Eco, Umberto - De la arbore spre labirint - scan

5OO DE LAARBORE SPRE LABIRINT

astfel de structura incat s6 poata vorbi nu doar despre Lume (care i
ca parte a Lumii qi a procesului prin
se opune), ci Ei despre ea insdEi poate funcliona ca interpretant. Insi

.u"" parte a interpretatului,
in ac"eus,t punct nu am mai avea un model, ci chiar ceea ce modelul
incearcd in mod neindemAnatic sd descriea,
Si acceptdm, prin urmare, din comoditate 9i din cerinle de simpli-
ficare, s6 ne gandim pe de o parte la o Lume, iar pe de alta Ia o Minte
care o interpreteazS sau care o imbogSleEte cu noi configuralii posibile.
Prima ipotezd.. s[ ne imaginSm cd Lumea este compusd din trei
atomi (1, 2, 3), iar Mintea din trei simboluri (A, B, C)' Acestea ar
putea s5 se combine in qase moduri diferite, dar dacd ne-am margini
s6 considerbm Lumea in starea ei actuald (cu istoria ei cu tot), am
putea presupune c6 ea este prevazuta cu o structuri stabild, dat[ de
ar fi specularS, iar adevbrul
aEdir.UaefqZuSat(icoa1ren ifiegturinate1)ll.eDcatucs[ ,cMunionatqetaereaar
atribui in chip nearbitrar

atomului l- simbolul A, atomului 2 simbolul B, atomului 3 simbolul c,
iar prin tripleta ordonati de simboluri ABC ar reprezenta structura
Lumii. De fapt, Mintea nu ,,ar interpreta" Lumea, ci at reprezenta-o

specular.

ABG

Lumne Mnnte

Figura 1

f. imi dau seama ci aceastd ipotez6 priveqte indeaproape noliunea
schellingiand de Absolut, unde nu mai exista deosebire intre un subiect
care gArideqte lucrul in sine gi ceea ce mai inainte era considerat lucrul
in sine. Dar poate cd schelling era mult mai pulin ,,idealist" (in sensul

r6u al termenului) decdt a fost el inleles - qi era mai degrabd spinozist'
Nu intenliona nicidecum sd spund c6 nu exista ceva in afara gandirii qi
subiectului, ci cd subiectul 9dei soigb_ieurc,tunlosi u(cnutltduoruad)
cd lumea e crealie a substanle universale gi cd,
aspecte ale aceleiaqi
cunoaEtem lumea in forma in care o gandim, dar o gdndim in respectiva
forma sau respectivele forme tocmai fiindca suntem parte a eillor.

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rOs rruYJtrudusJ,Nl trTuJII U'I S YSV'IS VSUIONVC

502 DE LA ARBORE SPRE LABIRINT

tripletelor, limbajul Minlii ar trebui si se adecveze continuu la diferite
situa!ii.

Dacd insi Lumea ar fi, dimpotrivi, hiperstructurati in mod stabil,

adici daci ar fi organizatd potrivit unei structuri unice date de o

anumitd secvenlE de zece atomi, Mintea ar avea tot qase triplete de
simboluri pentru a descrie aceastd hiperstructuri. Ar trebui, prin

urmare, si incerce s-o descrie doar cdte o bucatd o datd, dupd niEte

perspective locale, Ei nu ar avea niciodati posibilitatea sd o descrie
in toatd deplindtatea ei. Dar tocmai alegerea acestor solulii parliale
ar permite mereu priviri inovatoare Ei inedite (figura 3).

A treia ipotezd, Mintea are mai multe elemente decAt Lumea. p
Mintea dispune de zece simboluri (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J), iar (,
Lumea numai de trei atomi (7,2,3), ca in figura 3. Nu doar atdt; L
n
Mintea poate combina aceste zece simboluri in dublete, triplete, cvadru- s
plete qi aEa mai departe. E ca gi cum am spune c5. structura cerebrald a
p
ar avea mai mulli neuroni gi mai multe posibilitdli de combinare p
intre neuroni decdt numdrul atomilor gi al combinaliilor lor iden-
tificabile in Lume. Este evident cd aceastd ipotezi ar trebui s6 fie tI
imediat abandonatd, deoarece contrasteazS. cu ideea ini{iati cd gi ir

Mintea ar fi parte din Lume: ar fi un soi de divinitate foarte gAnditoare a
care trebuie sd dea seami de o lume foarte s[rdcdcioas6, care, pe cl
lAngd toate acestea, nu o cunoaqte, fiindcd a fost cdrpdcitd de un
Demiurg lipsit de fantezie. ins[ ne vom putea gAndi Ei la o lume care Cl
intr-un fel secretd mai multe res cogitans decAt res extensa, cu alte
cuvinte a produs un numdr destul de redus de structuri ce se pot

gAndi, folosind pulini atomi, gi line in rezervd alli atomi pentru a-i
folosi doar ca simboluri ale Minlii. Rezult[ de aici ci Mintea ar avea

un numdr astronomic de combinalii de simboluri pentru a reprezenta

o structurd. mundand 123 (sau cel mult cele pase combinalii posibile),

totdeauna dintr-un punct de vedere diferit. Mintea ar putea, de exemplu,
sd reprezinte I23 (prin calcul combinatoriu) prin 3.628.800 de dublete,

dintre care fiecare n-ar aspira sd dea seamd doar de \23, ci si de ora

Ei ziua in care este reprezentat, de starea interni a Minlii inseqi in
acel moment, de intenliile qi de scopurile potrivit cdrora Mintea il

reprezintd. Ar fi un exces de gdndire fali de simplitatea lumii, iar

rezerva de reprezentdri posibile ar exceda numdrul posibilelor structuri

existente. $i poate cd se intAmpld intr-adevir astfel, dat fiind cd
putem minli gi construi lumi fantastice, putem imagina Ei prevedea

stdri de lucruri alternative (figura 4).

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504 DE LA ARBORE SPRE LABIRINT

lnsb nu se cere sd spunem care dintre cele patru ipoteze este cea

bund. Experimentul mental servea si arate cb., oricum ar sta lucrurile,

nu doar ci e posibil si facem sd convieluiasci pluralitatea interpre-

tdrilor cu prezumlia de legalitate a obiectului interpretat, ci de-a

dreptul nu ar avea sens sd incercdm toate interpretdrile decAt dacd

s-ar presupune ceva de interpretat.

Cred ci problema recunoscutei legalitlli a obiectului duce la o

distinclie intre o filosofie a conjecturii si a interpretanlei Ei o filosofie
a gAndirii slabe. Existd o definilie minimali si neingenud de realism
potrivit cdreia este realist cel care socoteEte ci lucrurile merg ?.ntr-uru
qnumit mod, deqi nu Etim bine in care qi poate nu vom ajunge niciodatd

s-o Etim. Chiar dacd ar fi convins cd nu va ajunge niciodatd sd gtie

cum merg lucrurile, realistul de soiul acesta ar continua sd investigheze

mersul lucrurilor, sperAnd sd ajungd la niqte aproximdri satisf[cdtoare

gi fiind gata in permanenld sd-qi corecteze propriile interpretiri in
cazul in care lucrurile ar opune vreo rezistenld la ,,lecturile" sale.
Aceasta din cauzd cd realistul respectiv porne;te de Ia principiul ci
gi dacd lucrurile ar merge in fiecare zi in alt fel (dacd lumea nu ar
avea reguli), acesta ar fi tot modul in care merg lucrurile (regula de

fier care ratificd iregularitatea permanenti). Chiar dacd se acceptd
deci c[ descrierile pe care le furnizdm despre Lume (sau despre un

text ca Lume) sunt intotdeauna prospective, aceasta nu ar impiedica
lecturile noastre s5 caute s6, adecueze lumea, cel pulin dintr-o anumitd

perspectivd Ei fdrd sd considere vreodatd ci lecturile noastre, chiar ;i

atunci cAnd apar in cele din urmd ca ,,bune", trebuie socotite definitive.
Iar cum in aceastd secvenlA de interpretdri ne mentinem la parametrul
faptelor pe care le avem de interpretat (chiar daci numai local qi

dintr-o anumitd perspectivd), trebuie relinut cd faptelor li se pot da

atAt lecturi juste, cAt qi lecturi delirante.

Dar s-a suslinut cu adevirat vreodatd cd nu existi fapte, ci numai
interprethri? Vattimo qi Rovatti nu greEeau reclamdndu-se de Ia
Nietzsche, deoarece acolo este expusi aceastd teorie, mai ales in

textul intitulat De spre adeud.r gi minciund i.n sens extramoral (Nietzsche

1873), pe care l-am discutatinKant si ornitorincul.Deoarece natura
qi-a aruncat cheia, intelectul mizeaz6, pe ficliuni pe care le numeEte

adevdr sau sistem de concepte, bazat pe legiferarea limbajului. Noi

credem cd vorbim despre (qi cunoaEtem) copaci, culori, zdpadd si flori,
dar sunt metafore care nu corespund esenlelor originare. Fiecare
cuvAnt devine concept nivelAnd in palida-i universalitate diferenlele

dintre lucruri fundamental inegale: astfel, credem ci in raport cu

mullimea frunzelor individuale ar exista o ,,frtrnz6" primordiald,,dupd

modelul cdreia ar fi fost urzite, desenate, circumscrise, colorate,
increlite, zugrdvite - dar de niqte mAini neindemAnatice - toate

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IIUVJSUdUSJNI g'ISJ]I^II1 S VSVTS VSTIICNYC

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506 DE LA ARBORE SPRE LABIRINT

pentru omul treaz o figurd atAt de feluritd, neregulatd, lipsiti de
consecvente, incoerentd, incitanth gi veqnic nou6, care e dat6 de
lumea visului" (ib.: 369).

Dacd acestea sunt premisele, prima posibilitate ar fi s6 refuzdm
ceea ce ne inconjoard (qi chipul in care cdutdm zadarnic sd ordondm

ceea ce me inconjoard) ca sd ne refugiem in vis ca fug6 de realitate.
Nietzsche, intr-adevdr, il citeazd pe Pascal, pentru care ar fi de-ajuns
s[ visdm cu adevdratin toate noplile cd suntem regi ca sd fim fericifi,
dar apoi admite (ib.:370) c5. aceastd putere a artei asupra vielii ar

fi o inselare, chiar dacd una extrem de plini de desfdtare. Sau, si
aceasta este ceea ce posteritatea nietzscheand a primit ca leclie
adevdratd, arta poate spune ceea ce spune deoarece este Fiinla insdEi,
in lanceda-i slibiciune si generozitate, care acceptd orice definifie qi se
bucurd vdz6nd cum e v6.zutb. ca schimbitoare, visdtoare, extenuat-
-viguroasd ;i victorios de slab[, nu ca ,,plind.tate, prezenfi, temei, ci

gAndith in schimb ca fracturS, absenld de temei, in definitiv ca tra-
valiu gi durere" (Vattimo 1980: 84). Fiin{a, prin urmare, poate fi
vorbiti numai intrucAt se afld. in declin, nu se impune, ci se risipeEte.

Ne afldm deci la o ,,ontologie sustinutd de categorii .slabeu (Vattimo
1980: 9). Vestirea morlii lui Dumnezeu nu va fi prin urmare altceva

decAt afirmarea sfAr;itului structurii stabile a Fiinlei (Vattimo 1g88 :
21). Fiinla se va da doar ,,ca suspendare qi ca sustragere" (Vattimo
1994: 18).

Nu vreau sd discut dac6, in perspectiva gdndirii slabe, Fiinla ar
mai trebui sb se scrie cu majusculi (nici Vattimo nu o face). M6
menfin la experimentul mental propus mai sus ;i propun sd nu
vorbim de Fiinfh, ci de Lume (dacd ,,Die Welt is alles, was der Fall ist"
Ei dacd numim Lume ceea ce se dd, cazul sd existe). Problema este ce
anume ne impiedicd sd credem c6 toate perspectivele sunt bune, cd
fi doar un efect de
Lumea ar limbaj Ei, pe lAngd faptul c6 este maleabild
Ei slabd, ar fi pur flatus uocis,
deci operd a Poetilor, inleleEi ca

fantezisti, mincinosi, imitatori ai nimicului, capabili sd puni in mod
iresponsabil un cap de cal pe un trup uman qi s6 facd din orice
fiinJare o himerd.

Inainte de toate, odatb incheiate socotelile cu Lumea, ne vom
pomeni din nou cd trebuie sd ni le incheiem cu subiectul care emite

acest flatus uocis (care este chiar limita oricdrui idealism magic). Iar
in al doilea rAnd, dacd e principiu hermeneutic acela cd nu existd
fapte, ci doar interpret[ri, aceasta nu exclude insd existenla unor
interpretdri ,,rele". Nu existd figuri cAgtigdtoare in poker care se nu
fie construitd, de o alegere (fie Ei incurajatd de intAmplare) a jucdtorului,

dar aceasta nu inseamnd cd orice figurd propusd de jucdtor este

cAgtig[toare. Ar fi de ajuns ca brelanului meu de aEi celdlalt s6-i

opun6. o chinti regali, qi miza mea s-ar dovedi ingeldtoare. Existd in

JB (gclllrloln€ ards rieurlcul urind reurl uile gcpurg 9su3 '1ueurn8're u,
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rnlnrolrpa 'etp9o1gtrpadpt1peleapuanrlds
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- lugurgd ap csa?Jn1 es ri p'reoqz osulAuoc gJlseaJal ad gcun"re as
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L}s IIUYJSUdUTJNI S'ISJII UT S YSVTS VSUIONVC

508 DE LAARBORE SPRE LABIRINT

putea folosi acea butadi drept argument, rdmdne valabild obiec{ia

mea: sigur cd o Eurubelnili poate servi foarte bine ca si deschizi un

pachet, dar nu e consiliabil sd te scarpini cu ea in ureche, pentru c6

e prea tiioasd Ei prea lungd ca mAna sd-i poatd controla actiunea; de

aceea va fi mai bine si folosim un beligag uFor care sd aibd la vArf
un ghemotoc de vatd. Faptul inseamnd, de altfel, si ne intoarcem
atdt la notiunea de affordance propusd de Gibson (1966), cdt qi la
aceea de pertinenld in ce prive;te o anumitd practicd, propusi de
Prieto (1975). Existi ceva in conformalia atAt a corpului meu, cAt gi

a qurubelni$ei care nu-mi permite sd interpretez qi s-o folosesc pe
aceasta din urmd dupd propriul meu capriciu.

$i iatd de ce in Kant gi ornitorincul suslineam cd ar trebui recunoscut
unnucleu dur al fiinlei, de aqa naturd incdt unele lucruri pe care le
spunem despre el gi pentru el sd nu poati Ei s[
luate drept bune (iar si nu trebuiascd s6 fie
dacd sunt spuse de Poeli fie luate drept bune

doar intrucAt se referd la o lume posibilS, dar nu la lumea faptelor

reale),

Vorbind despre ,,nucleu dur" nu inlelegeam ceva cum ar fi ,,sAmbure
stabil" pe care am putea intr-o zi sau alta sd-l identificim, nu Legea
legilor, ci, mai prudent, niqte liruii de rezisten{d care fac zadarnice

unele aborddri ale noastre. Tbcmai increderea in aceste linii de rezistenld
ar trebui si conducd Ei discursul hermeneutului, deoarece, daci el ar
admite cd despre fiinln sau despre Lume se poate spune orice, nu ar
mai avea sens tensiunea intelectuali Ei morali care-i cilduzeqte

interogarea continui - Ei i-ar fi de-ajuns s[ se desfete cu cuvinte in

libertate. Iar pe de altd parte, ci existd niqte limite gtia qi Heidegger,

altfel n-ar fi focalizat cu atAta energie problema Morlii - limita qi

tendinla cosmicd prin excelenld.

Cdnd considerim cd am aflat din experienli cd natura prezintd

tendinle stabile, nu e necesar sb ne gdndim la legi complexe, cum ar
fi cea a gravitalei universale, ci la experienle mai simple gi nemijlocite,

cum ar fi aparentul apus Ei rdsirit de soare, faptul cd lucrurile cad

pe pdmAnt gi nu plutesc in sus, existenla speciilor. Universaliile vor
fi fiind ele qi maimutdreli qi infinitdli ale gdndirii, dar, odati identificate

ca specii un cAine qi o pisicd, inv6!6m imediat cd dacd unim un cdine

cu un c6ine se naste un cAine, dar daci unim un cAine cu o pisicd nu

se naqte nimic - qi, chiar dacd s-ar naEte, ar fi incapabil si se reproducd.
Aceasta incd nu inseamnd cd s-a recunoscut o realitate (darwiniani

sau platonicd.) a genurilor gi speciilor, ci vrea doar sd sugereze c6 a
vorbi prin generalia poate fi un efect al acelei penuria nominum a
noastre, dar la inventarea termenilor generali (a ciror extensie o

peuvteamlapbeilrimoabnieenctliarecvei dbeiaoteEihcnoorleocgtaia) ne-a impins ceua rezistent. Nu

ar putea intr-o zi sd duci la
depigirea acestor linii de tendinld qi la crearea unei noi specii care

I€ lleroJd un adnJoJluI Inluaprcul nldrurs r€ ln4 'ea.rnpgd aurq IBru AJ€J
elnte J€-ur plenl €argrgloq gc urind
csounc gs ap r6n19c g-rn8rse Pru nu Bi p
Bls€oce rep '(ou;, rn1 rugldrualuot alatu rrier.L lnlsal ulqcul ru-Ps €t
nN:
rqcunJl ad gur-npugza6e 'r,Ido Pur B ap ealerypqrsod rS eerre 3e 'soddrsdrq3
rnl alaurga ap arrqasoap a"rds 'pc rS uralnupe 9s 16; lPrPpuI 3rolu3 gru ps O EIS

cspJgloq pur ps nes e8ugls BI n€I o-s nBS eldearp BI nBI o-s arJ rnqaJl e lu
€A gJ .rn8rs '1nurn.rp gcrpardur! IruI aJBt rI{JunJl un csasg8 'a-rnppd
ur.rd leqprls o aJEc ad ua.rerpa ad 'gceg ',,I3o1" a16ru csaugop as qc Bpc
apurlard as nu gcul 'giuelsrza'r ap rS giurpual ap rrurl a16ru uralAeou
-ncal gs gFIIqo ou aJ€c €Aoc e eiuoreadxa ardsep alSaq"ro,r as pu93 Pu€Ii
'alurBuJ 'Pcnl

asasnds as at aaac aunds uolnd Ieur as nu 9c sulluoc B-au ae piuepr.la nu E
o algc ap ,,1ndec nc 1Bp ur€" '€68 ruaunds Bs Bc '€aace gdnq 'g1ep
g11e esnds lsoJ ne IJnJcnl e1sace gJRzea1uox n11'aunds 1od as nu oJ€J aure
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JB Ia
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BI IS
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609 TIUYJ,SUdUSJNI S'ISJINI'I SA YSV'IS VSUICNYC

510 DE LA ARBORE SPRE LABIRINT

meu gi md face s6. nbscocesc un altul, A afirma ci existi niste linii de
rezistenld incd nu inseamn[ a afirma, impreuni cu Peirce, cd existd

legi universale care opereazd in naturd.. Ipoteza unei legi e doar unul

dintre modurile in care se reacfioneazdla intAmpinarea unei rezistente.

insd Habermas, ciutAnd nucieul criticii lui Peirce fald de lucrul in
sine kantian, subliniazi faptul cd problema peirceand nu este aceea
de a spune cA ceva (ascuns in spatele aparenlelor care ar voi s5-l

oglindeascd) are, precum oglinda, o laturi posterioard ce scapd

reflectirii, o laturd pe care suntem aproape siguri ci intr-o zi o vom
descoperi, cu conditia s5. reugim si intoarcem figura pe care o vedem:

este cd realitatea impune restriclii cunoaqterii noastre doar in sensul
cd refuzd interpretiri false (Habermas 1995: 251).

A afirma cd existd linii de rezistenti inseamni doar c[, chiar dac6

apare ca efect de limbaj, Lumea ne prezintd mereu ceva care e de.iu

dat^qi nu este pus de noi. Acest deja dat sunt chiar liniile de rezistenld.

In Kant gi ornitorinczl spuneam ci aparitia acestor rezistente

este lucrul cel mai apropiat ce se poate gdsi, inainte de orice Filosofie

Primb sau Teologie, de ideea de Dumnezeu sau de Lege - desigur, un

Dumnezeu care se prezintd ca purd Negativitate, purd Limitd, pur

,,Nu", ceva foarte diferit de Dumnezeul religiilor revelate, din care ia
trdsiturile cele mai severe, de StipAn exclusiv al Interdicliei, care

inlelege doar si repete ,,tu nu vei mAnca din acest pom". Cum insd

un cititor avizat a identificat in aceste afirmalii ale mele propunerea
unei noi dovezi a existenlei lui Dumnezeu, imi revine obligalia de a-i

completa scizuta sensibilitate in ce priveste manevrele hi elocutio,

fdcdndu-l sd observe (aEa cum in cazurile cele mai disperate suntem

obligali sd explicdm o glumd) cd nu inseamnd ch liniile de rezisten{d

sunt o metaford pentru Dumnezeu, ci dimpotrivS, ideea unui Dumnezeu

care spune ,,nu" e cea care are funclie de metaford pentru liniile de

rezistentS..

$i, dat fiind cd cerinla de a nu fi greEit inleles mb obligd si explic
Ei metaforele, denunlAndu-le ca atare, este clar cd e metafori Ei a
spune ci liniile de rezistenld ne opun niste ,,nu"-uri. Lumea ne opune
niste ,,nu"-uri in acela;i mod in care ni le opune o cArtili cireia i-am
cere sd zboare. Nu inseamnd. cd acea cArtild iqi di seamacb,nu poate
sd zboare. CArtila inainteazd in drumul ei terestru Ei subteran, in

mod pozitiv, gi nu cunoaEte condilia de a nu fi cArti!6. Ea se cArtileazd

pe ea insdsi cdrtifAnd.

Sigur, animalul intAlneqte obstacole si se chinuie sd le miEte din
loc; sd ne gAndim la cAinele care rAcAie la uqa inchisd muEcAndu-i
clanfa. Dar in astfel de cazuri animalul e pe cale sd se apropie de o

condilie asemdndtoare cu a noastre, manifestd dorinle si proiecte, si

tocmai in raport cu dorinta (sau cu instinctul) lui limita se pune ca
atare. O uEd inchis[ in sine nu e un ,,nu", ba chiar ar putea fi un ,,da"

i arBlB €l

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'€aur elcas uI €JluI Ba?nd J" rcunle o?
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514 BIBLIOGRAFIE

Beonio-Brocchieri Fumagalli, Maria Teresa
1969 La Logica di Abelardo. Florenfa: La Nuova Italia.
1987 ,,I-lintellettuale". In Jacques Le Goff, ed., L'uomo medieuale. Bari'. Laterza.

Beonio-Brocchieri Fumagalli, Maria Teresa, ed.
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534 BIBLIOGRAFIE

L966 The Art of Memory. Londra: Routledge (trad. it. L'arte della memoria, Torino:
Einaudi,1972).

Zambelli, Paola

1965 ,,Il De auditu Kabbalistico e la tradizione lulliana nel Rinascimento".ln Atti
dell'accademid toscana di scienze e lettere ,,La Colombarlo" XXX, 1965 (in prezent
in L'apprendista stregone. Astrologia, cabala e arte lulliana in Pico della Mirandola
e seguoci. Venelia: Marsilio, 1995).

Zellini, Paolo
1980 Breue storia dell'infinifo. Milano: Adelphi.

IZZ.BIZ.66I .9II .?II .IOI EPAg 'T0r-00r'86-68'88-28'91'71'e9-09

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'4a,

INDEX

Belot, Jean 331 Calboli, Gualtiero 60, 515
Beltran, Evencio 513 Calimani, Riccardo 264, 5I5
Beonio-Brocchieri Fumagalli, Maria Tbresa Callahan, Daniel 266
Callimachos 26
24,2rr,301,309,513 Callistene 26
Berg, Jan 514 Cam6n Aznar, Jos6 219,240,5I5
Bergson, Henri-Louis 267, 270 Campanelli, Cosimo 269, 515
Berkeley, George 397 Carnap, Rudolf 302,5I5
Bermudo, Pedro 39 Caro, Annibal 499
Bernard de Chartres 110, 116, I2I,209- Carreras y Artau, Tomirs Joaqfin347 ,349,

-2rl 359,515
Carruthers, Mary 33, 224,5L5
Bernardo Silvestre 121 Casaubon, Isaac 198, 202,2I3
Bernart de Venzac 109 Casciato, Maristella 5 15
Bertini, Ferruccio 111, 514
Biard, Jodl 514 Cases, Cesare 493
Bierwisch, Manfred 481, 514
Binkley, Peler 24, 32, 514 Cassirer, Ernst 406, 4l2,lLE
Biolez, Jean 266
Bioy Casares, Adolfo 85 Cavazza, Marc 516
Black, Deborah 514
Black, Max 62,514 Cavini, Walter 516
Boas, George I49,5L4 Cecco d'Ascoli 31-32
Boehner, Philothetus 321, 323, 514 Ceflal, Ram6n 39, 516
Boethius din Dacia 254-255 Cevolini, Alberto 78, 81-82, 516
Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus 9-10, Chenu, M.D. 199, 201,209, 5\6
Cherchi, P.24,516
15-16,90,96, 137, 139, 145, 173-176, Childers, Peter G. 54,531
178, 186, 2L2, 254, 288, 291-292, 306- Chrysippos 150-151, 153-155, 157, 159-
-308, 313, 319, 321, 324, 344-345
Bogges, WE.F. 98-99, I04,514 -160,509
Bolzoni, Lina 514
Bonald, Louis de 382 Cicero 24,70, 76, 78, 107, Il4, 174, 386,
Bonaventura da Bagnoregio I45, 2L6, 28I
Bonfantini, Massimo 42I, 422, 5L4 487
Bonomi, Andrea 514
Bord, Janet 50, 515 Clavius, Cristophorus 360, 362
Borges, Jorge Luis 7 I, 7 8, 85, 92-93, 37 7 - Clement Alexandrinul 114-115
-378 Cocteau, Jean267
Coqeriu, Eugen 481
Bori, Pier Cesare 116, 515 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 286-287
Bossanquet, Bernard 389, 515
Boullier, David 156 Collison, R. 24, 516
Br6al, Michel 477 -479, 515 Columella 158
Bruner, Jerome 515 Compagnon, Antoine 116, 208,516
Buffon, Georges-Louis 28-29, L56
Buridan, Giovanni 102-104, 292 Comparetti, Domenico 121, 516
Busi, Giulio 264,51,5 Condillac, Etienne Bonnot de 156
Butterworth, Charles E. 91-93, 515
Buyssens, Eric 481, 515 Copernic, Nicolaus 59, 2lL

c Corcoran, John 516
Corti, Maria 254-255, 263, 516
Calboli Montefusco, Lucia 60 Corvino, Francesco 324, 516
Coumet, Ernest 362, 516
Court6s, Joseph 479, 48L, 52I
Coussemaker, Edmond de 291
Croce, Benedetto 272, 289, 463-47 4, 516
Curtius, Ernst R. 128, 273, 288-289, 516
Cusanus, Nicolaus 359, 462

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q

189 XGCNI

INDEX

Geyer, B. 112, 169-170, 309-310, 521 Herren, Michael W. 109, 29L,522
Ghisalberti, Alessandro 52 1
Giacomo Veneto 90 Hildegard von Bingen LI},244
Gibson, James J. 508, 521 Hillel da Verona 262-263
Gil, Ferdinand 18 Hillgarth, Jocelyn N. 353, 522
Gilbert de Poitiers 137 Hippolit din Roma 114,220,242
Gilbert, Katharine 290 Hjelmslev, Louis 21, 75, 301, 448,479,
Gilson, Etienne 197, L99,521
509,522
Giovanni di San Tbmmaso (Johannes Hogrebe, Wolfram 522
Hiiltgen, Carl Josef L65,522
Poinsot) 274,283,296 Holtz, L. 106-107, L78,522
Giulio Camillo Delminio 36, 71 Honorius din Autun 81, 97, 101, 118
Glunz, Hans 289, 291-292, 521 Hookway, Christopher 522
Gombrich, Ernst 454, 521 Horapollon 165
Goodman, Nelson 194-195, 52L Hugo de Fouilloy 159, 164, 233
Gorni, Guglielmo 264, 52L Hugo de Saint-Victor 97, 109, 115, 120,
Gouguenheim, Sylvain 240-24L, 52I
Gould, Stephen Jay 418, 521 159
Grabmann, Martin 209, 52L Huizinga, Johan 288-289, 291-292, 522
Grazia, Roberto 422, 514 Hume, David 399, 460-461
Gregorio din Rimini 159 Hungerland, Isabel C. 326-328,522
Gregory, T\rllio 210, 521
Greimas, Algirdas Jdien 479-482, 52I Husserl, Edmund 302, 400, 4L4,522
Grossatesta, Roberto9O, LOL, 2L2, 29I
Groupe p 521 I
Gruber, Tom R. 58, 521
Grtinbaum, Adolf 459-460, 52 1 Idel, Moshe 258-259, 26L-262, 343, 351
Guattari, Frangois 51, 517 Ieronim (sfAntul) 117, 160, 198, 216, 218,
Guichard, Estienne 367
Guiilaume de Saint Thierry 97 220
Guillaume de Conches 102, ll2,119, 210, Immanuel Romanul 263
Ioan al Crucii, SfAntul 271
313 Ioan din Dacia 101, 182
Ioan Evanghelistul 3 1, 2L5-216, 220, 223,
Guiraut de Bomeill 109
Guldin, Pierre 361-362 225-227 ,230-231, 238, 240-24L
Ioannes Saracenus 204
Gundisalvi, Domenico 101-102 Irineu din Lyon 220,242
Isidor din Sevilia 31-32, 101, 107, 114,

118, 158, 182, 199, 258,381-382, 387
Iulian Apostatul 383-384

H

Habermas, Jurgen 509-510, 522 Jackendoff, Ray 451, 523

Hackett, Jeremiah L02,522 Jakobson, Roman 5,73,523

Haiman, John 53, 522 Jeauneau, Edouard 2L0,523

Halm, Carolus 108,522 Johannes de Genduno 104

Havet, Julien 197,522 John Garlandia 97, 109, 110

Haywood, Ian 192,522 John ofSalisbury 100, 108' 110, I2I-122,

Heidegger, Martin 206,288,320, 382, 398- 204,2I0' 2II,304' 344-345
Johnston, Mark D. 335, 339, 341, 350, 523
-399, 493, 508,522

Helianus 26,154-155 K
Herman Germanul 91-99, 101-103

Hermes Tbismegistus 20t, 206 Kant, Immanuel 5, 7, 283, 286, 295, 397-

Herodot 26,156,262 -408, 4rt-4r6, 418-422, 458, 523

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9t8 '998 '298-198 uIr€IAI 'auuasratr l gzg'qtg '6IT '6 'O rnqlrv'dofa.to1
LZg'tgz '676 ozuacur,l 'rar6 'op1e8uary
gzg' Eg'0I-69 llrnf 'u€ru1o'I
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9t8-9?8'IZI snlqorcEl^l 996 qd"a(rslsoul'aqrcuooYy

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XSCNI

540 INDEX

Michelangelo, Buonarroti 190, 47 2-47 3 Pavel, Tomas 67-68, 528
Milhaud, Darius 267 Peeters, Bert 528
MiIl, John Stuart 303-304,325-328, 527 Peirce, Charles Sander 5, 23, 84, 282, 303-
Mill6s Vallicrosa, Jos6 M. 342,344, 527
Mondolfo, Rodolfo 52? -304, 314, 402, 408, 4L6-417, 422, 443-
Montaigne, Michel de 162 -444, 446-45L, 455-457,461, 495, 509,
Montano, Rocco 290, 527
Monti, Vincenzo 499 528
Moody, Ernest A. 9,323,527 Pellerey, Roberto 280, 528
Morestel, Pierre 356
Morpurgo-Tagliabue, Guido 474 P6pin, Jean I14, I27-I28,528
Morris, Charles 302, 479, 490, 527 Perani, Mauro 259, 528
Morus, Thomas 368 Petitot, Jean 528
Murphey, Murray G. 448,527 Petdfi, J6nos S. 54,528
Murphy, James B. 274,527 Petrus Hispanus 176, 306, 324, 314-315,
Mussato, Albertino 273
Philon din Alexandria 114, 115, 151, 155,
N 260

Nardi, Bruno 261,527 Picinelli, Filippo 165
Naud6, Gabriel 331 Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni 201,259,
Neckham, Alexander 118, 210
Neubauer, Fritz 54,527 331,351
Newton, Isaac 210-211, 400-401 Pietro da Mantova 324-325
Nietzsche, Friedrich 7 8-79, 493-494, 504- Pinborg, Jan 182, 184-185, 323,520,528
Pini, Giorgio 32I,529
-507, 527
Platzeck, Ehrard W 337, 343-347, 349-
Nishishara, H. Keith 4I3,526
Nuchelmans, Gabriel 320, 527 -350, 529
Plinius (cel BdtrAn) 25, 27 -29, 31-32, 81,
o
118, 154, 157-158, 164
Ockham, William of 165, 185, 282, 292, Plutarh 152-154, 156
306,313, 32L-328 Pohlenz, Max 149, L82,529
Polara, G. 109, 29L,529
Ogden, Charles K. 302, 479,527 Poliziano, Angelo 35
OIgiati, Francesco 266 Pombo, O19a24,34,529
Origen 115-117, t52, 208 Pomponius, Mela 26
Ortony, Andrew 528 Pons, Alain 47,529
Ottaviano, Carmelo 528 Ponzio, Augusto 314, 529
Owens, Joseph 138-139, 528 Popper, Karl 442, 484, 529

P Porfir 7-10, 12-14, L6, L9,22,28, 47, 44,
50, 90, 114, 139, 150, 152, 155-156,
Paci, Enzo 422,528 l-60, 165, 349,418,463
Pagani, lleana 254,528
Panofsky, Erwin 290, 528 Pottier, Bernard 54, 48t, 529
Paolucci, Claudio 448-450, 455-456, 461, Pouillon, Henry 266, 290-29I,529
Poulenc, Francis 267
528 Pozzato, Maria Pia 196,529
Pardies, Gaston 156 Prieto, Louis 331, 481, 508, 529
Pareyson, Luigi 467, 474,498,528 Priscianus 105, 178-182, 183, 210-211, 313
Pater, Walter 289 Priscillian din Avila 218
Paulmier-Foucart, Monique 81, 528 Proclus 200,206
Proni, Giampaolo 42t, 456-457, 574, 529
Putnam, Hilary 54, 69, 529

'60z'loz 'r.08z'-I00.2I9'I8-60I9'T68,I9'gII8I,-Z88IIr- 00q '9BZ 'C'IA qtrrpalrJ '8ut11aqrg
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ztg'T0z salrBqc'lornqJ, 0Lz ' L9?, {IIg 'oIlBS
289 '998 uu.{rl 'a{lpuroql
028'902 lrnJrg ulp seuloqJ/ TtS'09 olo€d'IIaEuEcrElu€S
Ig9 '8IZ '916 ,truag 'sraPuBS
918'T?r
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's1I 'I?-0t '88-r8 '9 alonuBug 'orn€seJ 08S '68U a5.roa.9 '.(rnqsluteg

LlI'l(II sorlr€q3 ap slropoal s
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08s '928 'z\E'82-zz puBrlrag 'llassnu
ztg' 06?,,t\€lsIpBtla' ztI1!\aI{rEXEJ,
zss '687-88? '628 parJIV 'ulsreJ t\g'r6l-t6l oplv rald 'I118^oU
992 ISln'I 'oIlSozVtO rTIarBdef
089 orlald 'rssou
Zgg 'lzg 'I 08 'ZtT earpuv 'ruorr€qEJ 089'T?8'08' L8'78 oloEd'Issou

J 9l-91 ErusoC 'lllassou
\Eg'rzz '912 orletd 'ouessog
ztg'16z lrB}I 'Bpoqo^s
06z'g\z sruoo-lulBs ulp ra8ns 089 '919 'LVZ'Z9l
' LEI'ZI1'801'Z0I auqrl'qae1e3-rarsou
9Z so{BsdurB'I ulp uo1€r1s
998 l{tnreg 'ezoutdg gtg 'I88 '998 ISInT 'ollalsog
Ogq '89 arrord 'lqal?suasou
Ztg'Z8l ueq 089 '882 uoiaH 'nEuasou

I I sauu€qof 'snrF.raq."rree8qureaddgg 099 '209 'I0t-00' Preqrlg 'f1rog
Zg9'IIg'391 1 1ne4'aPedg
08s'666'962'7,87,'q IN'ut1assog-pu€lou
I8S'89 uqof'e^\os 9?Z orqPlc ll oJiopou

Tgg Pr€qctg 'rfqe"rog 08S '88 dpaquttY 'sro^lg
998 aP ouloluY '1o're.rtg
8II 'I8 snIInI snIBC 'snuIIoS
0gg '962 uo^ HU 'ualalulg
688'8I8'ZBI'9ST olErros
18S 'I9? '69 ,{"t.rzg 'qlturg 167 snrsdolY '1Patg

Ig9 '99I-99I d;re141 'reqq8nelS 089 'Zg 1ne4 'rnoctg
T89 '89I '14 'aFPt'rrtg LZg' 6 Ln'208 Suorlsturv ro^I'spr€qclg
VIE'vtz '9II 'Z0T rolrr^-lul€S ap prBqcIU
I8S'062 uo^ o11O'uosturs
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ggl '98 .roEarg 'qcslag
tgz'ill.lu€q€rg aP ;a8tg g8-98 €l aP arrard 'agtusg

8Zq €crrug'rurPerBg ggg sroJue.rg'lauan8eg

869 'SqI 'IqI-0qI snct'rtdurg snlxag E Ln' 9Z-rZ stoSuerg'sl€loqEU
IZI sn?ErouoH snrnBtr\I 'snr.trag 8t, r
189 '80? 'T0? plrJII.t 'sre11eg
't9T '69I '8TI 'T8'Zt-I8 snrnEtr l'snueqeg
898 o^€4snc 'snualas
II
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I89 'IB? '9 .(.ruag 'foqcg
Ie9 'I6Z '696 sn11n1 'rassolqts

I'9 XSONI

542 INDEX

2L2, 247 , 265 , 267 -27 6, 27 9-280 , 282- w
-287, 29t, 29 4-299, 3 11-3 13, 345, 445,
462,497 Weinrich, Harald 71, 79, 533
Tlier, Jost 66,532 Wencelius, L6on 294, 533
Tlithemius, Iohanes (Johann Heidenberg) West, William N. 25, 533
206,352,357 White, Andrew D. 381-382, 533
Whitehead, Alfred North 461
U Wierzbicka, Anna 533
Wilhelm din Sherwood 315
Ulrich von Strasburg 121 Wilkins, John 5, 41, 43-45,82, 366, 368,
Uspenski, Boris A. 83,525
373-378, 386,402
V Wilks, Yorick 533
Willem van Moerbeke 90-91, 97-99, 103-
Valensise, P. 266
Valente, Luisa 116, 532 -104, L74, t77, L79,200,2L2
Valerian 165 Wilson, Deirdre 482, 532
Valla, Giorgio 91, 198,2L3,227 Wilson, N.L.53,533
Vallet, Juan 266 Wirszubski, Chaim 352, 533
Varzi, Achille 451-452, 53L Wittgenstein, Ludwig 462, 479, 488, 533
Worth, Sol 77,533
Vasile din Cezareea 156, 159
Vasoli, Cesare 34, 359-360, 532 Y
Vattimo, Gianni 247, 400-40I, 493-494,
Yates, France s 34, 342, 346-347 ,352, 533
504, 506-507, 511, 526, 532 Yehuda Romano 263
Vecchio, Sebastiano 1"17, 168, 533
Veiras, Deinis 368 z
Verbeke, Gerard 174, 533
Viano, Carlo Augusto 533 ZabaIa, Santiago 493
Vick, G.R. 326-328,522 Zambelli, Paola 342, 353, 356, 534
Vigendre, Blaise de 357 Zellini, Paolo 459-460, 461.-462, 534
Vincent de Beauvais 33, 80, 118, 178 Zerahya din Barcelona 262-263
Violi, Patrizia 21, 53,56,76'77,5L9, 533 Zweigenbaum, Pierre 516
Vergiliu din Bigorre (din Toulouse) 109
Vives, Ludovico 25
Volli, Ugo 401

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rS sao.rra.ny rni Inu€luaurco 'Z'Z
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""" Eull€l €aunisro^ uI l"oloxslrv 'I'Z

06 ealellsraApu : nIPoI I 1n^g u! Iolo+sFV aP gi€J '6
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2.4. Retorico : traducerea lui Herman Germanul ...,.......... 98

2.5. Retorica : tanslatio Vetus (V) qi traducerea ...... 99
.............. 101
lui Willem van Moerbeke (G) .........,.,
2.6. Nenorocul medieval al Poeticii si Retoricii..

3. De la metafori la analogia entis ........... ..........,............. 105

3.1. Poeticile qi retorica ............ 105
3.2. Referinle gi exemple in gAndirea filosoficd
................112

3.3. Metafora, alegorismul qi simbolismul universal .....,........,.............113
3.4. Metafora Ia Toma d'Aquino
3.5. Dante ....,....,.,......, L22

........,.... 126
3.6. Teologia simbolicd a lui Pseudo-Dionisie ..........,....... 130
3.7. Analogiaentis
3.8. ConcIu2ie................ ......,............. 137

............ 145

L47

4.1. Animalele din Antichitate pdnd in Evul Mediu ....... 148

4.1.1. Sufletul, drepturile qi limbajul jivinelor in Antichitate ...... 148
4.1.2. Tlansmigrarea problemei in Evul Mediu
4.2. Latratus canis ......... 158

4.2.1. Numele qi semnele .................... 167

4.2.2.Inf1uen!a stoicd: Augustin ... 167

4.2.3. Influenla stoici : Ab6lard ........... 167

............. 169

4.2.4. Lectura boethiand la De Interpretatione 16a .............. .......... 172

4.2.5. Lecttra tomistd la De Interpretatione 16a ,............. .............. 177

4.2.6. Tlanscriptibilitatea qi articularea ......................................... 178
4.2.7 . Din nou Toma
4.2.8, Roger Bacon .......... ........... 184

.... 185

5. Falsificarea in Evul Mediu ... 191

5.1. Semiotica falsificdrii ...........,.,.... ............ 193
5.1.1. Dubletele................ ........................ 193
5.1.2. Pseudo-dubletele
5.1.3, Falsa identificare ...... 194
..... 195

5,2. Dificultd{i ale procedurilor de autentificare ................,........,........ 196

5.2.1. Autentificarea la nivelul suportului material al textului ... 197

5.2.2, Autentificarea la nivelul manifestdrii textuale.........,.......... 198
5.2.3. Autentificarea Ia nivelul con{inutului
.............. 199

5.2.4, Autentificarea cu referire la datele de fapt........................... 201
5.3. Tlei categorii de falsd identificare
5.3.1. Falsa identificare radicald ........ 202

........... 202

5.3.2. Falsa identificare slabd sau prezumfia
de interqanjabilitate.
5.3.3. Pseudo-identificarea ................ ..................... 204
5.4. ? ................... ..... 205
5.5, Ce inseamnd ,,a gti c6" gi auctoritas ......206
Adevdr istoric, tradilie ..... 207
5.6. Pe umerii giganfilor
.......... 209

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Z9IIZ2.".".'.".".".."'"....' ..........'....llznlcuo3 .g.g

snglJossassod s4sntut qn unnbutal 'L'g

11. Limbajul Pimfrntului Austral.. ................. 36b

12.O intoarcere la Isidor: etimologiile lui Joseph de Maistre........ 881

13.Despre ticerea lui Kant 397

13.1. Conceptele empirice .......... gg8
13,2. Judecdlile perceptive ................ ............. 40b
1"3.3. Schema
13.4. Existi la Kant schema cdinelui ?.,................. .......... 409
....,,...... 412

13.5. Cum sd construim schema unui obiect necunoscut.........,............, 415
L3.6. Opus Postumum
................. 420

l4.Semiozi naturali gi cuvAnt in Logod,nicii ............... 425
1,4.1. Actiune qi cuvdnt
111444...243...NFIneutmAmlieonzlieraepaprcooupp,ubrilriaarvdii" .............., 425
14.5. Iertarea fratelui Cristoforo .............. 429
14.6, Alte exemple
14.7. Delirul gi nebunia publicd ........ 431
14.8. In loc de incheiere ............... .................. 432
.................... 434
................,..... 436
.................,... 437
................... 440

l5.Pragul gi infinitul. Peirce gi iconismul primar ....... 443
15.1. O recitire a lui Peirce
15.2. Peirce qi cafetiera ........443
15.3. Peirce impotriva Petei Negre .............. 448
15.4. Peirce qi creierul
15.5. Peirce qi broasca-festoas6.......... ................ 451
................ 455

............ 457

16. Definifiile in Eetetico lui Croce ................ 463

17.Cinci sensuri ale cuvAntului,rsemantici", de la Br6al
p6ni astAzi
........... 477

17.1. Diferite sensuri ale semanticii .....,.,.......... ................. 478
17,2. Articole din enciclopedii................ ......... 479
17.3. Mai are sens nofiunea de semnificafie ? ............. ...... 482
17.4. Identificarea dintre semnificalie qi sinonimie .......... 485
17.5. Semantici verifuncfionale......,...
17.6. Semnificat, referent, referinld ............487
..,........... 489

lS.GAndirea slabi us limitele interpretirii ...........................,............ 493

Bibliografie .................. 513
Index........... .................. 535

llrallruaa utuo - uu€c oluo8ng '18
'tJos'trcs acazal dspnop u! pxopo?ro
arucracul 'mlnrpnapv Dlpual ti 1nd1p1g - r{su€rold Io^Ed '98
aac'tpoal ap rcdo'tng oanua15o111 "talroal 7ry3o7g - 'rburepug 3;oa5-sueg '99

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m'ln1pp InllonDrl'nuolnp DarDlS 'xrDW 1nl a1atlcadg - €plrroq sanbcup '19
- senbcul 'gg
lraa1.pau1 lnluo JJoc aT
(B-II B Elilpa) aJt'tcodrt tt1atl?uoag - x x r, '62
f!u!/q ft a7t4t7n7o1 - sBuI^9rI Ianu€turug '82
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:1n.rgde ne

IAI TVUNTd

38. Julien Ries - Sacrul in istoria religioasd a omenirii
39. Virgil Nemoianu - Jocurile divinitd.lii. Gd.ndire, libertate Si religie la

sfdrgit de mileniu

40. Robert Darnton - Marele rlasacru al pisicii gi alte episoade din istoria
culturald, a Franlei
41. * * * -Anticristul
42. Lie Zi - Calea uidului desdudrgit
43. Cicero - Despre destin
44. Michel Vovelle - Ornul Luminilor
45. Frangoise Bonardel - Filosofia alchimiei, Marea Operd Si modernitatea
46.
47. T*a*tia*n-aTSlelaimaap-oCcarizfeacat le- Stratageme comunicalionale qi manipularea
Vechiului Tbstament

48. Jacques Le Goff - Sfd,ntul Francisc din Assisi
49. A.R. Radcliffe-Brown - Structurd gi funegie in societatea primitiud,
50. Frangois Furet - Omul rornantic
51. Hans-Georg Gadamer - Actualitatea frumosului
52. Plinius-Naturalishistoria.EnciclopediacunogtinlelordinAntichitate(vol.I)

53. Arnold Van Gennep - Totemismul. Starea actuqld a problemei totem.ice
54. Rosario Villari - Ornul baroc
55. John R. Searle - Realitatea ca proiect social
56. Peter Sloterdijk - Criticu raliunii cinice (vol. I)
57. Isabelle Stengers - Inuentarea gtiinlelor rnoderne
58. Guglielmo Cavallo - Ornul bizantin

59. Nicolae Corneanu - Patristica mirabilia. Pagini din literatura primelor

ueacuri cregtine

60. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin - Scrisori inedite
61. Andrea Giardina - OmuI ronLan
62. Sergio Donadoni - Omul egiptean
63. Anne Cheng - Istoria gdndirii chineze
64. Artemidor Daldianul - Carte de tdlrndcire a uiselor

65. Dolores Toma - Despre grddini gi modurile lor de folosire

66. Silviu Rogobete - O ontologie a iubirii. Subiect gi Realitate Personald

supremd, in gd.ndirea teologicd a pd.rintelui Durnitru Stdniloae

67. Plinius - Naturalis historia. Enciclopedia cunogtinlelor din Antichitate (vol. II)
68. Jean-Pierre Vernant - OmuI grec
69. Matei Cdlinescu - Despre loan P. Culianu gi Mircea Eliade. Arnintiri,

lecturi, refleclii

70. H.-R. Patapievici - Cerul ud.zut prin lentild
1.
7 N(voorlb.eIrt-ETliafasn-sfPorromceds,rui l ciuilizdrii. Cercetdri sociogenetice gi psihogenetice
ale conduitei tn straturile laice superioare ale
lumii occidentale)

72. Norbert Elias - Proce sul ciuilizd.rii. Cercetdri sociogenetice gi psihogenetice
(vol. II - Tlansformd.ri ale societdlii. Schiya unei teorii a civilizd.rii)

73. Ute Frevert, Heinz-Gerhard Haupt - Omul secolului XX

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