Hacker IELTS Reading

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and mental well-being.

Contrary to popular belief, the human brain is ill-equipped to process multiple forms of
simultaneously- so ill-equipped that what we believe to be
information multitasking mav

not even be possible. When people attempt to engage in multiple activities at once, what
are actually doing is frantically switching between tasks. Rather
their brains than giving

their undivided attention to a single activity, people engaged in multitasking are able to

focus on each thing they are trying to do for only a few seconds at a time. Repeatedly

moving between tasks is, unsurprisingly, exhausting and makes it extremely difficult to

filter information and recall it afterwards. Ultimately, multitasking is counterproductive in

that it slows us down. Seeing one task through to completion before beginning another

one is far more efficient, as the time it takes the brain to jump back and forth and refocus

on an activity it was previously engaged in is time wasted.

If that wasn't bad enough, multitasking can lead to poor health. When the brain, the
control system for the body's nervous system, attempts to conduct multiple tasks at
the same time, it almost always releases stress hormones and adrenaline. When this

happens, the adrenaline provides a temporary energy boost, often resulting in the body
accomplishing what it has been tasked to do, however inefficiently that may be. At the

same time, though, the release of stress hormones causes blood pressure to rise, which
most people know can be dangerous because it makes the heart work harder. While

being stressed from time to time is to be expected, experiencing it all the time, as an

iembdmnxaacoupsmrrlieetesiara,tigasleisiekbnnkeucgibltnyeognttthhhoumeemyodaaubedyrvaeaerrscheleheooeaefpamlsltu,shpsooldiadktiegnveonedu,ttslihctnapiealoerlnorynoadnmbufplalycraettoakiwvlbetiolacteyyuomesntixssods,hiirctcaaieokouna.pnsdstesIoin,aoninnsfgau,eeaccnntdh,oweeutroaphgarsrelhledhssctesefohuianrloalorsntvneo,oidfcioidasafstlneiluimydta.nsuseevltia.i,rrseAuiestlsslseoeipsnnd,oataeanllnnro,etdtigwaoulhanliarloeyer

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Booksin kemntrthiheoaa.dtAetaaTttahhhxflbthfoaeeioltesinnmuhurteeseetltntbdihoohvbtyewrieewmsytsgntCheooieelearnramdfeytnbtbhhtbhioapoahnoeurlrneegwdirromdcissdonMt,.CufmgohmFfctheiyihuednuistwnedrhordtfscocrhiEetlihielretneeoul,etrdttgerlmyiwsAsnoyr.,,eophwllgTarrieiyeecnmhoaehm,dbinrissedtyapepdMimedrnuohomiiceaetdndoatnadegsutndltirceohtocgeafeonAtednhtmdswhgdatppeethfaowlsrestde,okhmeatomebeeyr,nnleo.ylv-otoySwvhankioaelseolslvyctrirsytiawdemehtirhelteaaasayexrtdtjbeeoopfol,wurreeewiinwnetextycassoistttilrhoiovttaeohhfetnmenye,tdtveehhceemdleselyrveoeyiepnmrrantgroahntgeyprhisisdenuniaa.siglgnwdeaTmedvttthilhthaaoitehvohlannyeestenDmreeoeertrde1hiofnleoestttrt.
hundreds of years during this period until the printed book was introduced, marking a
turning point in European society and changing how information was passed onto future
generations.

The main reason so few books existed had to do with the fact that making one was an
arduous process that took years to complete. Animal hides had to be cured to produce
pages, and then ink had to be made by mixing pigments derived from various sources.
This was followed by preparing quills with which to write and ruling lines on each page

to guide where the script would be placed. Only once all these preparations had been

completed could a scribe actually write the book, which involved transcribing every word
by hand. Afterwards, illustrations could be added, the pages could be decorated with

borders made of gold, silver, and copper leaf, and everything would be bound together.
Essentially, the labor intensiveness involved in finishing a single copy of a book meant

that very few were ever made and that only the elite could buy one.

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10 Europe's Commercial Revolution

he social and economic effects of international trade and colonisation

Europeans were introduced to spices, silks, and other goods from the Middle East
during the Crusades, a series of holy wars aimed at driving Muslims from the region
Over the course of nearly two hundred years of war, many Middle Eastern products

had become highly sought after, so when the Crusades finally came to an end in 1291,

trade between Europe and the Middle East did not. Business between the two regions
was carried out freely until 1453, when Constantinople was conquered. This made land

routes inaccessible, motivating Europeans to find new ways of reaching the Middle

East, and by extension, Asia. These developments, combined with the rise of England
Portugal, and Spain as European powers, ushered in an age during which lucrative trade
networks were established and new lands were colonised.

Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage to the New World and Vasco da Gamas
circumnavigation of Africa six years later were among Europe's first successes. Not long

after, colonies were set up in the Americas, and trade routes connecting Europe to the

rest of the world were established. In addition to spices and silks from the Middle East
and Asia, Europeans began to import raw materials from Africa and the Americas to use

in the production of goods that would be sold both domestically and abroad. Known as
the Commercial Revolution, this period of European economic expansion between the

16th and 18th centuries had wide-reaching consequences.

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HACKERSTEST

READING PASSAGE Questions 1-13, which are based on

You should spend about 20 minutes on

Reading Passage below.

The Impact of Global Urbanisation:

The Costs and Benefits

historUoHwrriibtsththaonetrhiismaeantifsgiiorrswnatt,iitdowrenuhleyiocfchaigtpcyreaeoonepf rlUteehfraefurtrkotmuoarrbeoriauutnrhnaiesdlrattt4oih5oeu0nr0pbfriaBornsc.tCeao.s,rsceacabnuysdr,rwehthhdaiescnihnitcrsaounnrrcaotilioenctnusotimninMgmaewunsincotihipteiotnehtstaemgheruiosamtw,aabbnilneigtsohinmcnitieinanget

of Ur around 3800 B.C.

But this phenomenon is usually associated more with modern times. In Europe, a much

broader and more extensive urbanisation occurred in the 19th century as a result of the

Industrial Revolution. In England, the urban population increased from 17 per cent in 1801 to

an astonishing 72 per cent in 1891, primarily congregating in the cities of London, Manchester

Newcastle, and Birmingham, where factories offered promising jobs to impoverished peasants

traditionally dependent on subsistence agriculture. Life in the cities, with its abundant work

entertainment, and social services, seemed like a far more promising alternative to the toil of

farm life

And that lure has continued. In 2008, the world's urban population exceeded its rural population

for the first time. But contemporary instances of urbanisation are not relegated to industrialised
countries, as was the case prior to the 1950s. Since then, urbanisation has primarily occurred

wilin less developed regions, and it is estimated that by 2030 virtually all developing regions

have more people living in urban environments than in rural areas. There are several reasons

for this. One is the lack of resources in rural areas to accommodate an ever-expanding glooa

population. The second is the lure of employment opportunities that people associate witn
cities. The third is the desire for higher quality health care and education than what most ruia

communities are able to provide.

However, it's important to keep in mind that while this shift in demographics promises may

opportunities, it's not without its challenges. Often, the job market cannot keep up with the pao
migrate to cities will
of urban growth. This means that many of the poor who find themseive

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Another disturbing aspect of modern urbanisation is the high rate of certain types of crime
many major cities. conducted a detailed sTudy
plagues Decker, Sichor, and O'Brien (1982)

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HACKERS IELTS READING

doufirsbAhcafooinnwvidseairpnetoigdopnutthhlaaaattntiodvisnechsdriuicermlnpeseriiststhyiensfguat fcofbhececCactussarurcresrodiebmbapeeteraraynmcdaaunpfcdiohtaulnhacdirgacherthneoarywtrnwathteieetrhsriehnfiapuiscrebias-atnocd-oiarfnaerscceiteadscecortaorhbrnaeltnylaactinlitoe. nrsTusrhbaienleytawcriaetelieasenoss
in less populated areas, which tend to be car dependent
than and without public transportation.
problem of crime in urban areas is particularly dire in
The times of social unrest, such as

during the politically volatile years of the late 1960s in the United States, and law enforcement

agencies are searching for answers about how to tackle the rampant crime in American cities

Despite increases in the number of law enforcement officers patrolling Chicago's streets, the

total number of murders there has risen dramatically in recent years.

But perhaps most pressing on the minds of both city inhabitants and city planners is how to

best feed these massive numbers of people. Although the past century has seen dramatic

advances in agricultural efficiency and productivity, hundreds of thousands of city dwellers

continue to suffer from undernutrition. This issue is not directly related to agricuitural production

itself, which is more than capable of meeting world demand; rather, it is a combination of lack

ofaccess to foodstuffs- e.g. due to poverty- and the growing propensity to substitute whole

foods with packaged and processed foods (de Haen, 2003), which has been blamed tor the

epidemic of obesity and its health-related problems in many cities.

Moreover, with cities' greater dependence on supermarkets, the economics of food logistics

promotes fewer agricultural sources, as it is far more cost effective for retailers to streamiine

theirsupply chains. This has led to a much heavier reliance on imported goods a trend

that has resulted in the elimination of many small local farms. One solution being tried out in
numerous cities in North America and Europe is the transplantation of rural farms to urban
gardens and greenhouses. This allows for locally grown produce, which might be attractive to
many consumers. Some large-scale urban farming initiatives are already underway and thus
far have shown promising results.

CHAPTER 02 TIF/NG (True/False/Not Given) 81

Questions 1-9

Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?

Write

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

1 England's 19th century urban population boom was focused on four cities.

2 An increase in urban migration has led to severe housing shortages in cities.
Many migrants do not see any improvement in their economic circumstances

4 A lack of family support in cities can lead people to crime.
5 Social instability causes an increase in criminal activity in cities.
6 Increasing the presence of Chicago police decreased the murder rate.
7 Poverty causes people to restrict their diet since they are unable to afford fresh vegetables.

8 The availability of factory produced foods is causing obesity to decline.

9 Urban farms have the potential to make local produce more appealing.

82

Questions 10 and 11 CH

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 02

10 In the second paragraph, the writer makes a point that

A the failure of agriculture forced people to move to cities.

B urbanisation allowed for new industrial practices

C industrialisation can have a beneficial effect on urban life.

D urbanisation is widely considered a modern trend.

11 According to the writer, a greater dependence on supermarkets

A resulted in the closure of many small grocers in urban areas.

B led to stiff opposition from advocates of urban agriculture.

C caused the development of more diverse supply chains.

D brought about a stronger need for goods from other countries.

Questions 12 and 13
Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO wORDS from the passage for each answer.

12 In the last 60 years, urbanisation has mainly happened in less than
****'******* **°'°**'***.

in wealthy countries.

13 A crime that occurs far more in cities than in rural areas is theft.

***************.**.

Dáp án-Dich nghia-Chú giåi trang 360

CHAPTER 02 T/F/NG (True/False/Not Given) 83

VOCABULARY LIST

Hoc thuoc tù vung Chapter 02 và làm Quiz

p e r s i s t e n t adj. kiên gan, bén bí conversely adv. nguoc lai, trái lai
witty adj.hómhinh
communal adj.chung, công cóng burdensome adj. näng né, phién toái
maximise v. tóida hóa
return n. tién loi, tién li exclusion n. su ngoai trù, sy cô lâp

emission n.chátthåi auditory adj.(thuÙc) thinh giác
dissipate v. xua tan, làm tiêu tan
declare v.công bó
constitute v. cáu thành, thiét lâp
adj.synonymous óng ngh+a
courtship n. su tán tinh
byproduct n. sån phám phu
be adept at phr. tinh thông
metabolism n. sutrao ói chát
uphold v. duy tri
correspondence n. trao ói thu tù
humanitarian adj. thuÙc chú nghia nhân d¡o
monumentally adv. cuc ki, tÙt b-c
ideal n. y tuong
call for phr. kêu goi
overshadow v. che bóng, làm lu mà
transcribe v. sao lai, chép lai
integrate v. tich hop
remedy v. sua chïa
synthesis n. sutóng hop/két hop
sluggishly adv.châm chap
i n the vicinity of phr. vùng lân cân cça
modification n. su sça dói, iéu chinh
seemingly adv. vé bé ngoài, có v triumphant adj. tháng loi, thành công

transcription n.bàn sao, bàn ghi premiere n. buói công chiéu
posthumous adj. xåy ra sau khi chét
utensil n. dung Cu fast-paced adj. nhanh, hói hà

come into existence phr. tôn tai detrimental adj. Ùc hai, có h¡i

alloy n. hop kim simultaneously adv. ông thoi

sturdy adj. dai,chác chán frantically adv. cuóng cuóng
inherently adv.vón có, vón d
filter v.loc, thám qua
sense of self phr. ý thúc bàn thân counterproductive adj. phàn tác dung

pick up phr. bät dugc, n¯m bát see through phr. (không të bö) läm dén cing

adjust v.chinh súa back and forth phr. di qua, di lai/qua la

b i a s n. thành kién

Quiz nang n, phién toái 06 detrimental tich hop
07 be adept
Noi tu voi ngh+a. keu goi 08 integrate s u loai triù, su côlâp
09 posthumuous
01 communal sán phám phu 10 exclusion tinh thông
02 call for chung., công cÙng doc hai
03 synonymous
04 byproduct cuc ki, tÙt b-c cao cáp, vuot trÙi
05 monumentally
D dông nghia xdy ra sau khi chét

OL D 60 80 OL0 D 90 SO +0 9EO

84

HACKERS IELTS READING

D chronically adv. kinh niên urbanisation n. su ô thË hóa CH

unease n. su båt an, bát ôn cost and benefit phr. chi phi và lgi nhuan 02

a l l in all phr. nói chung, nhin chung migration n. su di cu
congregate v. tâp hop, tu tap
let alone phr. chua nói én, huóng hó impoverished adj. mát công dung

clergy n. giói täng lù peasant n. nông dân, bán nông
toil n. công viÇc vát cá, cyc hhoc
affluent adj. giàu có lure n. su quyén rk,cám do, thu hút

arduous adj.khó khàn, gian khÑ contemporary adj. hiên thoi, uong thdi
relegate v. loai bó, bó riêng ra
c u r e v. xú ly demographics n. nhân kháu hoc, ác iém

pigment n.chât nhuôm màu dân só
scribe n. nguoi sao chép bån thåo prevalence n. su phóbién, thinh hành
border n. bò, mép, vién
slum n. khu nhà ó chuÙt
monastery n.tu viên dire adj. khóc liÇt, kinh hoàng
unrest n. tinh trang bát ón
keep a tight rein on phr. khóng ché chât ché
facet n. mat, khia canh tackle v. gi£i quyét (van é..)

set aside phr. dé dành, du tra rampant adj. tràn lan

incite v.khuyén khich, kich dông patrol v.i tuân tra

literacy rate phr. ti lé bi¿t chï undernutrition n. su suy dinh duöng

spice n. gia vi propensity n. xu huóng

the Crusades phr. cuoc Th-p Ty Chinh substitute v. thay thé
epidemic n. bênh dich
lucrative adj.có lài, sinh lài
produce n. nông sån
raw material phr. nguyén liÇu thô

domestically adv.trong nuóc

downward trend phr. xu huóng i xuông

precious metal phr.kim loai quy
surplus n. sóth-ng du

piecemeal adv. tùng phân mot, dán dâan

tend v.trông nom, chäm sOC

Quiz a) kinh nien 06 tackle a) hien thoi

Noi tu vói nghía. mat, khíacanh 07 contemporary tràn lan

01 affluent Cdé dành, dy trï 08 rampant mat cong dung
02 set aside
03 lucrative khuyén khich, kich dÙng 09 surplus s u quyen ru, câm do

04 facet giàu co 10 impoverished )so thang du

05 chronically c o loi, sinh lôi O giai quyét (ván dê..)

OL 60 80 L0 D 90 ® 9O 9 rO O EO 20 LO

CHAPTER 02 T/F/NG (True/False/Not Given) 85

HACKERS IELTS READING

CHAPTER

Y/N/NG (Yes/No/Not Given)

Y/N/NG là dang bài yêu cáu nhan dinh các câu dua ra có thÑng nhát vÛi quan diém
cua tác già trong bài không, hoãc nÙi dung câu dua ra không tim tháy trong bài oc.
Diém khác biÇt giïa T/F/NG và Y/N/NG la dang T/F/NG yêu cdu 6i chi¿u vÛi thông

tin trong bài oc còn Y/N/NG yêu cdu nhan inh tính thóng nhat vói quan iém cçUa
tác giá. ay là môt trong nhung dang bài phÑ bi¿n nhát và xu¥t hiên trong hâu hét

các bai thi IELTS Reading.

HINH THÚC CAU HOI

Trong dang bài YN/NG., néu câu dua ra thÑng nhát vói quan i¿m cça tác giå là Yes, néu Ñi lâpvÛ
quan diém cça tác già là No, néu không tim tháy thóng tin cça câu dua ra trong bài oc ià Not given.

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 1?

In boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet, write

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NO ifit is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

NOT GIVEN

1 A second child of the opposite gender is less influenced by the firstborn.

well.2 Children born around the same time usually get along

3 Personality traits are clearly determined by the birth order effect.

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SSTTEEPP 22 Tim trong bài dÍc doan có nÙi dung liên quan dén cym tu

khóa vua xác dËnh.

Ap dung Ki thuat scanning dé tm trong bài doc nhkng noi dung liên quan dén cym tü khóa vaa xác

dinh. Kiém tra toàn bo phán nÙi dung liên quan dó dé tim kiém goi ý cho dáp án.

EXAMPLE Tim trong bài oc
noi dung lièn quan
A number of other factors have also been identified that can throw off dén cum tu khóa
the birth order effect. One of the most important of these is gender. Dr
cua câu thú nhát. A
Alan Stewart of the University of Georgia noted that 'when another child
of the opposite gender follows the firstborn, the second child is not as second child of the

affected by the first and often acts like a firstborn child itself. The span of opposite gender

borntime between births can also skew the birth order effect. Children Goi y cho áp án

within relatively short time periods can take on opposite roles. Taking có thé tim tháy
these and other factors such as overall temperament, physical size
câu liên quan dén
differences, and uniqueness into account, the birth order effect does
cum tu khóa: when
not seem incredibly reliable for determining personality traits. In fact, a
another child of the
report shows that only 15 per cent of men and 23 per cent of women
opposite gender
have personalities that match their birth order. follows the first-born,

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading the second child is

Passage? not as affected by

In boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet, write the first'.

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer LTim trong bài Íc noi
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN dung liên quan dén
if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
cum tù khóa cça câu
thú hai: Children bom

around the same

time. Xác dinh khöng

the tim thay thòng

hn liën quan dén noi

dung cua câu thú hai

&các câu xung quanh

cum tù khóa.

1 A second child of the opposite gender is less influenced by the firstborn. Tim trong bài doc noi
2 Children born around the same time usually get along well. dung liên quan den
cum tu khóa cua câu
3 Personality traits are clearly determined by the birth order effect. thu ba: Personality
traits. Goi y cho dáp
Bai dich trang 365 án có the tim tháy
câu de cap dén cum
tù khóa là: the birth
order effect does
not seem inarediby
reliable for detemining

personality traits

TIPS

Thong thung trong dang bài Y/NNG, các càu ugc dua ra theo dúng thú ty xuát

các dáp án cüng xuát hiÇn theo thú ty dó. Vi du, goi ycho câu thé hai thuong xuát

nhátnen néu tim dáp án cho câu thú hai sau doan goi ycho câu thï nhát thì khå nng
cóthécAu khöna tm tháy goi ý tm kiém ðkhoång giüa doan goi ýcho câu truóc
hiÇn trong bài Íc nên goi ýcho

hiÇn sau goi ý cho cáu thú

tim tháy cao hon. Dói vi nhïng

savà câu sau.

88

STEP 3 Xác dinh xem doan goi ý cho dáp án và câu dua ra có thóng

nhát khong.

Xác dinh xem doan g0i y cho dap ån và câu dua ra có dóng nhát không và dién câu trå ldi.

EXAMPLE

Dothe following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?

in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet, write

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer

NO if the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

1 A second child of the opposite gender is less influenced by the firstborn. Yes
Children born around the same time usually
2 get along wel. Not given CH
Personality traits are clearly determined by the birth order effect. No
3 03

influenced'áfnhq1inahurisiaéltànbcuóoCYdrbungéeom,insió.itdchÖttúùueínamckhsâtherutókcèëaohnksánàichcyndçó,havac'Ûnhrctiaoirâlotddudnuaágiasdus ubatntraâfioèfêiternsdaca'i.Ítsnlecoàhdaa(l'fnàArfãae'cwsáteunedhcàdueoygnntbciôdyaênnndgtci,oh¿htnedihlufdneigahrriosåácfttitrhètlivhn¡lÛidesgiithnohonífhaÙàpntiphrlhoàdaesu''tikolnhtehegpúsipsguchoeaçasniiatdekcterhârgô)uenunvgdgdàcuebanËrÙrásfiaoindnlhnluhoênwhnrguasddlttináhhêpgnúe
2 Cum tù khóa cça câu ua ra là (Children born around
trong bài dÍc the same time) tvimà enÙpierdiuondgs liên
quan dén cym tù khóa là 'Children born within relatively can
short

take on opposite roles' ngh+a là 'nhkng úa trè dugc sinh ra trong cùng mÙt khoång thÝi gian
có thé giù nhkng vai trò Ñi l-p nhau'. Tuy nhiên, quan diém này không liên quan d¿n nÙi dung
cua câu dua ra nên áp án là Not given.

3 Cum tu khóa cça câu dua ra là (Personality traits) và nÙi dung liên quan d¿n cum tùu

khóa trong bài Íc là 'the birth order effect does not seem incredibly reliable for determining

personality traits' ngh+a là 'ành huông cça thú tu sinh duong nhu không quyét dinh tính cách

ca nhân'. Quan diém này oi l-p vÛi nÙi dung cça câu ua ra nên dáp án là No.

TIPS

Phân biÇt gika No và Not given nhung nÙi dung lai hoàn toàn

No: câu dua ra có chúa các të ho·c cumtügióng trong bài Íc

dói l-p.

ex) bài doc Néu không có ngôn ngü, con nguoi së không thé có dugc súc m¡nh vugt trÙi so

voi thé giói tu nhiên.

cau dua ra Cho dù khóng có ngón ngü, con ngudi ván sé gid duçe vi ri hiÇn tai cça minh.

t á c già cho rång néu không có ngón nga, con ngudi së không thé có duge súc mnh vugt

trÙi, nhung câu dua ra l¡i nêu rång dù không có ngôn ngk, con nguoi vân së giù duoc vi tri

hien tai. Vi vây nÙi dung hai câu trái ngugc nhau và dáp án là No.

Not given: câu ua ra có chua các të ho·c cum tù gióng trong bài Íc nhung nÙi dung câu không

dugc dé cap dén trong bài Íc.

ex) bài doc Néu không có ngôn ngk, con ngudi së khóng thé có duo¢ súc manh vugt trÙi so

vói thé giói tyu nhién.

Cau dua ra Khi phá hoy hÇ sinh thái tu nhiên, con ngudi cûng måt di súc m¡nh cça chính minh.

tprhoánng bài ndgoucoci ómdáét dci -spúcdm¿n¡nshúcc manh vugt trÙi cça con nguoi so vói thé giói tu nhiên, nhung
con
ça minh khi hÍ phá hùy hÇ sinh thái ty nhiên không dugc dà c-p

den nên không xác djnh duoc quan diém cça tác giá vé vân deé này. Vi vây, dáp án là Not given.

CHAPTER 03 YIN/NG (Yes/No/Not Given) 89

-O HACKERS PRACTICE

Some linguists believe that language comprehension is a adlearned skill and that
1 will, therefore, be able to understand even unfamiliar language better than chidr.en
that over time we develop the ability to understand both
This atlheaonrdy rests on the idea
verb non-verbal clues when communicating. Since this is a learning proca
oCess
it seems only logical that children would be less skilled at discerning meaning ffr.om
context. However, this is unlikely to be true. In fact, recent studies by linguiste

Germany's Bielefeld University have shown that although children do not accurataelty

visanticipate visual clues while listening to stories, they are able to rapidly interpret

clues to assist with their overall language comprehension. This does not mean htheat

their skills will not improve over time, but it does show that determining context te
m

non-auditory clues is a basic element of language comprehension.

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in the passage?

Write

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO
NOT GIVEN if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

1 Children are not able to determine meaning from context.

2 Understanding unspoken signals is a fundamental aspect of human language.

comprehension n. s u nh-n thúc/linh hÙi learned adj. cân tidcihchlü/gyiákiiétnhitchhúcnorens-at uodnitophryr. dya vào logical ad
nh-n thúc, tháy rô
ly, hop logic discern v. interpret v. hiéu, adj. không có am

nn

90

Y/N/NG (Yes/No/ Not Given) HACKERS IELTS READING

a

E

Today, about 30 per cent of the Earth's surface is covered by forestland. Howeever,

deforestation is dramatically reducing this percentage each year. Currently, huummaan

activity claims more than 13.7 million hectares of forestland annually - an

area

uttingapproximately equal to that of Greece. While it may be assumed that we are cut

down trees to meet our timber needs, the bigger culprit is actually agriculture. Earth's

growing population has increased our need for agricultural products and farmers haya

begun clear-cutting forestland to convert it into farmland where they can plant crops.

This is especially true in countries such as Brazil and Indonesia, where large areas
of forestland have been cleared for farmland for cash crops such as soybeans and
oil palms. The intense farming methods used for these crops further compound the
problem. Continuous crop production depletes the soil of its nutrients so that it can no
longer support the biodiversity it once could, making it nearly impossible to return it to

forestland in the future. This continued disappearance of the forests will have a major

impact on our environment. Trees play an important role in removing carbon dioxide

from the air and in returning water to the atmosphere. If the forests are allowed to further

deteriorate, it could disrupt the life cycle of plants and animals, and even eliminate entire
ecosystems. To avoid this outcome, we must find a way to conserve our forestlands and
replace the trees that we remove each year.

Do the following statements agree with the information given in the passage?

Write

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO
NOT GIVEN if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer

if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

5 Timber is the most common reason for cutting down trees.

6 Clear-cutting forests threatens to destroy ecological systems.

deforestation n. su phá rüng claim v. yéu Sàch, chiém láy culpritn. thù pham, bi cào clear-cut v. chat phá Toàn be
cash crop phr. San thuong mai oil palm
convert v. bién di nông phr. dáu co compound v. pha trÙn them

xép biodiversity n. da dang sinh hoc dereriorate v. làm giám giátri, làm xáu hon

92

Y/N/NG (Ves /No / Not Given) HACKERS IELTS READING

S

Phenetics is the systemat ic classification of organisms based on their morphological
or structural, ts surface, phenetics seems
classification similarities. Although, on i lems with it. Perhaps the to be a valie
re are some pr ob
method, the most important

of these is t hat phenetic classifications sometimes show inaccurate evolutionary
between spe
relationships s cies. Palaeontologists have di scovered that pheneti
can indicate relationships where they do not
classification actually exist. This mos

likely occurs when species t hat seem similar ar e n ot closely related, but are actuaalllyl
.T c a cause phe to
at similar evolutionary levels his ina ccuracy n neticists separate an

organism from its evolutionary group, because it has a unique evolutionary adaptation
It can also lead to erroneously showing relationships between organisms with similar
primitive traits. The classification of dinosaurs is a good example of these problems. We
now know that birds from the Mesozoic era and some dinosaurs from the Jurassic and

Cretaceous periods have very similar skeletal structures, indicating that they share an

evolutionary link. However, dinosaurs are generally lumped in with lizards and alligators
species that they are more distantly related to as reptiles. One of the reasons for

this is the presence of a unique evolutionary adaptation in birds, feathers. Since we did

not traditionally believe that dinosaurs had feathers, pheneticists inaccurately classified

them based on other physical features. All of this shows the most inherent problem

with phenetic classification: it is entirely done through the subjective observations of

the pheneticist. Since there is no hierarchical classification in morphological similarty

researchers must make the ultimate decision based on their subjective observations.

Do the following statements agree with the information given in the passage?

Write

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO
NOT GIVEN if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer

if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

10 Phenetics is currently the most trusted method of studying evolution.

11 Dinosaurs should be classified as both reptiles and birds.
12 Researchers can come to different conclusions about the same evidence.

ppvpphhahhrrla.e.indntcheáalotoduiiajc.itksricsúóniDcn. achb(iatÙhTvusârxòÙtuunctmoghnseogiSorniphnlnhuhgvmoo-Jlptoaugihrviao.hccsaix)snléihpscaudavpjd,pàeaohr(pitàohctnuadùÙtnliopogcah)nirl.hotnhaikn.ieýhossJuytunhbrgtájahieoicacpCtihairvlheaúeitennaohagcdnecjptolorauiclsmoshsgoiiptfiiisevqctreuainotai.adnodnnjhp.hhiànner..rgcasuókurýycsêhpPinnhihchâátanhnlvo-lyaTot,darhjái.cnÍoocpgrhgxpsâuakhnaneeiclnMseámetptaeisl/ctoniSh.szur>t nnhàd

era

94

8 Y/N/NG (Yes /No/Not Given) HACKERS IELTS READING

O

£

c

T h e Emergence of Writing

1gletIpdisMa1nhnyrne9etoloevtelothsraereodrobplvitecpoireyocreeopspltnttmuweaoaatt,tumreibiuioaorntoniinynsntaudag,tveomsrryiofalsseaancyttwnhnaihdsoynegeitleeddtuooshrmagactrewhigrihsgncsere.oiithntsolsIiayannrpon,irwggrftsdeihhwlnaahaecosshdnauciovglacnofatpheuounnwpatrtsdrelgepioui.txeeilnegnaFtdlvgagycio,onreetfslihdhdsttvt,ateiheehsvladedeaibnlnl.npiletdgoihhgTcnltreauogahhosbgauaausecigittagcstoetrivawhimcyslcioraeimatutlwthohirtonieedsslgtnotcaehnorrbrseaorgiyyupyntenrstcloedosktyefesfesatmdsatethecobocvsreefooorienulvvtabumphdeenutledeiecetodiriwfonadegrflfneooesrtoormtodoolngmdwcrie.lanaoeaxapr-FnhaBlphguidnsbioirbu,ciictnplitaabhtiieahucugnnanllaaoaelareaaltrtrl

perspective presented European and Near Eastern cultures as more highly evolved than

those of Asia, Africa, and Mesoamerica. Nothing could be further from the truth given

that empires rich in cultural splendour, complete with magnificent architecture, art, laws,

and infrastructure, were built by civilisations with non-alphabetic scripts.

Scholars now agree that the advent of writing seems to coincide with the transition from

nomadic lifestyles to more permanent agrarian ones because people were growing
food and tending to livestock, it became necessary to develop ways of keeping track of

inventory and property. It is also agreed that different forms of writing developed not only

in the Fertile Crescent, but also within the ancient societies of Asia and Mesoamerica and

that none of these civilisations had any contact with one another during this time. Of these

geographical areas, it is most likely that the earliest writing occurred in the Fertile Crescent

territory of Sumer, possibly as early as 8000 B.C. The ancient Sumerians originally used

tokens, such as small clay triangles, spheres, and cones, to symbolise sheep, measures

of grain, jars of oil, and other goods. Basically, the shape of the token carried the meaning

of the word that was being represented. Eventually, the Sumerians began pressing the

tokens into soft clay tablets, much as one would use stamps, to transcribe their dealings

Much later, around 3100 B.C., the Sumerians invented numerals, separating the symbol
an object, suggesting that writing and mathematics
for an object from the number of

ibjttcduoheoeseyutaiodlsatdne,hndoeschghiasersavayinrmepmitnhpebgwilvcoyoolkrlwlntvidrtoears,idwenislnsflhtm.geood,gAiwgtettmeitn,thtehhgeaaaarnntt.iidnnptAhfgororeeicrncmthtSho,eaaurowdttmilioornsiengtgori;inicmaghaInteliswwtessoaxcyarsrcymsia.pavbtblaoregetlcisraooadndmrysueipandalrgelteyvsUeaearlnuodmtkpve,ieadnonagnnccecsoindentooctffheracoepomttmsloaoprmrlgiacuettthhsnotaeigctrrcatwaihtypeao

96

Q the following statements agree with the views of the writer in the passage?

Write

YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer
if the statement
NO contradicts the views of the writer
if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
NOT GIVEN

17 The Bible's account of the origin of language is accurate

18 Cultures with alphabets were no more advanced than others.

19 Asian writing systems were less technical than Middle Eastern ones.

20 In Sumer, mathematics developed separately from writing. H

y Do c n v. adj adj"7DSaaTCpadphi)vdreaseerynoenl,glatrnlba.-ntpih.chliasniaiuchddjdacedéâ(sjnut.cheu(p(tÙnchiçcdcuat)Ùocámg)mrÙbacátphttvhiùéinÇtntgc.Muuocqôenhunsgúaontathùumi,tnrgohxenn,urggiácc)thhaitnunhnoha.bm,niTcéahrutdiuùúinýcpgh(risonbúÙthodvt(cyuethhpnã(uegcuóhcnkuM.)i yhdcniuguÇcauóumy,ndéubgnaciuiéomausigpàntrluuageorunhinydaigêeonnrudarétrhcnùdh. yiy(ésthcunnuó.Ùhdhsuacçye)t
ho

dung hinh ánh don gián)

CHAPTER 03 Y/N/NG (Yes/No/Not Given) 97

8Nature or Nurture: Which One Shapes Us More?

intrinsicgnaingcilenlaysglvariahbil.esdAotwhevcatoecetror mrtemidnmiaivnnieinig.rsotMttsnooempbtahieencilnwssitehvvdpiieelilerwae,ey,cmsstaoocttptihhiaeoeelrnsdmsoeitsnaut ei'ddsnryemgtreieoonrfnlimeeshtsisiunnamebfdeefalemnibceoytvetheimnooaenowtmatuiloaor entndi:oeainnvnndediaisltvoutsihpdrhameuatapealintenbtddd.eebhTvynaoeuvnlroeutthpusretrsuaemrn. e,d,Bmciohelaoannnoii.n .

chiilld'ssuch as parenting, poverty, education, and exposure to Violence can impact a

emotional state permanently. So, which plays a greater role?

The primary point made by social determinists is that substantial differences can aanndd

do occur in the psychological and behavioural patterns of growing children that can onl

be explained by experiential factors. The assumption that someone is born a certain

way, they argue, offers an immediate defence for unwarranted behaviour and severs

human responsibility from human action. It is reasonable to accept that a child's home

environment, the opportunities he or she is given, and how the child is raised factor

into the sort of adult that child grows up to be to some degree. However, the view of

social determinists implies that the underlying character of a child will change if his or

her environmental circumstances do, which is not always the case. Ultimately, findings

suggest that when it comes to the fundamental traits that dictate our emotional responses

to any number of environmental situations, genes take centre stage.

Evidence for the biological approach can be found in the shared emotional reactions of people
growing up in different cultures. For their 1976 work Unmasking the Face, neuropsychologists
Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen undertook an extensive cross-cultural studly of facial
expressions. Ekman and Friesen interviewed isolated tribes in Papua New Guinea and

showed them photographs of people from other parts of the world. The psychologists

discovered that not only could the participants clearly identify facial expressions wi

particular emotions but they could also describe situations in which the expressiO

may arise. This led the authors to conclude that six basic human emotions (ange
disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise), as well as the physical expression oftno

emotions, are universal among people no matter which environment they grow up

Recent evidence from the study of twins has also suggested that nature plays a giea
personaliintytosramnueaamsegetmUrwoneonldnieinr,evesteiiitntrcwhswiaeitimaynnresfpoltfewaarodmcsiutckiabnenetydgidaoPtsnahorlaouiiskstfreeeinrldsyeioesmetontsosotrihotpcTifaaooirlqmnseuatsdowleet.ihssndGtysiseoi,tvBvnhweesaelnhtoesioptnsahm,smaohmtereadneoretpaerrceettrhthhtsohaoesnaaneensatxnslo8iaeutf0ycsrst0tsuitsbrrstaaleheiim.nettssigerIsanogsfseahffnrraaaesrtttteeeiucdrrdnnyatahlleawattnraEddino
burgh

entical
In the

, are

home

environment and parents, the researchers concluded that DNA had a more stantial
n r simpact on how people behaved than environmental factors. Further
substan Mosidea are the numerous studies on children adopted into homes with other
sloindicate that, even if the child is an infant when he or she is adopted, the famuy M
s

effect

on his or her personality is often practically negligible.

98

no the following statements agree with the information given in the passage?

Write

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement
contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

21 Certain aspects of one's environment affect how one grows up.
22 An unfamiliar enviroment will not always change a child's character.
23 Emotional expressions remain the same as a child grows up.

24 Family interactions will cause great changes in a child's personality. CH

03

nhdshihiuoÇnubcmhsmttvhuaÙaánnrntwitanikaabhirntlâreehnavncn.t.rtócoebhsdiuésunn-andcdgseujrólmltkyupihirnanôarhgnlegnnsaettdcuigjón.dlgiylcgi noidp.bohblcreâax. nccan,hdgchjdnoiàuknnôhigó,cnndúkagiunhcágotlnaniecgtgeno n cáiexperiential

dugc phep sever

v diéu khién,

vàn hoa fraternal

ké
determini saadj.
nguoi theo thuyét quyét
du: inh nghiÇm, theo kinh ng
. söv. cát roi, tách r
f a actor into phr. xem
khén neuropsy
n. nhà tâm lý
PSychologist
twins n em sinh dôi khc trung

CHAPTER 03 Y/N/NG (Yes/No/Not Given) 99

Harnessing the Immense Power of the Tides

tosotuucrrananngeihBHlanpoaecoonvnirwwngeuegeeeamrvrbscbeiaealnrenees,grnaibnrodduef,teeihsadlameedlebaiosvnuriogcagmnlrhsdupatlataapeiintrsothigtunni,nescgoa-aswspfnecorcdtarefohlosrelgeosceluohgnuhbriyyesceeawddasldrrlaooabraoepenlnlnoeseddwe,chatewesrarnorircacvcnfhtaiieedarcrsoaliinslmnpiiittmsonoissewg,eusfneeaetctrahssaus.eilrishrbBcieaalnounsenctntrlbcaaoyeleelbdltiervienhnbnirOoslunedpasuaoteespbinvooarieesweruestineeonrokncutltneorihorlmcfeogwetsayhpntteeaftsoocttri,hdaeiasnsu.sstnoeteor.

generate clean energy with minimal repercussions.

In fact, the fundamental technology is already available, as is evident in the tidal powar
plants being operated today. A good example is France's La Rance, the first tidal power
plant in the world. La Rance is a barrage, which means that it is essentially a very large

dam built across an estuary. Rather than storing water until it is needed as hydroelectric
facilities do, water at La Rance flows through the dam and is collected in a basin
whenever the tide comes in. Then, as soon as the tide goes out, the water in the basin

is released and passes through turbines in order to generate electricity. While the dam

at La Rance still poses a possible threat to the local ecosystem, electricity production

by this means is extraordinarily reliable. Given that tidal forces are generated by gravity

and the ongoing movements of the Earth forces that are unlikely to change - itis

possible to accurately predict the rise and fall of tides and by extension, when electricity

can be produced.

Recognising that tides have incredible potential that may never be realised unless the

environmental impact of such technology can be reduced, engineers are now working

to develop hydroelectric technologies without using dams. One solution they have come

up with is to install turbines on the sea floor relatively close to the shore in order0

exploit underwater tidal currents. To produce energy, the underwater turbines would

spin as the surf rose and fell, sending electricity through a cable to an onshore powe

station. This method is very promising as evidence suggests that it would result
limited environmental harm. For example, this technology would not create the damag
to aquatic organisms that is frequently caused by dams. Furthermore, because o

farms would be located underwater, they would not be an eyesore or cause a ise

disturbance both common complaints about wind farms.

It is true that the initial co sts of constructing the appropriate infrastructure for a farm

would be high. However, research suggests th etidal
of equipment would be at ment
required infrequently, the maintenance and the
replace
making it worthwhile in the long n to
thisrinvest in a yo f
what
knowing
extremely noefficient energy source. Ultimately, while there is
of tidal power will be, one thing is clear: the ocean, ourmost
the future

abundant and inexhaustible resource, has tremendous potential.

100

!

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ONIOV3N SI131 SHZXOVH (uaAIg JON/ON/SaA)9N/N/A

0 Introverts and Extroverts: Explaining Different Personalities

102 The Science Behind a Fundamental Concept in Human Personality Theon

In his 1923 book Psychological Types, analytical psychologist Carl Jung identified tw

types of person: the introvert and the extrovert. The former was described as a shy
sensitive, socially anxious being while the latter was portrayed as a gregarious sort who
enjoyed spending most of his or her time in the company of others. Although Jung's
early classification of the two personality types was generally accurate and has stood
the test of time, the underlying reasons for introversion and extroversion were never

scientifically analysed. It was not until recently that modern psychological researchers
began presenting more nuanced and factual interpretations of the extroversion.

introversion spectrum.

Contemporary researchers have tound that the brains of extroverts actually release a

significant amount of dopamine, the neurotransmitter that controls the brain's pleasure
centre, during social interaction. Consequently, an extrovert's brain activity noticeably
increases when he or she is smiled at, for instance. And because they are rewarded

for social engagement, extroverts feel compelled to seek it out by constantly displaying
attractive behaviour, such as smiling, cracking jokes, and being friendly. Essentially

we now know that what were once considered the characteristics of extroverts are, in

reality, the tools that extroverted people use to obtain the chemical rewards they want

to receive.

TcHeeaisoxnrhiegeutcerhronsomgretviyeroneetrrorvlpfetaooeasrtllsreiskattdlsmeermlesywetsaonpiytttshsohopsaoincenaerienafthimdliinlnmiygtariehlmnoioekcvaprreieianuertalldtenssnppitveetdoloedaneslneiynbttnri,caegveyseeyriksnstsptjaohu.seriricneeSenigxdaocrplemeofllyrqonteohurmeitefishrytieeotpudnwhadsreyuiitlee'losrssifpfcagaearhcranolaeivdnmv,aiucerboctsouireoenvetcvmiattiwehiaeenselinsloylitsrcbn.ehiagewaoOrclewtatahrhrnnueadewonssrtte,shatwrahelidetnexi.atidtehrrvixoociitnvuanregottterrvfosaelivtuiorhtltetantse.tt

aawwwstidieSonsnotxeiohtattcestmesh,osorinileaorplateigeleiovitrtgo.kiisknerveotsneleroOennyeotdwnscn.tnail,hneyatnmei,etrtaddedrhlatlcorehlsadaapryesetecesessaoatsorhitrifwnetippyaosvhtloirdtriaeftatohesptyiwnstvnoo,oiomce,tubsrtrlettlbhoeabt.ueeevnaeuoldSnreagtfseocrtus?otexnitpsaoehsttc,eghrNmneeooeeyitcotpehv,re,ssilaeesebeua,trhxxnturuaaevphptdannsdiaeerbvddvreeyraeiieitnveelnsscrtnepogsaownbcntetuaoreenadasncldtfeseidoihcneinrnaoetnovdnhbgtmesooelscaoepohmisrplolscuueoepwoaiuwmrxnaortvhsielgassaynisevirfnrtetodareeietscmhc.ewsvitdevaeoTsayaeolarilhrpodyulmduoleneeeisftfoneieteifonxednroamnongdpetfnemrlnedlahohotrltnhveaaugstaceesvrhoeutteencuipsetoirscaoohaaennplernmelfoleoypfeceeoogrcxuttvfreaaorhproiunimsiwnenlnumchurtpihrgeiiatnouetyisvsogntlvtsoenfotwecirhooeleanmnuo

Although introverts do not experience a significant release of dopamine sOcicial
situations, the opposite
is true when they pour their energies in

into intellectual ano

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ONIOV3H SI73I SH3NOUH (UaA9 1ON/ON/SaA)BN/N/A 9

HACKERS TEST

READING PASSAGE

Questions 1-13, which are based on
You should spend about 20 minutes on

Reading Passage below.

The Fifth Language Skill

Culture is often left out oflanguage courses, but some claim that it is the most
important aspect of picking up a new language

Language learners and instructors know ethnography.' The implication of Damen's
that four skills are needed to be able to intercultural approach is that native
communicate in any language: speaking,
language skills and competence in the target
listening reading and writing. This
language are insufficient for instruction
communicative approach' to anguage
and that educators must function more
has long been the primary basis of second
like experienced cultural guides who are
language learning environments. In this
trained observers and capable of facilitating
approach, some information about culture effective intercultural communication.

may be provided to language learners, In the cultural context of second language

but the overwhelming emphasis is on learning, a useful heuristic paradigm isa

the four skills and basic, mostly literal, four-stage model of language acquisition that

communication. Of late, however, more separates understanding into four levels
emphasis is being placed on the fifth
language skill of cultural communication, tourist, survivor, immigrant, and citizen

as more and more experts are stressing (Acton and Walker de Felix, 1995). Under
the importance of assimilating the culture this model, it is impossible for any person
associated with a language. in fact, this to acquire a citizen level of communicative
intercultural approach' is now considered competence if they do not have a thorougn
understanding of the myriad cultural aspecs
so essential that it cannot be avoided if of language, and such an achievement s

learners hope to gain true command of any likely only for highly motivated students who
language.

The intercultural approach to language are both willing to acculturate an da r e fro
learning first attracted the its 'socia
attention of a culture that is not extreme in
language experts after the publication of from the culture of the targe
distance'
Louise Damen's Culture Learning: The Fifth (Schumann, 1978).
language

Dimension in the Language Classroom. TfeaaWonmhuiourtsoh'useno,gcgluhoaittnnfagcdoguurolcataelougasmrfenaogwlmrseukisuitageihnglnnloisetsuyisttpaiovleosoriafatnyykeginenaaaragintnritdvoetehfaaunacwslotlcpytaeterhampeaewtnkaaesenaabsyciges
In it, she outlined the need for both

intercultural awareness and intercultural

skill development, and put both of these
aims under the umbrella term 'pragmatic

104

HACKERS IELTS READING

and a careful reflection of his or her own Yet a problematic issue exists with the
values, norms, and attitudes, a person's epithet fifth skill' itself, which suggests that

linguistic ability alone may not prevent the culture is an 'added on' element to language
perception that they are an 'outsider'. To
learning rather than a fundamental one
achieve status of an insider, he or she
Kramsch (1993) claims that culture is
must learn to not only recognise and accept always in the background, right from day

cultural differences but also to appreciate one, ready to unsettle the good language

and value them. learners when they expect least, making

But what culture should be taught evident the limitations of their hard-won CH

in classrooms? For simplicity and communicative competence, challenging 03

convenience, researchers refer to 'Big C' their ability to make sense of the world

and little c culture to distinguish the more around them. This axiomatic approach

formal elements of a culture from those that to culture as an integral and inescapable

are encountered in less formal, everyday part of communication underscores the
importance of, and the challenges inherent
situations. Big C culture corresponds to the in, language teaching.

social, political, and economic institutions Therefore, some educators think that culture

of a given society as weli as the great should be viewed as the first, rather than

historical figures that contributed to the the fifth, skill (Tomlinson 1999). Although

artistic, literary, and scientific achievements this primacy of culture is a noble goal, it is
of that society (National Standards in
nonetheless hopeful thinking to assume that
Foreign Language Education Project,
1996), while little c culture represents the it can be easily prioritised in a curriculum

sum of patterns of behaviour that members or that teachers are generally capable of

of a given culture consider necessary for carrying it out. The language curriculum is

daily life, including clothing, housing, food, already full as it is, and language teachers

transportation, etC. typically have very limited instruction time

with any given student or group of students

Another way to look at it is that the former Many educators are not trained to handle

represents the 'elite' culture of high society, this burden and, thus, in-service training and

whereas the latter corresponds to the faculty development would be necessary to
at the centre of the language
interests and activities of ordinary people. put culture
The bottom line is that any fifth
This does not mean there is no overlap at curriculum.

all, however, because even though citizens skill' time in the classroom will need to be

spend their time with mundane tasks like supplemented by an enormously greater
number of hours spent by the student
greeting people, working, or shopping, they
are nonetheless interested in bigger issues, immersing himself or herself in the culture
of the target language 'in the real world'.
Such as social stratification and economic
It is
policy, which directly impact their lives.
generally the the
case that little c culture is the
most absent in language curricula and

most difficult to include due to its continually

changing nature.

CHAPTER 03 Y/N/NG (Yes/No/Not Given) 105

Questions 1-9

Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?

Write

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer

NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN
if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

The communicative approach has ignored the cultural component of language.
2 Under the four-stage model, a person can be fluent without cultural knowledge.

3 Learning the four language skills is not sufficient for fluent communication.

The categorisation of Big C and little c culture differs in countries around the world.

Big C and little c culture are not unconnected although they represent different ideas.

Language students should be more interested in political issues.

Big C culture is the hardest to include in curricula.

Labelling culture a fifth skill' implies that it is less important for education.
9 Prioritising culture in a language course is not always possible.

106

Questions 10 and 11 CH

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 03

10 Louise Damen's view of intercultural approach implies that

A intercultural communication is absent in most language programmes.

B most native language speakers are incapable of teaching their own culture.
C culture and language are equally important but should be taught separately.
D language teachers must have expertise beyond the language itself.

11 According to the writer, what is necessary for making culture a priority in the classroom?

A a smaller student-to-teacher ratio
B longer working hours for teachers
C additional training for educators
D development of new teaching materials

Questions 12 and 13

Complete the sentences below.

Choose NO MORE THAN TWO wORDS from the passage for each answer.

12 Students from a similar culture to that of the. ...have the best chance to succeed.

13 A second language speaker can not appear to be an insider based solely on . ...

Dap án-Dich nghía-Ch giäi trang 379

CHAPTER 03 Y/N/NG (Yes/No/Not Given) 107

VOCABULARYLIST

Hoc thuoc tù vung Chapter 03 và làm Quiz

comprehension n. su nhân thuc/linh hÙi paleoanthropologist n. nhà cÑ nhân loai hoc

learned adj. cán tich lky kiên thúc abstract adj.trùu tugng
prevail v. chiém uu thé, thång thé
rest on phr. dua vào
phenetics n. (thuÙc sinh v-t hoc) su phân loai
logical adj. hãp lý. hop logic
theo ngoai hinh
discern v. nh-n thuc,thây rõ
classification n. sy phân loai
interpret v. hiÃu, dich, giài thich
organism n. sinh v-t
non-auditory adj. không có àm thanh
valid adj. có co so
single-handedly adv. on dÙc, doc lâp
pheneticist n. nhà phân loai sinh vât theo
fluctuate with phr. dao dÙng theo
ngoai hinh
scarcity n.su khan hi¿m
adaptation n. su thich úng
mint v. dúc (tién)
primitive adj. nguyên thoy, có xua
manipulation n. så thao tüng
lump v. xép vàocùng loai
constituent adj. c¥u tao, hop thành
deforestation n. så phárùng subjective adj. choquan

claim v. yêu sách, chiém láy hierarchical adj. phân cap/ thúb-c

culprit n. thùpham, bi cão senior n. nguði lón tuôi

clear-cut v. cht phá toàn bÙ dementia n. bênh sa sút trítuÇ

convertv. bi¿n dói debilitating adj. làm suy nhudc
compound v. phatrÙn thêm, dàn xép
biodiversity n. da d¡ng sinh hÍc alternative adj. thay thé, thay doi
cognitive adj. liên quan den nh-n thúc
deteriorate v. làm giám giá tri, làm xáu hon
agitation n. su b¥t an, kich dÙng
undergo v.tråi qua
morph v. thay dQi, bi¿n Ñi, hóa/trßthành disruptive adj. phávo

anatomically adv. vé mä/phuong diÇn giåi phâu redirect v. thay dôi phudng huóng

clash n. su xung dÙt, va cham debunk v. v¡ch trán, l-t lai

acclimated adj. thich nghi,thich úng descend v. bát nguÑn tù, xuâtthân tù
ideographic adj. chïtuong hinh, chk biéu ý (SU
dominate v. chiém uu thé, thÑng trË
dung kí hiÇu, bi¿u tugng dé diÁn dat ý nghi phúc tap)

syllabic adj. (thuÙc) âm ti¿t
splendour n. su huy hoàng, chói loi

Quiz a) da dang sinh h9c 06 agitation achuquan
07 subjective
Noi tù vói nghía. b pha trÙn thêm, dàn xep 08 primitive trùu tung
09 abstract
01 clash trái qua 10 hierarchy phan cáp/thúb-c
02 logical
03 interpret sU xung dÙt, va cham nguyên mu
04 ompound
05 undergo hieu, dich sy bat an, kich dÙng

hgp ly, hgplogic O nguyên thoy, có xua

OL 60 80 20 90 9O b0 CO z0 P)0

108

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ONIOV3H SI73I SH3NIVH (uaAN9 1ON/ON/SaA)BN/N/A

HACKERS IELTS READING

CHAPTER

Note/Table/Fiow-charf/0lagram

4 Complefion

Note/Table/Flow-chart/Diagram completion là dang bài yêu cáu tim kiém thông

tin trong bai doc dà lya chon tir phù hop dién vào chô tróng và hoan thanh ghi chú

bang/sa d6/biéu ô. Tuy không xuát hiÇn trong tat cà các bai thi nhurng day cüng
là mot dang bài phÑ bi¿én.

HINH THÚC CÂU HÓI

Dang bai Note/Table/Flow-char/Diagram completion xuát hiÇn duói hai hinh thúc: shortanswer
question (câu trå lôi ngån) và multiple choice (câu hôi tråc nghiÇm). Hinh thúc short-answer
question yêu cáu tim thông tin trong bài dÍc và diên vào chÑ rQng, hinh thúc multiple choice yêu

cáu lya chon dáp án trong nhiêu phudng án cho sn diên vào chÑ tróng dé hoàn thành ghi chú

bàng/so dó/biÃu ó. Ñi vói hinh thúc short-answer question, phài kiÃm tra chính xác sÑ lugng tu

và só duoc yêu câu ién vào chQ trÑng.

Note completion

Note thuong là doan ghi chú/ tóm tät ngån gon nÙi dung bài oc và duoc vi¿t duói dang mÙt tiêu

dé lón và nhiéu dé måc phy.

Complete the notes below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1-2 on your answer sheet.

Controversy over the Birth Order Effect

According to some scientists:

It is very difficult to find an average 1 . to study.
***********
This is because of socio-economic,
ethnic and religious
2

Table completion

Table thuong là báng chia nÙi dung bai Íc theo tùng hang måc khác nhau. Hinh thúc short-anwe
ckng có khi bâi
question thuong xuyên xuát hiÇn ß ki¿u bâi này nhung yêu cáu chÍn dáp án tù mo

danh sáach các phuong án dé diên vào chQ tróng.

Complete the table below.

Choose ONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.

110

Types of Radiation

Type Composition Rays
Alpha
two protons and neutrons identical cannot pass through a 2
Gamma .
to a 1...
nucleus of paper

photons with a 3 .... . of can be stopped by a 4.
*'****
more than 1019 Hz of material

Flow-chart completion

Flow-chart thung là báng chia nÙi dung bài Íc theo tung hang muc khác nhau. Hinh thuc CH
ð kiÃu à bài này, nhung có khi 04
short-answer question thuong xuyên xu¥t hiÇn cüng dé bài yêu
cau chon áp án tù mÙt danh sách các phuong án dà diên vào chð trQng.

Complete the flow-chart below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answe.

Write your answers in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.

Method of excavation to determine presence

of dinosaur fossils and results

Step 1

71 Multiple sites were excavated toa depth of three metres and

all 1 . . . were gathered for sorting and analysis.

**

Step 2

The dinosaur remains were sorted according to species as well as by size and

2

.... . . . .

Result: Intact bones were placed in a 3'.*.*'*'***** arrangement and set aside

Bone fragments, teeth and eggshells were carefully washed and put through screens.

Step 3

Bones determined to be from the same individuals were assembled, and several

********* ***** skeletons were found.

Result: The remains from these skeletons were transported for

in the museum of natural history.

Step 4
Fossils were quantified and catalogued and the information was entered in a

searchable database.

CHAPTER 04 Note/Table/Flow-chart/Diagram Completion 111

Diagram completion

Diagram là biÃu Ñ miêu tå c¥u t rüc cça công trinh kién trúc, chu trinh hoat Ùng ç cça dÙng cd hhooä·cs
vât trong Kiéu bài này thuong
chu ki cùa các su thiên nhiên. yêu cáu ién t ên c a mÙt bÙ phan dan

biet hoàc hoàn thành biÃu ó giäi thich các bÙ ph-n d·c biÇt ó.

Label the diagram below.

Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.

A Truss Bridge

The 1...... keep

the bridge stable in high winds.

The floor beams are made of The bridge is designed for both

3 ************* . . So***" that carsand 2 . .....
*

they can carry heavy vehicles.

112

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ONIOV3H SIT31 SH3XIVH UOLaNdu0g wesôeqajueyp-MOjH/QIqeL/ayoN

SSTIEEPr Tim trong bài dÍc phán liên quan dén nÙi dung doan cán dién

tëvà tim các goi ý cho dáp án.

(1) Ap dung ki thuat scanning dé tim trong bài doc phán có liên quan d¿n nÙi dung doan cán dién
tù dã xác dinh nhò tiêu é ho·c dà muc cùa ghi chú/bàng/sd 6/biÃu dó.

(e) Tim phán dé câp truc tiép én cum tü khóa ho·c phán diÃn giài lai cum tu ó dé xác dinh goa

y cho câu trå löi.

EXAMPLE (1) Qua cum 'Some

Despite the years of research into the birth order effect and the many scientists, xác dinh
family anecdotes that would seem to support it, it is not universally
accepted. Some scientists reject the validity of the studies that have phan bai oc có lién

proven' the effect. "They point out that it is nearly impossible toidentifty quan dén nÙi dung
a standard family to use in research. Because of socio-economic, ethnic,
doan cân diên tù ã
religious and other differences, it is impossible to find one family that can
phân tich àtrên.
provide relevant data for such tests. Moreover, there are far too many
(2) Tim trong ba
cases that contradict the traditional view on birth order. For example, it doc phân có liên

has often been said that firstborn children are 'natural leaders', but a quan den cum tu
khóa difficult to find
study of world political leaders demonstrated that many leaders were in dã xác inh & trên.

fact middle-born or last-born people (Hudson, 1990). Goi y cho câu trå la

Complete the notes below. có thétim tháy ß câu

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for the answer. lien quan dên cum
Write your answer in box 1 on your answer sheet.
tù khóa ó là They
point out that it is

nearly impossible to

identify a standard

family to use in

research'.

Controversy over the Birth Order Effect

According to some scientists:

.It is very difficultto find an average ....
to study.
******

.This is because of socio-economic, ethnic and religious

differences.

Bai dich trang 385

TIPS

pcpcTkAhçhhraaonáônnnntdggudodncódócgaótkdnibhêÃcÙgiuâdtupibdmoàhévci-nácn.dbpçàiéadi.nVãbáciint¿ùk.buhiÇTvôóàtrnoogtnrdogbténhiégtéxuruábdöcdiynÑédaguin(vddhhãióoao.ppghVrccáauihnmmVi )bac,ytâó,uiccócdkahÍhtnôcróuauctdróunódgnéltigiêêxhnnéáãcqptiumidbÃaiinnnÃdhuadnétndùhnÙó,itbkùdcih¿huråuiniêgcnndóng6ng,cehôhnnoQcgátractoorÑndthtngaùögntirhcdudáéötnÍëcnddgcikihêéíinhtnooctalpuaac nà

bo

114

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INIOV38 SI131 SH3NOVH uOLaqduog weßeqrueu3-MOLH/QIJeL/ayON

-oHACKERSPRACTICE

When studying historical buildings, one can see a clear progression in constructtii0cnn

materials. Before the medieval period, timber was the most widely used buildinn

material in Europe, but it came to be replaced by stone in most major structures

Even the use of metals was limited in structural architecture before the industrial age

At that time, metal was mainly used for bridges and greenhouses due to its limitec

aesthetic appeal. However, the public perception of manmade mate rials changed and

technological progress brought down metalwork's cost, leading to it being used more

The first metal commonly used in architecture was cast iron, which could be formed into

decorative shapes like stone. Architects even began using cast iron to construct building

frames. Unfortunately, this particular metal has a low tensile strength and several ot

these buildings collapsed. To address this problem, builders turned to wrought iron and

eventually to steel. As public opinion about manmade materials continued to change

in the 19th century, the use of concrete became acceptable. The combination of steei

for theand concrete was incredibly strong and allowed construction of taller buildings

thoroughly changing urban landscapes. Construction of the tallest building in the world.

Dubai's Burj Khalifa, used 4,000 tonnes of steel in combination with 330,000 cubic

metres of concrete and 55,000 tonnes of reinforcing steel rebar.

Complete the notes below.

Choose ONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.

History of Architectural Materials

Most pre-medieval buildings in Europe used 1. for

construction.

cMBouSnaictnlordnmeiteneacgdaonenthdsemtr2uwactoetirroiladnl'ssbhweicegarhemesnetopstkowpyiusdclearlryapinuerstehudetilbmieseefdodiree3v3ta0hle,0p0ien0rdioucdsu.tbriiacl age. of

metres

... of s t e e l* * ' * * * * * * ' * * ' ***'******

progression n.

perceptionmy

decorative ad).

wrougnphr. sát rèn ste
su tién bÙ, su phát triên t ifcmmróaetbmtaetlehrwennop..rkgklKaðhnunxdn.ågsytc,àadccpuåpneuhgtn,âr.úmgccóâtnnelgàhnhmsÇtirlim,et hÙpsuhctr-oetannegbgsàttcnhh£genpthikhcirm. addÙljo. (thuÙc) mý hoc, thám

n. su nh-n thúc, tri giác ai cast iron phr. 9ang
bên kéo
dé rang hoàng, trang tri
el n. thép rebar n. thanh

116

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ONIOV3H SI131 S83xOVH uOJajduog weiðea/Uey3-MojH/ajqeL/aon D

3 Zimbabwe's Eastgate Centre should be the model for modern midrise commeerrnciial

architecture. It was constructed without mechanical air conditioning, resulting in savinnagss

Singof approximately 3 million pounds for thte complex's owners. Surprisingly, the buildine

is never uncomfortably hot or cold. This is because the architect utlised the process of

of
biomimicry when designing it. Biomimicry involves humans studying a natural process

and imitating it to solve a complex human problem. In this case, the designer, Mick

Pearce, was inspired by termite mounds. These wood-eating pests build large mounds

that can reach 25 metres in height. However, most termites do not inhabit the pper

part of the mounds, but they live in a gallery at the base of it. The tall structure above is

essentially a large chimney. It contains a central shaft that moves warmer air upward

This warm air then exits through holes near the mound's top. Radial vents at the base

intensify this action by capturing the wind and cooling the air at the base of the mound

creating a convection cycle in the structure. After understanding this process, Pearce

designed the Eastgate Centre's buildings as a series of rooms around a central shaft.

Each room has ducts into the shaft and to the exterior resulting in heat dissipation as
in the termite mound. Fans that pull air into the central shaft, producing continuous
airflow, assist this system. Through this system, the offices in the Eastgate Centre
have a stable internal temperature of approximately 23°C regardless of the external

temperature.

Label the diagram below.

Choose ONE WORD from the passage for each answer.

Termite Mound Layout

central shaft air holes

the 5 ***** 7 radial
.... . 6
***'**

midrise adj. (kién trúc) trung gtâhnÇg/c(ôknhgôngnghcaiÇop kmhôóngp hthóánpg) tbhieoomimmÙitcrcyhun. tprihnóhngtu sninhhiên()phiômnigtatseinvh. /mmóo pihóng

sinh hoc: cá c thiét ké công n nphóng

termite n. con mói mound n. mô/gò dát pest n. loài gây hai gallery n. hâm/phòng dài, hành lang shart

radial adj. huóng tâm convection n. su dói luu duct n. Ñng dän dissipation n. su xua tan/ tán (nhiêt)

118

Prairie ecosystems are characterised by even terrain or gently sloping rolling hills, and CH
04
4 by a predominance of herbaceous plant life. Trees, shrubs, and other woody plants are

virtually absent in prairies, and there is very little shelter from the solar radiation and

harsh breezes. Prairies generally receive a moderate amount of yearly precipitation,
but summers are occasionally marked by severe drought. Consequently, for plants to
thrive in the prairie ecosystem, they must endure seasonally dry conditions. Among the
herbaceous plants suited for life in these ecosystems are prairie grasses, which have

several adaptive mechanisms for survival

Leaves of prairie grasses vary in width, but most are long, thin blades. On the epidermal
layer of the leaves are small holes, called stomata, which can be opened to let in carbon

dioxide and release oxygen, or closed to retain moisture. Because carbon dioxide is
essential for plant photosynthesis, the stomata must remain wide for gas exchange;

however, air spaces within the leaf are full of water vapour, which evaporates unless

the pores remain closed and presents a challenge during dry conditions. To overcome
the problem, prairie grasses have evolved to distinguish between day and night. In the

daytime, the grasses keep their stomata shut to minimise moisture loss. The plants
then expand the pores in the evening when the air is cooler for respiration.

Complete the notes below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO wORDS from the passage for each answer.

How Prairie Grasses Survive

Harsh prairie conditions

Flat land with a few small hills

A limited amount of protection from 7. . .. and high winds

Some rainfall every year, but summer months bring drought

Prairie grasses' evolutionary adaptation

Stomata: Tiny holes on the 8 . . .. of the leaves

Open to allow carbon dioxide in and oxygen out, or closed to preserve

moisture to decrease loss
The stomata remain closed during the 9

of water

The plant pores are opened in the cooler nighttime air

prairie n. dóng có, thào nguyén even ad b£ng pháng terrain n. dia hinh sloping adj nghiéng, dóc rolling adj,
nháp nhó predominance n. tinh troi, uu thé solar radiation phr. buc xa mat troi moderato adj vua phá, diéu do

adaptive mechanism phr. co ché thich úng herbaceous adj. (thuÙc) tháo mÙc blade n. phién (lá) epidermal

ad) (thuoc) biéu bi stomata r 6 khi pore n. ló respiration n sy hô háp/trao dói khí

CHAPTER 04 Note/Table/Flow-chart/Diagram Completion 119

Around 2000 B.C., a new invention emerged that changed wartare during the perin

od

the horse-drawn chariot. These light carriages provided cavalry archers witha flat

platform from which to attack their enemies. Prior to this time armies that wished

proceed rapidly rode on horseback, but this was cumbersome because saddles an.
and

stirrups had not been invented. This made it difficult to steer, hold on to the horse and

fire at the same time. Chariots made this much easier. At their most basic, chariioottss

were wheeled plattorms drawn behind one or more horses. Perhaps the most famoue

ous

of these fighting vehicles were used by the ancient Egyptians. Although they did noott

invent the chariot, the Egyptians adapted them to improve their usefulness. One
the biggest changes was lightening the overall weight of the chariot by utilising newl

invented spoked wheels rather than the traditional disk wheel. This made it easier tor

the horses to pull the chariots faster. However, speed was not the only benefit of the

changes implemented by the Egyptians. They also made them much easier to contro

through the use of the yoke saddle and basic design changes. The yoke saddle was

a saddle-like pad that sat on the horses' backs with leather pieces across the horse's

chests and bellies to prevent siippage and increase control. The riders' platform, which

was connected to the yoke saddle by a long wooden rod, was also redesigned. By

moving the rider closer to the chariot's axle, it became more stable for the riders,
making it easier to aim and fire at their enemies. Finally, the Egyptians covered the

axle with metal to prevent friction against the chariot's platform. This not only improved
the vehicle's movement, but it also reduced damage to the vehicle, making them more

reliable. Unfortunately, none of these improvements corrected other problems inherent

with the chariot's design, and by 1500 B.C. cavalry troops on horseback had replaced
them in most military settings. However, they did remain in use as racing vehicles for

hundreds of years to come.

Label the diagram below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

The Ancient Chariot

To reduce weight, The 11....

10 was covered with metal

wheels were u*s*e*d**i*n*s*t*e*a'*d
of traditional disk wheels.

to stop it from rubbing

against the platform.

warfaren chi¿n sy, chién tranh chariot n. thxvbeoàràcondndgugdâugy¡acpvgtkaàr(éyaoßon, (ghqb(aduáibnùeibnhcaêguxxnneld)egyé)êynnod.pkálntaerngtuhfunco.artxmtrhde-naéf)nnr.dihcckataÇnitorg,rncaibhanåânggcn.e,)sccyunhmamccb,ôaearxscsáehotlminápnig,aehuded3rnoce. amvkcihaoeilnnérggny

archer phr. ky xa (ky binh ngQi trên xe ngua

kênh, bát tien saddle n. yên ngva stirrup n.
steer v. dieadapt v. sua lai cho hop, thich úng spoke v. t

slippagen.dem lót (yên ngva) su tron trug
von có, cô hïu troop n. quân dÙi, binh lính

120

Every year, millions of birds participate in annual migrations - moving from one area to CH

another when weather changes make it difficult to find food or when they must seek out 04

potential mates. Some of these journeys are rather simple and merely involve moving to

a nearby area, but others can cover more than 10,000 kilometres. To travel such a great

distance, birds must possess a strong ability to navigate. Today, it is believed that birds

have three methods of navigation: piloting, orientation, and true navigation. Piloting is

the easiest of these to understand, because it is how we most often find our way. Put
simply, they move from one recognisable visual landmark to the next. Much like wve

know to turn left after a certain feature when coming home from the supermarket, birds

know to follow landmarks, like a river that runs north and south, until they get to the
next feature, like a lake. However, this can lead to a problem. When the bird looks at

the river, which way should it head? To answer this question, birds may use the second

method, orientation, which entails using clues to figure out direction. Over the course of

the last 50 years, scientists have observed birds using the sun and stars as compasses

to check their direction. Some have even been shown to be able to sense and use

Earth's magnetic field to orient themselves. The final method is true navigation, which

requires the bird to determine its final destination and find a way to it from their current

location. For scientists, this is the most fascinating aspect of avian navigation, because

it cannot be explained as simply as the other two. At its most basic, true navigation is

the way that birds compensate for problems with the other two systems. For instance,

if a bird only knew to fly due south or to only follow one particular geological feature

it would be highly susceptible to getting lost. If a storm pushed the bird far west, then
flying south would not necessarily get it to the correct destination. Also, what's a bird
to do if a landmark has been destroyed since the last migration? While the mechanism

used for true navigation remains undiscovered, some researchers, such as Professor

Thomas Collett, believe that the birds possess a 'cognitive map'. They believe that

birds can use this map, along with the cues they gather from piloting and orienting and

their internal clocks, to find their way.

Complete the table below.

Choose ONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer

Methods of Avian Navigation

Piloting Orientation True Navigation

Birds look for It was discovered within Birds set a course
12. ******'*** the last 13......nnn between the current
which they recognise that birds use cues such location and the
to navigate by, much as the location of the sun
like humans do when ultimate
performing daily errands. or stars.
14.**********'*******

migraa o n n su di cu navigate v. lái, xác dinh phuong huóng piloting n. su dan duóng, su dinh huóng orientation
(inh huóng) feature n. diém dac trung entailv. doi hói, dua dén magnetic
puhdri e.ut ùhut rounàgn gl aonrdime natrvk. dn.i móc
nh vi, dinh huóng avian adj (thuÙc) loài chim compensate v. dên bo, bù âp due

adv E nuong, dúng huóng (dông, tày, nam, bác) susceptible to phr. d bj ánh huóng, dê måc
v

CHAPTER 04 NoteTable/Flow-chart/Diagram Completion 121

Wind Power

Wind power has been used by humans for almost two millennia, usually in the fo.

form

of windmills which ground grain or pumped water. Horizontal windmills were t

first

introduced in ancient Persia before spreading throughout the Middle East and

being exported to Central Asia, China and India. The vertical windmills which tahen

typical in European agriculture began to be used in the Middle Ages, initially in Enalanarae

d

northern France and Flanders. At its peak in 1850, it is thought that there were around
200,000 windmills across Europe, but this number rapidly declined as the Industrial

Revolution took hold.

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122

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