the supersonic aircraft,
delays due to his ill-health. large-scale campaign against the Portugal in 1975. was made in October. Concorde
Milosevic died in 2006, before the Taliban in Afghanistan—Operation was given an emotional farewell
trial was completed. Anaconda began in March. The African Union replaced the at Heathrow airport in London,
The US journalist Daniel Pearl Organization of African Unity in England. It had flown for 27 years
President George W. Bush of was kidnapped in January in July. The new union was intended but spiraling costs and dwindling
America and President Vladimir Karachi, Pakistan. Pearl was to reflect the different challenges ticket sales led to its demise.
Putin of Russia agreed to cut investigating extremist Muslim facing the continent.
numbers of nuclear warheads by groups. His ransom demanded Yugoslavia voted to end its
two-thirds each in the Treaty of the release and return to Pakistan WE, …TRUE existence in February, becoming
Moscow, signed on May 24. of prisoners from Guantanamo OWNERS OF Serbia and Montenegro. The
Bay, a US prison camp in Cuba. THIS LAND, Yugoslavian Federation had
In Moscow, a gang of heavily Pearl’s body was found in May. existed for 74 years, but had
armed Chechen militants India and Pakistan came close ,,SHALL NOT lost its other four republics in
besieged a theater on October 23, to war in May, following a major
terrorist attack on the Indian BUDGE, THE Speedy exit
parliament in 2001, which India LAND IS OURS. The supersonic airliner Concorde
claimed was carried out by retired in 2002. Concorde was an
Pakistan-based militant groups Robert Mugabe, president of international icon and epitomized
fighting Indian rule in Kashmir, Zimbabwe, December 2002 the advance of modern technology.
north India. Both countries
positioned troops either side of the Robert Mugabe, president
international border with Kashmir. of Zimbabwe, ordered white
Tamil rebels signed a ceasefire farmers to leave as part of
with the Sri Lankan government his policy on land redistribution
in February as part of a to the black populace.
Norwegian-led initiative that The declaration
ended 19 years of civil war. was defied by
many farmers.
Meltdown
A massive chunk of Antarctica’s US millionaire Steve Fossett
Larsen ice shelf broke up in 2002— became the first person to fly a
it lost a total of about 1,255 sq miles balloon solo nonstop around the
(3,250 sq km). world. He completed the journey
on July 2 in 13 days and 12 hours.
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,, ,,WE HAVE CONQUERED THE
SARS EPIDEMIC IN 2003.
Wen Jiabao, Premier of China
Doctors and healthcare workers attend a symposium on Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in Hong Kong.
Star power create an EU president and discontent. Mass protests were Civil war erupted in the western Fall from grace
Arnold Schwarzenegger, former foreign minister. held all over the world. region of Darfur, Sudan, as rebels A statue of Saddam Hussein in
movie star, greets supporters during rose up against the government, Baghdad, Iraq is toppled from
his election campaign for governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, a Neighboring Iran ended the claiming the region was being its plinth by Iraqi civilians, aided
of California in the US in 2003. former actor famous for playing year with an earthquake in the neglected by the authorities in the by US marines.
the“Terminator” in Hollywood southeast, which devastated the capital, Khartoum. So far in this
a series of bloody conflicts movies, became governor of ancient city of Bam. On the civil war, an estimated 200,000 Syndrome (SARS) is a disease
throughout the 1990s. California in October. UNESCO list of World Heritage people have died, and 2.5 million found in humans, which is highly
Sites, the city was more than have fled to refugee camps. infectious and can be fatal. In
The treaty establishing a Istanbul, Turkey, was rocked 2,000 years old. The earthquake 2003, an outbreak spread from
Constitution for Europe was by two bombs on November 20, killed more than 26,000 people. A virus made headlines around China to 37 other countries.
approved in June. It aimed to which targeted the British The US offer of aid helped improve the world and caused considerable Governments took rigorous
create a consolidated constitution consulate and the headquarters relations between the two nations. panic. Severe Acute Respiratory measures to contain the virus.
for the European Union (EU). of the British-owned HSBC bank.
It was to replace the existing The explosions claimed 60 Camera phones, which can
European Union treaties with a lives and were linked to al-Qaeda. make calls and take photographs,
simplified single text, and would came into their own this year.
Iraq’s regime crumbled on They had a profound social
March 20 when US-led troops
invaded and toppled Saddam impact. Used for surveillance,
Hussein’s government. They news gathering, but also
argued that Iraq was hiding
weapons of mass destruction enabling voyeurism, they ignited
(WMD). This triggered years of debates about privacy. Some
civil conflict in Iraq between countries banned their use.
rival religious factions. The war
was hugely controversial and
many questioned its legality. As
Western troops began losing their
lives, extensive media coverage
fanned the flames of public
2.5MILLION
THE NUMBER OF
PEOPLE WHO FLEW
WITH CONCORDE
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2004 2005
Afghan citizens in Kabul wait in line to vote at the Jaffaria Mosque, in the first An aerial view of New Orleans in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina,
presidential elections since the overthrow of the Taliban government. in which 80 percent of the city was flooded.
THE NEW AFGHAN CONSTITUTION statement of responsibility for 1,100 YASSIR ARAFAT DIED IN 2004, ,,pressure on Syria
was signed in the capital Kabul on the terror attacks of 9/11. and the leader of the Palestine to remove their troops from
January 26. Hamid Karzai, leader TAKEN HOSTAGE Liberation Army, Rawhi Fattouh, Lebanon. On 26 April, they
of the transitional government, US and Iraqi forces stormed into became interim president of announced that they had
was officially declared the winner western areas of Fallujah, Iraq, 331 the Palestinian Authority. Under withdrawn. This was regarded as
of Afghanistan’s presidential a rebel stronghold, early on KILLED Palestinian law he held the post an historic day in the Middle East.
election on November 3. The November 8. The aim was to put for 60 days until elections were
result of the election had been an end to guerrilla control of the Beslan crisis held. Mahmoud Abbas became Former leader of Iraq, Saddam
delayed due to an investigation Sunni Muslim city. A group of armed Chechen the new president on January 6. Hussein, went on trial in
into voting irregularities. separatists took more than 1,000 Abbas and the Israeli prime October, nearly two years after
The European Union (EU) grew people hostage at a Russian school minister, Ariel Sharon, announced his capture, for atrocities he
In April, the CBS news program on May 1, as ten more countries —331 died, many of them children. a ceasefire on February 8. It was carried out during his rule. He
“Sixty Minutes” broadcast joined. It was the largest single seen as the best chance for peace refused to acknowledge the
shocking images in the US enlargement in its history. Many three days—hundreds of hostages in the region in many years. authority of the court trying him,
showing abuse of prisoners at Abu of the new member states were died, including 186 children. and claimed that he was not
Ghraib in Iraq by members of the former Eastern Bloc countries. The former Lebanese prime guilty. Hussein was sentenced
US military police. President Spain also experienced terrorist minister Rafik Hariri was killed to death and executed in 2006.
George W. Bush issued an apology. Chechen president Akhmad attacks when explosions tore by a suicide bomb in west Beirut
Bush was reelected for a second Kadyrov died in an explosion through three Madrid train on February 14. Hariri had been Four explosions ripped across
term as US president on at a stadium in Grozny, the capital stations on March 11, killing 191. planning to make a comeback
November 2. He portrayed himself of Chechnya, on May 9. The Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility. in forthcoming elections. He ,,IT’S TOTALLY
as a strong leader in a time of war. assassination, during a parade, had called on Syria to cease its
was thought to be the work of The Summer Olympic Games involvement in Lebanese WIPED OUT.
On October 29, Arabic TV station Islamic militants. were held in Athens, Greece, affairs—Syria denied any
al-Jazeera aired a video in which birthplace of the ancient games, for involvement in his death. The George W. Bush, US president,
Osama Bin Laden threatened Trouble continued in Chechnya the first time since 1896. The US assassination put further surveying the damage to New
fresh attacks on the US. The when separatists stormed a won the most medals—103 in total. Orleans, August 31, 2005
video was Bin Laden’s clearest school in Beslan, North Ossetia, EXTREME WEATHER
on September 1. They held An earthquake under the Indian
children and staff hostage for Ocean near the Indonesian island Weather became increasingly
of Sumatra on December 26 wild in the 2000s. Hurricane
unleashed a series of killer waves, Katrina (pictured) in 2005 was
tsunami, that sped across the only one of an unprecedented
sea. More than 200,000 people series of hurricanes and
died and millions made homeless tropical storms. Other weather
in 11 countries, making this the phenomena included record
most destructive tsunami in history. levels of rainfall, melting
icecaps, and severe drought,
Wave of destruction all contributing to increased
Tsunami waves traveled 1,000 miles concerns about the prospect
(1,600 km) across the Indian Ocean of global warming. The
in only 90 minutes.They caused a forecast is for more extreme
massive amount of damage. weather, disrupting lifestyles,
making animal species extinct,
and threatening human lives.
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4 6 0April 28parAbisbuousneGs(hMirnreaaIvryiebaa1ql)eTedn counjtoriineAsEuGUgruesetc1e3h–o2s9tsASthuOemlynmms,eprics NoofvFeamllbuebjayrhUSiiSnegfIorearcqes Decembetersau2rn6thaDqmeuivaackasetuaisnteinIdngdObiycaenan Febrfouramrmyeinr1iL4setRebara,finakesssHeaasprsir(irbinmi.,a1tee9d44) April t2r6ooSpysrifarowmithLderbaawnson HbularsrtiscAaNunegewuKsOatLrt2orleu9inaisanisa,na
2006 2007
,,
FUTURE GENERATIONS
,,
,,MAY WELL ASK THEMSELVES,
WHAT WERE OUR
PARENTS THINKING?
Al Gore, US politician, An Inconvenient Truth, 2006
Former prime minister of Pakistan, Benazir Bhutto, campaigning
in Karachi before elections.
London on July 7. Coordinated THE BASQUE SEPARATIST GROUP Another nuclear power, North BULGARIA AND iPhone
terrorist attacks struck three ETA declared a permanent Korea, announced it had tested ROMANIA joined the A new type of
underground trains and a ceasefire on March 22. They a nuclear weapon on October 9, European Union multimedia phone, the
double-decker bus, killing aimed to pursue independence provoking severe international on January 1. iPhone connects to the
52 people, and injuring several for the Basque region through condemnation. They took the internet via a touch
hundred more. The four suicide a democratic process. membership of screen. It was launched in
bombers, all British men, were Construction began on the the group from January by US technology
backed by al-Qaeda. Montenegro became a Freedom Tower in New York on 25 to 27 member company Apple.
sovereign state on June 3 after April 26. The skyscraper was to states.
Weeks after the al-Qaeda a referendum in which just over replace the twin towers destroyed to end the “dictatorship”
attack on the London transport 55 percent of the populace voted in the 9/11 attacks (see 2001). Direct rule of President Musharraf.
system, the provisional IRA— for independence. It meant the over Northern Within weeks he was
the paramilitary wing of the Irish end of the former Union of Serbia Seven bombs exploded on the Ireland by deported to Saudi Arabia.
Republican Army—announced it and Montenegro, created only suburban railway of Mumbai, London Another former leader of
was ceasing its armed campaign three years earlier from the India, on July 11. Over 200 lost officially Pakistan, Benazir Bhutto,
on July 28. Two months later former Yugoslavia (see 2003). their lives. Tension between India ended on was assassinated on
there was a verification statement and Pakistan increased when May 8. Democratic December 27 during a political
from the independent arms Iran announced that it had evidence suggested that the Unionist Party leader Ian rally. Islamist militants were
decommissioning body that the produced the enriched uranium Pakistani intelligence agency was Paisley and Sinn Fein’s Martin thought to be responsible.
IRA had put all its weapons needed to make nuclear fuel. involved in the attacks. McGuinness were sworn in as On December 24, Nepal
beyond use. It insisted this was for generating first and deputy first ministers announced that it would abolish
nuclear power, but the West was The Three Gorges Dam in of the new executive. its monarchy after elections,
The Kyoto accord came into concerned that Iran was making China was completed on May 20. which were to be held in 2008.
force seven years after it was first a nuclear bomb. At 1.4 miles (2.3km) long, it is one Iranian forces captured 15 Some parties had refused to
agreed (see 1997). It aimed to of the world’s largest dams, and British sailors on March 23. The serve in government until Nepal
curb the air pollution blamed Power generator one of the most controversial sailors were accused of entering became a republic.
for global warming. The US, The building of the world’s largest public works in modern times. Iranian waters and were held A major scientific breakthough
the world’s top polluter, did not hydroelectric installation, the The dam was engineered to prisoner for 11 days. was made when the first artificial
sign up, as the protocol was not Three Gorges Dam, was completed prevent flooding along the sperm was created in April. It was
thought to be in the best interest in 2006, in China. Yangtze River, but had a huge Nawaz Sharif, former prime grown from human bone marrow
of the American economy. social and ecological impact. minister of Pakistan, returned samples in a laboratory in
home from exile in August, vowing Newcastle, England.
Hurricane Katrina hit New The mysterious dark matter
Orleans in the US, on August 29 I PUT MY LIFE that makes up a quarter of the
causing unprecedented damage. IN DANGER AND universe was revealed in May by
The hurricane also battered large CAME HERE a 3D map made by the Hubble
swathes of the Louisiana and BECAUSE I telescope. It helped explain how
Mississippi coastlines, leaving two the universe was formed.
oil rigs adrift in the Gulf of Mexico ,,BELIEVE MY The final book in the Harry
and causing destruction estimated Potter series by J.K. Rowling was
at $26 billion. COUNTRY TO BE released on July. Harry Potter and
IN DANGER. the Deathly Hallows became the
YouTube, a video-sharing fastest selling book of all time.
website, was launched in Benazir Bhutto, Pakistani
February and soon grew into one politician, in a speech shortly
of the most popular websites before her assassination
on the internet. After only a year
100 million videos were being
viewed every day.
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461
2008
9.69 SECONDS
USAIN BOLT’S
RECORD IN
THE 100M
SPRINT
Usain Bolt became the fastest man on Earth when he sprinted his way
to a new 100m world record at the Summer Olympics in Beijing.
THIS WAS THE YEAR OF “BLACK The Australian prime minister Kosovo declared independence Olympics held in Beijing, China. source of enormous national
MONDAYS” in the world of finance. Kevin Rudd (b. 1957) made an from Serbia on February 17, Bolt, from Jamaica, ran the 100m pride for China.
On Monday, January 21, the London official apology for years of but the legitimacy of this was final in a time of 9.69 seconds,
Stock Exchange experienced a mistreatment inflicted on the disputed. Kosovo’s bid to be breaking his own record of 9.72 Twenty years in the making,
dramatic fall in overall value. country’s Aboriginal people on recognized as Europe’s newest seconds set earlier in 2008. The the world’s largest “atom
On Monday, September 15, the February 13. He singled out the country was the latest episode in decision to pick Beijing as the host smasher,” the Large Hadron
US investment firm Lehman “Stolen Generations”—mixed- the dismemberment of the former for the Summer Olympics of 2008 Collider, built near Geneva,
Brothers declared bankruptcy, race children who were forcibly Yugoslavia, 17 years after its was controversial, as critics cited Switzerland, was started on
and on the US stock market the removed from their families under dissolution began. China’s record of human rights September 10. It was designed
Dow Jones Industrial Average a government-sanctioned policy of violations. The event became a to look at the “Big Bang” and
lost 4.4 percent of its value. On white assimilation. Radovan Karadzic, Europe’s other mysteries of the universe.
Monday, September 29, there was most wanted man, was arrested
a 7-percent drop in the Dow. On January 7, New Jersey on July 21. The former Bosnian
became the first Northern state in Serb leader had been on the run
BARACK OBAMA (1961– ) the US to apologize for its part in for 12 years, fleeing charges
the slave trade. It prohibited the of genocide.
Democrat Barack Hussein importation of slaves after 1786,
Obama made history when but was the last Northern state to South Ossetia became the focus
he was elected to the emancipate them. of a war between Russia and
White House as the 44th Georgia in August when it tried to
President of the US. Born in Democrat Barack Obama won break away from Georgia. Georgia
Hawaii, he is the first the US presidential election on launched a full military offensive
African-American to hold the November 4, becoming the first to try to reconquer the region,
office, and gained admirers African-American president, and which lead to violent clashes with
for his relaxed charm and winning 52.5 percent of the Russia. After Georgia’s troops
stirring oratory. However, his popular vote. Obama’s main rival were ejected, Russia withdrew
first year met with fierce was Republican John McCain. and recognized South Ossetia’s
opposition as he attempted independence.
to change the American Cuba’s leader, Fidel Castro,
healthcare system, tackle retired after half a century on Irish voters plunged the EU into
climate change, and reach February 19. He had not appeared disarray on June 13 by rejecting
new agreements on nuclear in public since undergoing the Lisbon Treaty, which was
disarmament. stomach surgery. Castro’s brother, designed to bring more European
Raúl, became president. integration. All European member
states had to ratify the treaty for
Pakistan’s president Pervez it to go into force in 2009. It had
Musharraf bowed to intense been approved by 18 countries,
pressure and resigned on but Ireland was the only one to put
August 18 ahead of impeachment the treaty to a public vote.
proceedings. He launched a
passionate defense of his record. Usain Bolt sprinted into history
with a world-record-breaking run
India suffered a series of on August 16 at the Summer
coordinated terrorist attacks
on November 28 across the city of The Hadron collider at CERN
Mumbai—166 people were killed. The most intricate machine ever
India blamed the attacks on built, it is hoped that the Large
Pakistan-based militant groups, Hadron Collider will unravel the
and the attacks derailed peace mystery of how the universe began.
talks between the two nations.
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to
2009 2010
173 BP workers lay an oil absorbent boom near a wildlife refuge off the Gulf of Mexico
to stop the spread of oil from the Deepwater Horizon platform disaster.
THE NUMBER
OF DEATHS IN
THE VICTORIA
BUSH FIRES
FOLLOWING AIR STRIKES THE Reykjavik Eyjafjallajökull finance package on November 21,
PREVIOUS YEAR, Israeli troops after seven days of denying it
invaded Gaza in early January. Oslo Helsinki needed a bailout for its banking
Israel claimed it was in an Stockholm system. People across Europe held
attempt to stop Hamas, the main demonstrations on September 29,
Islamic resistance movement, Moscow protesting at austerity measures
from firing rockets into Israel. made by their governments. They
A ceasefire was declared and London Warsaw were particularly angry at the vast
Israeli troops withdrew from Paris Munich sums of money that had been
Gaza by the end of January. used to rescue banks.
Madrid Rome
Right-wing activists in the US The world held its breath in late
calling themselves the Tea Party Istanbul Ankara November as North Korea
roared onto the political scene Athens bombarded a South Korean island
this year, demanding fiscal near a disputed maritime border, Chilean rescue
responsibility and lower taxes. Spread of volcanic ash in Europe KEY leaving two soldiers dead. The A Chilean miner is helped to the
The constantly shifting high-altitude cloud of 19th April 0000 GMT clash was one of the most serious surface after being trapped
American car giants volcanic ash from Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland, caused 19th April 0600 GMT since the end of the Korean War underground for 10 weeks following
General Motors and Chrysler travel chaos as European airspace was closed. (see 1950). War was not declared, the collapse of the San José mine.
both filed for bankruptcy in but tensions continued to simmer.
2009, as the ongoing financial AN EARTHQUAKE DEVASTATED the At the UN climate summit On August 5, 33 Chilean miners
crisis took its toll on industries Haitian capital Port au Prince on held in Cancun, Mexico, a new Burma’s military regime were trapped underground
around the world. January 12. It measured 7 on the fund was created to give money released pro-democracy leader following a cave-in. They spent
Richter scale, and around 230,000 to developing countries trying to Aung San Suu Kyi (see panel, 69 days in the mine and the world
Zimbabwe’s opposition leader people died. Many were housed tackle the consequences of below) on November 13. became transfixed by their ordeal
Morgan Tsvangirai (b. 1952) was in badly constructed buildings. climate change. and successful rescue, which was
sworn in as prime minister in a The imprisoned Chinese completed on October 14.
unity government with President An Icelandic volcano, dormant Poland was plunged into dissident Liu Xiaobo won this
Robert Mugabe on February 11. for two hundred years, erupted mourning when President Lech year’s Nobel Peace Prize. The Burmese opposition leader
This power-sharing deal was near the Eyjafjallajökull glacier Kaczynski, his wife Maria, and ceremony was boycotted by China, Aung San Suu Kyi spent most of
designed to put an end to the on April 14. It sent clouds of ash other senior Polish figures were which launched an unprecedented the previous 20 years under
ongoing political violence soaring as high as 36,000ft killed in a plane crash in Russia campaign against the award. house arrest, due to her efforts
in Zimbabwe. (11,000m), disrupting air traffic in on April 10. to bring democracy to Burma.
Europe, and delaying millions of AUNG SAN SUU KYI (1945– ) Her tireless determination to
The Copenhagen climate air passengers across the world. The global recession continued, stand for nonviolent resistance
summit was held in December. and the Greek economy faced the in the face of a brutal military
Five nations, including China and The US experienced an threat of bankruptcy. On May 2, regime inspired the world.
the US, agreed to attempt to limit environmental disaster in April the International Monetary Fund She was released from house
global temperature rises. Some when the BP-owned Deepwater (IMF) agreed to a €110 billion loan arrest in 2010 and called for
critics were disappointed, as they Horizon oil rig exploded and sank. for Greece, on the condition that “national conciliation.”
thought that the agreement did Around four million barrels of oil austerity measures were
not go far enough. were pumped into the Gulf of enforced. Ireland asked the
Mexico and 11 men were killed. European Union for a rescue
Swiss tennis player Roger
Federer won the men’s tennis
final at Wimbledon in July; it
was his 15th Grand Slam win,
and made him the most
successful men’s tennis player
in Grand Slam history.
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2011
Prince William, second in line to the British throne, kisses his bride, Catherine Middleton, on the balcony
of Buckingham Palace following their wedding at Westminster Abbey on April 29.
EXTRAORDINARY EVENTS ACROSS Colonel Muammar Gaddafi intellectuals and activists went Broken city businesses washed away down
THE MIDDLE EAST led to what (b. 1942) developed into an armed into hiding. Syrians demanded A family walks past cars upturned by the Brisbane River. The floods
became known as the "Arab conflict pitting rebels against greater political freedom, an the tsunami in Japan. A massive 8.9 spread to other parts of
Spring." It began when a man in government forces. A NATO-led end to corruption, and the lifting magnitude earthquake hit Sendai, Queensland—more than 200,000
Tunisia burned himself to death coalition with a UN mandate of an emergency law in place for the capital of the Miyagi Prefecture. people in 20 towns and cities
in December 2010 in protest at his to protect civilians also became nearly 50 years. were affected.
treatment by police. This led to involved. The country's coastal became president, but inherited
pro-democracy rebellions, which cities became roughly split There was cautious optimism in a country politically and militarily Torrential rain caused deadly
erupted across the Middle East. between pro-Gaddafi forces two African nations this year as divided, half destroyed by civil mudslides and flooding in Brazil
After days of protests, Tunisian they struggled to end years of war, and with an economy starved in one of its deadliest natural
president Zine el Abidine Ben Ali Revolution in Egypt bloody conflict. In January, the of investment. disasters on record. Almost 500
promised more jobs while vowing An Egyptian man and boy celebrate Sudanese voted in a referendum people were killed across three
to punish rioters. On January 9, the resignation of Egyptian President to split the country between north A series of natural disasters cities north of Rio de Janeiro.
protestors clashed with police and Hosni Mubarak in Tahir Square, and south and form a new state. struck around the globe during
there were calls for the president Cairo after weeks of protests. However, within months of the poll the first few months of the year, On February 22, a huge
to resign. A few days later he fled controlling the capital, Tripoli, and a wave of violence spread across causing unprecedented damage earthquake ripped apart the
to Saudi Arabia. the west, and rebels controlling southern Sudan as its army and destruction. Brisbane, center of Christchurch, one of
Benghazi in the east. clashed with rebel militia. These Australia, resembled a muddy New Zealand's biggest cities.
Riots began in Algeria over food rebel groups accused the lake in January following The quake, measuring 6.3 on the
prices and unemployment. A man The wave of popular unrest also government of plotting to stay in catastrophic flooding, with Richter scale, hit at the height
burned himself to death in an hit Syria, where the government power indefinitely, not representing debris from houses and of the working day and killed an
apparent echo of events in Tunisia began a violent crackdown on all tribal groups, and neglecting
that sent new shockwaves across civilian dissenters. President development in rural areas. This
North Africa. Antigovernment Assad (b. 1965) promised reform led to fears that Southern Sudan
activists announced a "day of on April 16, but the death toll rose would fail as a country before it
anger" in Egypt, and there were and scores of prominent had even got started.
calls for President Mubarak
(b. 1928) to resign. In response, The Ivory Coast held elections in
Mubarak shut down cellphone 2010. A high turnout fostered the
and internet networks and then belief that the country's post-civil
appointed his first-ever vice war division might come to an end.
president in an attempt to calm The Constitutional Council named
things down. Eventually, after 18 incumbent president Laurence
solid days of mass protest, Gbagbo the winner, but the
Mubarak surrendered power to electoral commission named
the army on February 11 and flew Alassane Ouattara, who was
out of Cairo. immediately recognized by the UN,
US, and the EU. Gbagbo fought to
The uprising in Egypt led to an stay in power and there was fierce
upsurge of violent protests fighting between the two sides.
against repressive regimes in The UN sent in troops, and on
Yemen, Jordan, Morocco, Oman, April 5 launched air attacks on
and Iran. On February 16, Gbagbo’s positions. Under the
protests erupted in Libya’s second auspices of the UN, French
largest city, Benghazi, following helicopters attacked Gbagbo's
the arrest of a human rights palace on April 9 and he was
campaigner. The uprising against arrested two days later. Ouattara
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2 BILLION
THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE
WHO WATCHED THE
BRITISH ROYAL WEDDING
estimated 181 people. It was the leading to worldwide concerns The future of the single currency that would cut $38.5 billion in Death of Bin Laden
worst disaster in New Zealand about a nuclear disaster. By May, looked uncertain. But it was government spending over the Osama Bin Laden, hunted for three
in 80 years. the plant showed little sign of not all gloom for the euro, as rest of the existing fiscal year. decades, made headline news
calming down, and officials Germany and France saw their Obama’s attempts to spotlight around the world after his death at
Japan experienced its most announced a complete cold economies grow. positive initiatives were swamped the hands of US special forces.
powerful earthquake since shutdown by the end of the year. by the crush of news from Japan,
records began on March 11. Terrorism struck again in the Egypt, and Libya. Only days after the dramatic
Measuring 9.0 on the Richter The world was suffering from a heart of Russia, as two suicide events of Osama Bin Laden’s
scale, the earthquake struck the financial hangover in 2011, as bombers blew themselves up Criticism of Obama’s leadership death, the world's last known
northeast coast, causing a austerity measures began to bite. at Domodedovo Airport in was overshadowed by the news combat veteran of World War I,
massive Tsunami. A wall of water A bailout package given to Ireland Moscow, on January 24, that Osama Bin Laden (b. 1957), Claude Choules, died peacefully
racing inland swept away cars, and Greece in 2010 had been devastating the international the leader of al-Qaeda and the in Australia at age 110. He had
ships, and buildings. The official intended to stop their euro debt arrivals hall and killing dozens most hunted man in the world, served in both World Wars.
death toll was 14,000, but many crisis from spreading to the rest of people. They were believed had been killed on May 1 in a fire- Conflict shaped his life, and he
thousands were missing and the of Europe, but whispers of a to be Islamist militants from fight with US forces in Pakistan. became a staunch pacifist. His
cost to human life is not yet fully bailout in Portugal were enough the North Caucasus. The news sparked an outpouring death marked the moment the
known. A state of emergency to put stocks on shaky ground and of emotion across the US, but led Great War passed from living
was declared at a nuclear power raise fears that Spain was also in Italy grappled with problems to immediate fears of retaliation. memory into the history books.
plant in Fukushima, where trouble. A bailout for Portugal was of a different sort as its leader, Retaliation was, indeed, swift.
pressure exceeded normal levels, awarded on May 17. Eurozone Silvio Berlusconi (b. 1936), who The Pakistani Taliban carried out
ministers met in the same month had shown a knack for surviving a double suicide bombing on
to staunch the market’s anxieties charges of corruption, faced May 13 that killed 80 recruits at
about Greece, Portugal, and new charges in February of a military training center in the
Ireland, amid concerns that these having sex with an underage northwest of the country.
countries would be unable to meet girl. The scandal, combined with
the repayments on their loans. the poor state of the country's A shaken world
finances, lost Berlusconi his The earthquake in Japan was the fifth
Elizabeth Taylor key supporters. largest since records began—this
One of the Hollywood greats, graph shows the magnitude of the 10
British-born American actress The bitter debate over the Tea biggest earthquakes in history.
Elizabeth Taylor died on March 23 Party movement (see 2009) in
at the age of 79. the US and its inflammatory right- 2011 Japan
wing rhetoric was reignited when 2010 Chile
Democratic Congresswoman 2004 Indian Ocean
Gabrielle Giffords was shot in 1964 Alaska
the head during a public meeting 1960 Valdivia
in Tuscon, Arizona. Six people 1952 Kamchatka
were killed in the attack on 1906 Ecuador – Colombia
January 8, but Giffords survived. 1833 Sumatra
1730 Valparaiso
President Obama continued to 1700 Cascadia
have a tough time exerting his
authority, and budget cuts, on a 0 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
reluctant Congress. Bickering MAGNITUDE (RICHTER SCALE)
between Republicans and
Democrats was intense, and
Republicans pushed for even
greater cuts. The US Congress
finally passed a budget bill in April
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1914–2011 TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS THE US
THE GLOBAL Although the US is the Male AGE Female
wealthiest country in 100+
ECONOMY the world, it is home
to only 5.2 percent of 95-99
AN INCREASING DIVIDE BETWEEN RICH AND POOR the world’s population. 90-94
Forty-one percent of the 85-89
The world is richer than ever, strengthened by international world’s millionaires live 80-84
alliances and technology, but there is still widespread in the US, but it also has 75-79
poverty. Wars continue to be fought, and even developed the highest level of total 70-74
nations can be devastated by natural disasters. household debt. 65-69
60-64
There are currently almost 7 billion people living on the planet, 55-59
three times the population of 1900. The fate of each person 50-54
depends on where they live, and the distribution of the world’s wealth has 45-49
changed little since World War II. Many high-income countries are in the 40-44
northern hemisphere, with the world’s poorest in sub-Saharan Africa. The six 35-39
wealthiest countries account for more than half the world's Gross Domestic 30-34
Product (GDP)—the value of all the goods and services a country produces— 25-29
while over half the world’s population live on less than $2.50 a day. 20-24
15-19
The countries of Western Europe and North America have well-established 10-14
business sectors, with multinational corporations selling products globally. The
nations of Africa and Central America have a smaller range of industries, and 5-9
many depend on trading a single commodity. But this is slowly changing, and the 0-4
economies of countries such as Mexico, Brazil, and India are growing rapidly.
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
POPULATION (IN MILLIONS)
NORTH ATLANTIC
AMERICA
OCEAN
Interdependent world
The economies of the world are based
on a vast range of industries, and
populations range from 800 (Vatican
City) to over a billion (India and China).
No countries are fully self-supporting,
however, and they all depend on trade
with other countries to meet their
needs fully.
0 GDP PER CAPITA IN US DOLLARS (BILLIONS) PACIFIC SOUTH
40,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 140,000 150,000 OCEAN AMERICA
Qatar
Liechtenstein In the money
Luxembourg When a country's wealth is divided
by the number of people who live
Bermuda in it, Qatar emerges as the richest
Norway nation in the world.
Singapore
Jersey
Kuwait
Brunei
US
BRAZIL
21% 900 Out of pocket Brazil has the largest economy in South
On the up The poorest America, and the ninth largest in the
countries in the world. Well-established agriculture,
20% The fastest- GDP IN US DOLLARS (BILLIONS) 800 world are all in mining, and service sectors have helped
15% growing economies sub-Saharan Africa. create a healthy economy, and Brazil is
also rich in natural resources. Huge gaps
are mainly in 700 remain between rich and poor, however.
GROWTH RATE 14% developing
13% countries. 600 ATLANTIC
OCEAN
12%
10% 500 Male AGE Female
40 30 20 10 10 20 30 40
9% 400 100+
95-99
8% 90-94
300 85-89
80-84
7% 75-79
70-74
00 Malawi 65-69
Ghana Sierra Leone 60-64
Qatar 55-59
Turkmenistan Niger 50-54
China Eritrea 45-49
Liberia African Republic 40-44
India Somalia 35-39
Angola Liberia 30-34
Zimbabwe 25-29
Iraq Congo 20-24
Ethiopia Burundi 15-19
Mozambique 10-14
5-9
0-4
00
POPULATION (IN MILLIONS)
466
THE GLOBAL ECONOMY
GERMANY RUSSIA
Germany reacted to the Male AGE Female The world’s largest Male AGE Female
union of East and West 100+ 10 20 30 40 country, Russia, has seen 100+ 10 20 30 40
Germany by becoming huge changes since the
the largest economy on 95-99 fall of the Soviet Union. 95-99
the European continent, 90-94 It has vast natural 90-94
and the fifth wealthiest 85-89 resources, such as oil 85-89
in the world by GDP. 80-84 and gas, and is the 80-84
Germany is the world’s 75-79 world’s largest oil 75-79
second-largest trader in 70-74 producer, but many 70-74
imports and exports. 65-69 Russian people still 65-69
60-64 live in poverty. 60-64
40 30 20 10 55-59 55-59
50-54 40 30 20 10 50-54
45-49 45-49
40-44 40-44
35-39 35-39
30-34 30-34
25-29 25-29
20-24 20-24
15-19 15-19
10-14 10-14
5-9 5-9
0-4 0-4
00 00
POPULATION (IN MILLIONS) POPULATION (IN MILLIONS)
CHINA
EUROPE China, the world’s most populated country, has
one of the fastest-growing economies and is
Mediterranean Sea the top exporter. Factories and mines produce
most of China's wealth, but in the future this
may be slowed by an aging population.
ASIA Male AGE Female
60 50 40 30 20 10 100+ 10 20 30 40 50 60
he Gulf
P 95-99
Arabian 90-94
T Sea 85-89
Red Sea 80-84
75-79
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
00
POPULATION (IN MILLIONS)
AFRICA INDIA ACIFIC OCEAN
It is estimated that
India’s economy will
grow faster than any other country's over
the next two decades. It has a young and
growing workforce, has opened up foreign
trade, and hosts millions of entrepreneurs
running small, but successful, businesses.
Male AGE Female AUSTRALIA
60 50 40 30 20 10 100+ 10 20 30 40 50 60
95-99
90-94
85-89
80-84
75-79
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
00
SOUTH AFRICA POPULATION (IN MILLIONS)
South Africa has Male AGE Female Male AGE Female
10 20 30 40 10 20 30 40
one of the largest 100+ 100+
95-99 95-99
economies on the 90-94 90-94
85-89 85-89
African continent, 80-84 80-84
75-79 75-79
but poverty is 70-74 AUSTRALIA 70-74
65-69 65-69
widespread. One 60-64 60-64
55-59 55-59
in seven people 50-54 Australia’s economy stands out because 50-54
45-49 45-49
is infected with 40-44 it survived the global downturn without 40-44
35-39 35-39
HIV/AIDS, high 30-34 going into recession. It has a strong 30-34
25-29 25-29
crime and land 20-24 service-providing economy as well 20-24
15-19 15-19
redistribution 10-14 as healthy exports of agriculture 10-14
remain an issue, 5-9 and mining products. Natural gas 5-9
0-4 0-4
and unemployment deposits are evenly spread throughout
00 00
is high. 40 30 20 10 the continent. 40 30 20 10
POPULATION (IN MILLIONS) POPULATION (IN MILLIONS)
467
DIRECTORY RULERS AND LEADERS
DIRECTORY
RULERS AND LEADERS PERIOD DYNASTY NOTABLE PHARAOHS
New Kingdom 17th Dynasty (at Thebes)
Whether leadership is achieved through heredity, democracy, or sheer brute (1550–1069 BCE) (1650–1550 BCE) Kamose (1555–1550 BCE)
force, leaders make decisions that determine how history will judge their time 18th Dynasty
in power. Great leaders have been the salvation of their people, while weak Third Intermediate (1550–1295 BCE) Ahmose (1550–1525 BCE)
leaders have been responsible for bringing mighty empires to their knees. Period Amenhotep I (1525–1504 BCE)
(1069–747 BCE) 19th Dynasty Tuthmosis I (1504–1492 BCE)
EGYPTIAN PHARAOHS (1295–1186 BCE) Tuthmosis II (1492–1479 BCE)
Late Period Tuthmosis III (1479–1425 BCE)
Ancient Egyptian history is divided up into a number of major periods: the Old Kingdom (2649– (747–332 BCE) 20th Dynasty (1186–1070 BCE) Hatshepsut (1473–1458 BCE)
2150 BCE); the Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BCE); and the New Kingdom (1550–1070 BCE), with Amenhotep II (1427–1400 BCE)
“Intermediate” periods between them and a Late Period (712–332 BCE) at the end. Within these 21st Dynasty (1069–945 BCE) Tuthmosis IV (1400–1390 BCE)
time periods, a large number of dynasties ruled Egypt, from the 1st Dynasty (2920–2880 BCE) even Amenhotep III (1390–1352 BCE)
before the Old Period, reaching the 26th Dynasty (672–525 BCE), which ended with Egypt’s conquest 22nd Dynasty (945–715 BCE) Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten
by the Persian ruler Cambyses. Aside from a brief period when native Egyptian rulers regained (c.1352–1336 BCE)
power, Egypt remained part of the Persian Empire until 332 BCE, when it was conquered by 23rd Dynasty (c.818–715 BCE) Smenkhare (1338–1336 BCE)
Alexander the Great. In 30 BCE, it became part of the Roman Empire. 24th Dynasty (727–715 BCE) Tutankhamun (1336–1327 BCE)
25th Dynasty (Nubia and Ay (1327–1323 BCE)
PERIOD DYNASTY NOTABLE PHARAOHS all of Egypt) (747–656 BCE) Horemheb (1323–1295 BCE)
1st Dynasty (3100–2890 BCE) 26th Dynasty (664–525 BCE)
Early Dynastic Period Narmer (c.3100 BCE) Ramesses I (1295–1294 BCE)
(3100–2686 BCE) Menes (c.3000 BCE) Seti I (1294–1279BCE)
Den (c.2950 BCE) Ramesses II (1279–1213 BCE)
Merneptah (1213–1203 BCE)
2nd Dynasty (2890–2686 BCE) Peribsen (c.2700 BCE)
Ramesses III (1184–1153 BCE)
Old Kingdom 3rd Dynasty (2686–2613 BCE) Djoser (2667–2648 BCE) Ramesses V (1147–1143 BCE)
(2686–2181 BCE) 4th Dynasty (2613–2494 BCE) Ramesses XI (1099–1069 BCE)
Snefru (2613–2589 BCE)
Khufu (Cheops) (2589–2566 BCE) Smendes (1069–1043 BCE)
Menkaure (Mycinerus) (2532–2503 BCE) Psusennes I (1039–991 BCE)
Shepseskaf (2503–2498 BCE) Osorkon I (984–978 BCE)
Psusennes II (959–945 BCE)
5th Dynasty (2494–2345 BCE) Userkaf (2494–2487 BCE)
Sahure (2487–2475 BCE) Shoshenq I (945–924 BCE)
Nyuserre (2445–2421 BCE) Osorkon II (874–850 BCE)
Djedkare (2414–2375 BCE) Shoshenq III (825–773 BCE)
Unas (2375–2345 BCE) Osorkon V (730–715 BCE)
6th Dynasty (2345–2181 BCE) Teti (2345–2323 BCE) Competing lines of lesser
Pepi I (2321–2287 BCE) rulers at Hermopolis Magna,
Merenre (2287–2278 BCE) Leontopolis, and Tanis
Pepi II (2278–2184 BCE)
Piye (747–716 BCE)
First 7th and 8th Dynasties Numerous ephemeral kings, as central Shabaqa (716–702 BCE)
Intermediate Period (2181–2125 BCE) authority collapsed Taharqa (690–664 BCE)
(2181–2040 BCE)
9th and 10th Dynasties Power struggle between minor rulers Psammetichus I (664–610 BCE)
(at Kerakleopolis) of Upper and Lower Egypt Apries (589–570 BCE)
(2160–2025 BCE) Amasis (570–526 BCE)
Psammetichus III (526–525 BCE)
11th Dynasty (at Thebes) Intef II (2112–2063 BCE) ROMAN EMPERORS
(2125–2040 BCE)
Middle Kingdom 11th Dynasty (all Egypt) Mentuhotep II (2040–2004 BCE) In 27 BCE, Octavian, on becoming Rome’s first emperor, renamed himself Gaius Julius Caesar
(2040–1650 BCE) (2040–1985 BCE) Mentuhotep III (2004–1992 BCE) Augustus. From then on, emperors took the honorific title Augustus for the duration of their reign.
Mentuhotep IV (1992–1985 BCE) Until 286, this was normally a title unique to one person, but there were periods of joint rule, usually
when the succession was disputed or the nominated heir was too young to rule alone. However, the
12th Dynasty (1985–1795 BCE) Amenemhet I (1985–1955 BCE) emperor Diocletian instigated a different system, the Tetrarchy, under which four individuals ruled
Senwosret I (1965–1920 BCE) the empire, two as Augustus and two as Caesar—a kind of “junior emperor.” This persisted (with
Amenemhet II (1922–1878 BCE) some variations) until 395, when the eastern and western portions of the empire split from each other.
Senwosret III (1874–1855 BCE)
Amenemhet IV (1808–1799 BCE) NAME REIGN NAME REIGN
13th Dynasty (1795–c.1650 BCE) Minor rulers Augustus 27 BCE–14CE Trajan 98–117
Tiberius 14–37 Hadrian 117–38
14th Dynasty Minor rulers Gaius Caligula 37–41 Antoninus Pius 138–61
(c.1750–c.1650 BCE) Claudius 41–54 Marcus Aurelius 161–80
Nero 54–68 Lucius Verus (co-Augustus) 161–69
Second 15th Dynasty (Hyksos) Apophis (c.1585–c.1542 BCE) Galba 68–69 Commodus 180–92
Intermediate Period (1650–1550 BCE) Otho 69 Pertinax 193
(1650–1550 BCE) Minor Hyksos rulers contemporary with Vitellius 69 Didius Julianus 193
16th Dynasty (1650–1550 BCE) the 15th Dynasty Vespasian 69–79 Septimius Severus 193–211
Titus 79–81 Caracalla (co-Augustus 198–217
Domitian 81–96
Nerva 96–98 198–211) 209–11
Geta (co-Augustus)
468
RULERS AND LEADERS DIRECTORY
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN NAME REIGN NAME REIGN
286–305 Theodora (sole ruler as 1055–56 1203–04
Macrinus 217–18 Maximian (Caesar 285–86, Alexius IV (co-Emperor) 1204
Diadumenianus (co-Augustus) 218 co-Augustus 286–305) 305–06 Empress) 1056–57 Alexius V Mourzouphlos
Elagabalus 218–22 Michael VI Stratioticus 1204–22
Alexander Severus 222–35 Constantius I Chlorus (Caesar 305–11 1057–59 Lascarid Dynasty 1222–54
Maximinus Thrax 235–38 293–305, co-Augustus 305–06) Comnenid Dynasty Theodore I Lascaris 1254–58
Gordian I and Gordian II 238 306–07 Isaac I Comenus 1059–67 John III Vatatzes 1258–61
Pupienus and Balbinus 238 Galerius (Caesar 293–305, 1068–71 Theodore II
Gordian III 238–44 co-Augustus 305–11) 308–24 Ducid Dynasty 1071–78 John IV 1259–82
Philip I 244–49 310–13 Constantine X Ducas 1078–81
Philip II (co-Augustus) 247–49 Severus (Caesar 305–06, Romanus IV Diogenes Palaeologid Dynasty 1282–1328
Decius 249–51 co-Augustus 306–07) 306–37 Michael VII Ducas 1081–1118 Michael VIII (to 1261 as 1293–1320
Herennius Etruscus 251 Nicephorus III Botaniates 1118–43 1328–41
Licinius 337–40 1143–80 Emperor of Nicaea) 1341–76
(co-Augustus) 251–53 Maximin Daia (Caesar Comnenid Dynasty 1180–83 Andronicus II 1347–54
Trebonianus Gallus 251 337–61 Alexius I Comnenus 1183–85 Michael IX (co-Emperor) 1376–79
Hostilianus (co-Augustus) 251–53 305–10, co-Augustus 310–13) John II Andronicus III 1379–91
Volusianus (co-Augustus) 253 Constantine I (Augustus 306, 337–50 Manuel I 1185–95 John V 1391–1425
Aemilianus 253–60 Alexius II 1195–1203 John VI (co-Emperor) 1399–1402
Valerian 253–68 Caesar 306–07, co-Augustus 360–63 Andronicus I 1203–04 Andronicus IV 1425–48
Gallienus (co-Augustus 253–60) 268–70 307–24) 363–64 John V (restored) 1448–53
Claudius Gothicus 270 Constantine II (Caesar 317–37, 364–75 Angelid Dynasty Manuel II
Quintillus 270–75 co-Augustus 337–40) 364–78 Isaac II Angelus John VII (regent) REIGN
Aurelian 275–76 Constantius II (Caesar 324–37, 367–83 Alexius III John VIII 1623–40
Tacitus 276 co-Augustus 337–50) 375–92 Isaac II (restored) Constantine XI 1640–48
Florian 276–82 Constans (Caesar 333–37, 379–95 1648–87
Probus 282–83 co-Augustus 337–50) OTTOMAN EMPERORS 1687–91
Carus 283–84 Julian (Caesar 355–60) 1691–95
Numerian 283–85 Jovian 1695–1703
Carinus (co-Augustus 283–84) 284–305 Valentinian I (co-Augustus) 1703–30
Diocletian Valens (co-Augustus) 1730–54
Gratian (co-Augustus) 1754–57
Valentinian II (co-Augustus) 1757–74
Theodosius I 1774–89
(co-Augustus 379–92) 1789–1807
1807–08
WESTERN EMPIRE REIGN EASTERN EMPIRE REIGN NAME REIGN NAME 1808–39
1839–61
NAME 395–423 NAME 395–408 Osman I 1299–1326 Murad IV 1861–76
421 405–50 Orkhan 1326–59 Ibrahim 1876
Honorius 424–55 Arcadius Murad I 1359–89 Mehmed IV 1876–1909
Constantius III (co-Augustus) 455 Theodosius II 450–57 Bayezid I 1389–1403 Suleiman III 1909–18
Valentinian III 455–56 457–74 Suleiman (rival claimant) 1403–10 Ahmad II 1918–22
Petronius Maximus 457–61 (co-Augustus 405–08) 474–75 Mehmed I (rival claimant 1403–21 Mustafa II 1922–24
Avitus 461–65 Marcian 475–77 Ahmad III
Majorian 467–72 Leo I to 1410) 1421–44 Mahmud I REIGN
Libius Severus 472 Zeno (deposed) Murad II 1444 Osman III
Anthemius 473–74 Basiliscus Mehmed II 1444–51 Mustafa III 1133–37
Olybrius 474–75 Murad II (restored) 1451–81 ‘Abdul Hamid I
Glycerius 475–76 Mehmed II (restored) 1481–1512 Selim III 1138–52
Julius Nepos Bayezid II 1512–20 Mustafa IV 1155–90
Romulus Augustulus Selim I the Grim 1520–66 Mahmud II 1191–97
Suleiman I the Magnificent 1566–74 ‘Abdul–Majid I 1198–1208
BYZANTINE EMPERORS Selim II 1574–95 ‘Abdul–‘Aziz
Murad III 1595–1603 Murad V 1209–15
After 395, the eastern half of the Roman Empire was never ruled by the same emperor as the Mehmed III 1603–17 ‘Abdul–Hamid II
western portion. The eastern emperors continued to rule from Constantinople after the fall of Ahmad I 1617–18 Mehmed V 1215–50
the western Roman Empire in 476, and are referred to after that date as Byzantine emperors Mustafa I 1618–22 Mehmed VI 1250–54
(from “Byzantium”, the ancient Greek name for a town on the site of Constantinople). Osman II 1622–23 ‘Abdul-Majid II (caliph) 1254–56
Mustafa I (restored) 1267–73
1273–91
RULERS OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 1292–98
1298–1308
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN NAME REIGN NAME 1312–13
811 Supplingburger Dynasty 1328–47
Zeno 477–91 Stauracius 811–13 Charlemagne 800–14 Lothair III 1347–78
Anastasius 491–518 Michael I 813–20 Louis I 814–40 1378–1400
Justin 518–27 Leo V the Armenian 820–29 Lothair I 840–55 Hohenstaufen Dynasty 1400–10
Justinian 527–65 Michael II 829–42 Louis II 855–75 Conrad III 1433–37
Justin II 565–78 Theophilus 842–67 Charles II 875–77 Frederick I Barbarossa
Tiberius II 578–82 Michael III Charles III 884–87 Henry VI 469
Maurice 582–602 867–86 Guy of Spoleto 891–94 Philip of Swabia
Phocas 602–10 Macedonian Dynasty 887–912 Lambert of Spoleto 894–96
Heraclius 610–41 Basil I the Macedonian 912–13 Arnulf 896–99 Guelph Dynasty
Heraclonas 641 Leo VI (“the Wise”) Louis III 899–911 Otto IV of Saxony
Constantine III 641 Alexander 912–59 Berengar I 915–24
Constans II 641–68 Constantine VII 919–44
Constantine IV 668–85 Ottonian Saxon Dynasty 911–18 Hohenstaufen Dynasty
Justinian II (deposed) 685–95 Porphyrogenitus 959–63 Conrad I of Franconia 919–36 Frederick II
Leontius 695–98 Romanus I Lecapenus 963–69 Henry I the Fowler 962–73 Conrad IV
Tiberius III 698–705 969–76 Otto I the Great 973–83 William of Holland
Justinian II (restored) 705–11 (co-Emperor) 976–1025 Otto II 996–1002 Alfonso X of Castile
Philippicus 711–13 Romanus II 976–1028 Otto III 1014–24 Rudolf I of Habsburg
Anastasius II 713–15 Nicephorus II Phocas Henry II of Saxony Adolf of Nassau
Theodosius III 715–17 John I Tzimisces 1028–34 1027–39 Albert I of Austria
Leo III the Isaurian 717–41 Basil I “the Bulgar Slayer” 1034–41 Salian Frankish Dynasty 1046–56 Henry VII
Constantine V Copronymos 741–75 Constantine VIII 1041–42 Conrad II of Franconia 1084–1105 Louis IV of Wittelsbach
Leo IV 775–80 1042–55 Henry III 1111–25 Charles IV of Luxemburg
Constantine VI 780–97 (co-emperor to 1025) 1042–50 Henry IV Wenzel of Luxemburg
Irene (Empress) 797–802 Romanus III Argyrus Henry V Rupert II of the Palatinate
Nicephorus I 802–11 Michael IV the Paphlagonian Sigismund of Luxemburg
Michael V Calaphates
Constantine IX Monomachus
Zoe (co-ruler as Empress)
DIRECTORY RULERS AND LEADERS
RULERS OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE (CONTINUED) FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY (1945–1990, REUNITED WITH DDR FROM 1990)
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN NAME TERM NAME TERM
Leopold I 1658–1705
Habsburg Dynasty 1437–39 Charles VI 1711–40 PRESIDENTS 1949–59 CHANCELLORS 1949–63
Albert II 1440–93 Theodor Heuss (FDP) 1959–69 Konrad Adenauer (CDU) 1963–66
Frederick II of Styria 1493–1519 Wittelsbach Dynasty 1742–45 Heinrich Lübke (CDU) 1969–74 Ludwig Erhard (CDU) 1966–69
Maximilian I 1519–56 Charles VII of Bavaria Gustav Heinemann (SDP) 1974–79 Kurt-Georg Kiesinger (CDU) 1969–74
Charles V 1556–64 1745–65 Walter Scheel (FDP) 1979–84 Willy Brandt (SDP) 1974
Ferdinand I 1564–76 Habsburg–Lorraine Dynasty 1765–90 Karl Carstens (CDU) 1984–94 Walter Scheel (FDP) 1974–82
Maximilian II 1576–1612 Francis I 1790–92 Richard von Weizsäcker (CDU) 1994–99 Helmut Schmidt (SDP) 1982–98
Rudolf II 1612–19 Joseph II 1792–1806 Roman Herzog (CDU) 1999–2004 Helmut Kohl (CDU) 1998–2005
Matthias 1619–37 Leopold II Johannes Rau (SDP) 2004–10 Gerhard Schröder (SDP) 2005–
Ferdinand II of Styria 1637–58 Francis II Horst Köhler (CDU) 2010– Angela Merkel (CDU)
Ferdinand III Christian Wulff (CDU)
EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA KINGS OF FRANCE
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN After the fall of Rome, a number of barbarian groups vied for power in Gaul. The Franks, led by the
1804–35 Merovingian ruler Childeric, emerged victorious, uniting France under Childeric’s son Clovis. On
Francis (Holy Roman Franz Joseph 1848–1916 Clovis’s death, his kingdom was partitioned between his four sons and their descendants until
Emperor Francis II) 1835–48 Charles 1916–18 Pepin, the first of the Carolingians, was anointed king of all the Franks by Pope Zachary in 751.
Ferdinand
KINGS OF PRUSSIA NAME REIGN NAME REIGN
Robert II the Pious 996–1031
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN Merovingian Dynasty c. 457–81 Henry I 1031–60
Childeric I 481–511 Philip I 1060–1108
Frederick I 1701–13 Frederick William III 1797–1840 Clovis I 511–34 Louis VI the Fat 1108–37
Frederick William I 1714–40 Frederick William IV 1840–61 Theoderic I (Rheims) 511–24 Louis VII the Young 1137–80
Frederick II the Great 1740–86 William I (from 1871 1861–71 Chlodomir (Orléans) 511–58 Philip II Augustus 1180–1223
Frederick William II 1786–97 German Emperor) Childebert (Paris) 511–61 Louis VIII 1223–26
Chlotar I (Soissons) 534–48 Louis IX the Saint 1226–70
EMPERORS OF GERMANY Theudebert I (Austrasia) 548–55 Philip III the Bold 1270–85
Theodebald (Austrasia) 561–67 Philip IV the Fair 1285–1314
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN Charibert I (Paris) 561–92 Louis X 1314–16
William II (Kaiser Wilhelm) 1888–1918 Guntram (Burgundy) 561–75 John I 1316
William I (King of Prussia) 1871–88 Sigebert (Metz) 561–84 Philip V 1316–22
Frederick 1888 Chilperic I (Soissons) 575–95 Charles IV the Fair 1322–28
Childebert II (Austrasia) 584–629
PRESIDENTS AND CHANCELLORS OF GERMANY Chlotar II (Soissons; House of Valois 1328–50
595–612 Philip VI the Fortunate 1350–64
CP Center Party, CDU Christian Democratic Union, FDP Free Democratic Party, GPP German sole king 613–23) 595–613 John II the Good 1364–80
People’s Party, MSP Majority Socialist Party, NSP National Socialist Party (Nazi), SDP Social Theudebert II (Austrasia) Charles V the Wise 1380–1422
Democratic Party Theoderic II (Burgundy; 623–39 Charles VI 1422–61
Charles VII 1461–83
UNITED GERMANY (1919–45) Austrasia 612–13) 629–32 Louis XI 1483–98
Dagobert I (Austrasia 634–59 Charles VIII
NAME TERM NAME TERM 639–57 1498–1515
623–34, Neustria 629–39) 659–61 House of Valois-Orléans
PRESIDENTS (FROM 1919) 1919–25 Friedrich Ebert (MSP) 1918–19 Charibert II (Aquitaine) 657–73 Louis XII 1515–47
Friedrich Ebert (MSP) 1925 Philipp Scheidemann (MSP) 1919 Sigebert II (Austrasia) 661–75 1547–59
Walter Simons 1925–34 Gustav Bauer (MSP) 1919–20 Clovis II (Neustria and Burgundy) 673–90 House of Valois-Angoulême 1559–60
Paul von Hindenburg 1934–45 Hermann Müller (MSP) 1920 Dagobert II (Austrasia) Francis I 1560–74
(Führer) Adolf Hitler (NSP) 1945 Konstantin Fehrenbach (CP) 1920–21 Chlotar III (Neustria) 676–79 Henry II 1574–89
(Führer) Karl Dönitz (NSP) Karl Wirth (CP) 1921–22 Childeric II (Austrasia) 690–954 Francis II
Wilhelm Cunto 1922–23 Theoderic III (Neustria; 685–711 Charles IX 1589–1610
CHANCELLORS 1871–90 Gustav Streseman (GPP) 1923 711–15 Henry III 1610–43
Otto von Bismarck 1890–92 Wilhelm Marx (CP) 1923–25 Austrasia) 715–21 1643–1715
Leo von Caprivi Hans Luther 1925–26 Dagobert II (Austrasia) 718–19 House of Bourbon 1715–74
Chldowig Hohenlohe- 1894–1900 Wilhelm Marx (CP) 1926–28 Clovis III 721–37 Henry IV of Navarre 1774–92
1900–09 Hermann Müller (SDP) 1928–30 Childebert III 743–51 Louis XIII
Schillingfurst 1909–17 Heinrich Brüning (CP) 1930–32 Dagobert III Louis XIV 1792–1804
Bernhard von Bülow 1917 Franz von Papen (CP) 1932 Chilperic II (Neustria) Louis XV
Theobald von Bethman-Hollweg 1917–18 Kurt von Schleicher 1932–33 Chlotar IV (Austrasia) Louis XVI 1804–14,1815
Georg Michaelis 1918 Adolf Hitler (NSP) 1933–45 Theoderic IV
Georg von Hertling Joseph Goebbels (NSP) 1945 Childeric III French Republic 1814–15,
Prince Max von Baden 1815–24
Carolingian Dynasty 751–68 First Empire 1824–30
GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC (DDR, 1949–90) Pepin the Short 768–814 Napoleon I (Bonaparte)
Charlemagne (Charles I) 768–71 1830–48
NAME TERM NAME TERM Carloman (co-ruler) 814–40 House of Bourbon
1976–89 Louis I the Pious 840–77 Louis XVII 1848–52
PRESIDENTS 1949–60 Willi Stoph 1989–90 Charles II the Bald 877–79
Wilhelm Pieck 1960–73 Hans Modrow 1990 Louis II the Stammerer 879–82 Charles X
Walter Ulbricht 1973–76 Lother de Maiziere (CDU) Louis III 879–84
Willi Stoph 1976–89 1950–71 Carloman II 884–87 House of Bourbon–Orléans
Erich Honecker 1989 GENERAL SECRETARIES OF 1971–89 Charles the Fat 887–98 Louis-Philippe
Egon Krenz 1989–90 COMMUNIST PARTY (SUP) 1989 Odo 898–923
Manfred Gerlach 1990 Walter Ulbricht Charles III the Simple 922–23 Second French Republic
Sabine Bergmann-Pohl Erich Honecker Robert I 923–36
1949–64 Egon Krenz Raoul 936–54
PRIME MINISTERS 1964–73 Louis IV 954–86
Otto Grotewohl 1973–76 Lothair 986–87
Willi Stoph Louis V
Horst Sindermann
Capetian Dynasty 987–96 Second Empire 1852–70
Hugh Capet Napoleon III
470
RULERS AND LEADERS DIRECTORY
DUKES OF NORMANDY NAME TERM NAME TERM
Paul Reynaud (RA) 1940 Maurice Bourges-Maunoury 1957
Philippe Pétain 1940–42
After the 9th century, much of France was controlled by rulers independent of French kings, notably Pierre Laval 1942–44 (RSP)
the Dukes of Normandy, who ruled an area of northwestern France from 911 until the 13th century. Charles de Gaulle 1944–46
Félix Gouin (SP) 1946 Félix Gaillard (RSP) 1957–58
Georges Bidault (PRM) 1946
Léon Blum (SP) 1946–47 Pierre Pflimlin (PRM) 1958
Paul Ramadier (SP) 1947
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN Robert Schuman (PRM) 1947–48 Charles de Gaulle (UNR) 1958–59
André Marie (RSP) 1948
Rolf Ganger 911–32 Robert II 1087–1106 Robert Schuman (PRM) 1948 Michel Debré (UNR) 1959–62
William I 932–42 Henry I (of England) 1106–35 Henry Queuille (RSP) 1948
Richard I 942–96 Stephen 1135–44 Georges Bidault (PRM) 1948–50 Georges Pompidou (UNR) 1962–68
Richard II 996–1027 Geoffrey of Anjou 1144–50 Henri Queuille (RSP) 1950
Richard III 1027–28 Henry II (of England) 1150–89 René Pleven (DR) 1950–51 Maurice Couve de Murville (UNR) 1968–69
Robert I 1028–35 Richard IV (I of England) 1189–99 Henri Queuille (RSP) 1951
William II (I of England) 1035–87 John (of England) 1199–1204 René Pleven (DR) 1951–52 Jacques Chaban-Delmas (DUR) 1969–72
Edgar Faure (RSP) 1952
Antoine Pinay (IRP) 1952–53 Pierre Messmer (DUR) 1972–74
René Mayer (RSP) 1953
Joseph Laniel (IRP) 1953–54 Jacques Chirac (DUR) 1974–76
Pierre Mendès-France (RSP) 1954–55
Christian Pineau (SP) 1955 Raymond Barre 1976–81
Edgar Faure (RSP) 1955–56
Guy Mollet (SP) 1956–57 Pierre Mauroy (SP) 1981–84
Laurent Fabius (SP) 1984–86
PRESIDENTS AND PRIME MINISTERS OF FRANCE Jacques Chirac (RFR) 1986–88
Michel Rocard (SP) 1988–91
CP Center Party, DA Democratic Alliance, DR Democratic Resistance, DUR Democratic Union Edith Cresson (SP) 1991–92
for the Fifth Republic, IRP Independent Republican Party, PRM People’s Revolutionary Movement,
RA Republican Alliance, RFR Rally for the Republic, RSP Radical Socialist Party, SP Socialist Party, Pierre Bérégovoy (SP) 1992–93
RSU Radical Socialist Union, UMP Union for a Popular Movement, UNR Union for the New Republic
Edouard Balladur (RFR) 1993–95
Alain Juppé (RFR) 1995–97
PRESIDENTS (SINCE 1871) Lionel Jospin (SP) 1997–2002
Jean-PIerre Raffarin (UMP) 2002–05
NAME TERM NAME TERM Dominique de Villepin (UMP) 2005–07
Adolphe Thiers 1871–73 Paul Doumer 1931–32 François Fillon (UMP) 2007–
Patrice MacMahon 1873–79 Albert Le Brun 1932–40
Jules Grevy 1879–87 Philippe Pétain 1940–44 KINGS AND QUEENS OF SPAIN
François Sadi-Carnot 1887–94 Vincent Auriol (SP) 1947–54
Jean Casimir-Périer 1894–95 René Coty (IRP) 1954–59 The northern Spanish kingdoms of Castile and Leon were joined by marriage in 1037 and were
François Faure 1895–99 Charles de Gaulle (UNR, DUR) 1959–69 formally united in 1230. In 1469, Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of Aragon, and when both
Emile Loubet 1899–1906 Alain Poher (CP) 1969 succeeded to their respective thrones, they united their domains to form the kingdom of Spain.
Armand Fallières 1906–13 Georges Pompidou (DUR) 1969–74
Raymond Poincaré 1913– 20 Valérie Giscard d’Estaing (IRP) 1974–81 KINGS AND QUEENS OF CASTILE–LEON
Paul Deschanel 1920 François Mitterand (SP) 1981–95
Alexandre Millerand 1920–24 Jacques Chirac (RFR/UMP) 1995–2007 NAME REIGN NAME REIGN
Gaston Doumergue 1924–31 Nicolas Sarkozy (UMP) 2007–
PRIME MINISTERS TERM NAME TERM Ferdinand I 1037–65 Ferdinand IV 1295–1312
Sancho II 1065–72 Alfonso XI 1312–50
NAME 1871–73 Joseph Caillaux 1911–12 Alfonso VI 1065–1109 Peter the Cruel 1350–66
1873–74 Raymond Poincaré 1912–13 Urraca 1109–26 Henry II 1366–67
Adolphe Thiers 1874–75 Aristide Briand (SP) 1913 Alfonso VII 1126–57 Peter the Cruel (restored) 1367–69
Patrice MacMahon 1875–76 Louis Barthou 1913 Sancho III (Castile) 1157–58 Henry II (restored) 1369–79
Ernest de Cissey 1876 Gaston Doumergue (RSP) 1913–14 Ferdinand II (Leon) 1157–88 John I 1379–90
Louis Buffet 1876–77 René Viviani 1914–15 Alfonso VIII (Castile) 1158–1214 Henry III 1390–1406
Jules Dufaure 1877 Aristide Briand (SP) 1915–17 Alfonso IX (Leon) 1188–1230 John II 1406–54
Jules Simon 1877 Alexandre Ribot 1917 Henry I (Castile) 1214–17 Henry IV 1454–74
Albert de Broglie 1877–79 Paul Painlevé 1917 Ferdinand III (Castile, Leon 1217–52 Isabella 1474–1504
Gaëtan de Rochebouet 1879 Georges Clemenceau 1917–20 Joanna 1504–16
Jules Dufaure 1879–80 Alexandre Millerand 1920 from 1230) 1252–84 Philip I 1504–06
William Waddington 1880–81 Georges Leygues 1920–21 Alfonso X the Wise 1284–95 Ferdinand V (II Of Aragon) 1506–16
Charles de Freycinet 1881–82 Aristide Briand (SP) 1921–22 Sancho IV
Jules Ferry 1882 Raymond Poincaré 1922–24
Léon Gambetta 1882–83 Frédéric François-Marsal 1924 KINGS OF ARAGON REIGN NAME REIGN
Charles de Freycinet 1883 Eduoard Herriot (RSP) 1924–25
Charles Duclerc 1883–85 Paul Painlevé 1925 NAME 1035–63 Alfonso III 1285–91
Armand Fallières 1885–86 Aristide Briand (SP) 1925–26 1063–94 James II 1291–1327
Jules Ferry 1886 Edouard Herriot (RSP) 1926 Ramiro I 1094–1104 Alfonso IV 1327–36
Henri Brisson 1886–87 Raymond Poincaré 1926–29 Sancho 1104–34 Peter IV 1336–87
Charles de Freycinet 1887 Aristide Briand (SP) 1929 Peter I 1134–37 John I 1387–95
René Goblet 1887–88 André Tardieu 1929–30 Alfonso I 1137–62 Martin 1395–1410
Maurice Rouvier 1888–89 Camille Chautemps (RSP) 1930 Ramiro II 1162–96 Ferdinand 1412–16
Pierre Tirard 1889–90 André Tardieu 1930 Petronilla 1196–1213 Alfonso V 1416–58
Charles Floquet 1890–92 Théodore Steeg (RSP) 1930–31 Alfonso II 1213–76 John II 1458–79
Pierre Tirard 1892 Pierre Laval 1931–32 Peter II 1276–85 Ferdinand II (V of Castile) 1479–1516
Charles de Freycinet 1892–93 André Tardieu 1932 James I the Conqueror
Emile Loubet 1893 Edouard Herriot (RSP) 1932 Peter III
Alexandre Ribot 1893–94 Joseph Paul-Boncour (RSU) 1932–33
Charles Dupuy 1894–95 Edouard Daladier (RSP) 1933 KINGS AND QUEENS OF UNITED SPAIN
Jean Casimir-Périer 1895 Albert Sarraut (RSP) 1933
Charles Dupuy 1895–96 Camille Chautemps (RSP) 1933–34 NAME REIGN NAME REIGN
Alexandre Ribot 1896–98 Edouard Daladier (RSP) 1934 Charles IV 1788–1808
Léon Bourgeois 1898 Gaston Doumergue (RSP) 1934 Habsburg Dynasty 1516–56 Ferdinand VII 1808
Jules Meline 1898–99 Pierre Flandin (DA) 1934–35 Charles I 1556–98
Henri Brisson 1899–1902 Ferdinand Bouisson (SP) 1935 Philip II 1598–1621 House of Bonaparte 1808–13
Charles Dupuy 1902–05 Pierre Laval 1935–36 Philip III 1621–65 Joseph Bonaparte
René Waldeck-Rousseau 1905–06 Albert Sarraut (RSP) 1936 Philip IV 1665–1700 1813–33
Émile Combes 1906 Léon Blum (SP) 1936–37 Charles II Bourbon Dynasty 1833–68
Maurice Rouvier 1906–09 Camille Chautemps (RSP) 1937–38 Ferdinand VII (restored)
Ferdinand Sarrien 1909–11 Léon Blum (SP) 1938 Bourbon Dynasty 1700–24 Isabella II 1870–73
Georges Clemenceau 1911 Edouard Daladier (RSP) 1938–40 Philip V 1724 1873–74
Aristide Briand (SP) Luis 1724–46 House of Savoy
Ernest Monis Philip V (restored) 1746–59 Amadeus of Savoy
Ferdinand VI 1759–88
Charles III First Spanish Republic
(of Naples)
471
DIRECTORY RULERS AND LEADERS
KINGS AND QUEENS OF SPAIN (CONTINUED) NAME TERM NAME TERM
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN Manuel Azaña y Diéz (LRP) 1936 Fernando de Santiago y Díaz 1976
Bourbon Dynasty Francoist Spain 1939–75 Santiago Cásares Quiroga 1936 Adolfo Suárez González (UDC) 1976–81
Alfonso XII 1874–85 Diego Martínez Barrio 1936 Leopoldo Calvo-Sotelo y
Alfonso XIII 1886–1931 Bourbon Dynasty 1975– José Giral y Pereira 1936 1981–82
Juan Carlos Francisco Largo Caballero (SP) 1936–37 Bustelo (UDP) 1982–96
Second Spanish Republic 1931–39 Juan Negrin (SP) 1937–39 Felipe González Marquez (PSOE) 1996–2004
Francisco Franco Bahamonde 1939–73 José María Aznar López (PP) 2004–
Luis Carrero Blanco 1973 Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (PSOE)
Torcuatro Fernández Miranda 1973–74
PRIME MINISTERS OF SPAIN Carlos Arias Navarro 1974–76
CP Conservative Party, LP Liberal Party, LRP Left Republican Party, PP Popular Party, RP Radical Party, KINGS OF SARDINIA
SP Socialist Party, PSOE Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party, UDC Union for the Democratic Center
NAME TERM NAME TERM NAME REIGN NAME REIGN
Francisco Cea Bermudez 1833–34 Praxedes Sagasta 1881–83 Victor Amadeus II 1718–30 Charles Felix 1821–31
Charles Emmanuel III 1730–73 Charles Albert 1831–49
Francisco Martínez de la Rosa 1834–35 José de Posada Herrera 1883–84 Victor Amadeus III 1773–96 Victor Emmanuel II 1849–61
Charles Emmanuel IV 1796–1802
Conde de Toreno 1835 Antonio Cánovas del Castillo 1884–85 Victor Emmanuel I 1802–21 (from 1861 King of Italy)
Juan Alvarez Mendizábal 1835–36 Praxedes Sagasta 1885–90
Manuel Isturiz y Montero 1836 Antonio Cánovas del Castillo 1890–92
José Calatrava 1836–37 Praxedes Sagasta 1892–95
Eusebio Bardaji y Azara 1837 Antonio Cánovas del Castillo 1895–97
Conde de Ofalia 1837–38 Marcelo de Azcarraga y Palmero 1897 KINGS OF ITALY
Duc de Frias 1838 Praxedes Sagasta 1897–99
Evaristo Pérez de Castro 1838 Francisco Silvela y Le-Vielleuze 1899–1900 NAME REIGN NAME REIGN
Isidro Alaix 1838–40 Marcello de Azcarraga y Victor Emmanuel II (of Sardinia) 1861–78 Victor Emmanuel III 1900–46
Umberto I 1878–1900 Umberto II 1946
Antonio González y González 1840 Palmero 1900–01
Valentin Ferraz 1840 Praxedes Sagasta 1901–02
Modesto Cortazar 1840 Francisco Silvela y Le-Vielleuze 1902–03
Duc de Vitoria 1840–41 Raimundo Fernández de PRESIDENTS AND PRIME MINISTERS OF ITALY
Antonio González y González 1841–42 Villaverde (CP) 1903
José Rodil y Gallaso 1842–43 Antonio Maura y Montaner (CP) 1903–04 AP Action Party, FI Forza Italia, DC Christian Democratic Party, PRI Italian Republican Party,
PSI Italian Socialist Party, PLI Italian Liberal Party, Ulivo Olive Tree, DS Left Democrats,
Joaquín López 1843 Marcello de Azcarraga y PP Popular Party, PL People of Freedom
Alvaro Gómez Becera 1843 Palmero (CP) 1904–05
Joaquin López 1843 Raimundo Fernández de PRESIDENTS
Salustiano de Olozaga 1843 Villaverde (CP) 1905
Luiz González Bravo 1843–44 Eugene Montero Ríos 1905 NAME TERM NAME TERM
Duc de Valencia 1844–46 Segismundo Moret y Enrico de Nicola 1947–48 Amintore Fanfani 1978
Luigi Einaudi 1948–55 Alessandro Pertini (DC) 1978–85
Marqués de Miraflores 1846 Prendergast (CP) 1905–06 Giovanni Gronchi (DC) 1955–62 Francesco Cossiga (DC) 1985–92
Antonio Segni (DC) 1962–64 Oscar Scalfaro (DC, PP) 1992–99
Francisco Isturiz y Montero 1846–47 José López Dominguez (LP) 1906 Cesare Merzagora 1964 Nicola Mancino 1999
Giuseppe Saragat (DC) 1964–71 Carlo Azeglio Ciampi 1999–2006
Duc de Sotomayor 1847 Segismundo Moret y Giovanni Leone (DC) 1971–78 Giorgio Napolitano (DS) 2006–
Joaquín Pacheco y Gutiérrez 1847 Prendergast (LP) 1906
Florencio García Gómez 1847 Marqués de la Vega de Armijo 1906–07
Duc de Valencia 1847–50 (LP)
Juan Bravo Murillo 1850–52 Antonio Maura y Montaner (CP) 1907–09
Federico Roncali 1852–53 Segismundo Moret y 1909–10 PRIME MINISTERS
Francisco de Lersundi Prendergast (LP) NAME
Ormaechea 1853 José Canalejas y Mendez (LP) 1910–12 Camille Cavour TERM NAME TERM
Bettino Ricasoli
Luiz Sartorius 1853–54 Conde de Romanones (LP) 1912 Urbano Rattazzi 1861 Vittorio Orlando 1917–19
Luigi Farina 1861–62 Francesco Nitti 1919–20
Fernando Fernández de Córdoba 1854 Marqués de Alhucemas (LP) 1912–13 Marco Minghetti 1862 Giovanni Giolitti 1920–21
Alfonso la Marmora 1862–63 Ivanoe Bonomi 1921–22
Angel de Saavedra 1854–55 Eduardo Dato y Iradier (CP) 1913–15 Bettino Ricasoli 1863–64 Luigi Facta 1922
Urbano Rattazzi 1864–66 Benito Mussolini 1922–43
Duc de Victoria 1855–56 Conde de Romanones (LP) 1915–16 Luigi Menabrea 1866–67 Pietro Badoglio 1943–44
Giovanni Lanza 1867 Ivanoe Bonomi (PLI) 1944–45
Leopoldo O’Donnell y Joria 1856 Marqués de Alhucemas (LP) 1916–17 Marco Minghetti 1867–69 Ferrucio Parri (AP) 1945
Agostini Depretis 1869–73 Alfredo de Gasperi (DC) 1945–53
Duc de Valencia 1856–57 Eduardo Dato y Iradier (CP) 1917 Benedetto Cairoli 1873–76 Giuseppe Pella (DC) 1953–54
Agostini Depretis 1876–78 Amintore Fanfani (DC) 1954
Francisco Armero y Peñaranda 1857–58 Marqués de Alhucemas (LP) 1917–18 Benedetto Cairoli 1878 Mario Scelba (DC) 1954–55
Agostini Depretis 1878–79 Antonio Segni (DC) 1955–57
Francisco Isturiz y Montero 1858 Antonio Maura y Montaner (CP) 1918 Francesco Crispi 1879–81 Adone Zoli (DC) 1957–58
Marchese di Rudini 1881–87 Amintore Fanfani (DC)i 1958–59
Leopoldo O’Donnell y Joria 1858–63 Marqués de Alhucemas (LP) 1918 Giovanni Giolitti 1887–91 Antonio Segni (DC) 1959–60
Francesco Crispi 1891–92 Fernando Tambroni (DC) 1960
Marqués de Miraflores 1863–64 Conde de Romanones (LP) 1918–19 Marchese di Rudini 1892–93 Amintore Fanfani (DC) 1960–63
Luigi Pelloux 1893–96 Giovanni Leone (DC) 1963
Lorenzo Arrazola 1864 Antonio Maura y Montaner (CP) 1919 Giuseppe Saracco 1896–98 Aldo Moro (DC) 1963–68
Giuseppe Zanardelli 1898–1900 Giovanni Leone (DC) 1968
Alejandro Mon 1864 Joaquín Sánchez de Toca 1919 Giovanni Giolitti 1900–01 Mariano Rumor (DC) 1968–70
Alessandro Fortis 1901–03 Emilio Colombo (DC) 1970–72
Duc de Valencia 1864–65 Manuel Allende Salazar 1919–20 Sidney Sonnino 1903–05 Giulio Andreotti (DC) 1972–73
Giovanni Giolitti 1905–06 Mariano Rumor (DC) 1973–74
Leopoldo O’Donnell y Joria 1865–66 Eduardo Dato y Iradier (CP) 1920–21 Sidney Sonnino 1906 Aldo Moro (DC) 1974–76
Luigi Luzzatti 1906–09 Giulio Andreotti (DC) 1976–79
Duc de Valencia 1866–68 Gabino Bugallal Araújo 1921 Giovanni Giolitti 1909–10 Francesco Cossiga (DC) 1979–80
Antonio Salandra 1910–11 Arnaldo Forlani (DC) 1980–81
Luiz González Bravo 1868 Manuel Allende Salazar 1921 Paolo Boselli 1911–14 Giovanni Spadolini (DC) 1981–82
1914–16 Amintore Fanfani (DC) 1982–83
José Gutiérrez de la Ocncha 1868 Antonio Maura y Montaner (CP) 1921–22 1916–17 Benedetto Craxi (PSI) 1983–87
Francisco Serrano y Dominguez 1868–69 José Sánchez Guerra (CP) 1922
Juan Prim y Prets 1869–70 Marqués de Alhucemas (LP) 1922–23
Juan Topete y Carballa 1870–71 Miguel Primo de Rivera y
Serrano y Dominguez 1871 Orbaneja 1923–30
Manuel Ruiz Zorilla 1871 Damaso Berenguer y Fuste 1920–31
José Malcampo y Monge 1871 Juan Bautista Azmar-Cabanas 1931
Praxedes Sagasta 1871–72 Niceto Alcala Zamora 1931
Juan Topete y Carballa 1872 Manuel Azaña y Diéz (LRP) 1931–33
Manuel Ruiz Zorilla 1872–73 Alejandro Lerroux y García (RP) 1933
Marqués de Sierra Bullones 1874 Diego Martínez Barrio (RP) 1933
Praxedes Sagasta 1874 Alejandro Lerroux y García (RP) 1933–34
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo 1874–75 Ricardo Samper Ibáñez 1934
Joaquín Jovellar 1875 Alejandro Lerroux y García (RP) 1934–35
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo 1875–79 Joaquín Chapaprieta y
Arsenio Martínez-Campos 1879 Terragosa 1935
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo 1879–81 Manuel Portela Valladares 1935–36
472
RULERS AND LEADERS DIRECTORY
NAME TERM NAME TERM NAME REIGN NAME REIGN
Amintore Fanfani (DC) 1987 Lamberto Dini 1995–96 House of Stuart 1371–90 James IV 1488–1513
Giovanni Goria (DC) 1987–88 Romano Prodi (PP) 1996–98 Robert II 1390–1406 James V 1513–42
Ciriaco de Mita (DC) 1988–89 Massimo D’Alema (DS) 1998–2000 Robert III 1406–37 Mary I (Queen of Scots) 1542–67
Giulio Andreotti (DC) 1989–92 Giuliano Amato (Ulivo) 2000–01 James I 1437–60 James VI 1567–1625
Giuliano Amato (PSI) 1992–93 Silvio Berlusconi (FI) 2001–06 James II 1460–88
Carlo Azeglio Ciampi 1993–94 Romano Prodi (Ulivo) 2006–08 James III (I of England from 1603)
Silvio Berlusconi (FI) 1994–95 Silvio Berlusconi (PL) 2008–
KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND KINGS AND QUEENS OF GREAT BRITAIN
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN NAME REIGN NAME REIGN
John 1199–1216 1901–10
House of Wessex 802–39 Henry III 1216–72 House of Hanover 1714–27 House of Saxe–Coburg–Gotha
Egbert 839–55 Edward I 1272–1307 George I 1727–60 Edward VII
Ethelwulf 855–60 Edward II 1307–27 George II 1760–1820
Ethelbald 860–66 Edward III 1327–77 George III 1820–30 House of Windsor 1910–36
Ethelbert 866–71 Richard II 1377–99 George IV 1830–37 George V 1936
Ethelred I 871–99 William IV 1837–1901 Edward VIII 1936–52
Alfred the Great 899–925 House of Lancaster 1399–1413 Victoria George VI 1952–
Edward the Elder 925–39 Henry IV Bolingbroke 1413–22 Elizabeth II
Athelstan 939–46 Henry V 1422–61
Edmund 946–55 Henry VI PRIME MINISTERS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM
Edred 955–59 1461–70
Edwy 959–75 House of York C Conservative, Lib Liberal, Lab Labour, W Whig
Edgar 975–78 Edward IV 1470–71
Edward the Martyr 978–1013 NAME TERM NAME TERM
Ethelred II the Unready House of Lancaster 1471–83
1013–14 Henry VI (restored) 1483 Robert Walpole 1721–42 Earl of Derby (C) 1858–59
House of Denmark 1483–85 Earl of Wilmington 1742–43 Viscount Palmerston (W) 1859–65
Sweyn Forkbeard 1014–16 House of York Lord John Russell (W) 1865–66
1016 Edward IV (restored) 1485–1509 (Spencer Compton) 1743–46 Earl of Derby (C) 1866–68
House of Wessex Edward V 1509–47 Henry Pelham 1746 Benjamin Disraeli (C) 1868
Ethelred II (restored) Richard III 1547–53 Earl of Bath (William Pulteney) 1746–54 William Gladstone (Lib) 1868–74
Edmund Ironside 1553–58 Henry Pelham 1754–56 Benjamin Disraeli (C) 1874–80
1558–1603 Duke of Newcastle William Gladstone (Lib) 1880–85
House of Denmark 1016–35 House of Tudor 1756–57 Marquis of Salisbury 1885–86
Canute 1035–40 Henry VII 1603–25 (Thomas Pelham-Holles)
Harold I Harefoot 1040–42 Henry VIII 1625–49 Duke of Devonshire 1757 (Robert Cecil) (C) 1886
Harthacnut Edward VI William Gladstone (Lib) 1886–92
1042–66 Mary I 1649–60 (William Cavendish) 1757–62 Marquis of Salisbury (C) 1892–94
House of Wessex 1066 Elizabeth I Earl of Waldegrave 1762–63 William Gladstone (Lib) 1894–95
Edward the Confessor 1660–85 1763–65 Earl of Rosebery
Harold II Godwinson 1066–87 House of Stuart 1685–88 (James Waldegrave) 1765–66 1895–1902
1087–1100 James I (VI of Scotland) 1689–1702 Duke of Newcastle (Archibald Primrose) (Lib) 1902–05
House of Normandy 1100–35 Charles I 1689–94 Earl of Bute (John Stuart) 1766–68 Marquis of Salisbury (C) 1905–08
William I the Conqueror 1135–41 1702–14 George Grenville Arthur Balfour (C)
William II Rufus 1141 Commonwealth (Republic) Marquis of Rockingham 1768–70 Henry Campbell-Bannerman 1908–16
Henry I 1141–54 1916–22
Stephen House of Stuart (Charles Wentworth) 1770–82 (Lib) 1922–23
Matilda 1154–89 Charles II Earl of Chatham 1782–82 Herbert Asquith (Lib) 1923–24
Stephen (restored) 1189–99 James II 1782–83 David Lloyd George (Lib) 1924
William III (William Pitt the Elder) Andrew Bonar Law (C) 1924–29
House of Plantagenet Mary II (co-ruler) Duke of Grafton 1783–83 Stanley Baldwin (C) 1929–35
Henry II of Anjou Anne (of Great Britain Ramsay MacDonald (Lab) 1935–37
Richard I the Lionheart (Augustus Fitzroy) 1783–1801 Stanley Baldwin (C) 1937–40
from 1707) Baron North (Frederick North) 1801–04 Ramsay MacDonald (Lab) 1940–45
Marquis of Rockingham 1804–06 Stanley Baldwin (C) 1945–51
KINGS AND QUEENS OF SCOTLAND Earl of Shelburne 1806–07 Neville Chamberlain (C) 1951–55
Winston Churchill (C) 1955–57
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN (William Petty-Fitzmaurice) 1807–09 Clement Attlee (Lab) 1957–63
1058–93 Duke of Portland 1809–12 Winston Churchill (C) 1963–64
House of Alpin 843–58 Malcolm III Canmore 1093–94 1812–27 Anthony Eden (C) 1964–70
Kenneth MacAlpin (of Dalriada) 858–62 Donald III Bane 1094 (William Cavendish-Bentinck) Harold MacMillan (C) 1970–74
Donald I 862–77 Duncan II 1094–97 William Pitt (the Younger) 1827–27 Alexander Douglas-Home (C) 1974–76
Constantine I 877–78 Donald III Bane (restored) 1097–1107 Henry Addington 1827–28 Harold Wilson (Lab) 1976–79
Aed 878–89 Edgar 1107–24 William Pitt (the Younger) Edward Heath (C) 1979–90
Eochaid 889–900 Alexander I 1124–53 Lord Grenville 1828–30 Harold Wilson (Lab) 1990–97
Donald II 900–42 David I 1153–65 James Callaghan (Lab) 1997–2007
Constantine II 942–54 Malcolm IV 1165–1214 (William Grenville) 1830–34 Margaret Thatcher (C) 2007–10
Malcolm I 954–62 William the Lion 1214–49 Duke of Portland 1834 John Major (C) 2010–
Indulf 962–66 Alexander II 1249–86 Spencer Perceval Anthony Blair (Lab)
Dubh 966–71 Alexander III 1286–1300 Earl of Liverpool 1834–34 Gordon Brown (Lab)
Culen 971–95 Margaret of Norway 1834–35 David Cameron (C)
Kenneth II 995–97 1292–90 (Robert Jenkinson) 1835–41
Constantine III 997–1005 House of Balliol George Canning 1841–46
Kenneth III 1005–34 John Balliol 1306–29 Viscount Goderich 1846–52
Malcolm II 1329–71 1852
House of Bruce (Frederick Robinson)
House of Dunkeld 1034–40 Robert I the Bruce Duke of Wellington 1852–55
Duncan I 1040–57 David II
Macbeth 1057–58 (Arthur Wellesley) (C) 1855–58
Lulach Lord Grey (Charles Grey) (W)
Viscount Melbourne
(William Lamb) (W)
Duke of Wellington (C)
Robert Peel (C)
Viscount Melbourne (W)
Robert Peel (C)
Lord John Russell (W)
Earl of Derby
(Edward Stanley) (C)
Earl of Aberdeen
(George Hamilton-Gordon) (W)
Viscount Palmerston
(Henry Temple) (W)
473
DIRECTORY RULERS AND LEADERS
RULERS OF RUSSIA PRIME MINISTERS
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN NAME TERM NAME TERM
RURIKID DYNASTY 1283–1303 SHUISKII DYNASTY 1606–10 Ivan Silayev 1990–91 Sergei Stepashin 1999
Princes of Moscow 1303–25 Vasili IV Boris Yeltsin 1991–92 Vladimir Putin 1999–2000
Daniel 1325–40 1613–45 Yegor Gaidar 1992 Mikhail Kasyanov 2000–04
Yuri 1340–53 ROMANOV DYNASTY 1645–76 Dr. Viktor Chernomyrdin (OHR) 1992–98 Viktor Khristenko 2004
Ivan I 1353–59 Michael 1676–82 Sergei Kiriyenko 1998 Mikhail Fradkov 2004–07
Simeon the Proud Alexei 1682–96 Dr. Viktor Chernomyrdin (OHR) 1998 Viktor Zubkov 2007–08
Ivan II Feodor III 1696–1725 Yevgeni Primakov 1998–99 Vladimir Putin (UR) 2008–
Ivan V
Grand Princes of 1359–89 Peter I the Great 1725–27 EMPERORS OF CHINA
Moscow–Vladimir 1389–1425 1727–30
1425–62 (Emperor from 1721) 1730–40 China was united by Qin Shi Huangdi, the First Emperor, in 221 BCE. However, the collapse of the
Dmitri Donskoi 1462–1505 Catherine I 1740–41 Han Dynasty in 220 CE was followed by three centuries of disunity during which the country was
Vasili I 1505–33 Peter II 1741–62 sometimes split into as many as 17 kingdoms. China was reunited by the Sui in 589, but after the
Vasili II the Blind Anna 1762 collapse of their successors, the Tang, in 907, the country was once more divided during the Five
Ivan III the Great Ivan VI 1762–96 Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–60). The Song reunited China in 960, but they lost control
Vasili III Elizabeth 1796–1801 of the north of the country in 1126. Final reunification came under the Mongol Yuan dynasty in 1279.
Peter III 1801–25
Czars of Russia 1533–84 Catherine II the Great 1825–55 NAME REIGN NAME REIGN
Ivan IV the Terrible 1584–98 Paul I 1855–81
Alexander I 1881–94 Qin Dynasty 221–210 BCE Jingzong 824–27
(Czar from 1547) Nicholas I 1894–1917 Qin Shi Huangdi 210–207 BCE Wenzong 827–40
Feodor I Alexander II Er Shi Wuzong 840–46
Alexander III 206–195 BCE Xuanzong 846–59
GODUNOV DYNASTY 1598–1605 Nicholas II Western Han Dynasty 195–188 BCE Yizong 859–73
Boris Godunov 1605 Gaodi 188–180 BCE Xizong 873–88
Feodor II 1605–06 Huidi 180–157 BCE Zhaozong 888–904
Dimitri II Lu Hou (Regent) 157–141 BCE Aidi 904–07
Wendi 141–87 BCE
LEADERS OF THE SOVIET UNION AND RUSSIAN FEDERATION Jingdi 87–74 BCE Five Dynasties and Ten 907–60
Wudi 74–49 BCE Kingdoms Period
After the establishment of the USSR in 1923, the country had heads of state and heads of Zhaodi 49–33 BCE 960–76
government, but real power resided in the leadership of the Soviet Communist Party. Some Soviet Xuandi 33–7 BCE Northern Song Dynasty 976–97
leaders combined several roles, but their powerbases always lay within the Communist Party. Yuandi 7–1 BCE Taizu 998–1022
Chengdi 1 BCE–6 CE Taizong 1022–63
OHR Our Home is Russia, UR United Russia Aidi 7–9 Zhenzong 1064–67
Pingdi Renzong 1068–85
SOVIET UNION (USSR, 1923–91) Ruzi 9–23 Yingzong 1086–1101
Shenzong 1101–25
HEADS OF STATE TERM NAME TERM Hsin Dynasty 25–57 Zhezong 1126
Wang Mang 57–75 Huizong
NAME 1922–46 Vasili Kuznetsov 1982–83 75–88 Qinzong 1127–62
1946–53 Yuri Andropov 1983–84 Eastern Han Dynasty 88–106 1163–90
Mikhail Kalinin 1953–60 Konstantin Chernenko 1984–85 Guang Wudi 106 Southern Song Dynasty 1190–94
Nikolai Svernik 1960–64 Vasili Kuznetsov 1985 Mingdi 106–25 Gaozong 1195–1224
Marshal Kliment Voroshilov 1964–65 Andrei Gromyko 1985–88 Zhangdi 125–44 Xiazong 1225–64
Leonid Brezhnev 1965–77 Mikhail Gorbachev 1988–91 Hedi 144–45 Guangzong 1265–74
Anastas Mikoyan 1977–82 Shangdi 145–46 Ningzong 1275
Nikolai Podgorny Andi 146–68 Lizong 1276–78
Leonid Breznhev Shundi 169–89 Duzong 1279
Chongdi 189–220 Gongzong
HEADS OF COMMUNIST PARTY Zhidi Duanzong 1279–94
Huandi 220–581 Bing Di 1294–1307
NAME TERM NAME TERM Lingdi 1308–11
Xiandi 581–604 Yuan Dynasty 1311–20
Vladimir Lenin 1923–24 Leonid Brezhnev 1964–82 604–17 Shizu (Kublai Khan) 1321–23
Joseph Stalin 1924–53 Yuri Andropov 1982–84 Period of Disunity 617–18 Chengzong (Temur Oljeitu) 1323–28
Georgi Malenkov 1953 Konstanin Chernenko 1984–85 Wuzong (Khaishan) 1328–29
Nikita Khrushchev 1953–64 Mikhail Gorbachev 1985–91 Sui Dynasty 618–26 Renzong (Ayrbarwada) 1329
Wendi 626–49 Yingzong (Shidebala) 1329–32
HEADS OF GOVERNMENT TERM NAME TERM Yangdi 649–83 Taiding (Yesun Temur) 1332–68
Gongdi 684 Wenzong (Tugh Temur)
NAME 1923–24 Nikita Khrushchev 1958–64 684–90 Mingzong (Khoshila) 1368–98
1924–30 Alexi Kosygin 1964–80 Tang Dynasty 690–705 Wenzong (restored) 1399–1402
Vladimir Lenin 1930–41 Nikolai Tikhonov 1980–85 Gaozu 705–10 Shundi (Toghon Temur) 1403–24
Alexi Rykov 1941–53 Nikolai Ryzkov 1985–91 Taizong 710–12 1425
Vyacheslav Molotov 1953–55 Valentin Pavlov 1991 Gaozong 712–56 Ming Dynasty 1426–35
Joseph Stalin 1955–58 Zhongzong 756–62 Hongwu 1436–49
Georgi Malenkov Ruizong 762–79 Jianwen 1449–57
Nikolai Bulganin Wu Zetian 779–805 Yongle 1457–64
Zhongzong (restored) 805 Hongxi 1464–87
RUSSIAN FEDERATION (SINCE 1991) Ruizong (restored) 805–20 Xuande 1487–1505
Xuangzong 820–24 Zhengtong 1505–21
PRESIDENTS TERM NAME TERM Suzong Jingtai 1521–67
Dmitry Medvedev 2008– Daizong Zhengtong (restored)
NAME 1990–99 Dezong Chenghua
1999–2008 Shunzong Hongzhi
Boris Yeltsin Xianzong Zhengde
Vladimir Putin Muzong Jiajing
474
RULERS AND LEADERS DIRECTORY
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN DELHI SULTANATE (1206–1526)
1567–72
Longqing 1572–1620 Yongzheng 1722–35 NAME REIGN NAME REIGN
Wanli 1620 Qianlong 1735–96
Taichang 1620–27 Jiajing 1796–1820 Slave Mamluk Dynasty 1206–10 Lodi Dynasty 1451–89
Tiangqi 1628–44 Daoguang 1820–50 Aibak 1210–11 Bahlul Lodi 1489–17
Chongzhen Xianfeng 1850–61 Aran Shan 1211–36 Sikandar II 1517–26
1644–61 Tongzhi 1861–75 Iltutmish 1236 Ibrahim II
Qing Dynasty 1661–1722 Guangxu 1875–1908 Firuz Shah 1236–40 1526–30
Shunzhi Puyi 1908–11 Radiyya Begum 1240–42 Mughal Dynasty 1530–40
Kangxi Bahram Shah 1242–46 Babur
Mas’ud Shah 1246–66 Humayun 1540–45
LEADERS OF THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Mahmud Shah 1266–87 1545–53
Balban 1287–90 Surid Dynasty 1553–55
After the victory of Mao Zedong’s Communist Party in the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the leader Kai-Qubadh 1290 Shir Shah Sur 1555
of the Party occupied the preeminent role in China’s government. China retained a president Kayumarth Islam Shah 1555–56
with largely ceremonial powers, and a prime minister who in theory headed the government, Muhammad ‘Adil
but these officials were firmly subordinate to the will of the Communist Party leadership. Khalji Dynasty 1290–96 Ibrahim III 1555–56
Firuz Shah II 1296 Sikandar III 1556–1605
HEADS OF STATE HEADS OF COMMUNIST PARTY Ibrahim I 1296–1316 1605–27
Muhammad I 1316 Mughal Emperors 1628–58
NAME TERM NAME TERM ‘Umar 1316–20 Humayun (restored) 1658–1707
Mubarak I 1320 Akbar I the Great 1707
Mao Zedong 1949–59 Mao Zedong 1945–79 Khusraw Jahangir 1707–12
Liu Shaoqi 1959–68 Hua Guofeng 1979–81 Shah Jahan I 1712
Dong Biwu 1968–75 Hu Yaobang 1981–87 Tughluqid Dynasty 1321–25 Aurangzeb 1712–13
Position vacant 1975–83 Zhao Ziyang 1987–89 Tughluq I 1325–51 Azam Shah 1713–19
Li Xiannian 1983–87 Jiang Zemin 1989–2002 Muhammad II 1351–88 Bahadur Shah I 1719
Yang Shangkun 1987–93 Hu Jintao 2002– Firuz Shah III 1388–89 ‘Azim-ush-Sha’n 1719
Jiang Zemin 1992–2003 Tughluq II 1389–90 Jahandar Shah 1719
Hu Jintao 2003– PRIME MINISTERS Abu Bakr 1390–94 Farrukhsiyar 1719–48
Muhammad III 1394 Rafi’ ud-Darajat 1748–54
NAME TERM Sikandar I 1394–13 Shah Jahan II 1754–59
Mahmud II 1413–14 Nikusiyar 1759–88
Zhou Enlai 1949–76 Daulat Khan Lodi Muhammad Ibrahim 1788
Hua Guofeng 1976–80 Ahmad Shah 1788–1806
Zhao Ziyang 1980–87 Sayyid Dynasty 1414–21 Alamgir II 1806–37
Li Peng 1987–98 Khidr Khan 1421–34 Shah Alam II 1837–58
Zhu Rongji 1998–2003 Mubarak II 1434–45 Baidar Bakht
Wen Jiaobao 2003– Muhammad IV 1445–51 Shah Alam II (restored)
Alam Shah Akbar II
Bahadur Shah II
RULERS OF INDIA
PRESIDENTS AND PRIME MINISTERS OF INDIA
The Indian subcontinent has seen the rise and fall of many kingdoms and empires. The Mauryan
Empire encompassed almost all of South Asia; the Gupta Empire formed a wide band across BJP Bharatiya Janata Party, CP Congress Party, CIP Congress I (Indira) Party, LD Lok Dal,
northern India; and the Chola Empire stretched across Southeast Asia. At their heights, the JD Janata Dal, JDS Janata Dal (Secular), JP Janata Party, JSP Janata Secular Party
Muslim Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire controlled virtually all of modern India and Pakistan.
MAURYA EMPIRE (321–180BCE) CHOLA INDIA (c. 846–1279)
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN PRESIDENTS
Chandragupta Maurya 321–297 BCE Viyayalaya c. 846–71 NAME TERM NAME TERM
Bindusara 297–272 BCE Aditya I c. 871–907
Ashoka 272–232 BCE Parantaka I 907–53 Dr. Rajendra Prasad 1950–62 Neelam Sanjiva Reddy 1977–82
Dasaratha 232–224 BCE Rajaditya I (co-ruler) 947–49 Dr. Sarvapali Radhakrishnan 1962–67 Gian Zail Singh 1982–87
Samprati 224–215 BCE Gandaraditya 953–57 Dr. Zakir Husain 1967–69 Rameswar Venkataraman 1987–92
Salisuka 215–202 BCE Arinjaya (co-ruler) 956–57 Sri Vaharagiri Venkata Giri 1969 Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma 1992–97
Devadharma 202–195 BCE Parantaka II 957–73 Muhammad Hidayat Ullah 1969 Sri Kocheril Raman Narayanan 1997–2002
Satamdhanu 195–187 BCE Aditya II (co-ruler) 957–69 Sri Vaharagiri Venkata Giri 1969–74 Dr. Awul Abdul Kalam 2002–07
Brihadratha 187–180 BCE Madurantaka Uttama 973–85 Fakhruddin’ ‘Ali Ahmad 1974–77 Pratibha Patil 2007–
Rajaraja I 985–1016 Basappa Danappa Jatti 1977
Rajendra I 1016–44
GUPTA INDIA (c. 275–550) REIGN Rajadhiraja I 1044–54 PRIME MINISTERS TERM NAME TERM
Rajendra II 1054–64
NAME c. 275–300 Raja Mahendra (co-ruler) 1060–63 NAME 1947–64 Vishvant Pratap Singh (JD) 1989–90
c. 300–20 Virarajendra 1064–69 1964 Sadanand Singh Shekhar (JDS) 1990–91
Gupta c. 320–50 Adirajendra 1069–70 Jawaharlal Nehru (CP) 1964–66 Pamulaparpi Narasimha Rao 1991–96
Ghatotkacha c. 350–76 Rajendra III Kulottunga Chola 1070–1122 Gulzarilal Nanda (CP) 1966
Chandragupta I c. 376–415 Vikrama Chola 1122–35 Lal Bahadur Shastri (CP) 1966–77 (CIP) 1996
Samudragupta c. 415–55 Kulottunga Chola II 1135–50 Gulzarilal Nanda (CP) 1977–79 Atal Bihari Vajpayee (BJP) 1996–97
Chandragupta II c. 455–67 Rajaraja II 1150–73 Srimati Indira Gandhi (CP) 1979–80 Haradanhalli Dewe Gowda (JD) 1997–98
Kumaragupta c. 467–77 Rajadhiraja II 1173–79 Morarji Ranchhodji Desai (JP) 1980–84 Inder Kumar Gujral(JD) 1998–2004
Skandagupta c. 477–95 Kulottunga III 1179–1218 Charan Singh (JSP) 1984–89 Atal Bihari Vajpayee (BJP) 2004–
Kumaragupta II c. 495–500 Rajaraja III 1218–46 Srimati Indira Gandhi (CIP) Dr. Manmohan Singh (CIP)
Budhagupta c. 500–15 Rajendra IV 1246–79 Rajiv Gandhi (CIP)
Chandragupta III c. 515–30
Vainyagupta c. 530–40
Narasimhagupta c. 540–50
Kumaragupta III
Vishnugupta
475
DIRECTORY RULERS AND LEADERS
RULERS OF JAPAN NAME REIGN NAME REIGN
Japanese tradition dates the accession of the country’s first emperor, Jimmu Tenno, to 660 BCE, but Sakuramachi 1735–47 Modern Japan 1867–1912
archaeological discoveries have indicated he is more likely to have ruled around 40 CE. Over time, Momozono 1747–62 (1867–) 1912–26
Japan’s emperors lost power to influential military families, and from 1185 to the 19th century real Go-Sakuramachi (Empress) 1735–47 1926–89
power was wielded by a series of military warlords (shoguns), including the Tokugawa family, which Go-Momozono 1771–79 Meiji 1989–
held the post of shogun for over 250 years until the restoration of the emperor’s powers in 1867. Kōkaku 1780–1817 Taishō
Ninkō 1817–46 Shōwa (Hirohito) REIGN
Kōmei 1846–67 Akihito 1522–47
1547–65
EMPERORS REIGN NAME REIGN SHOGUNS REIGN NAME 1568
969–84 1568–73
NAME 40–10 BCE En’yū 984–86 NAME 1192–95 Yoshiharu
10 BCE–20 CE Kazan 986–1011 1202–03 Yoshiteru 1603–05
Yamato Period 20–50 Ichijō 1011–16 Kamakura Shogunate 1203–19 Yoshihide 1605–23
(c. 40 BCE–710 CE) 50–80 Sanjō 1016–36 Minamoto Yoritomo 1226–44 Yoshiaki 1623–51
80–110 Go-Ichijō 1036–45 Yoriie 1244–52 1651–80
Jimmu 110–40 Go-Suzaku 1045–68 Sanemoto 1252–66 Tokugawa Shogunate 1680–1709
Suizei 140–70 Go-Reizei 1068–73 Kujō Yoritsune 1266–89 Tokugawa Ieyasu 1709–12
Annei 170–200 Go-Sanjō 1073–87 Yoritsugu 1289–1308 Hidetada 1713–16
Itoki 200–30 Shirakawa 1087–1107 Munetaka 1308–33 Iemitsu 1716–45
Kōshō 230–58 Horikawa 1107–23 Koreyasu Ietsuna 1745–60
Kōan 258–90 Toba 1123–42 Hisaaki 1338–58 Tsunayoshi 1760–86
Kōrei 290–322 Sutoku 1142–55 Morikuni 1359–67 Ienobu 1787–1837
Kōgen 322–55 Konoe 1155–58 1369–95 Ietsugu 1837–53
Kaika 355–62 Go-Shirakawa 1158–65 Ashikaga Shogunate 1395–1423 Yoshimune 1853–58
Sujin 362–94 Nijō 1165–68 Ashikaga Takauji 1423–25 Ieshige 1858–66
Suinin 394–427 Rokujō 1168–80 Yoshiakira 1429–41 Ieharu 1867–68
Keikō 427–32 Takakura 1180–85 Yoshimitsu 1442–43 Ienari
Seimu 432–37 Antoku Yoshimochi 1449–74 Ieyoshi
Chūai 437–54 1183–98 Yoshikazu 1474–89 Iesada
Ojin 454–57 Kamakura Period 1198–1210 Yoshinori 1490–93 Iemochi
Nintoku 457–89 (1186–1333) 1210–21 Yoshikatsu 1495–1508 Yoshinobi
Richū 489–94 1221 Yoshimasa 1508–22
Hanzei 494–97 Go-Toba 1221–32 Yoshihisa
Ingyō 497–504 Tsuchimikado 1232–42 Yoshitane
Ankō 504–510 Juntoku 1242–46 Yoshizumi
Yūryaku 510–27 Chūkyō 1246–60 Yoshitane (restored)
Seinei 527–35 Go-Horikaw 1260–74
Kenzō 535–39 Shij 1274–87 PRIME MINISTERS OF JAPAN
Ninken 539–71 Go-Saga 1287–98
Buretsu 572–85 Go-Fukakusa 1298–1301 DP Democratic Party, JNP Japan New Party, JRP Japan Renewal Party, LDP Liberal Democratic
Keitai 585–87 Kameyama 1301–08 Party, LP Liberal Party, SP Socialist Party
Ankan 587–92 Go-Uda 1308–18
Senka 593–628 Fushimi NAME TERM NAME TERM
Kimmei 629–41 Go-Fushimi 1318–39
Bidatsu 642–45 Go-Nijō 1339–68 Ito Hirobumi 1885–88 Hayashi Senjuro 1937
Yōmei 645–54 Hanazono 1368–83 Kuroda Kiyotaka 1888–89 Konoye Fumimaro 1937–1939
Sushun 655–61 1383–92 Yamagata Aritomo 1889–91 Hironuma Kiichiro 1939
Suiko (Empress) 661–72 Southern Court Matsukata Masayoshi 1891–92 Abe Nobyaki 1939–40
Jomei 672 (1336–92) 1331–33 Ito Hirobumi 1892–96 Yonai Mitsumasa 1940
Kōgyoku (Empress) 672–86 1336–48 Matsukata Masayoshi 1896–97 Konoye Fumimaro 1940–41
Kōtoku 686–97 Go-Daigo 1348–51 Kuroda Kiyotaka 1897 Tojo Hideki 1941–44
Saimei (Kōgokyu restored) 697–707 Go-Murakami 1352–71 Matsukata Masayoshi 1897–98 Koiso Kuniaki 1944–45
Tenji Chōkei 1371–82 Ito Hirobumi 1898 Suzuki Kantaro 1945
Kobun 707–15 Go-Kameyama Okuma Shigenobu 1898 Naruhiko Higashikini 1945
Temmu 715–24 1382–1412 Yamagata Aritomo 1898–1900 Shidehara Kiuro 1945
Jitō (Empress) 724–49 Northern Court 1412–28 Ito Hirobumi 1900–01 Yoshida Shigeru (LP) 1946–47
Mommu 749–58 (1336–92) 1428–64 Saionji Kimmochi 1901 Katayama Tetsu (SP) 1947–48
758–64 1464–1500 Katsura Taro 1901–06 Ashida Hitoshi (DP) 1948
Nara Period 764–70 Kōgon 1500–26 Saionji Kimmochi 1906–08 Yoshida Shigeru (LP) 1948–54
(710–784) 770–81 Kōmyō 1526–57 Katsura Taro 1908–11 Hatoyama Ichiro (LDP) 1954–56
Sukō 1557–86 Saionji Kimmochi 1911–12 Ishibashi Tanzan (LDP) 1956–57
Gemmei (Empress) 781–806 Go-Kōgon Katsura Taro 1912–13 Kishi Nobusuke (LDP) 1957–60
Genshō (Empress) 806–09 Go-En’yū 1586–1611 Yamamoto Gonnohyoe 1913–14 Ikeda Hayato (LDP) 1960–64
Shōmu 809–23 1611–29 Okuma Shigenobu 1914–16 Sato Eisaku (LDP) 1964–72
Kōken (Empress) 823–33 Muromachi Period 1629–43 Terauchi Matsakate 1916–18 Tanaka Kakuei (LDP) 1972–74
Junnin 833–50 (1392–1573) 1643–54 Hara Takashi 1918–21 Miki Takeo (LDP) 1974–76
Shōtoku (Kōken restored) 850–58 1655–63 Uchida Yasuya 1921 Fukuda Takeo (LDP) 1976–78
Kōnin 858–76 Go-Komatsu 1663–87 Takahashi Korekiyo 1921–22 Ohira Masayoshi (LDP) 1978–80
876–84 Shōkō 1687–1709 Kato Tomosabura 1922–23 Ito Masayoshi (LDP) 1980
Heian Period 884–87 Go-Hanazono 1709–35 Yamamoto Gonnohyoe 1923–24 Suzuki Zenko (LDP) 1980–82
(784–1185) 887–97 Go-Tsuchimikado Kiyoura Keigo 1924 Nakasone Yasuhiro (LDP) 1982–87
897–930 Go-Kashiwabara Kato Takaaki 1924–26 Takeshita Nobaru (LDP) 1987–89
Kammu 930–46 Go-Nara Wakatsuki Reijiro 1926–27 Uno Sosuke (LDP) 1989
Heizei 946–67 Ōgimachi Tanaka Giichi 1927–29 Kaifu Toshiki (LDP) 1989–91
Saga 967–69 Hamaguchi Osachi 1929–31 Miyazawa Kiichi (LDP) 1991–93
Junna Tokugawa Period Wakatsuki Reijiro 1931 Hata Tsutomu (JNP) 1993–94
Nimmyō (1603–1867) Inukai Takashi 1931–32 Murayama Tomiichi (JNP) 1994–96
Montoku Takahashi Korekiyo 1932 Hashimoto Ryutaro (LDP) 1996–98
Seiwa Go-Yōzei Saito Makoto 1932–34 Obuchi Keizo (LDP) 1998–2000
Yōzei Go-Mizunoo Okada Keisuke 1934–36 Mori Yoshiro (LDP) 2000–01
Kōkō Meishō Goto Fumio 1936 Koizumi Jun’ichiro (LDP) 2001–06
Uda Go-Kōmyō Hirota Koki 1936–37 Abe Shinzo (LDP) 2006–07
Daigo Go-Sai
Suzaku Reigen
Murakami Higashiyama
Reizei Nakamikado
476
RULERS AND LEADERS DIRECTORY
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN PRESIDENTS AND PRIME MINISTERS OF SOUTH AFRICA
Fukuda Yasuo (LDP) 2007–08 Hatoyama Yukio (DP) 2009–2010 ANC African National Congress, LP Labour Party, NP National Party, NPP National People’s Party,
Aso Taro (LDP) 2008–09 Kan Naoto (DP) 2010– SAP South African Party, S Solidarity, UP United Party
INCA EMPERORS REIGN NAME REIGN PRESIDENTS TERM NAME TERM
NAME c. 1100 Tupac Yupanqui 1471–93 NAME 1961–67 Marais Viljoen 1979–84
unknown Huayna Capac 1493–1526 1967–68 Pieter Botha 1984–89
Manco Capac unknown Huascar 1526–32 Charles Swart 1968–75 Frederik de Klerk 1989–94
Sinchi Roca unknown Atahuallpa 1530–33 Jozua Naudé 1975 Nelson Mandela (ANC) 1994–99
Lloque Yupanqui c. 1200 Tupac Hualpa 1533 Jacobus Fouché 1975–78 Thabo Mbeki (ANC) 1999–2008
Mayta Capac unknown Manco Inca Yupanqui 1533–45 Jan de Clerk 1978 Kgalema Motlanthe (ANC) 2008–09
Capac Yupanqui unknown Sayri Tupac 1545–60 Nicolaas Diederich 1978–79 Jacob Zuma (ANC) 2009–
Inca Roca unknown Titu Cusi Yupanqui 1560–71 Marais Viljoen
Inca Yupanqui 1438 Tupac Amaru 1571–72 B. Johannes Vorster
Viracocha 1438–71
Inca Urco PRIME MINISTERS
Pachacuti
NAME
AZTEC EMPERORS TERM NAME TERM
Louis Botha (SAP)
NAME REIGN NAME REIGN Jan Smuts (SAP) 1910–19 Charles Swart 1958
James Barry Herzog (NP/UP) 1919–24 Hendrik Verwoerd (NP) 1958–66
Acampichtli 1372–91 Tizoc 1481–86 Jan Smuts (UP) 1924–39 Ebenhezer Dönges 1966
Huitzilihuitl 1391–1415 Ahuitzotl 1486–1502 Daniel Malan (NP) 1939–48 B. Johannes Vorster (NP) 1966–78
Chimalpopoca 1415–26 Moctezuma II Xocoyotzin 1502–20 Johannes Strijdom (NP) 1948–54 Pieter Botha (NP) 1978–84
Itzcoatl 1426–40 Cuitlahuac 1520 1954–58
Moctezuma I Ilhuicamina 1440–68 Cuauhtemoc 1520–21
Axayacatl 1468–81 PRIME MINISTERS OF AUSTRALIA (SINCE 1901)
ALP Australian Labour Party, CP Country Party, LPA Liberal Party of Australia, NP National Party,
UAP United Australia Party
PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES NAME TERM NAME TERM
F Federalist, DR Democratic Republican, D Democratic, R Republican, W Whig, NU National Union Edmund Barton 1901–03 Arthur Fadden (CP) 1941
Alfred Deakin (LPA) 1903–04 John Curtin (ALP) 1941–45
NAME TERM NAME TERM John Watson 1903 Francis Forde 1945
George Reid 1904–05 Joseph Chifley (ALP) 1945–49
George Washington 1789–97 Benjamin Harrison (R) 1889–93 Alfred Deakin (LPA) 1905–08 Robert Menzies (LPA) 1949–66
John Adams (F) 1797–1801 Grover Cleveland (D) 1893–97 Andrew Fisher (ALP) 1908–09 Harold Holt (LPA) 1966–67
Thomas Jefferson (DR) 1801–09 William McKinley (R) 1897–1901 Alfred Deakin (LPA) 1909–10 John McEwan (CP) 1967–68
James Madison (DR) 1809–17 Theodore Roosevelt (R) 1901–09 Andrew Fisher (ALP) 1910–13 John Gorton (LPA) 1968–71
James Monroe (DR) 1817–25 William Howard Taft (R) 1909–13 Joseph Cook 1913–14 William MacMahon (LPA) 1971–72
John Quincy Adams (DR) 1825–29 Woodrow Wilson (D) 1913–21 Andrew Fisher (ALP) 1914–15 E. Gough Whitlam (ALP) 1972–75
Andrew Jackson (D) 1829–37 Warren G. Harding (R) 1921–23 William Hughes (ALP, NP) 1915–23 Malcolm Fraser (LPA) 1975–83
Martin Van Buren (D) 1837–41 Calvin Coolidge (R) 1923–29 Stanley Bruce (NP) 1923–29 Robert Hawke (ALP) 1983–91
William Henry Harrison (W) 1841 Herbert Hoover (R) 1929–33 James Scullin (ALP) 1929–32 Paul Keating (ALP) 1991–96
John Tyler (W) 1841–45 Franklin D. Roosevelt (D) 1933–45 Joseph Lyons (UAP) 1932–39 John Howard (LPA) 1996–2007
James Knox Polk (D) 1845–49 Harry S. Truman (D) 1945–53 Earl Page (CP) 1939 Kevin Rudd (ALP) 2007–10
Zachary Taylor (W) 1849–50 Dwight D. Eisenhower (R) 1953–61 Robert Menzies (UAP) 1939–41 Julia Gillam (ALP) 2010–
Millard Fillmore (W) 1850–53 John F. Kennedy (D) 1961–63
Franklin Pierce (D) 1853–57 Lyndon B. Johnson (D) 1963–69 PRIME MINISTERS OF NEW ZEALAND
James Buchanan (D) 1857–61 Richard Nixon (R) 1969–74
Abraham Lincoln (R) 1861–65 Gerald Ford (R) 1974–77 Lab Labour Party, Lib Liberal Party, NP National party, RP Reform Party, UP United Party
Andrew Johnson (D/NU) 1865–69 James (“Jimmy”) Carter (D) 1977–81
Ulysses S. Grant (R) 1869–77 Ronald Reagan (R) 1981–89 NAME TERM NAME TERM
Rutherford B. Hayes (R) 1877–81 George H. W. Bush (R) 1989–93
James A. Garfield (R) 1881 William (“Bill”) Clinton (D) 1993–2001 Henry Sewell 1856 William Hall-Jones (Lib) 1906
Chester A. Arthur (R) 1881–85 George W. Bush (R) 2001–09 William Fox 1856 Joseph Ward (Lib) 1906–12
Grover Cleveland (D) 1885–89 Barack Obama (D) 2009– Edward Stafford 1856–61 Thomas MacKenzie (Lib) 1912
William Fox 1861–62 William Massey (RP) 1912–25
PRIME MINISTERS OF CANADA Alfred Domett 1862–63 Francis Bell (RP) 1925
Frederick Whitaker 1863–64 Joseph Coates (RP) 1925–28
CP Conservative Party, LP Liberal Party, PCP Progressive Conservative Party, UP Unionist Party Frederick Weld 1864–65 Joseph Ward (UP) 1928–30
Edward Stafford 1865–69 George Forbes (UP) 1930–35
NAME TERM NAME TERM William Fox 1869–72 Michael Savage (Lab) 1935–40
Edward Stafford 1872 Peter Fraser (Lab) 1940–49
John Alexander MacDonald (LP) 1867–73 Lester Pearson (LP) 1963–68 George Waterhouse 1872–73 Sidney Holland (NP) 1949–57
Pierre Trudeau (LP) 1968–79 William Fox 1873 Keith Holyoake (NP) 1957
Alexander MacKenzie (LP) 1873–78 Joseph Clark (PCP) 1979–80 Julius Vogel 1873–75 Walter Nash (Lab) 1957–60
Pierre Trudeau (LP) 1980–84 Daniel Pollen 1875–76 Keith Holyoake (NP) 1960–72
John Alexander MacDonald (CP) 1878–91 John Turner (LP) 1984 Julius Vogel 1876 John Marshall (NP) 1972
Brian Mulroney (PCP) 1984–93 Harry Atkinson 1876–77 Norman Kirk (Lab) 1972–74
John Abbott (CP) 1891–92 Kim Campbell (PCP) 1993 George Grey 1877–79 Hugh Watt (Lab) 1974
Jean Chrétien (LP) 1993–2003 John Hall 1879–82 Wallace Rowling (Lab) 1974–75
John Thompson (CP) 1892–94 Paul Martin (LP) 2003–06 Frederick Whitaker 1882–83 Robert Muldoon (NP) 1975–84
Stephen Harper (CP) 2006– Harry Atkinson 1883–84 David Lange (Lab) 1984–89
MacKenzie Bowell (CP) 1894–96 Robert Stout 1884 Geoffrey Palmer (Lab) 1989–90
Harry Atkinson 1884 Michael Moore (Lab) 1990
Charles Tupper (CP) 1896 Robert Stout 1884–87 James Bolger (NP) 1990–97
Harry Atkinson 1887–91 Jenny Shipley (NP) 1997–99
Wilfred Laurier (LP) 1896–1911 John Balance (Lib) 1891–93 Helen Clark (Lab) 1999–2008
Richard Seddon (Lib) 1893–1906 John Key (NP) 2008–
Robert Borden (CP, UP) 1911–20
Arthur Meighen (UP) 1920–21
W. Mackenzie King (LP) 1921–26
Arthur Meighen (UP) 1926
W. MacKenzie King (LP) 1926–30
Richard Bennett (CP) 1930–35
W. MacKenzie King (LP) 1935–48
Louis St Laurent (LP) 1948–57
John Diefenbaker (PCP) 1957–63
477
DIRECTORY HISTORY IN FIGURES
HISTORY IN FIGURES
AUSTRALOPITHECUS ANAMENSIS (4.2–3.9 MYA)
HOMININS SAHELANTHROPUS TCHADENSIS (7–6 MYA)
Modern humanity’s most distant ARDIPITHECUS KADABBA (5.8–5.2 MYA)
ancestors were apelike creatures
living in Africa millions of years ago. ORRORIN TUGENENSIS (6.2–5.6 MYA) ARDIPITHECUS RAMIDUS (4.5–4.3 MYA)
Our own species, Homo sapiens, only
appeared about 150,000 years ago. 6 MYA 5 MYA 4 MYA
LARGEST CITIES Thebes (Greece) Babylon Rome Constantinople Baghdad
Xian (China) (Persia) 450,000 400,000 (Abbasid caliphate)
The greatest cities of the ancient 50,000 200,000 700,000
world still had comparatively small
populations. The development of Nineveh Chang’an Constantinople Ctesiphon Córdoba
more effective sanitation systems (Assyria) (China) 300,000 (Persia) (Spain)
then allowed cities such as Rome 120,000 400,000 500,000 450,000
to grow to almost 500,000 in the 350 500
1st century BCE, a figure scarcely 625 800 1000
matched until after the Industrial
Revolution of the 19th century.
800 BCE 650 BCE 400 BCE 200 BCE 100
WORST WARS BY CASUALTY FIGURES 1 million 17Conquests
Although World War II was the world’s worst war in terms casualties of Timur
of casualties, many older conflicts were astonishingly bloody 1369–1405 MILLION
considering the smaller armies of the time and the lower
populations of the countries in which they were fought. 15World War I
1914–18 MILLION
63World War II
1939–45 MILLION Russian 9
Civil War
40Mongol
1917–21 MILLION
Conquests
1207–1472 MILLION Thirty 7
Years’ War
35An-Shi
1618–48 MILLION
Rebellion
755–63 MILLION Napoleonic 5
Wars
25Qing–
1804–15 MILLION
Ming War
1616–62 MILLION Yellow 5
Turban Revolt
20Taiping
184–205 MILLION
Rebellion
1851–64 MILLION Time of 4
Troubles
478
1589–1613 MILLION
The Deluge 3
(Poland–Lithuania)
1655–60 MILLION
Korean War 3
1950–53 MILLION
Vietnam War 3
1955–75 MILLION
HISTORY IN FIGURES DIRECTORY
HOMO HABILIS (2.4–1.6 MYA)
AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFARENSIS (3.7–3 MYA)
AUSTRALOPITHECUS BAHRELGHAZALI (3.6–3 MYA) HOMO GEORGICUS (1.8 MYA)
HOMO RUDOLFENSIS (2.2–1.8 MYA)
AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFRICANUS (3.3–2.1 MYA)
PARANTHROPUS AETHIOPICUS (2.7–2.3 MYA) HOMO ERGASTER (1.9–1.5 MYA)
HOMO ERECTUS (1.8–0.03 MYA)
AUSTRALOPITHECUS GARHI (2.5–2.3 MYA) HOMO ANTECESSOR (1.2–0.5 MYA)
KENYANTHROPUS PLATYOPS (3.5–3.3 MYA) HOMO HEIDELBERGENSIS (0.6–0.2 MYA)
PARANTHROPUS BOISEI (2.3–1.4 MYA) HOMO NEANDERTHALENSIS (0.35–0.03 MYA)
PARANTHROPUS ROBUSTUS (2–1.2 MYA) HOMO SAPIENS (0.2 MYA–)
AUSTRALOPITHECUS SEDIBA (2–1.8 MYA) HOMO FLORESIENSIS (0.1–0.01 MYA)
3 MYA 2 MYA 1 MYA PRESENT DAY
Hangchow Nanjing Beijing Beijing
(China) (China) (China) (China)
250,000 485,000 705,000 1,100,000
London London New York New York Tokyo Tokyo
(England) (England) (USA) (USA) (Japan) (Japan)
2,320,000 6,480,000 7,774,000 12,463,000 23,000,000 33,000,000
Hangchow Beijing Constantinople
(China) (China) 700,000
430,000 675,000
1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1850 1900 1925 1950 1975 2005
LONGEST-REIGNING DYNASTIES LONGEST-REIGNING MONARCHS
Although the life-span of a ruling dynasty has seldom Some monarchs have had astonishingly long reigns.
been more than a few hundred years, in exceptional Although in general this meant they came to the
cases a ruling house has held power for more than throne as small children and initially exercised little
a thousand, while in Japan the Yamato dynasty has power, those who enjoyed a long reign often brought
survived for more than 2,500 and still rules today. a period of power and prosperity to their country.
Yamato 660 BCE–present (2,671 years) Min hti 1279–1374 (95 years)
(Japan) 2897–258 BCE (2,639 years) (Burma)
2333–108 BCE (2,225 years)
Hong Bang c. 350 BCE–c. 1550 CE (1,900 years) Pepi II
(Vietnam) 191–present (1,820 years) (Egypt) c. 2278–c. 2184 BCE (94 years)
192–1832 (1,640 years)
Gojoseon 813–1810 (997 years) Taejo 53–146 (93 years)
(Korea) c. 900–1865 (965 years) (Goguryeo, Korea)
57 BCE–935 CE (878 years)
Pandyas 1046–256 BCE (790 years) Sobhuza II 1899–1982 (82 years)
(South India) 1297–pres. (714 years) (Swaziland)
Sisodia Jangsu 413–92 (79 years)
(India) (Goguryeo, Korea)
Cham Heinrich XI 1723–1800 (77 years)
(Vietnam) (Reuss-Greiz, Germany)
Bagrationi Christian Augustus 1632–1708 (76 years)
(Georgia) (Sulzbach, Germany)
Tu’i Tonga Georg Wilhelm 1787–1860 (73 years)
(Tonga) (Schaumburg-Lippe, Germany)
Shilla Karl Friedrich 1738–1811 (73 years)
(Korea) (Baden, Germany)
Zhou King Louis XIV 1643–1715 (72 years)
(China) (France)
Grimaldi Trieu Vieu Vuong 207–136 BCE (71 years)
(Monaco) (Nanyueh, Vietnam)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 25 50 75 100
YEARS
YEARS 479
DIRECTORY WARS
WARS WAR DATE OPPOSING FORCES
Taiping Rebellion 1850–64 Chinese central (Qing) government v.
The human story is one of conflict. Disputes over territory, religion, and Taiping rebels
governance have escalated into war throughout history, and while the stories Boer Wars (South African Wars) 1880–81,
of great battles and great commanders make compelling reading, the tragic 1899–1902 British v. Boers (Afrikaners)
consequences of war should never be forgotten.
Balkan Wars 1912–13 (First) Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia,
Montenegro v. Ottoman Turkey
MAJOR WARS DATE OPPOSING FORCES World War I 1914–18 (Second) Bulgaria v. Turkey, Serbia,
490–448 BCE Coalition of Greek city-states including Greece, Romania
WAR Athens and Sparta v. Persia Russian Civil War 1918–21
Greek–Persian Wars 431–404 BCE Spanish Civil War 1936–39 Entente (Britain, France, Italy, Russia, US,
334–323 BCE Athens and allies v. Sparta and allies World War II 1939–45 and others) v. Central Powers (Germany,
Peloponnesian War Austro-Hungary, and others)
Alexander the Great’s Macedonia v. Persian Empire Chinese Civil War 1945–49
Conquests Korean War 1950–53 Bolsheviks v. “White” Russians
First Punic War 264–241 BCE Rome and allies v. Carthage and allies
Second Punic War 218–202 BCE Rome and allies v. Carthage and allies French Indochina War 1946–54 Nationalists v. Republicans
Third Punic War 149–146 BCE Rome and allies v. Carthage and allies Arab–Israeli Wars 1948–73
First Roman Civil War Vietnam War 1961–75 Allies (British, French, and others) v.
Second Roman Civil War 49–44 BCE Julius Caesar v. Pompey the Great Axis (German, Japanese, Italians to 1943,
Byzantine–Seljuk Wars 33–31 BCE Octavian (Augustus) v. Mark Antony Iran–Iraq War 1980–88 and others)
Gulf Wars 1990–91,
The Crusades 1064–71, Byzantines v. Seljuk Turks Afghanistan War 2003 Communists v. Nationalists (Kuomintang)
1110–17, 2001–
Mongol Conquests 1158–76 North Koreans and Chinese v. South
Koreans and UN force (including
Hundred Years’ War 1095–1272 Various Western European Christian Americans, Australians, and British)
Onin War armies v. Muslim states of the eastern
The Italian Wars Mediterranean and Egypt French v. Vietnamese nationalists
(Viet Minh)
Wars of Japanese Unification 1206–1405 Mongols v. various European and Asian
peoples Israel v. Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon,
Eighty Years’ War Iraq, and Palestinians
(The Dutch Revolt) 1337–1453 English (and Burgundians) v. French
War of the Three Kingdoms South Vietnamese, Americans, and
(The English Civil War) 1467–77 Yamana clan v. Hosokawa clan Australians v. North Vietnamese
The Thirty Years’ War (Viet Cong)
1494–95, 1521–25, Italian city-states and Holy Roman
The Great Northern War 1526–30, 1535–38, Empire v. French and Italian allies Iraq v. Iran
1542–44
The Seven Years’ War Iraq v. international coalition led by US
American Revolutionary War US-led coalition v. Taliban
French Revolutionary Wars 1560–1603 Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi,
Tokugawa Ieyasu and allies v.
The Napoleonic Wars opposing daimyo (warlord) clans EXPLORERS
Crimean War 1568–1648 Dutch v. Philip II of Spain and allies in The “discoveries” of many early explorers were actually of lands that had
The Indian Mutiny southern Netherlands thriving indigenous societies, which often led to disastrous results. Yet we
American Civil War can still admire the imagination and tenacity of those who risked their lives
Franco–Prussian War 1642–51 Charles I and Royalists v. journeying into territory completely unknown to them.
Parliamentarians
1618–48 Imperial Catholic alliance v. mainly
Protestant powers plus France
1700–21 Sweden v. Denmark, Saxony, Poland– NOTABLE EXPLORERS
Lithuania, Russia
1756–63 Britain and Prussia v. France, Austria, NAME LIVED ORIGIN EXPEDITIONS/DISCOVERIES
Russia, Saxony, Sweden Hanno Active 5th Carthage Sailed down the west coast of Africa
century BCE (c. 470 BCE)
1775–83 Britain v. American colonists (and French Erik the Red Norway
allies) Leif Eriksson c. 950–1002 Norway Explored the coast of Greenland (985)
1792–1802 France v. varying coalitions including Marco Polo Active 11th Italy Discovered Vinland, part of North
Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia century America (c. 1000)
1254–1324 Traveled extensively in China and along
the Silk Road (1275–92)
1803–15 France v. varying coalitions including Ibn Battuta c. 1304–68 Morocco
Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia Explored the Sahara, Arabia, India,
Central Asia, China, and Southeast Asia
1853–56 Russia v. Ottoman Turkey, Britain, France Dinís Diaz Active mid-15th Portugal
Bartolomeu Dias century Portugal Discovered the Cape Verde islands off the
1857–58 British v. native Indian forces west coast of Africa (1445)
c. 1450–1500
Rounded Africa’s Cape of Good Hope
1861–65 The Union v. the Confederacy Vasco da Gama c. 1469–1524 Portugal (1488)
1870–71 France v. Prussia Sailed around Africa’s Cape of Good Hope
and reached India (1497–98)
480
EXPLORERS DIRECTORY
NAME LIVED ORIGIN EXPEDITIONS/DISCOVERIES NAME LIVED ORIGIN EXPEDITIONS/DISCOVERIES
1451–1506 Italy Discovered the Americas, landing in the Matthew Flinders 1774–1814 Britain Circumnavigated Australia (1801–03)
Christopher Bahamas (1492); discovered the mainland Meriwether Lewis 1774–1809 US Led the first transcontinental expedition
Columbus Italy of South America (1498) across the US (1804–05)
Portugal Discovered mainland North America US Co-leader of expedition with Lewis (above)
John Cabot c. 1450–99 Italy (1497) William Clark 1770–1838 Estonia Early explorer of the Antarctic (1819–21)
Portugal Discovered Brazil (1500) 1778–1852
Pedro Alvarez c. 1467–1520 Spain Fabian von 1793–1826 Britain First European to reach Timbuktu, in Mali
Cabral 1454–1512 Spain Explored the coastline of South Bellingshausen 1790–1855 Britain (1826)
1453–1515 Spain America (1501) 1800–62 US
Amerigo 1475–1519 Portugal Reached India via Zanzibar (1503–04) Alexander Made an early attempt to reach the North
Vespucci c. 1460–1521 Spain Gordon Laing Britain Pole overland (1827)
1485–1547 France First European to navigate the South Sea Britain
Afonso de Spain (Pacific Ocean), from Panama (1513) William Edward Britain Made an extensive exploration of the
Albuquerque Discovered Florida (1513) Parry Ireland Antarctic, discovering the Ross Sea and
Britain Ross Ice Shelf (1841)
Vasco Núñez de Led the conquest of the Aztec Empire in James Clark Ross
Balboa Mexico (1518–22) Searched for the Northwest Passage;
Explored the Philippines; partially John Franklin 1786–1847 never returned from his expedition (1847)
Juan Ponce de circumnavigated the globe (1520–21)
Leon Led the conquest of the Inca Empire Richard Francis 1821–90 Traveled in Arabia and reached Medina
in Peru (1530–33) Burton 1813–73 and Mecca (1853)
Hernán Cortes Explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence and
St. Lawrence River (1535–36) David Livingstone Discovered the Victoria Falls on the
Ferdinand c. 1480–1521 Reached the Grand Canyon in 1540 Zambezi River (1855)
Magellan 1475–1541 Robert O’Hara 1820–61
Burke Led an ill-fated expedition to explore the
Francisco Pizarro 1841–1904 Australian interior (1860–61)
Henry Morton
Jacques Cartier 1491–1557 Stanley 1861–1930 Undertook voyages down the Congo (1874)
1865–1962
Francisco 1510–54 Fridtjof Nansen Norway Crossed Greenland (1888)
Vásquez de Sweden
Coronado Active 1540s Sven Hedin Sweden Explored Central Asia and discovered lost
c. 1535–94 Sweden cities in the Taklamakan desert (1893–97)
García López de Spain Voyaged to Russia via the North Cape Britain
Cárdenas (1553–56) Hungary Attempted to balloon over the Arctic;
Salomon Andrée 1854–97 US disappeared during the flight (1897)
Martin Frobisher Norway
England Reached the Frobisher Strait (Canada) Britain Spent the winter in Antarctica (1901–03)
while searching for the Northwest Britain
Passage (1576) Otto Nordenskjöld 1869–1928 Led an expedition that reached Lhasa
1863–1942 US in Tibet (1903–04)
Francis Drake c. 1540–96 England Circumnavigated the globe (1580) Francis Britain
John Davis c. 1550–1605 Younghusband 1862–1943 Britain Explored Central Asia and located an
England Explored Greenland, discovered the Davis France ancient complex at Dunhuang (1906–08)
Strait (1585) while searching for the Aurel Stein Norway
Northwest Passage Claimed to have reached North Pole (1909)
Robert Peary 1856–1920 New Zealand
Willem Barents 1550–97 Netherlands Searched for the Northeast Passage Roald Amundsen 1872–1928 USSR First man to reach the South Pole (1911)
(1594–97) Robert Falcon 1868–1912 US
Scott Lost out to Roald Amundsen in the race to
Walter Raleigh 1552–1618 England Undertook numerous voyages to America; Ernest Shackleton 1874–1922 USSR reach the South Pole (1911–12)
attempted, unsuccessfully, to found a
colony in Virginia (1584) USSR Led an expedition to cross Antarctica,
USSR but became stranded for four months
Cornelis de 1565–99 Netherlands Led first Dutch expedition to the East on Elephant Island (1914)
Houtman Indies; sailed the south coast of Java
(1598) Completed the first overflight of the North
Richard Byrd 1888–1957 Pole (1926)
Samuel de 1567–1635 France Explored the St. Lawrence River (1603); Completed the first land crossing of the
Champlain founded Quebec (1608) Antarctic continent (1958)
c. 1565–1611 Vivian Fuchs 1908–99
Henry Hudson 1584–1622 Intrepid traveler who twice crossed the
England Discovered Hudson Bay (Canada) (1610) Empty Quarter of Arabia
William Baffin
England Explored Baffin Bay, part of the Northwest Wilfred Thesiger 1910–2003 Marine ecologist who dedicated his life to
Passage (1616) deep-water oceanic exploration
Abel Tasman 1603–c.1659 Netherlands Reached New Zealand and Tasmania Jacques-Yves 1910–97 Sought to prove theories of prehistoric
(1642) Cousteau 1914–2002 migration by sea with long voyages using
rafts built from natural materials
William Dampier 1651–1715 England Crossed the Pacific Ocean (1683) Thor Heyerdahl
Vitus Bering 1681–1741 Completed the first ascent of Mount
James Bruce 1730–94 Denmark Explored Siberia (1733–41) Everest in the Himalayas (1953)
Britain Explored the Blue Nile; claimed to have Edmund Hillary 1919–2008 Vostok 1 (April 12, 1961); first man in
found the source of the Nile (1768–74) space, and first to orbit the Earth
James Cook 1728–79 Britain Mapped the New Zealand and Australian Yuri Gagarin 1934–68 Freedom 7 (May 5, 1961); first American
coasts (1769); made first Australian in space, and later fifth man to walk on
landfall, at Botany Bay, New South Alan Shepard 1923–98 Moon
Wales (1770)
Vostok 2 (August 6, 1961); youngest
Antoine Bruni 1739–93 France Surveyed the South Pacific (1791–93) person in space at 25 years old, and
d’Entrecasteaux second man to orbit the Earth
1771–1806 Gherman Titov 1935–2000
Mungo Park 1771–1803 Vostok 6 (June 16, 1963); first woman
Britain Explored the Niger River (1795–96) in space
George Bass Britain
Explored the coastline of southeastern Voskhod 2 (March 18, 1965); first tethered
Friedrich 1769–1859 Germany Australia (1795–98) Valentina b.1937 spacewalk
Alexander von Tereshkova b.1943
Humboldt Explored modern Venezuela and the
Orinoco River (1799–1800) Alexei Leonov
481
DIRECTORY EXPLORERS
NOTABLE EXPLORERS (CONTINUED) INVENTION/DISCOVERY DATE ORIGINATOR PLACE OF ORIGIN
Papyrus scroll c. 2600 BCE Imhotep (attributed) Ancient Egypt
Plumbing c. 2500 BCE
NAME LIVED ORIGIN EXPEDITIONS/DISCOVERIES Indus Valley Indus (Pakistan)
Neil Armstrong b. 1930 US Apollo 11 (July 20, 1969); first man to Law code c. 1755 BCE civilization
Czechoslovakia walk on the Moon Alphabet 14th CEntury BCE
Vladimír Remek b. 1948 King Hammurabi Babylonia
German Soyuz 28 (March 2, 1978); first person Magnetism c. 1000 BCE
Democratic in space from a country other than the Semitic people (slaves Ancient Egypt
Republic US or USSR Coinage c. 600 BCE of the Egyptians)
France World map 6th CEntury BCE
Sigmund Jähn b. 1937 Germany Soyuz 31 (August 26, 1978); first Planetary models c. 360 BCE Thales of Miletus Ancient Greece
India German in space Rotation of the Earth c. 350 BCE (attributed)
Saudi Arabia Steel production c. 200 BCE
Japan Soyuz T-11 (June 24, 1982); first French Compound pulley c. 200 BCE Lydian people Ancient Turkey
Russia person in space Encyclopaedia 77
Jean-Loup b. 1938 US Paper c. 105 Babylonians Babylonia
Chrétien b. 1941 STS-9 28 (November 1983); first ESA Compass 250
US astronaut, second German in space Concept of zero/decimal c. 590–650 Eudoxus of Cnidus Ancient Greece
Ulf Merbold China system
Russia Soyuz T-11 (April 3, 1984); first Indian Astrolabe
in space University Heraclides Ponticus Ancient Greece
Star chart
Rakesh Sharma b. 1949 STS-56 (June 17, 1985); first Arab (and Pendulum Han dynasty India/China
first Muslim) in space Magnifying glass
Moveable type Archimedes Ancient Greece
STS-47 (September 12, 1992); first Mechanical clock
Sultan Salman al b. 1956 Japanese person in space Algebra Pliny the Elder Roman Empire
Saud b. 1948 The scientific method
Soyuz TM-18 (January 8, 1998); longest Printing press Cai Lun Ancient China
Mamoru Mori space flight at 437 days Terrestrial globe
Sun-centred Universe
STS-95 (October 29, 1998); oldest Compound microscope Chinese peoples Ancient China
person in space at 77 years old—
Valeri Polyakov b. 1942 previously flew on Friendship 7 in 1962 Laws of planetary motion Brahmagupta India
Newspaper
John Glenn b. 1921 Soyuz TM 32 (April 28, 2001); first Refracting telescope c. 800 Muhammad al-Fazari Arabia
“space tourist” Mechanical calculator 859
Barometer c. 1000–50 Fatimah al-Fihri Morocco
Shenzhou 5 (October 15, 2003); first Atmospheric pressure c. 000
Dennis Tito b. 1940 Chinese person in space Microscopic life c. 1021 Abu Rayhan Biruni Persia
c. 1045
Soyuz TMA-6 (October 11, 2005); Laws of motion 1088 Ibn Yunus Egypt
reached most time spent in space Seed drill 1202
Yang Liwei b. 1965 (803 days 9 hours 39 minutes) Steam piston engine c. 1220–35 Ibn al-Haytham Persia
Marine chronometer c. 1445
Lightning rod c. 1490 Bi Sheng China
Watt steam engine 1503–43
Sergei Krikalev b. 1958 Oxygen c. 1595 Su Song China
Hot air balloon
Threshing machine 1609–19 Fibonacci Italy
Battery 1609
Bicycle 1609 Robert Grosseteste England
Permanent photography 1642
1643 Johannes Gutenburg Germany
Braille alphabet 1647–48
INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES Electric motor 1673 Martin Behaim Bohemia
The modern world is very different from the world of our ancestors. Over 1687 Copernicus Italy
the course of human existence, basic human needs—from the need to 1701
survive to the urge to obtain knowledge—have produced tens of thousands 1712 Hans Lippershey, Netherlands
of inventions and discoveries. These have transformed both the way we 1735 Zacharias Janssen
function and the way we think, and have made us distinct from the rest 1752
of the animal kingdom. 1776 Johannes Kepler Germany
1777
1783 Johann Carolus Germany
1786
1800 Galileo Galilei Italy
1818
c.1820 Wilhelm Schickard Germany
1821 Evangelista Torricelli Italy
1821
NOTABLE INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES Blaise Pascal France
INVENTION/DISCOVERY DATE ORIGINATOR PLACE OF ORIGIN Antoni van Netherlands
Stone tools c. 2.75 MYA Early humans Africa Leeuwenhoewk
Control of fire c. 400,000 YA Early humans Africa
Boat c. 50,000 YA Early migrants Australasia Sir Isaac Newton England
Mining c. 40,000 YA Paleolithic humans Europe
Permanent shelters c. 28,000 YA Paleolithic humans Eastern Europe Jethro Tull England
Pottery vessels c. 14,000 BCE Jomon people Ancient Japan
Farming c. 10,000 BCE West Asian Mesopotamia Thomas Newcomen Britain
peoples
Irrigation c. 5000 BCE West Asian Mesopotamia John Harrison Britain
peoples
Horse domestication c. 4500 BCE Andronovo culture Europe/Asia Benjamin Franklin US
Plough c. 4000 BCE Sumerian people Mesopotamia
Wheeled transport c. 3500 BCE Sumerian people Sumer James Watt Britain
Silk weaving c. 3500 BCE Chinese peoples Ancient China
Writing c. 3300 BCE Sumerian people Sumer/Egypt Antoine Lavoisier France
Calendar c. 3000 BCE Babylonians Babylonia
Montgolfier brothers France
Andrew Meikle Britain
Alessandro Volta Italy
Karl Drais Germany
Joseph Nicéphore France
Niépce
Louis Braille France
Michael Faraday Britain
482
PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION DIRECTORY
INVENTION/DISCOVERY DATE ORIGINATOR PLACE OF ORIGIN INVENTION/DISCOVERY DATE ORIGINATOR PLACE OF ORIGIN
Programmable computer 1822 Charles Babbage Britain Communications satellite 1958 US
Electromagnet 1823 William Sturgeon Britain Kenneth Masterman-
Internal combustion engine 1826 Samuel Morey US LASER 1960 Smith
Water turbine 1827 Claude Burdin, France Plate tectonics 1967
Benoît Fourneyron Microprocessor 1969 Theodore H. Maiman US
George Stephenson Britain Email 1971
Michael Faraday Britain Genetic modification 1973 Dan McKenzie Britain
Jacob Perkins US/Britain
Charles Goodyear US Personal computer 1973 Intel US
Eduard Simon Germany Cellphone 1973
Steam locomotive 1829 Charles Wheatstone Britain Ray Tomlinson US
Electrical generator 1831 Charles Darwin Britain Compact disc 1980
Refrigerator 1834 Louis Pasteur, France Stanley Norman US
Vulcanization of rubber 1837 Claude Bernard World Wide Web 1990
Polystyrene 1839 Gregor Mendel Austria Global Positioning System 1995 Cohen, Herbert Boyer
Undersea telegraph cable 1858 Alfred Nobel Sweden
Theory of evolution 1859 Dmitri Mendeleev Russia Genetic cloning 1996 Xerox PARC US
Pasteurization 1862 Alexander Graham Britain
Bell Portable media player 2001 Martin Cooper US
Thomas Edison US (Motorola)
Joseph Wilson Swan Britain
Karl Benz Germany Philips Electronic/ Netherlands/
Gottlieb Daimler Germany Sony Corporation Japan
Nikolai Tesla Austria-Hungary
Guglielmo Marconi Italy Tim Berners-Lee Britain
Auguste & Louis France
Lumière US Department of US
Marie & Pierre Curie Poland/France Defense
Laws of heredity 1866 Max Planck Germany
Dynamite 1867 Ferdinand Graf von Germany Ian Wilmut, Keith Britain
Periodic table 1869 Zeppelin Campbell
Telephone 1876 Wright brothers US
Apple US
Phonograph 1877 PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION
Incandescent light bulb 1878
Automobile 1885 The earliest inquiries into the nature and meaning of life come from the
Petrol engine 1886 founders of the great Eastern religions. Since their time, Western philosophers
Wireless communication 1893 have journeyed to the outer limits of thought and understanding, posing
Radio telegraph 1895 questions that challenge our most fundamental beliefs.
Cinematography 1895
Originating from almost every corner of the globe, the world’s great faiths
Radium 1898 are as diverse as its cultures. Some have their origin in prehistoric times,
Quantum theory 1900 yet the 20th century saw the emergence of several new religions that have
Rigid dirigible airship 1900 attracted followers in their millions.
Airplane (controlled powered 1903 GREAT THINKERS
flight)
Conditioned reflexes 1904 Ivan Pavlov Russia NAME LIVED ORIGIN IDEAS/KEY WORK
Theory of relativity 1905 Albert Einstein Switzerland
Bakelite plastic 1909 Leo Baekeland Belgium Siddhartha c. 563–483 BCE India Founder of Buddhism as a path to
Stainless steel 1913 Harry Brearley Britain Gautama achieving nirvana (spiritual
Structure of the atom 1913 Niels Bohr Denmark (Buddha) enlightenment) and thus release from
Television 1925 John Logie Baird Britain the earthly cycle of reincarnation.
Law of the expanding universe 1929 Edwin Hubble US Lao Tzu Active 6th China
Nylon 1935 Wallace Carothers US Confucius century BCE China Founder of Daoism, concerning an
RADAR 1935 Robert Watson-Watt Britain individual’s approach to life. Dao De Jing.
Jet engine 1937 Frank Whittle Britain 551–479 BCE
Ball-point pen 1938 László Bíró Hungary Founder of Confucianism: social
Nuclear reactor 1942 Enrico Fermi Italy /US Pythagoras c. 550– Greece harmony is promoted via social
Aqualung 1943 Jacques Cousteau, France c. 500 BCE conventions and practices.
Emile Gagnan
J. Robert US Socrates c. 469–399 BCE Greece Polymath interested in esoteric
Oppenheimer knowledge (that he made available to
Atomic bomb 1945 Melvin Calvin US Plato c. 427–347 BCE Greece only a few initiates) and the mystical
Vickers Britain power of numbers.
Photosynthesis 1946 Willard Libby US Aristotle 384–322 BCE Greece
Commercial jet airliner 1948 George Gamow, US One of the founders of Western
Radiocarbon dating 1949 Ralph Alpher, Robert philosophy, to whom this quote is
Big Bang theory 1949 Herman Britain/US attributed: “A life unexamined is not
Francis Crick, worth living.” No surviving writings.
Rosalind Franklin, Plotinus 205–270 Greece / Roman
James D. Watson Empire A pupil of Socrates; argued that
Structure of DNA 1953 everything we perceive is a mere
North Africa/ shadow of its abstract, ideal Form.
St. Augustine of 354–430 Roman Empire The Republic (c. 360 BCE).
Hippo
Wide-ranging philosopher with a
special interest in logical classification.
Metaphysics (350 BCE).
Founder of Neoplatonism, a
development of Plato’s original ideas.
Enneads (c. 253–70).
Transmitted Platonism through Christian
theology. The City of God (413–26).
483
DIRECTORY PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION
GREAT THINKERS (CONTINUED) MAJOR WORLD FAITHS
NAME LIVED ORIGIN IDEAS/KEY WORK NAME PL ACE / DATE ADHERENTS FOUNDER TEXT
1225–74 Italy 400 million Indigenous n/a
St. Thomas Greatest Medieval religious philosopher. Chinese Unknown,
Aquinas 1469–1527 Italy Summa Theologiae (1259–69). traditional prehistoric
religion
Niccolò Argued that the state should promote India, 900 million Indigenous The Vedas,
Machiavelli the common good, irrespective of Hinduism prehistoric Indigenous Upanishads, and
any moral evaluation of its acts. Sanskrit epics
Francis Bacon 1561–1626 England The Prince (1513). Shinto Japan, 3–4 million
Voodoo prehistoric Kojiki, Nihon-gi
Recognized that scientific knowledge Judaism
could procure power over nature. Zoroastrianism West Africa, 8 million Indigenous n/a
Novum Organum (1620). Daoism unknown
Thomas Hobbes 1588–1679 England Jainism
Father of English political philosophy, Buddhism
the study of how societies are Israel, 15 million Abraham; Moses Hebrew Bible;
organized. Leviathan (1651). Confucianism c. 1300 BCE Zoroaster Talmud
Christianity
René Descartes 1596–1650 France Overturned Medieval and Renaissance Islam Iran, 6th 200,000 The Avesta
Baruch Spinoza 1632–77 Netherlands scholasticism. Meditations (1641). century BCE
Sikhism
One of the most important 17th-century Church of Jesus China, 20 million Lao Tzu Dao De Jing
Rationalists, arguing that knowledge of Christ of c. 550 BCE
the world can be gained through reason. Latter-Day Saints
Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (1670). (Mormons) India, 4 million Mahavira Mahavira’s
Tenrikyo c. 550 BCE teachings
John Locke 1632–1704 England Proponent of empiricism, the view that
all knowledge of anything that actually
exists must be derived from experience. Northeast 375 million Siddhartha Pali canon,
Treatises of Government (1690). India, Gautama Mahayana
c. 520 BCE (Buddha) sutras
Mathematican and rationalist
Gottfried 1646–1716 Germany philosopher. Monadology (1714). China, 6th/5th 5–6 million Confucius The Four Books
Wilhelm Leibniz 1685–1753 England centuries BCE and Five Classics
Great empiricist who developed
George Berkeley an idealist metaphysical system, Israel, 2,000 million Jesus Christ The Bible (Old and
maintaining that reality ultimately c. 30 New Testaments)
consists of something nonmaterial.
Principles of Human Knowledge (1710). Saudi Arabia, 1,500 million n/a; Muhammad is The Qu’ran
revealed in Prophet (scripture); Hadith
Leading sceptic of metaphysics, the 7th century (tradition)
philosophy concerned with the ultimate
David Hume 1711–76 Britain nature of what exists. Treatise of Human Punjab, India, 23 million Guru Nanak Adi Granth (Guru
Nature (1734–37). c. 1500 Granth Sahib)
Proponent of the sovereignty of the New York, 13 million Joseph Smith The Bible; Book
citizen body. The Social Contract, or 1830 of Mormon
Jean-Jacques 1712–78 Switzerland Principles of Political Right (1762).
Rousseau Germany
Britain Sought to establish the authority of
Immanuel Kant 1724–1804 Germany reason by critical examination. Critique Japan, 1838 1 million Nakayama Miki Mikigaurata,
Germany of Pure Reason (1781). Ofudesaki,
Thomas Paine 1737–1809 Germany Baha’i Faith Tehran, Iran, 5–7 million Baha’u’llah Osashizu
Governments must respect the natural 1863 Up to 400,000 Mary Baker Eddy
Denmark rights of their citizens. The Rights of Church of Christ Writings of
G. W. F. Hegel 1770–1831 Man (1791–92). (Scientist) New York, Ngo Van Chieu Baha’u’llah
1818–83 USA, 1879 Haile Selassie I
Karl Marx 1788–1860 Most influential of the German Idealists. The Bible; Science
The Phenomenology of Spirit (1807). Cao Dai Vietnam, 1926 8 million and Health with
Arthur Key to the
Schopenhauer Radical social theorist and philosopher Rastafari Jamaica, 1 million Scriptures
of Communism. Das Kapital (1867). 1930s
Cao Dai Canon
Espoused transcendental idealism, the
belief that human experience of things Holy Piby
consists of how they appear to us. The
World as Will and Representation (1818). Family Federation South Korea, 3 million (official Sun Myung Moon Sun Myung Moon,
for World Peace 1954 figure) Gerald Gardner the Divine
A forerunner of Existentialism, and Unification Principle
Søren 1813–55 stressing the individual’s unique
Kierkegaard position as a self-determining agent. n/a
Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Wicca 1950s, but 1–3 million
Philosophical Fragments (1846). based on
ancient
Rejected religious and metaphysical beliefs
interpretations of the human condition
Friedrich 1844–1900 Germany in favor of the principle of the Falun Gong China, 1992 10 million Li Hongzhi Writings of master
Nietzsche “Superman.” Thus Spake Zarathustra Li, including Zhuan
(1883–85). Falun
Bertrand Russell 1872–1970 Britain Founder of analytic philosophy,
emphasizing clarity and argument.
Ludwig 1889–1951 Austria Principia Mathematica (1910–13).
Wittgenstein 1905–80 France
Most prominent analytical philosopher.
Jean-Paul Sartre Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921).
Leader of the Existentialist movement,
which focused on the totality of human
freedom. Being and Nothingness (1943).
484
CULTURE AND LEARNING DIRECTORY
CULTURE AND LEARNING NAME LIVED ORIGIN GENRE NOTABLE WORKS
1805–75 Denmark Novelist Fairy Tales (1835–37)
From the poets, sculptors, and painters of the ancient world to the Hans Christian
commentators and conceptual artists of the 21st century, the work of writers Andersen
and artists provides an invaluable insight into the thoughts and aspirations
of these the great civilizations of the past. In Europe, from the 11th century, Henry Longfellow 1807–82 US Poet Hiawatha (1855)
and in the succeeding centuries on other continents, the talents of many of Britain Novelist Great Expectations (1860–61)
these people were nurtured in the universities that sprang up as conduits Charles Dickens 1812–70 Russia Novelist/ Fathers and Sons (1862)
for the transmission of learning. playwright
Ivan Turgenev 1818–83 Britain Novelist The Mill on the Floss (1860)
Russia Novelist Crime and Punishment
George Eliot 1819–80 (1866)
US Poet Leaves of Grass (1855–89)
Fyodor 1821–81 France Novelist Madame Bovary (1857)
Dostoyevsky Norway Playwright Peer Gynt (1867)
Russia Novelist War and Peace (1865–69)
Walt Whitman 1819–92 US Novelist Huckleberry Finn (1885)
Britain Novelist Tess of the d’Urbervilles
POETS, PLAYRIGHTS, AND NOVELISTS Gustave Flaubert 1821–80 (1891)
US Novelist The Bostonians (1886)
Literature gives us a special insight into the past. Though the plots of novels and plays may be Henrik Ibsen 1828–1906 Sweden Playwright The Dance of Death (1901)
invented, the characters speak and behave in ways that reflect the preoccupations, social mores,
and artistic conventions of their time, and in many works, a fictional chain of events plays out Leo Tolstoy 1828–1910
against a rich background of verifiable historical happenings.
Mark Twain 1835–1910
NAME LIVED ORIGIN GENRE NOTABLE WORKS Thomas Hardy 1840–1928
Homer 8th century BCE Poet Odyssey (8th century BCE)
Ancient
Greece Seven Against Thebes Henry James 1843–1916
(c.467 BCE) 1849–1912
Aeschylus c. 525–456 BCE Ancient Playwright Antigone (c.442 BCE) August
Greece Strindberg 1856–1950
Medea (c.431 BCE)
Sophocles c. 496–406 BCE Ancient Playwright George Bernard 1857–1924 Ireland Playwright Man and Superman (1903)
Greece The Frogs (c.405 BCE) Shaw 1860–1904
1861–1941
Euripides c. 484–406 BCE Ancient Playwright Ramayana (c.400–200 BCE) Joseph Conrad Poland Novelist Heart of Darkness (1902)
Greece Aeneid (c.29–19 BCE) 1862–1937 Russia Playwright The Cherry Orchard (1904)
Metamorphoses (8 CE) Anton Chekhov 1865–1939 India Poet/ Gitanjali, Song Offerings
Aristophanes c. 448–388 BCE Ancient Playwright The Tale of Genji (c.1001–10) playwright (1912)
Greece Divine Comedy (c.1321) Rabindranath 1871–1922 US Novelist The Age of Innocence (1920)
Canzoniere (1327–68) Tagore Ireland Poet The Wild Swans at Coole
Valmiki c. 400–200 BCE Ancient India Poet The Canterbury Tales (1917)
(1387–1400) Edith Wharton Remembrance of Things
Virgil 70–19 BCE Roman Empire Poet Don Quixote (1605) Past (1912–27)
William Butler Mountain Interval (1916)
Ovid 43 BCE–c.17 CE Roman Empire Poet Romeo and Juliet Yeats Death in Venice (1913)
(c.1591–95) The Glass Bead Game (1945)
Murasaki Shikibu c. 978–1014 Japan Novelist Paradise Lost (1667) Marcel Proust France Novelist Ulysses (1922)
Le Misanthrope (1666) Mrs Dalloway (1925)
Dante Alighieri 1265–1321 Italy Poet Phèdre (1677) The Metamorphosis (1916)
Gulliver’s Travels (1726) Sons and Lovers (1913)
Petrarch 1304–74 Italy Poet Robert Frost 1874–1963 US Poet
Dream of the Red Chamber Thomas Mann 1875–1955 The Cantos (1915–62)
Geoffrey 1343–1400 England Poet (1791) Hermann Hesse 1877–1962 Gemany Novelist The Waste Land (1922)
Chaucer Faust (1808) James Joyce 1882–1941
Virginia Woolf 1882–1941 Germany Novelist R.U.R. (1920)
The Prelude (1799) Franz Kafka 1883–1924 Doctor Zhivago (1957)
Miguel de 1547–1616 Spain Novelist/ D.H. Lawrence 1885–1930 Ireland Novelist The Master and Margarita
Cervantes poet/ Pride and Prejudice (1813) (1928)
England playwright Endymion (1818) Britain Novelist The Sound and the Fury
Eugene Onegin (1828) (1929)
William 1564–1616 England Playwright/ Czech Republic Novelist Mother Courage (1938)
Shakespeare France poet La Comédie Humaine The House of Bernarda
John Milton 1608–74 France (1827–47) Britain Novelist/ Alba (1936)
Molière 1622–73 Ireland Poet The Three Musketeers poet The Old Man and the Sea
Jean Racine 1639–99 (1844) (1952)
Jonathan Swift 1667–1745 China Playwright Les Misérables (1862) Ezra Pound 1885–1972 US Poet Labyrinths (1953)
The Conduct of Life (1860) T.S. Eliot 1888–1965
Playwright US/Britain Poet/
playwright
Novelist/
essayist Karel Capek 1890–1938 Czech Republic Playwright
Xueqin Cao c. 1715–63 Novelist Boris Pasternak 1890–1960 Russia Novelist
Mikhail Bulgakov 1891–1940 Russia Novelist
Johann Wolfgang 1749–1832 Germany Novelist/ William Faulkner 1897–1962 US Novelist
von Goethe Britain playwright
William 1770–1850 Poet
Wordsworth
Bertolt Brecht 1898–1956 Germany Playwright
Spain Playwright
Jane Austen 1775–1817 Britain Novelist Federico García 1898–1936
Britain Poet Lorca
John Keats 1795–1821 Russia Poet/
novelist
Alexander 1799–1837 France Novelist Ernest 1899–1961 US Novelist
Pushkin Hemingway
Honoré de 1799–1850 Jorge Luis 1899–1986 Argentina Novelist
Balzac Borges
Alexandre 1802–70 France Novelist Vladimir Nabokov 1899–1977 Russia/US Novelist Lolita (1958)
Dumas US Novelist The Grapes of Wrath (1939)
John Steinbeck 1902–68 Britain Novelist Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949)
Ireland Playwright/ Waiting for Godot (1954)
Victor Hugo 1802–85 France Novelist George Orwell 1903–50 novelist
US
Ralph Waldo 1803–82 Essayist/ Samuel Beckett 1906–89
Emerson poet
485
DIRECTORY CULTURE AND LEARNING
POETS, PLAYRIGHTS, AND NOVELISTS (CONTINUED) NAME LIVED ORIGIN NOTABLE WORKS
Li Gonglin 1049–1106 China Pasturing Horses
NAME LIVED ORIGIN GENRE NOTABLE WORKS Wang Shen Late 12th China Serried Hills over a Misty River
W. H. Auden 1907–73 Britain Poet The Sea and the Mirror century
(1944) Li Di c. 1100–c.97 China Shrike on a Winter Tree
Naguib Mahfouz 1911–2006 Egypt Novelist The Cairo Trilogy (1956–57) Ma Yuan c. 1190–1224 China Bare Willows and Distant Mountains
Albert Camus 1913–60 France Novelist The Plague (1947) Lian Kai 13th century China The Sixth Ch’an Patriarch Chopping
Saul Bellow 1915–2005 Canada Novelist Humboldt’s Gift (1975) Bamboo
Arthur Miller 1915–2005 US Playwright Death of a Salesman (1946) Qian Zuan c. 1235–1307 China Dwelling in the Floating Jade Mountains
Alexander 1918–2008 Russia Novelist One Day in the Life of Ivan Cimabue c. 1250–1302 Italy Madonna Enthroned
Solzhenitsyn Denisovich (1962) Zhao Mengfu 1254–1322 China Autumn Colours on the Qiao and Hua
Iris Murdoch 1919–99 Britain Novelist The Sea, The Sea (1978) Mountains
Yukio Mishima 1925–70 Japan Novelist The Sea of Fertility (1965–70) Nicola Pisano c. 1258–84 Italy Pulpit of the Baptistry of Pisa Cathedral
Dario Fo 1926– Italy Playwright Accidental Death of an Italy Life of St Francis
Anarchist (1970) Giotto di c. 1267–1337
One Hundred Years of Bondone China Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains
Solitude (1967)
Gabriel Garcia 1928– Colombia Novelist The Unbearable Lightness Huang 1269–1354 China Stalks of Bamboo by a Rock
Marquez 1929– of Being (1984) Gongwang China Six Gentlemen
The Birthday Party (1958) China Dwelling in the Qinghai Mountains
Milan Kundera Czech Republic Novelist Beloved (1987) Wu Zhen 1280–1354 Japan Portrait of Muso Soseki
A House for Mr. Biswas Japan Hyonen-zu
Harold Pinter 1930–2008 Britain Playwright (1971) Ni Zan 1301–74
Toni Morrison 1931– US Novelist Portnoy’s Complaint (1972) Italy David
V. S. Naipaul 1932- Trinidad Novelist A Dance of the Forests Wang Meng 1308–74
(1960) Italy Annunciation
Door into the Dark (1969) Muto Shi 14th century Belgium Wedding Portrait
The Handmaid’s Tale (1985) Italy The Battle of San Romano
Taiku Josetzu Active Flemish Deposition
Oscar and Lucinda (1988) 1405–23
Philip Roth 1933– US Novelist Italy Tarquinia Madonna
Wole Soyinka 1934– Nigeria Donato de 1386–1466 Italy Nativity
Playwright/ Niccolo
Ireland poet (Donatello) Japan Autumn Landscape
Canada China Lofty Mount
Seamus Heaney 1939– Poet Fra Angelico 1387–1455 Italy Agony in the Garden
Margaret Atwood 1939– Australia Netherlands Mystic Marriage of St Catherine
Novelist/ Jan van Eyck c. 1395–1441 Italy The Triumph of Caesar
poet Italy Mystic Nativity
Peter Carey 1943– Paolo Uccello 1397–1475 Netherlands Christ Crowned with Thorns
Novelist
Italy Mona Lisa
Rogier van der c. 1400–64 China Egret, Eagle, and Falling Lotus Flowers
Weyden Germany Isenheim Altarpiece
PAINTERS AND SCULPTORS Fra Filippo Lippi c. 1406–69 China The Peach Blossom Spring
Germany The Four Apostles
All of the great civilizations, from Egypt to Greece and Rome, from ancient China to India and Piero della c. 1415–92 Italy David
Medieval Europe, have produced works of art of great power. It is only later, around the 9th century CE, Francesca
that we begin to know the names of some of these artists. In almost all societies, religious scenes Germany Rest on the Flight into Egypt
were an important part of the output, as well as portraits that flattered the rulers and the Sesshu Toyo 1420–1506
aristocracy. Landscapes and rural scenes have also delighted artistic patrons through the ages. In Belgium Adoration of the Magi
the modern era, artists, free from patronage, have pursued their own, often shocking, agendas. Shen Zhou 1427–1509 Japan Landscape with Waterfall and Crane
Italy Sistine Madonna
Giovanni Bellini c. 1430–1516
Italy The Tribute Money
NAME LIVED ORIGIN NOTABLE WORKS Hans Memling c. 1430–1494
Exekias c. 550–525 BCE Greece Achilles and Ajax Playing in a Game Germany The Ambassadors
Phidias Frieze of the Parthenon Andrea Mantegna c. 1431–1506
Praxiteles Cnidian Aphrodite
Gu Kaizhi c. 480–420 BCE Greece Admonitions of the Instructress to the Sandro Botticelli 1445–1510
Court Ladies
Active c. 350 BCE Greece Imperial Sedan Chair Hieronymus c. 1450–1516
Flying Demon Bosch
Shining Night of Light
c. 345–406 China Ten Views from a Thatched Lodge Leonardo da Vinci 1452–1519
Yan Liben c. 600–73 China Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk Lu Ji Active c. 1500
Wu Daozi c. 710–c. 760 China The Arhat Pindola
Han Gan c. 720–c. 780 China Sketches of Birds and Insects Mathias c. 1460–1528
Lu Hong Active early China A Solitary Temple amid Clearing Peaks Grünewald
8th century Pheasant and Small Birds by a Jujube
Zhang Xuan Active 714–42 China Shrub Wen Zhengming 1470–1559
Guanxiu 832–912 China Summer Mountains
Huang Quan 903–65 China Distant Mountain Forests Albrecht Dürer 1471–1528
Li Cheng 919–67 China
Huang Jucai 933–c. 93 China Peace Reigns over the River Michelangelo 1475–1564
Buonarotti
Early Spring
Lucas Cranach 1472–1553
(the Elder)
Jan Gossaert c. 1478–1533
Kano Montonobu 1476–1559
Raffaello Sanzio 1483–1520
da Urbino
Dong Yuan d. 962 China (Raphael)
Juran China
Active Tiziano Vecelli c. 1487–1576
Zhang Zeduan c. 960–85 China (Titian)
Guo Xi Mid–11th China Hans Holbein c. 1497–1543
century (the Younger)
c. 1020–90
486
CULTURE AND LEARNING DIRECTORY
NAME LIVED ORIGIN NOTABLE WORKS NAME LIVED ORIGIN NOTABLE WORKS
c. 1487–1576 Italy Last Supper 1775–1851 Britain Juliet and her Nurse
Jacobo Robusti Joseph Mallord
Tintoretto Japan Landscape and Boat in Stormy Weather William Turner
Flemish The Peasant Dance
Sukei Sesson c. 1504–1589 John Constable 1776–1837 Britain The Haywain
Japan Peonies France Odalisque
Pieter Bruegel c. 1525–69 Belgium Adoration of the Magi Jean-August- 1780–1867
(the Elder)
Japan Pine Trees Dominique Ingres
Kaiho Yushio 1533–1615 Spain The Burial of Count Orgaz John James 1785–1851 US Birds of America
Japan Crane and Pine Tree Audubon
Pieter Paul 1577–1640 China Autumn Mountains
Rubens Japan Flowers of the Four Seasons
Japan Plum Tree and Pheasant Theodore 1791–1824 France The Raft of the Medusa
Italy Deposition Gericault
Hasegawa 1539–1610
Tohaku
Ichiyu-sai (Ando) 1797–1858 Japan Landscape at Shono
Hiroshige
El Greco 1541–1614
Kano Eitoku 1543–1590 Eugène Delacroix 1798–1863 France Liberty Leading the People
Britain Monarch of the Glen
Dong Qichang 1555–1636 Edwin Landseer 1802–73 France Burial at Ornans
France Déjeuner sur l’Herbe
Hon-Ami Koetsu 1558–1637 Gustave Courbet 1819–77 Britain Light of the World
Kano Sanraku 1559–1635 Edouard Manet 1823–83
Michelangelo 1573–1610 William Holman 1827–1910
Merisi da Hunt
Caravaggio
Dante Gabriel 1828–82 Great Britain Beata Beatrix
Rosetti
Tawaraya Sotatsu 1576–1643 Japan Deer and Calligraphy
Netherlands Laughing Cavalier
Frans Hals 1580–1666 Spain The Martyrdom of St Bartholomew John Everett 1829–96 Britain Order of Release
France Worship of the Golden Calf Millais
Italy The Ecstasy of St Teresa
José Ribera 1591–1652 Camille Pissarro 1830–1903 France The Harvest
US The Artist’s Mother
Nicolas Poussin 1593–1665 James Abbott 1834–1903
Gianlorenzo 1598–1680 McNeill Whistler
Bernini
Hilaire-Germain- 1834–1917 France La Danseuse au Bouquet
Edgar Degas
Diego Velasquez 1599–1660 Spain The Water Carrier
Belgium Charles I of England
Anthony van Dyck 1599–1641 France Embarkation of St Ursula Alfred Sisley 1839–99 Britain Flood at Port Marly
Netherlands The Night Watch France Bathers
Claude Lorrain 1600–82 Paul Cézanne 1839–1906 France The Kiss
France Waterlilies
Harmensz 1606–69 Auguste Rodin 1840–1917 France Luncheon of the Boating Party
Rembrandt van
Rijn Claude Monet 1840–1926
Hongren 1610–64 China Monumental Landscape Pierre-Auguste 1841–1919
Spain Virgin and Child Renoir
Bartolomé 1617–82 Paul Gauguin 1848–1903 France Ta Matete
Netherlands Road with Cypresses
Esteban Murillo US Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose
Jan Vermeer 1632–75 Netherlands Woman with a Water Jug Vincent van Gogh 1853–90
China The Kangxi Emperor’s Southern
Wang Hui 1632–1717 Inspection Tour John Singer 1856–1925
China Landscape Sargent
Japan White Plum Blossoms in the Spring
Tao-Chi 1641–c.1717 France The Pilgrimage to Cythera Georges Seurat 1859–91 France Sunday Afternoon on the Grande Jatte
Italy The Finding of Moses Britain Ennui
Ogata Korin 1658–1716 Walter Richard 1860–1942
Sickert
Antoine Watteau 1684–1721 Gustav Klimt 1862–1928 Austria Mosaic mural for the Palais Stoclet in
Brussels
Giovanni Battista 1696–1770 Edvard Munch 1863–1944 Norway
Tiepolo Henri de 1864–1901 France The Scream
Toulouse-
William Hogarth 1697–1764 England Rake’s Progress Lautrec 1865–1931 At the Moulin Rouge
Italy A Regatta on the Grand Canal
Giovanni Antonio 1697–1768 Akseli Gallen- 1866–1944
Canal (Canaletto) Kallela
1869–1954
Joshua Reynolds 1723–92 Great Britain The Three Graces Wassily 1872–1944 Finland Lake Keitele
Japan Kandinsky 1879–1940
Ikeno Taiga and 1723–76, The Ten Conveniences and the 1880–1959 Russia Improvisations with Colour
Yosa Buson 1716–83 Britain Ten Pleasures Henri Matisse 1880–1938
Thomas 1727–88 The Blue Boy Piet Mondrian 1881–1973
Gainsborough 1882–1963
Paul Klee 1882–1967 France Odalisque
Maruyama Okyo 1733–95 Japan Nature Studies 1884–1905 Netherlands Composition
Spain The Naked Maja Jacob Epstein 1884–1920 Switzerland Twittering Machine
Francisco de 1746–1828 Britain Memorial for Oscar Wilde
Goya Ernst Ludwig Germany Street Scene
Kirchner
Jacques-Louis 1748–1825 France The Rape of the Sabines
David Pablo Picasso
Utamaro 1753–1806 Japan Book of Insects Georges Braque Spain Guernica
Kitagawa France
Edward Hopper US Vase of Anemones
William Blake 1757–1827 Britain Divine Comedy Germany
Japan The Great Wave Max Beckmann Italy Nighthawks
Katsuhika 1760–1849
Hokusai Amedeo The Night
Modigliani Portrait of Madame Zborowski
Caspar David 1774–1840 Germany The Cross in the Mountains Green on Blue
Friedrich
487
DIRECTORY CULTURE AND LEARNING
PAINTERS AND SCULPTORS (CONTINUED) DISASTERS
NAME LIVED ORIGIN NOTABLE WORKS Few civilizations have been immune to the effects of natural disasters,
Diego Rivera 1886–1957 Mexico Creation which have sometimes killed hundreds of thousands, or even, in the case of
Austria View of the Thames plagues, many millions of people. Disasters such as the eruption of Pompeii,
Oskar Kokoschka 1886–1980 USA Cityscapes of New York the Antioch earthquake of 526 CE, and the Black Death caused huge losses
France Fountain of life, but modern societies are no less vulnerable, as evidenced by the
Georgia O’Keeffe 1887–1986 France Calvary loss of life in the 2004 Indian Ocean and 2011 Japanese tsunamis.
Italy Nostalgia of the Infinite
Marcel Duchamp 1887–1968 Britain Dead Sea
Austria The Artist’s Mother Sleeping
Marc Chagall 1887–1985 Italy Still Life
US The Rope Dancer Accompanies Herself
Giorgio de Chirico 1888–1978 with her Shadows
Germany The Elephant Celebes
Paul Nash 1889–1946 Germany Suicide EARTHQUAKES
Spain Harlequin’s Carnival
Egon Schiele 1890–1918 Britain Recumbent Figure PLACE DATE MAGNITUDE DEATHS DESCRIPTION
Belgium This is not a Pipe Sparta, Greece 464 BCE 7.2 c. 20,000
Giorgio Morandi 1890–1964 Switzerland Tall Figures Led to revolt of helots and
contributed to the outbreak
Man Ray 1890–1978 of the Peloponnesian War
Max Ernst 1891–1976 Rhodes, Greece 226 BCE Unknown Unknown Destroyed the Colossus of Rhodes
George Grosz 1893–1959
Joan Miró 1893–1983 Crete and 365 Widespread destruction in Crete
Henry Moore 1898–1986 Eastern 526 and North Africa
René Magritte 1898–1967 Mediterranean 551 9.0 Unknown
Alberto 1901–66
Giacometti Antioch (Turkey) 8.0 250,000 Partial destruction of the city
Mark Rothtko 1903–70
Salvador Dali 1904–89 Lebanese coast 7.5 30–50,000 Widespread destruction in Beirut,
Willem de 1904–97 Tyre, Tripoli, and other coastal
Kooning cities
Frida Kahlo 1907–54
Francis Bacon 1909–92 US Green on Blue Aleppo, Syria 1138 9.0 200–250,000 Partial destruction of city
Jackson Pollock 1912–56 Spain The Persistence of Memory 1201
Sidney Nolan 1917–92 US Woman Series Eastern 7.6 Unknown Caused famines in which more
Roy Lichtenstein 1923–97 Mediterranean 1556 than a million people died
Andy Warhol 1930–87
David Hockney b. 1937 Shaanxi, China 8.3 830,000 Most destructive earthquake in
Antony Gormley b. 1950
Ai Weiwei b. 1957 China’s history
Liu Xiadong b. 1963
Mexico The Frame Peru 1687 8.7 5,000 Severely damaged Lima,
Britain Three Studies at the Base of a Crucifixion
USA Autumn Rhythm destroyed port of Pisco
Australia Themes from the Career of Ned Kelly
US Whaam! Lisbon, Portugal 1755 8.7 and 80,000 Destroyed most of city
US Campbell’s Soupcans tsunami
Britain Mr and Mrs Clark and Percy
Britain Angel of the North Ecuador and Peru 1797 7.3 40,000 Widespread destruction in Quito
China Sunflower Seeds
China Three Gorges: Newly Displaced Population and Cuzco
Arica, Chile 1868 8.5 25,000 Destroyed a number of towns,
including Arica and Arequipa
San Francisco 1906 7.9 3,000 Widespread destruction in San
Francisco, partly caused by fire
Valparaiso, Chile 1906 8.2 4,000 Destruction of most of Valparaiso
Ningxia, China 1920
Kanto, Japan 1923 7.8 250,000 Total destruction in Haiyuan County
THE WORLD’S OLDEST UNIVERSITIES 7.9 125,000 Most deadly earthquake in
Japanese history
UNIVERSITY COUNTRY DATE OF FOUNDATION Ancash, Peru 1970 7.9 75,000 Worst natural disaster in Peruvian
Bologna Italy 1088 history
Oxford England c. 1167
Modena Italy 1175 Tangshan, China 1976 7.5 240,000– Largest 20th-century earthquake
Vicenza Italy 1204
Cambridge England 1209 255,000 by death toll
Salamanca Spain 1218
Padua Italy 1222 Armenia 1988 6.9 240,000 Destruction of city of Spitak (many
Naples Italy 1224
Siena Italy 1246 deaths caused by substandard
Lisbon Portugal 1290
Madrid Spain 1293 building design)
Lérida Spain 1297
La Sapienza Rome, Italy 1303 Western Turkey 1999 7.6 18,000 Partial destruction of city of Izmit;
Coimbra Portugal 1308
Perugia Italy 1308 many substandard buildings
Pisa Italy 1343
Charles Prague, Czech Republic 1347 collapsed
Perpignan France 1350
Pavia Italy 1361 Bam, Iran 2003 6.6 27,000 Ancient mud-brick city of Bam
Jagiellonian Poland 1364
Vienna Austria 1365 destroyed
Heidelberg Germany 1385
Universidad Michoacana de San Mexico 1540 Indian Ocean 2004 9.2 and 230,000 Widespread devastation along
tsunami Indian Ocean coastlines
Nicolás de Hidalgo Masachusetts, US 1636
Harvard Sierra Leone 1827 Kashmir, 2005 7.6 75,000 Widespread damage around
Fourah Bay College India 1857 Pakistan 2008
Calcutta Australia 1850 Muzaffarabad
Sydney Sichuan, China
8.0 70,000 Deadliest Chinese earthquake
since Tangshan (1976)
Haiti 2010 7.0 316,000 Widespread damage in Port-au-
Prince; worst death toll in western
hemisphere
Northeast Japan 2011 9.0 and c. 18,0000 Widespread damage around
tsunami Sendai; caused emergency at
Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant
488
DISASTERS DIRECTORY
VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS FAMINES
VOLCANO NAME DATE DESCRIPTION PLACE DATE DESCRIPTION
Vesuvius (southern Italy) 79 Destroyed cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum Central America c. 800–900 Drought and famine caused collapse of Classic
Oraefajökull (Iceland) 1362 “Glacier burst” devastated coastal communities China 875–884 Maya civilization
and covered northern Iceland in ash Japan 1229–32
Mount Etna (Sicily) 1669 Worst eruption in modern times, destroying a Northern Europe 1315–17 Famine sparked the Huang Zhao rebellion, which
dozen villages fatally undermined the Tang dynasty
Lanzarote (Canary Islands) 1730–36 Longest recorded eruption in the Canary Islands, India 1406–17
burying communities in the west Russia 1601–03 The Kangi famine, worst in Japanese history
Laki (Iceland) 1783 Produced largest flow of lava ever recorded India 1630–32
1815 Effects of volcanic ash aerosol caused the “year Prussia 1708–11 “The Great Famine” killed up to 10 percent of the
Tambora, Sumbawa, without a summer” and crop failures and Bengal, India 1769–73 population (partly through effects of disease on a
(Indonesia) famines in many countries Ireland 1845–49 weakened population)
Caused much of island of Krakatoa to sink, Iran 1870–71
Krakatoa (Indonesia) 1883 killing 35,000 people, The volcanic aerosol Ethiopia 1888–92 The Durga Devi famine in Maharashtra killed
produced beautiful sunsets worldwide for many thousands over a 12-year period
Montagne Pelée (Martinique) 1902 several months Ukraine 1932–33
Destroyed the town of Saint-Pierre. Worst famine in Russian history, killed up to
Mount St. Helens 1980 Destroyed 185 miles (300 km) of roads. China 1959–61 2 million – one third of the population
(Washington State) Ethiopia 1984–85
Mud flow destroyed town of Magdalena, killing Severe famine in the Deccan led to around
Nevada del Ruiz (Colombia) 1985 23,000 people. 2 million deaths
Expelled 10 times as much material as Mount
Pinatubo (Philippines) 1991 St. Helens, but mass evacuations meant only Famine killed 250,000 (around two-fifths of
200–300 people died. the population)
Eyjafjallajökull (Iceland) 2010 Volcanic ash cloud grounded aviation in much
of Europe Worst famine in Indian history killed 10 million
FLOODS DATE EPIDEMICS AND PLAGUES
48 DESCRIPTION Potato blight caused severe famine and death
COUNTRY 1099 Flooding of Thames River caused 10,000 deaths PLACE DATE of 1 million
England Severe winter storm caused floods that killed Greece 430–427 BCE
1218 100,000 and created the Goodwin Sands “The Great Persian Famine” killed 1.5 million and
England and Netherlands 1287 North Sea storm surge killed 100,000 Mediterranean world 165–180 led to many nomadic tribes becoming sedentary
coastline Severe storms caused floods, killing 50–80,000
1362 “The Great Ethiopian Famine”; pest killed 90
Netherlands and Germany Widespread coastal floods killed 100,000 percent of cattle; locust and caterpillar plagues
1606 ate most crops; one-third of population perished
Belgium, Netherlands, 1887 Tsunami in the Bristol Channel killed 3,000
Denmark Floods along the Yellow River broke dikes, The “Holodomor”; Soviet collectivization and
drowning 900,000 industrialization policies caused famine that
Denmark, Netherlands, Flooding of Yellow, Yangtze, and Huai rivers killed killed 4 million
northern Germany up to 3,000,000
Hurricane caused floods, killing 40,000 “The Great China Famine”, the worst in Chinese
Western England Heavy monsoon rains caused floods, history, killed 30 million
killing 29,000
China Failure of the Banqiao Dam, Henan Province, Failure of rains caused famine, killing up to
led to floods and deaths of 86,000; worst dam 1 million
Central China 1931 failure in history Mediterranean world 541–542
Floods submerged one-fifth of the country, DESCRIPTION
Guatemala 1949 killing 2,000 Worldwide 1348–50 Early description of plague symptoms during
Bangladesh 1974 River surges killed 35 and devastated several India 1817 epidemic at Athens
towns in Queensland India 1907
China 1975 The Antonine Plague killed up to 5 million,
India 1630–32 one-third of the population of the Roman Empire,
Pakistan 2010 severely weakening the military might of the
Australia 2010–11 Worldwide 1918–19 Roman army
Plague of Justinian killed 40 percent or more of
population
The Black Death killed around 30 million people
First recorded outbreak of cholera in Bengal
Outbreak of bubonic plague killed 1.5 million
Severe famine in the Deccan led to around
2 million deaths
Spanish influenza killed 50 million, the worst
recorded natural disaster
489
GLOSSARY
Terms defined elsewhere in the glossary Axis Catholic commune
are in italics. The alliance between Germany and Italy A term that originally meant inclusive A community of people who aim at
(and later Japan) before and during or all-embracing, so that the Catholic sharing everything in common.
abolitionism World War II; also these countries Church originally meant the whole of
Advocacy of the abolition of slavery. considered collectively (Axis forces the Christian Church. After various communism
or Axis domination). splits over the centuries, the Catholic (1) Any society based on the principles
absolutism Church is now the organization of mutual help, in which property is not
A theory of the state where a country’s bilateral of churches that owes its allegiance owned by individuals, but is held in
ruler or government is regarded as Involving two governments (or other to the pope in Rome, thus it is also common. (2) More specifically, political
possessing an absolute authority: that is, organizations), especially with reference called the Roman Catholic Church. movements or governments inspired by
an authority that is not dependent on the to treaties and agreements. Compare or claiming to act in the name of the
consent of the people being governed. multilateral. charter political and philosophical doctrines
A written grant of rights or similar of Karl Marx (see Marxist).
accession bloc legal document.
The point at which a monarch begins A group of countries that act together Congress
his or her reign. in matters of international relations. city-state In the US Constitution, the body forming
A self-governing, independent city. the legislative arm of the federal
agrarian bourgeois government (see federal system). It
Relating to land and its cultivation. The Originally a member of the French middle classical/Classical comprises two elected assemblies, the
term agrarianism relates to political classes, now often used disparagingly for Relating to the civilizations of ancient House of Representatives (or Lower
movements aimed at promoting the a supporter of the capitalist system (see Greece and Rome and their House) and the Senate (or Upper House).
interests of agriculture and rural life. capitalism), or simply for a person with achievements (the Classical Period)
conventional views. In Marxist theory, the or to later artistic and cultural conservative/Conservative
allies/Allied bourgeoisie are the class of capitalists. movements that emulated the values Various social and political meanings,
People or countries working together. of this period. The term classical can including: caution in accepting change;
In World War I and World War II, the buffer state also be applied to the high point of any respect for traditional values and
Allies or Allied forces were the countries A smaller country lying between two civilization or culture, and can be authority; support for free-market
fighting against Germany. more powerful rival countries. The used with other shades of meaning, capitalism and opposition to government
presence of a buffer state is considered such as “possessing timeless value.” intervention; membership of a particular
anarchy useful in decreasing tension between political party, such as the Conservative
In its original meaning, absence of the rival countries. client state Party in the United Kingdom.
government; also used for a condition of A country that is dependent on another
public disorder. Politically, anarchism is Byzantine Empire larger country for trade, protection, etc. consul
a movement or ideology that believes in The mainly Greek-speaking Christian One of the two highest officials in the
the abolition of government as an ideal Empire that was a continuation of the coalition Roman republic, who each held power
for society. eastern Roman Empire and lasted for A formal arrangement in which two for only one year.
around 1,000 years, until its conquest or more different groups agree to act
anticlericalism by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. together, such as when different Counter-Reformation
Opposition to the influence of churches political parties come together to The period of revival in the Catholic
and other religious organizations in Caliphate form a government. Church following the Protestant
society. In some (mainly Catholic) In Islamic (see Islam) culture this is a Reformation, involving both internal
countries such as France, Spain, and Italy political/religious institution in which Cold War reforms and active opposition to
it has been an important political force. a chosen individual, the caliph, is The period of hostility between the Protestantism.
regarded as a successor to the Prophet West and the communist countries
anti-Semitism Muhammad, and thus able to confer dominated by the former USSR. The coup
Antagonism and hostility toward Jewish political legitimacy on individual rulers Cold War lasted from shortly after Short for coup d’etat, the sudden illegal
people. across the Islamic world. Once powerful World War II until the collapse of seizing of power by a small group.
rulers themselves, caliphs later became communism in Eastern Europe in 1989.
apartheid mainly figureheads, although the Ottoman Crusades
The policy of racial segregation formerly rulers of Turkey continued to claim the collective Military expeditions organized by the
followed in the Republic of South Africa, title until the 20th century. Organized in common; taken together papacy in the Medieval period, initially
or policies elsewhere that resemble this. as a whole. with the goal of gaining control of the
Calvinism “Holy Land” (Palestine) from Islamic
armistice A strict form of Protestantism named colonialism powers (see Islam).
A truce or cessation of hostilities. after the 16th-century religious reformer The practice and policy of acquiring
John Calvin. Calvinist churches are foreign colonies, often with the czar
authoritarian usually Presbyterian in organization. implication that this involves cultural The title of the former emperors of
Term applied to leaders or governments domination and exploitation. Russia. A female czar, or a czar’s wife,
who exercise power with little or no capitalism is a czarina.
regard for democracy or other constraints. A way of organizing society that favors the commonwealth/Commonwealth
activity of capitalists: private individuals The term commonwealth originally Danegeld
autocracy or organizations who accumulate wealth meant “the common good.” With an A tax raised in Anglo-Saxon England to
A form of political rule where all power is (capital), especially in the form of the initial capital, Commonwealth refers pay off and defend against Danish invaders.
concentrated in one person (the autocrat). buildings and equipment that are either to the government of Britain It later became a general land tax.
Unlike the similar term dictator, the word necessary to produce goods and services. in the years following the execution
autocrat is often applied to a powerful These businesses generate employment, of Charles I, or to the (British) decimal system (army)
king or emperor. while also providing profits for the Commonwealth of Nations, the The principle of organization of Genghis
capitalists. association set up to maintain links Khan’s Mongol army, with a hierarchy
between countries of the former of military units that contained between
British Empire. The word also occurs 10 and 10,000 men.
in the full official names of several
countries and US states.
490
demagogue dominion/Dominions feudalism heresy
A politician whose power base relies on (1) The right to govern or control. (2) Any The elaborate social system that grew up Usually a minority belief or tendency
stirring up the emotions of the people of territory owing allegiance to a particular in Medieval Europe, where each nation within a given religion that is regarded
a country through charismatic and ruler or government. (3) A term formerly was conceived of as a “pyramid,” with a as unacceptable or even evil by other
emotional speeches, often in opposition used, especially the plural (Dominions), monarch at the top. Each level of society adherents to the religion. A heretic is a
to established authority. for the larger self-governing territories was entitled to claim rights from, but also person regarded as heretical.
within the British Empire, especially obliged to undertake duties to, those
democracy Canada and Australia. “above” and “below” in the hierarchy. Holy Roman Empire
A political system in which the people of a An empire set up in Western Europe in
country control their government. Direct dynasty fiefs Medieval times, whose territory was
democracy, which operated in ancient A royal family that rules over a country Lands held on condition of service offered centred on modern-day Germany. Both
Athens, allowed citizens to decide policy for several generations. to a superior lord under the feudal system connected to and forming a rival to the
by direct votes. Most democracy is (see feudalism). papacy, it increasingly took the form of
representative democracy, with the Eastern Bloc a loose collection of states. The emperor
people electing politicians to represent The communist (see communism) free trade of the Holy Roman Empire held little
them. Democracy has often been popular countries of eastern Europe during Trading of goods and services between power by the time it was formally
with groups that are excluded from voting, the Cold War period. countries without restrictions, such as abolished by Napoleon in 1806.
such as women and non-property owners. quota limits or taxes on imported goods.
ecclesiastical See also protectionism. hominin
denomination Relating to the Church or to the clergy. A member of the biological group that
A body of religious believers sharing fundamentalism includes humans and their extinct
a common faith and organization and ecumenical A strict belief in all the traditional ancestors and relatives, back to the
having a recognized name; most Relating to: (1) the whole of the Christian teachings of a given religion. point at which they split from the line
commonly applied to sections within Church; (2) movements aimed at reuniting leading to chimpanzees.
the Christian Church—for example, different branches of the Church. genocide
Baptists and Methodists. The systematic extermination of a racial Huguenots
ethnicity or ethnic group (see ethnicity). Historical term for French Protestants
dependency Characteristics and features associated (see Protestantism), whose history of
A subordinate territory that does not form with belonging to a particular ethnic globalization persecution led many to emigrate and
an integral part of the country which has group, which may be defined purely by The process by which improved settle in other countries.
overall control of it. culture or with reference to biological communications and international links
or racial characteristics. have resulted in ideas, cultures, labor humanist
despotism markets, and ways of life becoming (1) A Latin or Greek scholar, especially
An autocracy, especially one that is evangelical increasingly widespread and/or of the Renaissance period. The work of
headed by a king or emperor. An Relating to: (1) the Christian Gospels; interconnected globally. Renaissance humanists involved the
enlightened despot is one who is seen (2) Protestant (see Protestantism) rediscovery of classical texts and their
as ruling for the benefit of the people doctrines that emphasize personal gnosticism human-centered values, as opposed to
rather than for him/herself. Also refers salvation by faith; (3) religious movements Any of various religious ideologies and the emphasis on God and theology of
to the exercise of power itself by the ruler. that actively go out to preach to and movements that emphasize the acquiring of the Medieval period. (2) A person who
convert others (to evangelize). secret or mystical knowledge as a way to advocates an ethical approach to human
detente salvation. Gnosticism was widespread in life that does not involve belief in a god
The lessening of tension between two excommunication early Christianity, but came to be regarded or gods.
countries; used especially for the time The action taken by a religious as heretical (see heresy) by the Church.
when tension was decreasing between organization of cutting off an individual imperialism
the US and the former USSR. from communication or membership of Gothic Originally the system of government or
the organization, and/or from taking part (1) Relating to the Goths, a Germanic rule in an empire. Now, more particularly,
devaluation in its rites. tribe that invaded the Roman Empire in the attitudes of mind that supported the
The lowering in value of one country’s the 3rd and 4th centuries CE; (2) A style acquisition of distant territories by
currency compared with other currencies. fascism of European architecture that flourished 19th-century Western powers.
Originally, the ideology of the political from the 13th to 16th centuries, and was
diaspora movement led by Benito Mussolini, who characterized by distinctive pointed Iron Curtain
The members of a particular ethnic group was in power in Italy between 1922 windows and other features. Most of Term for the barrier between the USSR-
(see ethnicity) who are living away from and 1943. Fascist doctrines were the great Medieval cathedrals were dominated communist countries (see
their land of origin. It was originally used authoritarian, antidemocratic (see built in this style. communism) of Eastern Europe and the
with reference to the Jews. democracy), and anticommunist (see capitalist West during the Cold War.
communism); they emphasized subjection Greek Church
dictator of the individual to the state and tended The branch of the Christian Church Islam
Originally an official in ancient Rome to glorify war and nationalism. The term associated with the (Greek-speaking) A monotheistic (single-god) religion
who was given sweeping powers for a fascist is now used loosely for any Byzantine Empire, in which church established in the 7th century CE in Arabia
short period during a time of national ideology or attitude seen as authoritarian services were conducted in Greek. by the Prophet Muhammad. Islam means
emergency. Now used for any person or intolerant. See also Orthodox Church. “submission” (to God). The two main
who rules a country alone and with no branches of Islam, Sunni and Shi’ite,
effective restrictions on their individual fatwa guerrilla warfare differ in the authority and legitimacy
power. The word is not normally applied In Islam, a pronouncement, especially by Warfare where the fighters operate in they ascribe to different members of
to hereditary kings or emperors, unlike a cleric, that gives an opinion and/or small irregular units, often without the Prophet’s family after his death.
the similar terms autocrat and despot seeks to direct an action. uniforms or an official army structure.
(see autocracy and despotism). Islamism
federal system guild A tendency within Islam that aims to
dissolution Any political system where there is an A Medieval mutual-aid association. establish Islamic law and values in
In general, this means the process of overall central government (federal Craftsmen and merchants in towns societies worldwide.
dissolving or separating into constituent government), but with many areas of were often organized into guilds, and
parts. The Dissolution of Parliament is decision-making being carried out by individuals were often only allowed to isolationism
the official end of a parliament before regional governments—for example, practise their trade if they belonged A policy of isolating a country from
a general election is held to elect new governments of provinces or states; to the guild of that particular trade. international disputes, especially by
representatives. The Dissolution of the the division of powers between the not taking part in alliances. The term is
Monasteries was the disbanding of federal and regional governments is hegemony particularly associated with certain periods
monasteries and other religious normally guaranteed by a constitution. A situation in which a powerful country of Chinese, Japanese, and US history.
institutions in 16th-century England exerts a significant influence over its
during the reign of Henry VIII. less powerful neighbors.
491
Jacobin manifesto neoclassicism polity
A member of the extreme revolutionary A written declaration of policy and goals, Any cultural movement in which styles or A form of government and political
group during the French Revolution. especially one issued by a political party ideals of a classical period are revived. organization.
or movement. More specifically, an 18th-century
Jacobite movement in European art and literature populist
In British history, a supporter of the Marxist that was inspired by renewed interest in Generally a critical term for a politician
claims of the Stuart monarchs to regain Term applied to a variety of doctrines that the values of ancient Greek and Roman art. whose power base comes from
the throne, after James II (Jacobus in trace their origin to the German-born successfully appealing to the general
Latin) was forced to flee and abdicate the philosopher and social thinker Karl neocolonialism public, without necessarily being
British throne in 1689. Marx. Marx himself believed that he had The situation in which a powerful, respected by other politicians. It is
discovered laws of history that proved developed country has influence over often implied that a populist simply
Jesuit that eventually capitalism would collapse a less developed country (especially a tells people what they want to hear.
A member of the Society of Jesus, an and be replaced by communism. former colony) in ways that are seen as
organization founded in 1534 within the similar to aspects of actual colonialism. Praetorian prefect
Catholic Church, which played a leading Medieval period A high administrative office in the Roman
role in the Counter-Reformation. It The period from approximately 600 to 1450 oligarchy Republic and Empire, deriving originally
continues to be active in education and CE in Europe, from the end of the western A political system where a few powerful, from the headship of the state
in the spreading of Catholic doctrine. Roman Empire to the Renaissance. and often rich, individuals combine to bodyguards—the Praetorian Guard.
rule a country. The former Republic
jihad mercenary of Venice is a historic example. Many pre-Colombian
A struggle or war undertaken on behalf A soldier who fights for other nations former communist countries (see Relating to the cultures of the Americas
of the Islamic faith (see Islam). for money. communism) were also effectively before their contact with European
oligarchies, with communist party explorers and conquerors.
judiciary missionary officials monopolizing power.
A collective term for the judges holding A representative of a particular religion Presbyterians
office in a particular country. who travels to another country, region, or order (religious) Members of various Protestant Churches
culture with the goal of converting people In the Christian Church, a body of people that do not have a hierarchy of bishops,
khedive to his or her religion. adhering to a particular rule or way of life but are run by presbyters (elders) elected
A title used mainly by the rulers of Egypt that is often set down by an individual by church congregations.
from 1867 to 1914, who were nominally Monophysitism founder—orders of monks, for example.
subject to the authority of the Ottoman The belief that Jesus Christ has only one The phrase “in orders” means occupying a proletariat
(Turkish) Empire, but in practice were nature (with his divine nature absorbing clerical position, such as priest or bishop. A collective term for working-class wage
largely independent. his human nature), rather than having two earners who do not possess their own
separate natures. A minority view in the Orthodox Church capital (see capitalism); often contrasted
knight Christian Church, it is upheld mainly by A major group of Christian Churches that with bourgeoisie (see bourgeois) in Marxist
A feudal rank (see feudalism) that the Coptic Church and other churches descend from a split with the Western theory.
combined a high status in society with with their roots in the ancient Near East. (Catholic) Church that occurred in 1054 CE.
obligations to undertake military service. Prominent in Eastern and southeastern protectionism
multilateral Europe, it includes several different The policy of defending the industries
league Involving three or more governments traditions and national Churches. of a country by creating barriers to
An association between individuals or (or other organizations), especially with foreign competition, for example,
states for mutual protection, or for reference to treaties and agreements. Outremer restricting imports.
furthering common interests. Compare bilateral. The Medieval French states set up in the
Near East after the Crusades. protectorate
legion nation A colony in which the emphasis is on the
A fighting unit of the Roman army (1) An independent country. (2) A people overlord colonizing power being responsible for
consisting of 3,000–6,000 men. defined by shared historical, cultural, and A lord who is superior to other lords defense and foreign affairs for the benefit
linguistic ties, whether constituting a or rulers, especially within the feudal of the people of the territory.
legislature single independent country or not. system (see feudalism).
The institution(s) of government that Protestantism
are responsible for passing laws. nationalism pacifism Any of the forms of Christianity resulting
A political attitude of strong support for Opposition to all war. from the Reformation of the 16th century
Levant the interests and future of one’s nation. and afterward, in which allegiance is
The region of the eastern Mediterranean papal bull no longer offered to the pope in Rome.
and the territories bordering it. nationalization An order or edict issued by a pope on
The taking of private property into public a matter of importance. puppet state
liberalism ownership by the state, especially on a A country that, though nominally
A political movement or philosophy that large scale, such as an entire industry. peasant independent, is actually under the
emphasizes individual freedom, as well A worker on the land, especially an control of another country.
as supporting forms of government that NATO agricultural laborer or small farmer.
are answerable to the people (contrast North Atlantic Treaty Organization, an purge
absolutism). The term economic international military alliance of Western pharaoh A term, usually associated with totalitarian
liberalism means support for free- powers established in 1949. Title of the ruler of ancient Egypt, who was systems (see totalitarianism), for the
market capitalism. In the US, liberal often traditionally seen as both a king and a god. expulsion of people from an organization
implies a left-wing stance that supports Nazism who are regarded as undesirable by the
increased governmental intervention and The doctrines of the National Socialist pilgrimage organization’s leadership.
spending on social welfare. (Nazi) party, in power in Germany under A journey undertaken for religious reasons
Adolf Hitler 1933–45. Nazism was similar to a shrine or other sacred site. Puritanism
mandate to fascism, but in addition was racist, Originally a movement within the Church
A legal command or commission, believing in the supremacy of a supposed plebiscite of England in the 16th and 17th centuries
especially a commission in which a “Aryan” race of which the German A referendum, especially on a major that pressed for further changes to
country was authorized by the former people were allegedly the “purest” constitutional issue. Church organization and doctrine, going
League of Nations to govern a particular representatives. See also totalitarianism. beyond the split from the Catholic Church
territory in the interests of its inhabitants. pogrom that had occurred under Henry VIII. The
See also trusteeship. An organized massacre, especially one term was later applied to religious groups
carried out against the Jews in Eastern with similar views outside the Church of
Europe in the late 19th and early 20th England, and then eventually to any way
centuries. of thinking that was seen as disapproving
of pleasure and indulgence.
492
putsch satrap soviet trade union
A violent attempt to overthrow a A provincial governor in the ancient One of the many elected councils that An association of workers, formed to
government. Persian Empire; also, a subordinate operated at all levels of society in the advance their economic interests and to
ruler generally. former USSR. Soviet Union is another provide mutual support.
recession name for the USSR.
A reduction in the economic activity of scholasticism tribune
a country, though less serious than a The approach to reasoning and Soviet Bloc A title for various officials in ancient
depression. A recession is often defined knowledge that is characteristic of Another name for the Eastern Bloc. Rome. A tribune of the people was one of
as having occurred when economic centres of higher education during the two (later more) officials appointed to
output has declined for two successive Christian Medieval period. speculation protect the rights of the common people
three-month periods. An economic term for the buying and against the nobility. A military tribune
sect selling of shares, or other tradeable was an officer attached to a legion.
Reformation A religious group or organization that assets, for the purpose of making a profit
The Christian reform movement of the holds distinctive or nonstandard beliefs. if the price rises or falls in the way that triumph
16th century, in which many churches The term is often used to imply that the the speculator predicts. An official victory procession in ancient
and individuals broke from the Western views held are doubtful, or even heretical. Rome.
(Catholic) Church headed by the pope state
in Rome. sectarian (1) An independent country. (2) A self- trusteeship
Displaying hostile attitudes to people governing region within a country. Situation in which a territory is
Renaissance from a different social grouping, (3) The governmental apparatus of administered by a particular country
A cultural phase of European history, especially those adhering to a different a country. on behalf of the United Nations, for
centered on Italy in the 15th and early 16th denomination of the same religion. the benefit of the territory’s inhabitants.
centuries, that involved the rediscovery stock exchange See also mandate.
of the cultural achievements of ancient secular An organization that allows trading in
Greece and Rome. This in turn became Nonreligious. shares of companies, government bonds, usurp
the inspiration for new ideas in literature and other financial assets. To seize power from another in a manner
and the creation of new artworks. segregation regarded as wrongful.
Separation, in particular separation of suffrage
reparations one race from another within a racist or The right to vote, especially in a public Utopia
A term that came into use after World apartheid social system. election. A suffragist is an advocate of An imaginary, ideal world. The name,
War I for payments made by the defeated the right to vote; especially, in many meaning “nowhere,” comes from the title
countries to the victors, regarded as being self-determination cases, the rights of women. of a book by Sir Thomas More, published
in recompense for their aggression. An Situation in which a people or nation are in 1516. The word Utopian has come to
older term for the same thing is indemnity. able to choose their own government, or sultan be applied to any impracticably idealistic
to govern themselves. A title, equivalent to king or emperor plan.
republic in some Islamic contexts and cultures
Any country not headed by a hereditary Senate (see Islam). vassal In the feudal system (see
king, prince, or emperor. Modern republics (1) The assembly that acted as the main feudalism), a person holding land from
are usually headed by presidents and ruling body in ancient Rome (eventually suzerainty a superior, in return for offering them
range from democratic regimes to losing most of its powers to the Feudal overlordship (see overlord). Also, allegiance; also used more generally
dictatorships. emperors). (2) The upper legislative the supremacy of one state over a less for a servant or subordinate.
house of the US Congress, or of other powerful one.
republicanism legislatures that are similarly organized. viceroy
(1) Support for a republic as the preferred synod A person who governs as the deputy of a
form of government. (2) Beliefs and serf A church council or assembly. monarch in a colony, region, or province.
values associated with the Republican A peasant living in a condition of semi-
Party in the US. (3) In Irish contexts, slavery, with no right to leave the land of technocrat Viet Cong
support for the complete independence the landowner for whom he or she works. (1) A member of a technical elite. (2) The political and military organization
of Ireland from the UK. Someone who regards political problems that carried out guerrilla warfare and
shogun as being best approached by seeking other activities during the Vietnam War.
restoration/Restoration A hereditary commander-in-chief in technical solutions, rather than via Although it claimed to be an independent
The restoring of a previous state of Japan. For various periods in Japanese ideologies or value judgments. rebel movement within the then non-
affairs. In British history, the Restoration history, shoguns, rather than the communist South Vietnam, in fact, it
refers to the return of the British emperor, held the real power. tetrarchy was largely controlled by communist
monarchy in 1660, after the English Civil A governing arrangement in parts of North Vietnam (see communist).
War and Commonwealth, and the years social democracy the Roman Empire whereby a region
following this. Formerly another term for socialism or was divided into four subdivisions, each Zionist
communism. In modern usage it refers with its own ruler (tetrarch). Also A supporter of the creation of an
Roman Church to a moderate form of socialism that the name for the district ruled by a independent state for the Jewish people.
The Western branch of the Christian is compatible with democracy and particular tetrarch. Also, following the creation of Israel in
Church, which developed under the liberalism. 1948, a strong supporter of Israel’s
leadership of the pope in Rome, and theocracy continued existence as a Jewish state.
in which church services are, or were, socialism Rule by a priest or a priesthood.
conducted in Latin. See also Catholic, Term used for a variety of left-wing
Greek Church. ideologies and movements that all involve tithe
some government intervention in society A tax imposed for the upkeep of the
Romantic Movement and the economy, with the goal of Church, especially in the medieval period,
A many-sided cultural and artistic redistributing wealth for the common usually consisting of one-tenth of the
movement in Europe that reached its good. Socialist movements have ranged agricultural produce of a given piece
peak in the early 19th century. It included from the moderate and democratic to of land.
an increased appreciation of nature and revolutionary communist movements
an emphasis on feelings and emotions (see democracy and communism). totalitarianism
in contrast to reason. A form of authoritarian rule in which the
sovereignty government aims to control the details
royal minority Complete legitimate authority over a of individual people’s lives and thoughts,
The period when the monarch of a given territory. treating individual freedom as
country is still a child (a minor). unimportant compared with the state.
493
INDEX
Page numbers in bold indicate Africa continued Alexander Nevski, Prince of Angkor 161 Arabs continued
main treatments of a topic; Fulbe Revolution 245 Novgorod 143, 146, 146 Angkor Thom 141, 141 spread of Islam 108–9
numbers in italic refer to Organization of African Unity 420 Angkor Wat 133, 133 Umayyad dynasty 110, 113, 120,
illustrations. Pan-African Federation 406 Alexander Severus, Emperor 87, 88 Anglo–Iranian Oil Company 414 121, 125
Portuguese explorers 159, 161, Alexandra, Empress of Russia 327 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 119, 121 Wahhabi sect 286, 289
A 163, 169, 171, 174, 176 Alexandria 87, 109, 321, 321 Anglo-Saxons 117 wars with Byzantine Empire 110,
Scramble for Africa 325 Al-Fatah 431 112
Abbas I, Shah 201, 201 slave trade 177 Alfonso IV, King of Portugal 152 campaigns against Vikings 121 see also Palestinians and
Abbas, Mahmoud 460 see also individual countries Alfonso VI, King of Castile 129 conversion to Christianity 105, 109 individual countries
Abbasid caliphate Alfonso VIII, King of Castile 141 Lindisfarne Gospels 112
African National Congress (ANC) Alfonso X “the Wise,” King of metalworking 54, 101 Arafat, Yasser 431, 450, 460
declining power 115, 121, 129, 130 415, 418, 424, 448, 450, 451 raids on Roman Empire 99 Aragon 169
foundation of 113 Castile 146 settle in Britain 101 Arcadia 237
Mamluks support 146 African Union 458 Alfonso XI, King of Castile 152 Sutton Hoo burial 109, 109 Arcadia Conference (1941) 393
Mongols massacre 146 Agamemnon, King of Mycenae 34, Alfonso XIII, King of Spain 362, 372 Angola Ardashir I, King of Persia 87
wars with Chinese 114 Alfred the Great, King of Wessex civil war 458 Ardennes 390, 401
Abd al-Malik, Caliph 111 34 independence 434 Ardepithecus 12
Abd al-Mu’min, Caliph 133, 136 Agha Mohammad Khan 280 118, 118, 119 Marxist takeover 434 Aretas IV, King of the Nabataeans
Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza’iri 302, 302 Aghlabid dynasty 115, 120 Algeria 419, 419, 420, 449, 465 Portugal and 194, 224
Abd al-Rahman I, Emir of Agilulf 104 Algiers 295, 302 war with South Africa 445 73
Agincourt, Battle of (1415) 159, 159, al-Husayn ibn Ali 110, 111 animals, domestication 18–19 Argentina
al-Andalus 113 Ali Bey al-Kabir 267 Anjou 168
Abd ar-Rahman (Sanchol) 127 160 Ali ibn Abi Talib, Caliph 110 Ankara 130 Falklands War 438, 438–9
Abd al-Rahman III, Caliph 120, 121 Agnadello, Battle of (1509) 179 Aljubarrota, Battle of (1385) 156 Anne, Queen of England 241 financial problems 456
Abdul Hamid I, Sultan 267 agriculture 250–51 Al-Kharwizmi 116 Anne of Austria 218 immigration 314
Abdul Hamid II, Sultan 327 Allen, Paul 434 Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury military coup 371
Abdul Rahman 301 collectivization of 370, 377 Allende, Salvador 431, 433, 433 Peron’s presidency 406, 415
Abreu, Antonio de 178–9, 179 improvements in 232, 251 alloys 55 131 Argonne forest 353
Abrittus, Battle of (251) 89 Little Ice Age 233 al-Mahdi (Hidden Imam) 119, 131 Antarctica 267, 458 Arianism 92, 93
Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah, Caliph 113 Neolithic 18–19, 250 al-Mahdi (Sa’id ibn-Husayn) 120 Anthemius, Emperor 100 Ariovistus 70
Abu Bakr, Caliph 108 seed drills 235, 235 Almaric, King of Jerusalem 136 Anthony, Susan B. 315, 315 Aristagoras 50
Abu Ghraib prison, Baghdad 460 Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius 73 al-Ma’mun, Caliph 116 Anti-Corn Law League 302 Aristotle 58, 58, 131, 131
Abu Simbel 36, 36 Agrippa I, King of Judaea 79 Al-Mansur 125, 125 anti-Semitism Arkwright, Richard 266, 266, 272
Abyssinia see Ethiopia Agrippina 77, 78 Almohads Armagnacs 158
Achaean League 66, 67 Ahmad al-Mansur, Sultan of Dreyfus Affair 331 Armenia 78, 82, 327, 343
Acheulean hand-axes 12, 13 campaigns against Almoravids Kristallnacht 385, 385 arms and armor 216–17
Acre 130, 139, 147, 149 Morocco 195, 200 131, 133, 136 Nuremberg Laws 379 arrowheads 160
Actium, Battle of (31 BCE) 72, 72 Ahmad Khan Abdali 253 in Soviet Union 414 cannons 151
Ad Decimum, Battle of (533) 102 Ahmad Shah Durrani 259, 260 expulsion from Spain 141, 146, 152 Antietam, Battle of (1862) 309 crossbows 118, 118
Adelard of Bath 132 Ahmose I, King of Egypt 34 Almoravids 128, 129, 131, 136 Antigonos Monophthalmos 59 “Greek fire” 110, 112
Aden 303 Aidi, Emperor of China 73 Alp Arslan 128 Antioch 103 gunpowder 151
Adena culture 40, 44, 70 AIDS 438, 444 Alsace 314 Antioch, siege of (1098) 129, 129 metalworking 55
Adenauer, Dr. Konrad 410 air travel see flight Altiplano 98 Antiochus I, King of Syria 61 World War I 354–5
Adolf-Frederick of Holstein- Ajanta caves 104 Amalasuintha 102 Antiochus II, King of Syria 60, 61 see also nuclear weapons
Akbar the Great, Emperor 188, 189, Amazon River 213, 247 Antiochus III, King of Syria 63, 66 Armstrong, Neil 412, 431
Gotthorp 249 Ambrose, St. 95 Antiochus IV, King of Syria 67 Arnhem 401
Adrian IV, Pope 136 193, 198, 200, 224 Ambrosian Republic 163 Antipater 59 Arnold of Brescia 136
Adwa, Battle of (1896) 328 Akhenaten, Pharaoh 32, 35 Amenemhet I, King of Egypt 30 Antonine Constitution (212) 87 Arras, Union of 195
Aegades Islands, Battle of Akkadian Empire 26, 27, 27 American Civil War (1861–65) Antoninus Pius, Emperor 82 Arsaces 61, 62
Aksum 93 Antony, Mark 71, 72, 73 Arsites 58
(241 BCE) 61 al-Qaeda 455, 456–7, 459, 460, 461, 308–12, 308, 310–11 Antwerp, siege of (1584–85) 196, 196 Art Deco 366
Aegean 30, 35 American Indians ANZACs 343, 343 Artabanes 103
Aegospotami, Battle of (405BCE) 53 465 Apache people 318 Artabanus V, King of Persia 87
Aelle, King of Sussex 101 Alamein, Battle of (1942) 397 and American War of Apollo missions 412–13, 412–13, Artah, Battle of (1164) 136
Aethelberht, King of Kent 105 Alamo, Battle of the (1836) 296, 296 Independence 268 Artaxerxes II, King of Persia 53, 56
Aethelred II, King of England 125 Alans 98 426, 427, 430, 431, 431 Artaxerxes III, King of Persia 56
Aëtius, Flavius 98, 99 Alaric I, King of the Visigoths 95, arts and crafts 290–91 Appalachian Mountains 225 Artaxerxes V, King of Persia 58
Aetolia 63 Battle of Little Bighorn 318 Apple Inc. 434, 457, 461 Arthur, King 132, 132
Afghanistan 98, 98 conflict with US troops 326, 326 Aquinas, Thomas 147, 147 Artigas, José Gervasio 294, 294
Alaric II, King of the Visigoths 100 conflicts with early settlers 207, Aquino, Corazon 441 Artois 168, 170
Afghan-Maratha War 259, 260 Alaska 244, 246, 288, 288, 312, 432 Arabia 73, 80, 96, 259 arts and crafts
civil war begins 454 Alaungpaya 256 209, 209 Arabs American Indians 290–91
communist coup 436 Albania 386, 447, 454 Indian Removal Act (1830) 295 Egyptian 38–9
earthquake 455 Alberti, Leon Battista 166 Trail of Tears 294 Abbasid caliphate 113, 114, 115, Greek 48–9
Ghurids 137 Albigensian Crusade 140–41, 142 American Revolutionary War 121, 130 Islamic 134–5
Hotaki dynasty 248 Albinus, Clodius 86 Mughal 198–9
hunt for Osama Bin Laden 456 Albizzi family 161 (1775–81) 268–71, 268, 270, 271 Aghlabid dynasty 115, 120 pre-Columbian America 144–5
independence 240 Alboin 104 Amida 93 alphabet 29, 29 Qing dynasty 316–17
modern state founded 253 Albright, Madeleine 454 Amiens 353 Arab revolt 346 Renaissance 204–5
Mujahideen 436, 446 Albuquerque, Afonso de 178 Amin, Idi 432, 434, 436 Arab Spring 465 Roman 84–5
Nader Shah occupies 247, 248 Alcácer Quibir, Battle of (1578) Amnesty International 435 Arab–Israeli wars 408, 410, 416, Asante Empire 226–7, 227, 315, 330
presidential election 460, 460 Amoco Cadiz 435 Ascalon 131
Soviet invasion 436, 436, 446 195, 195 Amritsar, Golden Temple of 440 433 Asculum, Battle of (279BCE) 60
uprising against Safavids 237 Alcibiades 52 Amritsar massacre (1919) 357 caliphate 108–9, 111, 116 Ashikaga shoguns 163, 168–9
US operations against 455, 458 Alcock, John 357, 357 Anabaptism 181 conquest of Spain 112, 121 Ashoka, Emperor 60
wars with Britain 297, 319, 319 Aldrin, Edwin “Buzz” 412, 431 Anacletus II, Pope 132 Fatimid dynasty 120 Ashur 31
Afonso V, King of Portugal 169 Alemanni 88, 89 Anaconda, Operation 458 incursions against Franks 113 Ashur-uballit I 36
Africa Alesia 70, 71 Anasazi 126, 126, 136 opposition to Jewish homeland Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria 44, 44
early humans 12, 12 Alessandria 137 Anastasius I, Emperor 101, 102, 102 Aspero 25, 27
European colonization 194, 321, Alexander II, Czar 308, 308, 320 Anatolia 110, 110 plan 385, 385 al-Assad, Bashar 464
Alexander III, Czar 326, 327 Anawrata 127 peace process 448 Assam 293
322, 323, 326, 327, 331 Alexander III, Pope 136, 137, 138, ancient empires 32–3 Saudi dynasty 286, 301
Ancus Marcius, King of Rome 45 scientific knowledge 132, 282, 282
138 Andes 25, 27, 289 in Sicily 117, 131
Alexander IV, King of Macedonia 59 Andragoras 61 split between Sunni and Shi’ite
Alexander VI, Pope 176 Andronicus IV, Emperor 156
Alexander the Great 58–9, 58, 59 Andropov, Yuri 439 Muslims 110
Alexander Jannaeus, King of the Angevin Empire 137
Hasmonaeans 68
494
Assassins 129, 139, 146 Avars 104, 105 Barbarossa, Operation (1941) 392, Bidatsu, Emperor of Japan 104 Boukman, Dutty 277
Assyria Avery, Oswald 428, 429 392 “Big Bang” 445 Boulton, Matthew 234
Avignon 150, 150, 152, 156 Biko, Steve 434, 435 Bourbon 247
invasion of Egypt 44 Awami League 431 Barbary pirates 188, 259, 259, 272 Bilbao 454–5 Bouvines, Battle of (1214) 141
Middle Assyrian Empire 36 Axayacatl 170 Barcelona 336 Billy the Kid 320 Boxer Rebellion (1900) 330, 330
Neo-Assyrian Empire 40–41 Ayacucho, Battle of (1824) 293 Barings Bank 451 Bimbisara, King of Magadha 50 Boyacá, Battle of (1819) 289
rise of 31 Ayn Jalut, Battle of (1260) 146, 151 barometers 214, 214 Bin Laden, Osama 455, 456, 460, Boyer, Herb 429
Romans conquer 81 Ayyubid dynasty 137, 143 Baroque architecture 210 Boyer, Jean-Pierre 292
wars with Babylon 45 Azerbaijan 195, 223, 448 Baroque music 234, 242 465, 465 Boyne, Battle of the (1689) 229,
Astley, Philip 265 Azes I, King of the Sakas 68 Barton, Clara 320, 320 Bindusara 59, 60
astronomy 182–3, 186–7, 206 Azores 161 Basch, Samuel von 283 Bíró, László 29 232, 232
Asturias 112 Azov 233, 233, 247 Basel, Council of (1413) 161 Bismarck, Otto von 309, 313, 314, BP 463
Atacama Desert 319 Aztecs 119, 146 Basel, Council of (1431) 162, 163 Brahe, Tycho 187
Atahualpa, Emperor 162, 184 Basil I, Emperor 118 315 brain, hominins 13
Atahualpa, Juan Santos 249 arts and crafts 144–5 Basil II, Emperor 124, 125, 126, 126 Bithynia-Pontus 81 Branch Davidian 450
Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal) 335, 358, expansion of empire 170 Basques 242, 433, 461 Black Death 152, 156 Brandenburg-Prussia 218, 249
human sacrifices 158, 175 Bataan Death March (1942) 396 “Black Monday” stock market
360, 361, 362 pictographs 146 Batavia 208 see also Prussia
Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria 92 religion 170 Batista, Fulgencio 418 crash (1987) 444, 444 Brandt, Willy 431
Athelstan, King 121 Spain conquers 180 Batu Khan 142, 143 Black Panthers 425, 425 Brazil
Athens Tenochtitlán 158, 158, 170, 175, Bauhaus 363, 363 Black September 432
Bavaria 269 Blackbeard (Edward Teach) 241, 241 coffee plantations 244, 244
coins 64 175, 180, 180 “Bay of Pigs” (1961) 419 Blekinge 237 democracy restored 440
defeats Persians 51 Bayan, Khan 104 Blenheim, Battle of (1704) 236, 236 economy 466
Draconian laws 45, 46 B Baybars, al-Zahir 146 Blenkinsop, John 293 floods 464
rise of 44 Bayeux Tapestry 128 Blériot, Louis 364, 364 gold discovered 233
Second Athenian Confederacy 56 Babcock, George 275, 275 Bayezid I, Sultan 230 Blum, Léon 380 independence 292
under Solon 46 Babur, Emperor 166, 181, 181, 184, Bayezid the Thunderbolt, Sultan 157 Blundell, James 282 military coup 371
wars with Sparta 52–3 BBC 381 Bocchus of Mauretania 68 Portuguese colonization 177,
Atil 112 198 Beatles, The 420, 424, 424, 431 Bodawpaya, King of Burma 272
Atlantic, Battle of the (1941–43) Babylon Beauvoir, Simone de 421 Boeotia 56 184, 188, 233
Becket, St. Thomas 137, 137, 157 Boer Wars republic declared 323
392–3, 398, 399 calendar 182 Beckett, Samuel 415 slaves 323, 323
Atlantic Charter (1941) 393 decline of 34 Beethoven, Ludwig van 284 First (1880–81) 320 wins World Cup 451
Atlantic Ocean Hammurabi code 31, 31 Begin, Menachem 434, 435 Second (1899–1902) 329, 329, 330 Xingo National Park 419
money 65 Beirut 439, 440, 441, 444, 449 Boers 269, 269, 301, 320 Breda, surrender of (1625) 210, 210
early explorers 172, 175, 176–7 neo-Babylonian dynasty 46 Belgae tribe 70 Boethius 131 Breitenfeld, First Battle of (1631)
flights across 367, 370 rise of 31 Belgium 170 Bohemia
Attila the Hun 100, 100 wars with Assyrian 45 Hussite uprising 159, 161 211, 211
Augsburg, League of 228 Bach, Jacques Christian 261 and the Congo 322, 322, 335, 418 Luxembourg dynasty 153 Breitenfeld, Second Battle of
Augustín I, Emperor of Mexico 292 Bacon, Francis 208, 209 creation of 294, 295 Matthias Corvinus controls 167
Augustine, St. 105 Bactria 61, 66 in EU 453 Thirty Years’ War 208 (1642) 214, 214
Augustus, Emperor 64, 64, 72–3, Badoglio, Marshal Pietro 399 World War I 341, 341 Boii tribe 62 Brezhnev, Leonid 439, 444
Baghdad World War II 390 Boleyn, Anne 185, 185, 189 Brian Boru, High King of Ireland 126
73, 76, 74, 81, 85 Buwayhid dynasty 121, 128 Belgrade 167, 167 Bolívar, Simón 287, 287, 288, 289, Briand, Aristide 366
Aung San Suu Kyi 463 founding of 114 Belisarius 102, 103 Brigantia 79
Aurangzeb I, Emperor 220–21, 220, House of Wisdom 116 Bell, Alexander Graham 318, 374, 292, 293, 295 Brighton, IRA terrorism 440
Ottomans capture 213 Bolivia Britain
224, 224, 225, 236–7, 236, 237 Bahadur Shah II 306 375
Aurelian, Emperor 89, 90 Bahamas 175 Bell, Anthony 283, 283 creation of 293 Abdication crisis 381
Auschwitz 404 Bahonar, Javad 438 Bell Beaker culture 27 democracy restored 440 abolition of slave trade 286
Austerlitz, Battle of (1805) 285 Baird, John Logie 366, 366 Belsen 404 Tiwanaku 113, 113, 124 Act of Union 237
Australia Bajirao I 242, 247 Ben-Gurion, David 408 war with Chile and Peru 319 Afghan Wars 297, 319, 319
Baker, Josephine 366, 366 Bengal 280, 334, 336, 399 Bologna 437 Afghanistan campaign 456
apology for treatment of Bakewell, Robert 252, 252 Benghazi 464 Bologna University 131, 136, 136 agricultural improvements 252
Aborigines 462 Balaclava, Battle of (1854) 305 Benjamin of Tudela 137 Bolsheviks alcohol crisis 256
Balbinus 88 Benz, Karl 322, 322, 332 1917 Revolution 348, 348 al-Qaeda bombs in London 460–61
“bodyline” bowling crisis 377 Baldwin I, King of Jerusalem 130, Berbers 359 Civil War 350 American War of Independence
discovery of 203, 243, 265 Berestechko, Battle of (1651) 219, Great Terror 382–3
economy 467 130 invasion of Poland 359 268–71, 268, 270, 271
federation 330, 330 Baldwin II, King of Jerusalem 131 219 Kronstadt rebellion 359 Amritsar massacre 357
First Fleet 273, 273 Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem 133 Berg, Paul 429 Bolt, Usain 462, 462 the Anarchy 132
floods 464 Baldwin IV, King of Jerusalem 138 Beria, Lavrenty 414 Bombay (Mumbai) 223, 450, 461, 462 Anglo–Burmese wars 293, 304,
gold rush 304 Baldwin V, King of Jerusalem 138, Bering, Vitus 244, 246 Bonaparte, Prince Louis-Napoleon
independence of legal system 441 Bering Strait 244, 245 304, 322, 322
settlement of 296 139 Beringia 14 303 Anglo–Dutch Wars 219, 222, 223,
World War II 396 Baldwin, Stanley 380, 381 Berlin 404, 404–5, 409 Bonfire of the Vanities 176
Australopithecus afarensis 12, 12, 13 Balfour Declaration (1917) 349 Berlin airlift (1948) 409, 409, 410 Boniface, St. 98 270
Australopithecus africanus 12, 13 Bali 458 Berlin, Battle of 388 Boniface VIII, Pope 150 Anglo–Maratha Wars 268, 285
Austria and Habsburg Empire Balkans Berlin Conference on Africa Bonnie and Clyde 378, 378 Anglo-Saxons 99, 101, 109, 117,
Austro-Hungarian Empire 335 Bonus Army 373
banking crisis 372 First Balkan War 337, 337 (1884–85) 321, 322 Book of Kells 114 119, 121
Bosnian Crisis 335 Nicopolis Crusade 157, 157 Berlin Wall 419, 419, 420, 420, 447, Boone, Daniel 265 Anglo–Spanish War 244
end of Habsburg Empire 347, 357 in Ottoman Empire 153, 162, 167 Booth, John Wilkes 312 Anglo–Zulu War 319
in EU 452, 453 Roman Empire and 74 447, 448 Bordeaux 166 Antonine Wall 82
Germany annexes 384–5 Slavs 105 Berlusconi, Silvio 465 Boris Godunov, Czar 202–3 appeasement 384–5
Long War 200 World War II 398 Bernard of Clairvaux 133, 150 Bornu Empire 245 Arab revolt 346
Nazis try to seize power 378 see also individual countries Bernstein, Carl 433 Borobudur, Temple of 116 Balfour Declaration 349
revolutions of 1848 303 Ball, Hugo 347, 347 Beslan 460, 460 Borodino, Battle of (1812) 287 Bank of England 233
Russo-Austrian-Turkish War Balliol, John, King of Scotland 149 Bessemer, Henry 55 Bose, Subhas Chandra 397 Black Death 156
Baltic 192, 220, 451 Bessus (Artaxerxes V) 58 Bosnia-Herzegovina 167, 335 Boer Wars 320, 329, 329, 330
247, 248 Ban Chao, General 80 Bethar 81 Bosnian War (1992–95) 449, 449, British Empire Exhibition 363, 363
Second Silesian War 252 Banda Islands 209 Bevan, Aneurin 408 British Raj 307, 307, 336–7
Seven Years’ War 258, 261 Banda Oriental 294 Bhopal gas tragedy (1984) 440, 440 451, 456 British Union of Fascists 378,
Soviet occupation of 415 Bangladesh 431, 432 Bhutto, Benazir 445, 461, 461 Boston Massacre (1770) 266
Thirty Years’ War 210–14, 218 Bank of England 65, 233 Bhutto, Zulfiqar Ali 432, 434 The Boston News-Letter 236, 236 378, 381
Three Emperors’ League 315 Bantu peoples 127, 127 Bi Sheng 127, 127 Boston Tea Party (1773) 267, 267 Carnatic Wars 257
War of the Austrian Succession Bar Kochba, Shimon 81 Biafra 431, 431 Bosworth, Battle of (1485) 174, 174 Celts 69, 69
barbarians 88–9, 90, 100 Bible, King James’ 206–7, 206 Botany Bay 273 change of calendar 256
248–9, 252, 253, 258 bicycles 289 Botticelli, Sandro 205 Charles I 211, 213
War of the Quadruple Alliance Boudiaf, Mohammed 449 child labor 300
Boudicca 78, 78 Christianity in 105
242, 242 Church of England 185, 188
wars with Ottoman Empire 222, Civil War 214, 215, 215, 218, 219
coal mining 300, 329, 329
234 colonies 323, 326
World War I 340, 346
495
Britain continued Britain continued Buddhism continued calendar continued Cassander 59
and the Commonwealth 373 Peninsular War 286 Mahayana Buddhism 140 French Revolution 279 Cassius 71, 72
Constans visits 92 Peterloo Massacre 289, 289 Temple of Borobudur 116 Julian Calendar reformed 196 Cassius, Avidius 82, 83
Corn Laws 302 Pilgrimage of Grace 185 Cassivelaunus 71
Crimean War 305, 305 plague 222–3, 222 Buganda 270 California 303, 459 Castile 153, 156, 159, 169
Crusades 139 population growth 304, 304 Buhari, General Mohammed 440 Caligula, Emperor 77 Castillon, Battle of (1453) 166, 166
Cyprus Convention 319 postal system 300, 300, 375 Bukka 151 Callao, Battle of (1866) 312, 312 Castro, Fidel 418, 419, 462
Danelaw 119 prelude to American Revolution Bulan, Khan 116 Calvin, John 188 Çatalhöyük 19
dissolution of the monasteries 264, 266, 267 Bulgaria Calvinism 188, 213 Catalonia 242, 380
185, 185 Princes in the Tower 174 Cambodia Cathars 141, 142, 142
Dual Control of Egypt 321 race riots 438 end of Communism 446 cathedrals 130
and the Dutch Revolt 197, 201, 201 railroads 293, 293, 294 First Balkan War 337 civil war 446 Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge
Egypt renounces Suez Treaty 414 rearmament 380, 390 independence 323, 335 French colonization 334
end of Empire 422–3 Reform Act 295, 295 joins European Union 453, 461 independence 415 464
execution of Charles I 218, 218, Restoration 221 Bulgars 117 Khmer Rouge 434, 435, 435, 436, Catherine of Aragon 185
219 returns currency to Gold First Bulgarian Empire 110 Catherine of Braganza 223
explorers 172, 173, 196 Standard 366 conflict with Byzantine Empire 455 Catherine de Medici 194–5, 195
Factory Act 296 revolt against Edward II 151 US bombs 431 Catherine I, Empress of Russia 244
Falklands War 438, 438–9 revolt against Romans 95 102, 110, 116, 119, 126 Vietnam invades 435, 436 Catherine II “the Great,” Empress
Fashoda Incident 329 Rhodesian crisis 424 Bulge, Battle of the (1944) 401 Cambrai 349, 349
financial crisis 462 Roman conquest 70–71, 74, 77–9, Bull Run, Second Battle of (1862) Cambrai, League of 179 of Russia 261, 261, 265, 267, 273
first Labour government 363, 372 79, 81, 82, 86, 98 Cambridge University 140, 141 Catherine of Siena, St. 156
General Strike 366 royal wedding 464, 464 309 Cambyses, King of Persia 46, 47 Catholic Church
Glorious Revolution 229, 229, 264 Scientific Revolution 221, 222 Bunker Hill, Battle of (1775) 268 Campaldino, Battle of (1289) 149
Great Exhibition 304, 304 Second Baron’s War 147 Bunyan, John 226, 226 Campbell, Donald 425, 425 Albigensian Crusade 140–41, 142
Great Fire of London 223, 223, 240 settlement of Australia 273, 296 Burgess, Guy 414 Canaanites 37, 40 anti-popes 138, 156, 159
Gunpowder Plot 203, 203 Seven Years’ War 257–61, 258, Burgundy 156, 158, 168, 170, 170 Canada Avignon popes 150, 150, 152
Habeas Corpus Act 226 260, 261 Burma British colonies 253 Catholic Relief Act 294
Hadrian’s Wall 81, 81, 82 Sikh Wars 303 French settlements 186, 186, and Communism 410
House of Hanover 241 slave trade 208, 266 Alaungpaya dynasty 293, 293 conciliar movement 162, 163
Hudson’s Bay Company 224 Soviet spies in 414 Anglo–Burmese Wars 293, 304, 202, 237 Council of Trent 187
Hundred Years’ War 151–3, 159, Spanish Armada 197, 197 Hudson’s Bay Company 224 Dutch Revolt 193
160–62, 166 Stamp Act 264, 264, 266 304, 322, 322 Mounties 315, 315 French Wars of Religion 192, 192,
immigration 426 steam power 236, 268, 268 Aung San Suu Kyi 463 Quebec Act 267
India Acts 271, 271 stock market crash 444 conflict with Siam 272 Cannae, Battle of (216 BCE) 62–3 194–5, 194, 197, 200, 201, 211,
and Indian independence 382, 407 Sudanese War 321 Konbaung dynasty 256, 256 Cantacuzenus, John 152 228
Indian Mutiny 306 Sugar Act 261 Pagan kingdom 117, 117, 127 Canton 278 and the Glorious Revolution 264
and Indian nationalism 360 technological success 384 Pegu 249 Canute (Cnut), King of Denmark Great Schism 156, 159
Industrial Revolution 55, 237, 266 textile industry 246, 264, 264, Burma Railway 399, 399 Henry VIII and 185
IRA terrorism 433, 439, 440, 450, 266, 272, 272, 287, 296 Burnaburiash II, King 32 and England 126–7 Inquisitions 141, 142, 171, 185,
454 trade with China 245, 296 Bush, George H.W. 445, 447, 449 Cão, Diogo 171, 171 185, 256
Iran nationalizes oil industry 414 trading posts in India 223 Bush, George W. 456, 458, 460, Cao Cao 86 Jesuits 185
and Ireland 284 transfers Hong Kong to China Cape of Good Hope 174, 280 Lateran Treaty 369
and Irish Easter Rising 346 440, 454 456 Cape Horn 208 Mary I reestablishes in Britain
and Irish Home Rule 359 Triple Alliance 241 Busta Gallorum, Battle of (552) 103 Cape Mesurado 292 188
Jacobite rebellions 241, 252 under Cromwell 219 Bustamante, Alexander 420 Cape Passaro, Battle of (1718) 242, Northern Rising 193, 193
Jarrow Crusade 381 unemployment 359, 373 Bute, John Stuart, 3rd Earl of 260 persecution in Britain 185, 188
Jewish homeland plan 385 Viking raids 115, 118, 124 Buwayhid dynasty 121, 128 242 and Protestant settlements in
joins EEC 433, 452, 453 votes for women 337, 337 Byng, Admiral Sir George 242, 242 Cape Verde Islands 163, 163 Ireland 207
King James’ Bible 206–7, 206 War of 1812 287 Byron, Lord 293, 293 Capone, Al 368 trial of Galileo 212
Labour Party wins election 405 War of Jenkins’ Ear 248 Byzantine Empire Caporetto, Battle of (1917) 344, 349 Cato the Elder 67
Lend-Lease 393 War of the Quadruple Alliance Caracalla, Emperor 86, 87, 87 cave paintings 16–17, 17
literature 157, 226, 226, 302 242, 242 and Lombard invasions 104 Caracas 288 Caxton, William 170, 170
Little Ice Age 228, 228 War of the Spanish Succession Christianity in 102 Caractacus 77 Ceausescu, Nicolae 425
loses Calais 189, 189 236, 237 conflict with Bulgars 102, 110, Caral 25 Celsius, Anders 249, 249
Luddites 287, 287 Wars of the Roses 163, 167, 174 Carausius, Emperor 90 Celts 52, 53, 62, 69, 69
Magna Carta 141 workhouses 296 116, 119, 126 Caribbean Central America
Mary I re-establishes Catholic World War I 340–42, 341, 343, Constantinople founded 92 agriculture 250
Church 188 346–7, 349, 352–3 decline of 148, 163 Seven Years’ War 260 independence 287, 293
Mau Mau rebellion 414, 414 World War II 386–400, 386, 387, “Greek fire” 110, 112, 112 slaves 260 see also individual countries
miners’ strike 432, 440, 440 390 iconoclasm 112 Spanish conquistadors 179 Central England Temperature
Munich agreement 385 Nika Revolt 102 sugar plantations 247, 247, 260 (CET) 221
Mysore Wars 270, 281 Britain, Battle of 388, 391 Paleologus Empire 147 Carinus, Emperor 90 Cerdagne 168
Napoleonic Wars 281, 281, 285, British Expeditionary Force 341 recaptures Constantinople 147 Carloman, King of the Franks 113, Cerdic, King of Wessex 101
288, 288 British Museum, London 257 trade 156 Cerro Sechin 37, 37
National Debt 233 British South African Company 323 under Justinian 102–3, 103 114 Ceylon see Sri Lanka
National Government 372 Brixton riots (1981) 438 wars with Arabs 110, 112 Carlson, Chester 155 Chacabuco, Battle of (1817) 289,
National Health Service 408 Brontë, Emily 302 wars with Kievan Rus 121, 124 Carlyle, Thomas 248 289
Nine Years’ War 233 Bronze Age 24–7, 25, 31–36 wars with Persia 102, 103, 104, Carnatic War, Second (1749–54) Chaco Canyon 126, 136
normalization of relations with Brookes, William Penny 328 Chagatai tribe 153
Soviet Union 444 Brown, Arthur Whitten 357, 357 105, 108 257, 257 Chagri Beg 127
Norman Conquest 128, 128 Brown, John 307, 307 wars with Seljuks 127, 128 Carnuntum, Conference of (308) 91 Châlons, Battle of (450) 100
North American colonies 203, Brown, Louise 435, 435 Carnutes 71 Chamberlain, Neville 382, 384,
203, 207, 209, 253 Brunel, Isambard Kingdom 297, 297 C Carolingian Empire 114–17, 119, 385, 390
Northern Ireland peace process Brunelleschi, Filippo 204 Chamoun, Camille 417
450–51, 455 Brusilov Offensive 344 Cable Street, Battle of (1936) 381 121, 124 Champa 133, 169
Northern Ireland problem 425, Brutus, Marcus 71, 72 Cabot, John 176 Carolus, Johan 203 Champlain, Lake 268
431, 432, 432 BSE (bovine spongiform Cabral, Pedro 174 Carpi people 88 Champlain, Samuel de 202
Northern Rising 193, 193 Cabrillo, Juan Rodríguez 186 Carrero Blanco, Luis 433 Chandragupta I 92
Operation Desert Fox 455 encephalopathy) 454 Cadillac 333 Carrhae, Battle of (53 BCE) 72, 73 Chandragupta Maurya 59
Opium Wars 297, 297, 300, 306 Buddha 47, 50, 87, 115, 256, 288, 316 Cadiz 197, 201, 201 cars 322, 322, 332–3, 337 Chang’an 76
and Palestine 382, 407 Buddhism 47, 136, 316 Caen 152 Carter, Jimmy 435, 436, 437 Channel Tunnel 448, 451, 451
Palestine Mandate 360 Caesar, Gaius 73, 76 Carthage 67 Chaplin, Charlie 343
Peasants’ Revolt 156, 156 Buddhist Councils 60, 81 Caesar, Julius 70–71, 70, 71, 72, 74 Chappe, Claude 374, 374
in China 109, 115 Caesar, Lucius 73, 76 Byzantines lose 111 Charlemagne (Charles the Great),
Diamond Sutra 118, 118, 154, 154 Cahokia 136, 136 in Vandal kingdom 98 Emperor 113, 114–15, 116, 128
in India 81 Calais 152, 166, 189, 189 Punic Wars 61, 61, 62–3, 62, 67, 74 Charles, Count of Valois 150
calculators 225, 225 rise of 41 Charles I, Emperor of Austria 347
Calcutta 336 wars with Syracuse 56
Calcutta, Black Hole of (1756) 258 Cartier, Jacques 186, 186
calendar Cartimandua, Queen 77
Cartwright, Edmund 272
change to Gregorian 256 Casa Grande 112
Casablanca conference (1943) 398,
398
496
Charles I, King of England 211, China continued Chlothar I, King of the Franks 104 coffee 117, 117 Copernicus, Nicolaus 182, 186–7,
213, 214, 215, 215, 218, 218, 219 famine 318, 318 Chlothar II, King of the Franks 104 Cold War 186
first humans 16 Cholas 117, 126, 126–7, 148
Charles I, King of Portugal 335, 335 Five Dynasties 120, 120, 124 Chosroes I, King of Persia 103 Berlin airlift 409, 409, 410 Coral Sea, Battle of the (1942) 396
Charles II, King of England 219, Five Pecks of Rice sect 86 Chosroes II, King of Persia 105, 108 end of 445, 447 Cordoba 114, 114, 120, 121, 125, 127
“Great Leap Forward” 417, 417, 418 Choules, Claude 465 espionage 446 Corinth 44
221, 223, 228, 229 Great Wall 174–5, 175 Christ 77, 77, 82, 112 propaganda 351 Corn Laws (Britain) 302
Charles II, King of Spain 234 Han Empire 63, 66, 66, 68–9, 70, Christchurch earthquake (2011) 464 Coligny, Gaspard de 194–5 Cornwallis, General Charles 270,
Charles III, King of the Franks 121 73, 76–7, 76, 77, 87, 88, 96, 97 Christian VII, King of Denmark 264 Collins, Michael 359, 360
Charles III, King of Spain 259, 259, Huang Zhao rebellion 120 Christianity Colombia 253, 331 270
invasion of Vietnam 436 Columba, St. 104, 104 Cornwallis, Edward 253
265, 273 isolationism 279 Anglo-Saxons and 105, 109 Columbia (space shuttle) 365, 365, Coronado, Francisco Vázquez de
Charles IV, Emperor 153, 153, 156 Jin dynasty 89–90, 91, 94, 99, banned in Japan 197, 201
Charles IV, King of Spain 273, 284, 132, 142 Book of Kells 114 438, 458 186, 226–7
joins UN 432 in Byzantine Empire 102 Columbus, Christopher 172, 172–3, Cortés, Hernan 179, 180, 180
286 and Korean independence 328 in China 232, 241, 252–3, 304 Cossacks 189, 193, 219, 224, 224,
Charles V, Emperor 180, 180, 181, Kuomintang 368, 406 Chi-Rho symbol 91, 91 175, 179, 251
Later Liang dynasty 120 Christianization of Europe 157 Comédie-Française 226 267
181, 184, 185, 185, 186, 187, Liu Song dynasty 99 conversion of Scandinavia 124 Comintern 380 Costobocci tribe 83
188, 206 Long March 379, 379 in Ethiopia 93 Committee of Public Safety 278–9 Cotonou 327
Charles V, King of France 153, 156, Longshan culture 24, 27, 27 Franks convert to 101, 102 Commodus, Emperor 83, 86, 86 Cotton Club, New York 363
170 Manchus 280, 316, 336 Ireland converted to 104 Commonwealth 373 Coubertin, Pierre de 328
Charles VI, Emperor 248 Meng Zi 59 Lindisfarne Gospels 112, 112 Commonwealth of Independent Covilhã, Pêro da 174
Charles VI, King of France 156, 160 Miao and Yao people revolt 168 Marcionism 82 Cranmer, Thomas 188
Charles VII, King of France 161, Ming dynasty 153, 157, 161, 168, Monophysite Christianity 102 States 448 Crassus, Marcus Licinius 69, 70, 71
162, 162 175, 196, 200, 208, 213, 214, Nestorian Christians 109 communication 374–5 Craterus 59
Charles VIII, King of France 174 215, 280 Nicopolis Crusade 157, 157 Communism 303 Crecy, Battle of (1346) 152, 152, 153
Charles X, King of France 294 money 64, 64, 65, 65 in Roman Empire 77, 77, 91, 92, 95 credit cards 411
Charles X, King of Sweden 220 Mongol invasions 142, 146, 158, spread of 91 Catholic Church and 410 Crete
Charles XII, King of Sweden 234 168, 256, 260 Chrysler 463 in China 359, 368, 379
Charles the Bald, King of the Mukden incident 372 Chu 57 collapse of Soviet Union 442–3, Minoan civilization 24, 27, 30, 30,
Franks 116–17 navigation 238 Chuenpee, Convention of (1841) 300 35
Charles the Bold, Duke of Nien Rebellion 304 Church of England 448
Burgundy 168, 170, 170, 174 nomadic incursions 67 Act of Uniformity 188 coup in Czechoslovakia 408 Thirty Days’ War 329
Charles the Fat, King of the Northern Wei dynasty 99, 99 Book of Common Prayer 188, 188, in Cuba 418 World War II 392
Franks 119 opium imports banned 244–5 in Eastern Europe 406 Crick, Francis 415, 428, 429, 429
Charles Martel, King of the Franks Opium Wars 297, 297, 300, 306 213 ends in Eastern Europe 446–7 Crimea 152, 247, 267
113 People’s Republic founded 410, Henry VIII establishes 185 in Hungary 357 Crimean War (1854–56) 305, 305
Charles Theodore, Elector of 410 King James’ Bible 206–7, 206 McCarthyism 415 Crippen, Robert 438
Bavaria 269, 269 poor relations with Soviet Union Churchill, Winston 390 in North Korea 408 Cristero movement 368
Charlotte, Queen 260 418 Atlantic Charter 393 “Popular Fronts” 380 Croatia 392, 448
Chartists 303 Portuguese trade with 180, 189 and Bengal famine 399 in Russia 357 Croesus, King of Lydia 46
Chaucer, Geoffrey 157, 157 printing 127, 127, 154, 154 Casablanca conference 398, 398 Soviet propaganda 350–51 Cromwell, Oliver 214, 215, 218,
Chavannes, Jean-Baptiste 277 Qi dynasty 99 denounces Munich agreement Communist League 302
Chavín culture 40, 40 Qin dynasty 61, 62, 63 Communist Manifesto 302, 303 218, 219, 221
Chechnya 451, 454, 458, 458, 460 Qing Empire 208, 215, 215, 225, 385 Comonfort, Ignacio 307 Cromwell, Thomas 185
Chengdi, Emperor of China 73 241, 316–17, 325, 336 and Greek civil war 407 computers 406 Crusader kingdoms (Outremer)
Chenghua, Emperor of China 168 “Red Eyebrows” rebellion 76 Iron Curtain speech 406 Comuneros’ Uprising (1781) 270
Chernobyl 441, 441 relations with Russia 244 loses election 405 Concord, Battle of (1775) 268 decline of 133, 147, 149, 150
Cherokees 294 Shang civilization 30–31, 30, 31, returns currency to Gold Concorde 365, 365, 431, 458, 458–9 establishment of 129
Cheyenne 318 35, 37 Confucianism 207 Knights Templar 131
Chiang Kai-shek 368, 379, 383, Single Whip Reform 196 Standard 366 Confucius 47 Saladin’s campaigns against
406, 410 Sino-Japanese War 327, 327 World War II 391, 393 Congo 322, 322, 324, 330, 335, 418
Chicago World’s Fair (1933) 377, 377 Sixteen Kingdoms 94, 99 Yalta Conference 404 Congo, River 318, 329 138, 139
Chichen Itza 119, 119, 125 Song dynasty 59, 120, 124, 124, Cicero 73 Conrad III, Emperor 132, 133, 136 Crusades 131, 143
Childeric, King of the Franks 101 132, 136, 142 El Cid 129 Constance, Council of (1414) 159, 159
Chile Sui dynasty 105, 105, 108 Cimbri 68 Constans I, Emperor 92 First (1096–99) 129, 129, 130
Allende killed 433 Taiping Rebellion 304, 304 cinema 343, 367, 367, 369, 369, 379, Constantine, King of Greece 425 Second (1145–49) 132–3, 133
independence 289 Tang dynasty 108, 110, 112, 116, Constantine I, Emperor 91, 91, 92, 92 Third (1189–92) 139
miners rescued 463, 463 120 384, 384, 387, 387, 398, 454 Constantine II, Emperor 92 Fourth (1202–1204) 140
under Allende 431 tea trade 278, 278, 296 Civilis, Julius 79 Constantine III, Emperor 98 Fifth (1213–21) 141
war with Bolivia and Peru 319 Terracotta Army 63 Clarendon, Constitutions of (1164) Constantine VI, Emperor 115 Sixth (1228–29) 142
Chimor 169 Three Gorges Dam 461, 461 Constantine VII, Emperor 124 Seventh (1248–54) 143
Chimú 130, 140 Three Kingdoms period 88, 90 137 Constantine XI Palaeologus, Eighth (1270) 147
Chin Peng 408 Tiananmen Square massacre Clark, William 285, 285 Knights Templar 150
China 446, 446 Claudius, Emperor 74, 77, 77, 78, 85 Emperor 163 Ctesiphon 80–81, 82, 86
1911 Revolution 336, 336 and Tibet 242, 336, 411 Claudius II Gothicus, Emperor 89 Constantinople 116, 119 Cuba
Beijing Olympics 462 Tibet rebels against 418 Clay, Henry 310 abolition of slavery 322
Benjamin of Tudela in 137 trade with Britain 296 Cleander 86 Arabs besiege 110, 112 and Angolan war 445
Boxer Rebellion 330, 330 US restores relations with 432 Clemenceau, Georges 349, 356, 356 Blue Mosque 208 astronaut 413
Britain transfers Hong Kong to war with India 420 Clement V, Pope 150 Byzantine Empire re-captures 147 “Bay of Pigs” 419
440, 454 war with Japan 383 Clement VI, Pope 152 Constantine founds 92 Castro comes to power 418
Buddhism 109, 115 Warring States period 50, 57, 61 Clement VII, anti-pope 156, 156 Crusades 130, 140 Castro retires 462
bureaucracy 69, 80 White Lotus sect 280 Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt 72, 72 fall of (1453) 168 Missile Crisis 420, 420
“burning of the books” 62 writing 28, 28, 29 Clermont, Council of (1095) 129 Ottoman conquest 160, 162, 166, Spanish-American War 329, 329
captures Formosa (Taiwan) 222, Xin dynasty 76 Clinton, Bill 449, 449, 450, 454, sugar production 327, 327
228 Yellow Turban revolt 86 166, 167 Ten Years’ War 313, 313
Christianity in 232, 241, 252–3, Yuan dynasty 153 455, 455 Venetians blockade 220 Cúcuta, Congress of (1821) 292
304 Zheng He’s voyages 158, 159, 161 Clive, Robert 259, 259 Constantius II, Emperor 92, 93, 94 Cugnot, Nicolas 274, 332
civil war 379, 406, 410 Zhou dynasty 37, 41, 41, 44 Clontarf, Battle of (1014) 126 Constantius Chlorus, Emperor 90, Cuiculco 70
collapse of Han Empire 87, 88 Clothar II, King of the Franks 108 Culloden, Battle of (1746) 252, 252,
communism 359, 368 Chincha Islands 312 Clovis, King of the Franks 100, 101, 91
Confucianism 47 Chinchorro 18, 19 Constitutional Convention (1787) 264
Cultural Revolution 425 Chinggids 153 102, 104 Cumberland Gap 225
demonstrations for reform 441 Chioggia, War of (1378–81) 156 Cluny Abbey 120, 120 272 Cunaxa, Battle of (401BCE) 53
Donglin scholars 207 Cniva 88–9 Continental Army 270 Curie, Marie 337
economy 467 Cnut (Canute), King of Denmark Continental Congress (1774) 267, Curzola, Battle of (1298) 149
eunuch faction 82, 83, 86 Curzon, Lord 334
expansion of 233 and England 126–7 269, 270 Cuzco 162
coal mining 138, 293, 329, 329 Contras 439, 441 Cyprian, St. 88
Cochinchina Campaign (1858–62) Cook, Captain James 265, 265, 267, Cyprus 139, 416, 424, 433, 453
Cyrene 45
307 269, 273 Cyril, St. 118
Codex Justinianus 102 Cooke, William Fothergill 296 Cyrillic script 118, 118
Coolidge, Calvin 363 Cyrus the Great 46, 47, 47
Copenhagen climate conference
(2009) 463
497
Czech Republic 450, 453 Denmark continued East India Company (English) Egypt continued Europe continued
Czechoslovakia overseas territories 422 Anglo–Maratha Wars 268, 285 Suez Canal 307, 313, 313 postwar division 406, 406
Prussian–Danish War 309, 309 Battle of Plassey 259 Suez Crisis 416, 416, 422 revolutions of 1848 302
communist coup 408 reign of Christian VII 264 China tea trade 278 Third Intermediate Period 37, 41 volcanic ash from Iceland 463,
end of communism 446 Russo–Swedish War 273 China unwilling to trade with 279 tomb of Tutenkhamun 463
federation dissolves 450 Thirty Years’ War 210, 210 college 280 discovered 360 World War II 388–9
Germany occupies Prague 386 wars with Sweden 192, 192, 207, establishment of 202, 202 Turko–Egyptian Wars 296, 297 see also individual countries
Munich agreement 385, 386 220 Fort William 232, 232 United Arab Republic 417
Prague Spring 427 World War II 390 India Act 271 war with Ethiopia 315, 318 European Coal and Steel
Soviet occupation 427 Mysore Wars 270, 281 wars with Persia 56 Community 414
Sudetenland crisis 385 Depression (1930s) 369, 370–71, and Seven Years’ War 260 wars with the Wahhabis 287, 289
Velvet Revolution 446, 446 371, 373, 373 Sikh Wars 303 European Economic Community
and Singapore 289 Eiffel, Gustave 323, 323 (EEC) 416, 416, 433
D Descartes, René 213 trading posts in India 223 Einstein, Albert 334, 334, 357, 411
Desert Fox, Operation (1998) 455 Treaty of Pondicherry 257 Eire 382 European Union 452–3
D-day landings (1944) 389, 400, 400 Despenser family 151 constitution 459
Dacia 74, 79, 80, 82 Dessalines, Jean-Jacques 284, East India Company (French) 222 see also Ireland euro 450, 455, 458, 458
Dada 347, 347 East Indies 201, 201, 208, 209, 214 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 397, 400, 426 euro debt crisis 465
Dahomey 218, 218, 243, 245, 253, 284, 285 East Pakistan see Bangladesh Eisenstein, Sergei 334 expansion of 460, 461
Diamond Sutra 118, 118, 154, 154 East Timor 455 El Dorado 208 Ireland rejects Lisbon Treaty 462
327, 327 Diana, Princess of Wales 454 Easter Island 125, 243, 243 El Paraiso 31 Maastricht Treaty 449
Dai Vet 133 Dias, Bartolomeu 171, 174, 176 Easter Rising (1916) 346, 346 Elagabalus, Emperor 87 Single Market 450
Daimler, Gottlieb 322, 332, 333 Dias, Dinis 163 Eastern Europe Elam 19
Daladier, Edouard 385, 390 Díaz, Porfirio 318, 336 Eleanor of Aquitaine 133 Spain and Portugal join 441
Dalai Lama 215, 241, 242, 418 Diderot, Denis 256 collapse of Soviet Union 442–3, Eleanor of Castile 149, 149 Eurostar 451
Damascus 130 Dillinger, John 378 448 electricity 298–9 Evelyn, John 221
Damascus, siege of (1148) 132, Dinnoura, Battle of (1185) 138 Everest, Mount 414, 415
Diocletian, Emperor 90, 91, 91 refugees 409 Franklin’s lightning conductor 256 evolution 12–17, 307
133 Diodotus 61 Warsaw Pact 415, 415 Leyden jar 253, 253, 298, 298 explorers 172–3
Damghan, Battle of (1729) 243 Dionysius I, King of Syracuse 56 see also individual countries lightbulbs 298–9, 320
Danegeld 125, 127 Dionysius, Papirius 86 eBay 454 Elizabeth I, Queen of England 197 navigation 238–9
Danelaw 119 Diriyah 289 Ebola virus 451 becomes Queen 189 Eyck, Jan van 161, 161
Danishmend 130 disease see medicine economy, global 466–7 closes harbors to Sea Beggars Eylau, Battle of (1807) 286
D’Annunzio, Gabriele 357, 357 Disney, Walt 384, 384, 432 Ecuador 247, 295 Eyre, Edward 312
Dante Alighieri 149, 150 DNA 12, 415, 428–9, 429 Edessa 129, 133 194
Danube, River 36, 73, 79 Dnieper River 119 Edison, Thomas 298, 298–9, 299, 320 death 202 F
Darby, Abraham 237 Dollfuss, Engelbert 378 Edo see Tokyo explorers 196
Dardanelles 156 Dolly the Sheep 454, 454 Edo period, Japan 190–91 Northern Rising 193 Fabriano 147
Darfur 459 Domesday Book 129, 129 Edward, Black Prince 153 Spanish Armada 197 Faisal, King of Saudi Arabia 434
Darius I the Great, King of Persia Dominican order 141, 142 Edward I, King of England 147, 149 Elizabeth Petrovna, Czarina 249 Faisal al-Saud 301
Dominican Republic 301 Edward II, King of England 151 Elizabeth II, Queen of England 414, Falkirk, Battle of (1298) 149
46–7, 46, 47, 50 Domitian, Emperor 79, 80, 80 Edward III, King of England 151, 152 Falklands War (1982) 438, 438–9
Darius III, King of Persia 58, 58 Don Quixote 207 Edward IV, King of England 167, 174 451 Faraday, Michael 298, 298, 299
dark matter 461 Donation of Pepin 114 Edward V, King of England 174 Empire State Building, New York Faroe Islands 126
Darwin, Australia 396 Dönitz, Admiral Karl 398 Edward VI, King of England 188 Fascism
Darwin, Charles 296, 296, 297, 297, Dorgon, Prince 215 Edward VII, King of England 330 372, 372
Dorylaeum, Battle of (1148) 133 Edward VIII, King of England 381 Ems telegram 314 British Union of Fascists 378,
307, 366, 428, 428 Dost Muhammad Khan 297 Edward the Confessor, King of Encyclopedia Britannica 265 378, 381
Daulatabad 151 dot-com bubble 456, 456 Enduring Freedom, Operation 456
David, King of Israel 40 Dou Xian 83 England 128 Engels, Friedrich 301, 301, 302, 303 Italy 361, 361, 363
Davison, Emily 337, 337 Drake, Sir Francis 196, 197 Edwards, Dr. Robert 435, 435 England see Britain see also Nazis
Dawes Plan 363, 369 Drepana, Battle of (249 BCE) 61 Egypt Enlightenment 256, 257, 261, 261, Fashoda Incident (1898) 329
Day of Dupes (1630) 211 Dresden 404, 404 Fasilides, Emperor of Ethiopia 213
de Gaulle, Charles 390–91, 417 Dreyfus, Alfred 331 agriculture 24, 250, 250 264, 265 Fat’h Ali Shah 280
Drusus 73 Arab Spring 464 Enron 456 Fatimid Caliphate 120, 130, 131, 136
and Algeria 419, 420 Dukakis, Michael 445 artefacts 38–9 Epaminondas 56–7 Fattouh, Rawhi 460
death 431 Dunhuang caves 105 Assyrian invasion 44 Epirus 60 Fawkes, Guy 203, 203
liberation of Paris 400, 401 Dunkirk 390, 390 development of civilization 19, 24 Eric the Red 125 Fechter, Peter 420
and protest movement 427 Durand, Peter 55 Dual Control of 321 Eritrea 455 Federer, Roger 463
de Klerk, F.W. 446, 448 Durrani people 248 Fashoda Incident 329 Esarhaddon, King of Assyria 45 Fehrbellin, Battle of (1675) 225, 225
de Valera, Éamon 373 Dust Bowl 378 First Intermediate Period 27 Estonia 392, 453 Felix V, anti-pope 163
Dead Sea Scrolls 406 Dutch Republic French campaign in 281, 281 Estonia, MS 451 feminism 420, 421
Decebalus, King of the Dacians 79, Great Rebellion of the Satraps 56 ETA 433, 461 Ferdinand I, Czar of Bulgaria 323,
Franco–Dutch War 224 glyphs 28, 28, 29, 30 Ethiopia (Abyssinia)
80 in East Indies 208, 209 independence 360 323, 335
Decius, Quintus, Emperor 88–9 Triple Alliance 241 invades Sudan 292 capital at Gondar 213, 213 Ferdinand I, King of Castile 127, 127
Declaration of Independence War of the Quadruple Alliance invasion of Syria 295, 296, 300 Eritrean War 455 Ferdinand II, Emperor 208, 209, 211
Mamluks 143, 146, 149, 292 famine 439, 439, 441 Ferdinand II, King of Aragon 169,
(1776) 269, 269 242, 242 medicine 282 Italian invasions 328, 328, 379, 380
Declaration of the Rights of Man wars with Spain 209 metalworking 54 kingdom of Aksum 93 171, 175, 177
see also Netherlands Middle Kingdom 27, 30, 33, 34 military coup 433 Ferdinand III, King of Castile and
276–7 Dutch Revolt (1566–1648) 189, mummies 30 Solomonid dynasty 147, 147
Deerfield, Massachusetts 236 Nasser leads coup 414 war with Egypt 315, 318 Léon 143, 143
Delhi 193–7, 193, 201, 201, 206 navigation 238 Etna, Mount 233, 233 Ferdinand VII, King of Spain 286,
Dyrrachium, Battle of (49 BCE) 71 New Kingdom 33, 34, 37 Eton College 162, 162
Afghans sack 259 Dzungaria basin 256 Old Kingdom 25, 26, 27, 33 Etruscans 41, 44, 45, 53, 53 287, 292
capital moved to 336–7 in Ottoman Empire 179, 267, 284, Euclid 132 Ferrara, Council of (1438) 162
Delhi durbar 336 E Eudo, Duke 113 Fibonacci, Leonardo 140
Khalji dynasty 149 287 Eugene, Prince of Savoy 236, 237 Field of Lies 117
Nader Shah occupies 248, 253 Earhart, Amelia 373, 373, 383 peace process with Israel 434, Eugenius, Flavius 95 Finland 249, 387, 387, 390, 452
Sultanate of 139, 158, 166 East Germany Eugenius III, Pope 133 Firuz 149
Delian League 51 435 Euric, King of the Visigoths 100 Fish and Sundays River 269
Demetrius I, King of the Seleucids Berlin Wall 419, 419, 420, 420, Ptolemaic dynasty 60 Europe Fitch, John 272, 272
447, 447, 448 pyramids 25, 25 Bronze Age 24 FitzGerald, Edward 130, 130
67 Ramesses II’s reign 36 Christianization of 157 Five Pecks of Rice sect 86
Demetrius Poliorcetes 60 closes border with West 414 religion 34, 35, 35 early civilizations 27 Flanders 170, 151, 349
Denisova Cave, Russia 16 end of Communism 446–7 renounces Suez Treaty 414 establishment of NATO 410 Flavius Severus, Emperor 91
Denmark see also Germany Rome annexes 72 explorers 172–3 Fleming, Sir Alexander 368, 368
East India Company (Dutch) 202, Rosetta Stone 281, 281 first humans 16 flight 364–5
conversion to Christianity 124 Sadat assassinated 438 Iron Age 40
explorers 173 202, 222 Six-Day War 425, 425 Little Ice Age 228, 228, 233 airliners 377
Great Northern War 237 Marshall Plan 407, 408 Concorde 365, 365, 431, 458, 458–9
joins EEC 433, 452 development of international air
Oresund Link 456
travel 360
498
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Timelines of History_ The Ultimate Visual Guide To The Events That Shaped The World
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Timelines of History_ The Ultimate Visual Guide To The Events That Shaped The World
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