Architectural Theories of Design

• • REVISED EDITION

USEFll. REf€1£NC€

fOR!

• fiRCHITECTORfiL
THEORIES OF DESIGN

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BY: Ci£ORGE: S. Slll.\JIIN•i-1-A~~RES ·INTERIOR. DESIGNEJ!S·

ARCHITECTURAL
THEORY

OF DESIGN

• THE NEW LADDER
TYPE CURRICULUM

GEORGE SALINDA SALVAN ... fuap

• ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

College of Engineering and Architecture
Baguio Colleges Foundation 1980-1988
• First and lone graduate of B.S. Architecture, 1963
North of Manila, St. Louis University Bagu io City
• Former instructor 1965-1969 at St. louis University
• Recipient of various ACE certificates, Architects Continuing
Education Program
• A licensed Architect, active practitioner and
a licensed building constructor, inventor and a board topnotcher.
• Past president of United Architects Phils. Bagu io Chapter 1982 and 1983
• Elected National Director; UAP, Regional District. I for the year 1987.
• Conferred the title of " FELLOW" United Architects Phils.
College of Fellows, October, 1988

JMC PRESS INC.
388 Quezon Avenue , Quezon City

Philippine Copyright© 1999 by:
JMC PRESS, INC.
and
GEORGES. SALVAN

All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be ~eproduced in any
manner without permission of the publisher.

FIRST EDITION, 1986
SECOND EDITION, 1993
THIRD EDITION, 1999

ISBN: 971 -11 -1027-X
Published and Printed by:
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Dedicated to all future
Architects

The hope for a functional, comfortable
and convenient designs for better living.



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The completion of this book was made into reality through the patient and hardworking
artist and graduate of architecture, Mr. Jerry Jun Suyat who spent sleepless nights w ith the
illustrations and all of the layouts of the dummy.
Special thanks and mention is also acknowledged to the artists who made all the illustrations
notably, Clamor Lecitona from NU, who also prepared the cover, Johnny Camsol, Fermin
Balangcod, Roy Pagador, Rey Puno, all from BCF and Reesa Angela Palaganas of SLU.
To those who lent unselfishly their books, like Architect Mike Caluza, Fe Oespabiladeras,
Dean Avelino Cruz of BCF, and to the BCF library through Ms. Macabiog for understanding
my late returns of borrowed books.

To Mr. Luis V. Canave who guided me on the complete process of publishing and printing of

books and to Mr. Francisco C. Malicsi, Teresita G. Espinoza, Eduardo C. Villanueva and
Enrico P. Gomez for t heir untiring cooperation in preparing the manuscripts typewritten by

Thelma i. Villareal, in computerized typesetting. The many students of architecture whose

curiosity about and interest in the Theory of Design and its realization in book form have
been a source of inspiration.

v



PREFACE

The practice of Architecture involves both the conception of an idea and its ultimate expres-
sion in building materials. The process of developing this idea to a point at which a solution
of the problem at hand is reached is known as "Architectural Design". Design must concern
itself with both the practical and the aesthetic. if the resulting structure is to be satisfactory
to an individual or a community, the two must always be combined and not separated.

For some time, students of architecture throughout the country have felt the need for a book
dealing with general ideas concerning the Theory of Design, a book that would be in every
sense introductory, defining the various approaches. outlining the different technical prob-
lems-and relating these two types of material to the creative side of art as well as to its uses
in everyday life.

Contemporary principles are concerned with planning for human needs and are not confined
to the field of architecture alone. Science, Sociology, and Economics also contribute to be
successful design of a building. The Architect of Today must be conscious of the character
of present-day culture and its effects upon the building which house the activities of this
civilization . He must design in terms of his physical and social environment.

Since.this author has been teaching the Theory of Design subject. way back in 1965, there
has oeen so many changes, notably new products in plastics and glass which gave us new
conceptions of the extent of space, while the ability to heat and light our interiors more effi-
ciently has imparted a different quality to the shelters in which we work. play and rest. All
these innovations taken together have made possible the open, flexible plan, and thus
architecture has changed in character.

Realizing this fast growing changes in Architectural Design as seen in the forms, shapes and
images which respond to project needs, the Ministry of Education in cooperation with the
United Architects Philippines met sometime in 1979 to revise the Architectural Curriculum to
a 5-year step ladder course, and came up with a more relevant syllabus for The Theory of
Architectural Design. Scanning the subject matters, the authors realized that not less than
30 books and different topics is needed for references. This is the reason that led to the
author's compiling of notes to suit this new curriculum and infuse the new topics involved.
Majority of the topics on architectural design are behavioral relations between man and
building, ecological interactions between building and nature and the role of building in
man's perception of and orientation to the cityscape.

VII

Briefly, the aims of this book are as follows: To outline a number of approaches to Design
(Physical, intellect~al, religious, symbolic, historical, etc.). To describe and characterize the
different techniques or media in design with their respective limitations and advantages; to
convey an idea of planning and designing of the art object and of the building . Other pur-
poses of this book is to provide practitioners and students of designing and planning with a
review of the new design methods and with examples of each. It may also be of interest to
anyone outside the design professions who is concerned with creative behaviour and with
technological change.
The chapters are arranged in sequence, Part I is for the first semester which deals mostly
with forms and Part II is for the second semester which deals with spaces. Each topic is sum-
marized in such a manner as to guide the instructor to finish and discuss all topics in the
alloted time of more than 40 hours per semester.

viii

LIST OF CONTENTS

-PART ONE-
(FORMS- TWO-DIMENSION)

Chapter 1 INFLUENCE ON ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ................. ..... ..... 1

General Influence, 2

Influence of Nature, 3
Essentials of the Structure, 18
Invisible St ructure, 18
Visible Structure, 19

Form, Surface, Texture, Tone and Color, 61

Chapter 2 CHROMATIC ENERGY OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 69

Psychological Effects of Color, 70

Color as an Expression Element of Design, 74

Chapter 3 PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION ..... .. .............................. .. ...... 79

Contrast, 86
Proportion and Antrhopometrics, 94

Scale, 125
Balance and Gravitational Curves, 129

Rhythm, 138

Unity and Hierarchy, 142
Character, 151

Chapter 4 ·PLAN COMPOSITION ... .............. .................................... ...... . 159
Scheme, 160
Secondary Principles, 162

Chapter 5 VISUAL AOUITY AND PERCEPTION 165
Spatial Perception, 160
Visual or Optical Illusions. 180
Monocular Cues to Depth, 189

Chapter 6 CONCEPTUALIZATION TECHNIQUES OF DESIGN ............... 197
Architectural Concepts, 198
Creativity, 205
Methodology' 210

Chapter 7 ~FUNCTIONAL GROUPING AND ZONING ... .......... ........... ..... 215
Horizontal Disposition, 216
Activity Analysis .and Linkages, 2Z7

ix

-PARTTWO-
(SPACES -THREE-DIMENSION)

Chapter 8 SPACE ARTICULAnON ...... ...... ........ .... .. ...... ......................... 233
The Concept of Space, 234
The Process of Space Organization, 242
Spatial Qualities, 243
Space to Space Relationships, 245
Spatial Organization, 251
Space Articulation, 265
Kinesthetic Qualities of Space, 275

Chapter 9 GEOMETRY.............................................. .... .. ........ .. ..... .......... 28
Appearance of the Structure, 282
Forms and Image, 284
Circulation-Movement Through Space, 286
Stairs, 299
Semantics, 300
Signs, Signals and Symbols, 301
Visual Expression of Function , 314
Visual expression of Material Production , 322

10Chapter RESPONSE TO CONTEXT ........ ..... ............. .... ........ .... .. ... .. .. .. . 327

The Building Envelope, 328
Energy and Architectural Design, 336
Energy Consumption in Buildings, 336
Building Process, 337
Environmental Planning, 341
Site Selection, 342
Elements of Site Control, 343
Passive Solar Planning, 348
Building Design, Configuration, 359

11Chapter ENCLOSURE ..... .................................... .......... .. ...................... 371

Qualities of Architectural Space, -372
Openings, Structure and Enclosing Planes, 373
Degree of Enclosure, Light and Views, 373

12Chapter SYSTEMS .. ... ...... ... .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 387

Environmental Concepts and the Interior, 388
Mechanical and Electrical Systems, 388
User Requirement Architectural System, 392
Handicapped Users, 399
Structural and Engeneering Concepts, 400
Construction Methods and Structures as

expression of ArchitecturaI Design, 411

X

13Chapter ECONOMIC ....... .... ....................... ........................ .................... 435

The Cost of the Building Structures, 436
First Costs, 436
Maintenance Related Design, 437

Architectural Safety, 437
Building Materials as Expression of Design, 438
Honesty of Expression, 438
Economy of Materials in Design, 439
Visual Expression of Material, 440
New Materials, 447

Biotechture and the Nature of Materials, 450
Indigenous Materials, 451

14Chapter HUMAN FACTORS .................................................................. 457

Socio-cultural Variables, 458

Psychological Considerations, 458
Personal Space, 460
Psychological and Social Space, 460

Territoriality, 464
Perceptual Quality of the Designed Environment, 465
Human -Architectural Interfaces, 466

Human Needs, 466

Value, Aspiration and Culture, 468
How Value Influence The Environment, 472

How Environment Influence Value, 473
Folk Beliefs in Architecture, 475
Vernacular Architecture and lndiginous Technology, 478

Feng Shui, 479

Bibliography, 496

Index, 497

xi





INFLUENCES ON
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

I. GENERAL INFLUENCES

NEEDS OF MAN

1. PHYSICAL NEEDS

a. Self preservation . . . .
Food, shelter, clothing- basic
add to this basic needs:
power, water, transportation, ecological balance,
education , sports, medical, livelihood

b. Reproduction-for the population to increase and continue in existen ce.
SHELTEA . .. is something that covers, protects, or defends as a roof that shields
one from the elements and changes.

The modern man's shelter shalf have:
1. Necessities-warm, dry house with glazed doors, windows, sanitation and
permanency.
2. Conveniences - rooms shall be arranged economically. Circulations are
studied according to functions, such as t he kitchen for food preparation,
bedroom for sleep and bathroom for cleanliness.
3. Comforts - this must contain the labor-saving devices which provide heat,
ventilation, and instant communication. The furnishings are designed for
com for t .

2. EMOTIONAL NEEDS

The emotional reactions of man have to do with ~he instincts stirred by the forces
of religion and art and with the desire to indulge in recreation . Art in its broadest
interpretation, assumes the various familiar forms painting, sculpture , music, lite-
rature.

3. INTELLECTUAL NEEDS

Educat ion, science and government , demand a proper architectural setting. In-
tellect or reason alone may erect a utilitarian building; emotion w ill endow it w ith
beauty and interest.

2

ACTIVITIES OF MAN

If life is to exist and civilization is to develop, there are f undamental i~putses or desires'
which must be satisfied. These forces may be called the stim~.Jii .~o action . Their effect
upon life and architecture, may be designated as Resulting Manifestations: RM

1. Desire for Preservation -in obtaining food, shelter, clothing and security, civilized rnan
must have commerce, government and religion. These activities call for their accom-
panying structures, or architecture.

2. Desire for Recognition -this is a desire for prestige, pride and ambition, social status,
physical supremacy, intellectual attainment, personal or civic, result in the-struggle
for position.

As a result, man build palaces, skyscrapers, or communities may erect cathedrals
or public buildings and monuments.

3. Desire for Response - This arises from the gregarious nature of man, from his wish for
love, friendship, and sociability.

In seeking the companionship of his fellow creatures, man congregates. His social
instincts call for fraternal buildif)QS and city clubs. His semi -public buildings must
contain banquet halls and ball rooms ; his home must have a living room to make
human association possible.
4. Desire for Self-Expression-This is the urge of man to as,sert himself as an individual.
To do things in his own particular way.

This is responsible for aesthotic expression; f or architecture in its highest forrn,
whicfi result in building of theatres, museums, etc. To show that he is the b~ in
sports or recreation, encouraged the building of stadia, bowling alleys, gymnasiums,
etc.

II. INFLUENCES OF NATURE

Climate and topography influence the life and habits of a nation. They decide what foods
shall be grown and what occupations shall be followed. They determine what regions will
develop farmers, 88 ilors or merchants. Climate aids in giving to races their own particular
traits. These· races in turn create architecture with local or national characteristics.

A. CLIMATE

This affect the habits and temperaments of people. Those near the sea are quiet, taCiturn
and bold people. They are easy going and care-free and produce an architecture different
from people in the cold and forested areas, whose .people plan in advance. This requires in-
itiative, patience and energy.

In the arctic, regions, civilization is less advanced as climatic conditions are so unprotective
and absorb so much energy that the natives have little surplus with which to devek>p civiliza-
tion or art.

In the temperate zones, people are energetic and progress is assured. Here, man may plan
and may realize his ambitions without interference from droughts, mons~. blizzards, or
tropical f evers .

3

EFFECT ON ARCHITECTURE

WARMER CLIMATES COLDER CLIMATES
The architecture is more severe and the de-
The buildings rnay be more flamboyant in signer depend less upon the landsca pe tor
their conception and usually a closer rela- final effect. Colors are usually more sub·
tions exists between the works of man and dued .
nature where vegetation is more luxuriant,
more attention is paid to the color and tex- COLDER CLIMATES
ture of surface treatment. More compact in arrangement. The severe

Plain wall areas give an opportunity for cold winds is avoided by providing a cover
contrast with the colors of the foliage.
from portion of the building to the other.
1. PLANS

WARMER CLIMATES

The plans are more open and often include
courts or patios.

f

•• • Ill!

![~\\• • •oPEN COURT
BREt:ZE

2. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

In the past, walls were load bearing, wall thickness were thick, to carry the load of
the floors and the roof and also to resist the extremes of temperature and to protect
man from his enemies.

4

Today, modern man erects structures to protect his investment from depreciation

and himself from the curiosity of his neighbors. W alls are no longer bearing walls.
They no longer carry loads as thin as the material will permit. The development of in-
sulation makes it possible to keep out the heat and the cold in a highly satisfactory
manner.

Load is di!?triMed to the beam

1 11l I ~ 1 I 1 l 1 L ...
5
~ i

v 1-ttload carried by columns

Thirt wall

thin ~Nail 1 '7 ' Insulation

3. PROTECTIVE ELEMENTS

The roof protects the interior from the elements of climate like typhoon, heat of the
sun, etc.

WARMER CLIMATE COLDER CLIMATES

- In the Past-

The roofs are usually rather flat and colour- The roofs become steeper and less colour-
ful. As in the rich red and brown tile roof of ful. The necessity of shedding the rain and
Italy. snow makes the greater pitch to the roofs
more practical.

5

Entrance porches are the result of the desire for protection. The driving rains and
cold w inds made these porches a de.sirable adjunct to the entrances.

I
0 0 u 00

0

-Modern Developments-
However, with new inventions and innovations, steel and concrete construction. in-
sulation, and modern drainage make almost any kind of utilitarian roof possible.

The roof may be flat even in cold countries and invisible from the ground. The roof
has now become a terrace, and the accompanying fresh air and sunshine contribute
to the health of a nation.

l -I

~ I

{

4. CIRCULATORY ELEMENTS
Windows - permit the entrance of light and circulation of air
Doors, 9tairs, corridor-circulation of human traffic and materials

6

- In the Past -

WARMER CLIMATES COLDER Cll MATES

Windows are usually small in order not to Windows are usually large in order to cap-
admit too muct light, which produces ex- ture the greatest amount of light, and heat
cessive heat and glare. the interior.

----J

\ \~

warm cold

-Modern -

In the architecture of the 20th Century, there has ceased to be the relation between windows
and climate that existed in the past. We can now heat or cool our houses in a satisfactory
manner with less reference to the sizes of openings and windows often simply contribute to
the cheerfulness of the interior.

In the last few years, there has come a new conception of hygienic and therapeutic possibili-
ties of the window. A type of glass has been devek>ped which does not filter out the ultra-
violet rays of the sunshine; as does ordinary window glass.

Man also invented machines for air conditioning, heating, ventilating and this machine age
brought about the suggestion of windowless buildings.

5. DECORATIVE ELEMENTS COLDER CLIMATES

WARMER CLIMATES Sculpture and mouldings are usually deep-
ly cu rved and undercut to catch the max -
With brilliant sunshine, pronounced mould- imum amount of light.
ings are unnecessary and undesirable. When
mouldings are used, the curves should be
f latter and more subtle.

7

Color is a decorative element which in warm countries assumes an importance rivaling that
of carvings. Plain wall surfaces in white or light pastel tones, with their various textures
catch the sunlight and allow an interesting play of shadows from projecting roots and adjoin-
ing trees. Colored tiles are also conspicuous in the architecture in the mediterranean coun-
tries.

B. TOPOGRAPHY

In the earliest periods of civilization, the elements of topography-mountains, deserts and
seas-constituted barriers to migration. This retarded the intermingling of people and the

cross-fertilization of cultures. Ideas traveled slowly, and the customs and atts of different

countries assumed definite national patterns.

However, as navigation became more of a science, the sea that had been a barrier became
an aid to travel and communic_ation.

Topography, in its broadest sense, may mean the general terrain or contour of the surface of
the entire country. If the country is small and the topography is uniform, there tends to be a
similarity of character in the architecture. It may be nationalistic and may assume traits com-
mon to the entire area .

MOUNTAIN REGIONS LEVEL COUN-TRY

In a setting of rocks and cliffs with violent While an unsymmetrical or informal plan is
changes in the direction of the contour of possible on such a site. 'Formal' or balanced
the site, the building should appear to grow scheme is more satisfactory.
out of its surroundings. The buildings
should be 'informal'. The floor levels of the
major parts should follow as far as is con-
venient, the slope of the ground. If it
crowns an eminence. its steep roofs with
vertical effects may serve as a fitting term-
ination to a commanding height.

sJopiHg site infor-rna lity

8

0 0 00D

Level Site Formality

C. MATERIALS

The gifts of nature for the structures of man are limestone, marble, pine and mahogany, etc.
(timber) clay for brick and ore for metals .
In the past, certain materials have had a local use and have influenced the development of an
indigenous architecture. Since there was lack of methods of conveyance.
However, they have changed as new contacts were made and as new developments came
into existence. Ideas were borrowed, commerce and industry grew and now modern
transportation has made building materials international in distribution and use .

Ill. INFLUENCE OF MAN

1. SOCIAL CONDITIONS:

Architecture, because it is the most permanent and cumulative-reflects the social structure
of the period in which it is developed . The interests of the people dictate the type and ap-
pearance of its buildings.
Stable government and improved social condition eliminate the necessity of many protective
features such as high fences, shutters, wrought iron or steel railings tor doors aRd windows,
broken glass and barbed wire on top of fences. Comfort and convenience now control archi-
tecture.
Example:

1. Periods ... The different architectural characters in the different periods of ar-
chitecture is shown in the interests of man at that time as shown in their build·
ings.
In this 20th Century, our social structure has become so complex that confusion
rather than simplicity is its chief characteristic. The automobile has made it pos-
sible for us to live many miles from our work but has created a traffic problem.
The movies, radio, t.v. and transportation have brought us knowledge of
foreign countries. Standardization is more prevalent than individualism.

9

Congestion, economic pressure requires proximity of allied f ields of endeavor
and adds to the problems of the architect and city planner. This complexity of
our social system is reflected in our architecture.
2. Man's Personality.
By his appearance, something is known of his interests from t he type of house
in which he lives. In a similar manner, it is possible to trace a comparison bet·
ween the personality of a nation as reflected in its clothing and its attitude
toward architecture dS seen in its buildings. Clothes give an indication of the
simplicity or complexity of the existence of its inhabitants which in turn controls
the development of its architecture.

GREEK ... .. .. .... ....... ...... ...... ...... .... .. . ... ........ ...... .................. DIGNITY

Scholarly and philosophical refinement was characteristic of the lives of people,
we find the costume consisted of a simple, flowing robe. Much attention was
paid to the body and to physical health. The existence of the Greeks was reduc-
ed to the essentials, and this was reflected in their dress and architecture. They
did not build on a grand scale, but rather sought for purity of detail and develop-
ment of technical skill. Ornateness in dress had no place in their simple here ac-
tivities.
FRENCH RENAISSANCE

This was a period of multiplicity of detail in court life, in dress and in archi-
tecture . Social etiquette was so complicated that all naturalness was aban-
doned . Life was artificial and theatrical. and likewise the costumes of the
period . Powdered wigs and brocaded coats made congruous the jeweled
canes and lace frills . The furniture was colorful, but the chairs w ere often
straight and uncomfortable. All this splendor would have been ina·ppropri·
ate in a simple setting. The architecture had to be ornate in order to har-
monize with the activities which it housed. Buildings were crowded with
rococo details wl;lich hid structural lines and often prevented truth of ex-
pression.
This elaborate architectu re lined wide avenues lavishly decorated with
fountains and gardens-all designed for the purpose of being ostentatious.

10

VICTORIAN
The flowing whiskers, beribboned bonnets, mutton - leg sleeves, and
bustles were simply a reflection of the jig-saw ornament and sheet-metal
cornices of the buildings of that period. Again, it was an ugly and drab
variety, without the color of the French Renaissance.

CONTEMPORARY
Although present-day civilization is complex, we have been blessed with
simple attire for both men and women. The dress of today is probably due
to the fact that the science of medicine and health has kept step with other
developments, and our people have been impressed with the necessity of
fresh air, sunshine, and exercise. These were difficult to obtain under the
restrictions of the 19th C.
The desire for freedom of movement and an interest in athletics is reflected
in the contemporary movement in architecture, which, in seeking to inter-
pret buildings in terms of the needs of the people, is placing the emphasis
upon plain wall surfaces.

11

CONTEMPOAAAV

Ta.) Mal1al, Agr.a. 11TH amtury

St. &Js1Is . Moscow, 10TH 0e11tury 6o111ic CatHedral. Reint?,

17TH cenrury

Alr force Cl1a~
Colorado ~~~ l90Z

Alc::a zar, Gegovia. 15TH

12

3. Man's Interests.
It has been pointed out that the activities and .interests of man are· directly
responsible for the type of architecture which he develops. This is showl'l in the
typical structures like the
house-which provides shelter for man during his hours of rest.
factory -offers a place in which to work and to produce a commodity of
exchange.
church - affords spiritual relaxation and opportunity for worship.

1. HOUSE - in the past, houses were small and compact, the hall was used as a
workroom and dining room. When the scene changed from the farm to the
city, wealth and servants, and large houses were easily maintained. This was
the age of pretense and show. Plans were complicated and of various sizes,
shapes, disorganized and unrelated to human needs . This was the Victoria n
House

The Contemporary house-is called a functional type and one of comfort, There
is a desire to take full advantage of sunlight .and air. The walls are opened as
much as possible, and the interior is related to the exterior terraces and
gardens in a pleasing manner. Thus, the principle of comfort prevails In the
20th Century designs.

13

2. FACTORY -in the early days, man often worked at home, it was the age of
craftsmanship, the period of individual effort. Those who created products
required by their fellow men took pride in each article. Business was personal
rather than impersonaL

When the industrial period arrived, with the last lialf of the 19 century, the
small shops grew into factories, and little thought was given to efficient ar-
rangements or pleasant working conditions. Labor was unorganized with
few windows, light and air was insufficient and the result was gloom and in-
effeciency.

The present century-an age of competition and mass production. There must be

efficient operation in order to compare favorably in price and quality. Proper
working conditions have been outgrowth of this kind of business life, and as
a result, well-planned factories and pleasant surroundings are often typical of
portions of our industrial cities.

3. CHURCH-in the past, people worshipped different gods and only the priests
enter the temples. The exterior then received more attention. Then the chris-
tian religion built churches to hold congregation to participate in the wor-
shipping of God. For that reason the interior is in many respects more impor-
tant than the exterior.

The medieaval churches was not only a place for worship but also a center of
education for the masses who could not read or write. The carvings and
sculpture of the exterior and interior furnished a chronology of biblical
events.

When the people learned socially to read and write, especially with the inven-

tion of the printing press,-sculpture became, instead of the pictorial, a

stressed decorative quality. The preaching type of church was developed,
causing an auditorium, to be included . This was a participation of mental
rather than a physical one .

Modern churches now are designed to provide mental, physical, as well as
spiritual relaxation. The modem church has now classrooms for educational
work, halls and parlors for social gatherings and a gymnasium for the exer-
cise of the body.

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14

cont-emporary church forms

20th CENTURY ARCHITECTURE

The present century has brought countless inventions and discoveries. Old standards of
thought and living have been modified or abandoned. New activities have called for struc-
tures to house them, and new materials and types of construction have made these build-
ings possible.

a. TRANSPORTATION-made possible the carrying of all kind of building materials
from one end of the earth to the other and has created structures unknown a
few generations ago. The automobile has made necessary the garages, filling
stations, and bus terminals. It has rendered almost obsolete our narrow streets
designed for the horse and buggy. The airplane has brought about the develop-
ment of airports, while new types of steamships with increased tonnage have
given added importance to docks and warehouse. The expansion of the
railroads has created the magnificent passenger and freight terminals and has
made possible our large in.distrial centers.

b. COMMERCE - large, complex and taller buildings are constructed to house the
new business activities like banking, finance, etc.

c. EDUCATION -with mass education, schools and colleges are scientifically
planned, and their functions are numerous and involved.
The newspaper is also a powerful agency in the attempt to keep people inform-
ed upon the current affairs of the nations, and libraries and museums offer
unlimited facilities to those who would read and study.
In the past, museums were designed to resemble palaces with little thought to
the education and comfort of the public. The modern museum is designed to
display the art of the past and the present in order that it may be studied and ap-
plied to contemporary needs. Simplicity of arrangement, satisfactory lighting,
and ease of circulation are primary requirements.

d. REHABILITATION-labor-saving devices have brought about time for leisure and
the need for recreation. There is a universal interest in sports and entertain-
ment, both by spectators and participants. As a result, we have theatres and
dance halls, arenas, ballparks, golf and city clubs.

15

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS:

The social life of a nation and the resulting architecture are linked closely with the economic
conditions under which people live. The nature of trade, commerce, industry and agriculture
determines to a large extent the occupations and standards of living within a particular coun-
try. These factors influence the types of buildings erected and the materials used.

As nations modify their basic economic institutions through changes in manufacture, trans-
portation, and communication, new modes of living come into existence, and new architec-
ture must be developed to conform to these customs. We are interested, therefore, in the
economic status of individuals as they constitute a nation , and not in their private finances.
We are also interested in economy in architecture. Buildings may be so designed that thete
is economy of space, of movement, and of materials. These factors control to a large extent
the cost of an architectural project.

During the present century the concentration of wealth in our cities has been responsible for
our attitude toward certain types of architecture. Investments rule our lives, and the process
of building must lend an attentive ear to the caprices of finance. We erect structures many
stories in height, but mechanical devices render them obsolete in a few years and they must
make way for those with later developments. True economy in architecture is not using inte-
rior materials but the omission of useless decoration and the inclusion of sensible planning.

Man's economic system remained unchanged for centuries-until the present industrial age.
Previous to this age of machinery, power and energy were supplied by the hands of man or
the backs to animals. Production was relatively slow, and the hours of labor were long. Now
electrical or steam power is furnished in almost unlimited quantities, releasing man from the
machine and creating new economic and social problems. Man can now work less and pro-
duce more.

The future promises shorter hours of labor and longer hours of leisure. This increase in lei-
sure suggests a changed mode of living, It will promote the erection of those buildings which
have to do with recreation. relaxation and education. More time will be devoted to the reha-
bilitation of the mind and body . This possible change in our economic structure may thus,
have a profound effect upon our social life and our architecture.

A PREVIEW OF THE COMING OF THE 21st CENTURY

At this time, man has already reached the moon, our transportation ~as brought us to space.
Man has developed computers to solve in an instant what has been solved in the past for
hours, days or even months. New an.d synthetic materials are being discovered and deve-
loped in a fast pace. Thereby making the designs of our building more comfortable, and now
comes skyscrapers that are built higher and higher.

In the initial stages of the computers, man feeds information based from the clients needs,
and a schematic sketch comes out of the computer. This can then be fed back to form a
massing or a perspective. It can even be manipulated to show the shades and shadows at
selected different times of the day. In another proble!T', for a subdivision planning, showing
the contours of the lot, the computer can show the. different views.altogether. Other func-
tions which it can do are showing the weak spots in a design for structural parts .of a building
for the structural designer's guidance. The computer can also store w ith its software all data
on materials, specifications, management, schedulings and so many other information that
can aid the designer to produce a better, faster and more accurate solutions to designs.

16

FUTUREHOME by Elizabeth Pennisi

For Portia Isaacson, a computer scientist, futurehome is a fantasy come true. The white,
two storey, stucco, suburban Dallas home, will be an electronic showcase, but with spiral
staircase, hot tub, art gallery and style. A quick call to-or from-a computer ensures that her
hot tub will be warm when she arrives or informs her when her teenaged children have got-
ten home from school. If a business meeting keeps her from getting home in time for her
husband's birthday, a computer controlled scenario, complete with loving messages, ro-
mantic lighting, favorite music and appropriate videos, will let him know he hasn't been for-
gotten.

Answering the door is obsolete. A camera shows who it is by sending a close-up view of
newcomers to wherever Isaacson is in the house. Then she can open the door remotely.
Can't find the keys or the husband? Via video cameras she can scan shelftops and table sur-
faces. Motion censors track each person's room-to-room movements.

It will take 13 computers, 14 telephones, 26 tv monitors, 8 miles (13 kml of wiring, several
video casette recorders for this future home. Isaacson has robots for pets, a sculpture of
stereo and video components that seem to float in space, futuristic plant stands that are real-
ly computer terminals, and a media " command center", that includes four (4) 25-inch (60

em.) tv's, a 40-inch (100 em.) tv projection screen, 2 VCFS, and compact and laser disc

players.

At futurehome, a master computer is in charge . It receives data from the rest of the house
and sends out commands, dimming lights, changing thermostat setting, and switching tv
channels and volumes. Using a text-to-speech converter, the computer can answer and
make telephone calls. When someone - a housekeeper or tardy teenager, for instance pun-
ches in their individualized codes to get into the front door, the computer can be cued to let
Isaacson know, either where she is in the home or at work.

It can tell the condition of the house, not only can lights or favorite music be turned on as a
person enters a room, a synthesized voice can welcome guests, remind a son to keep his
feet off furniture or wake a husband in time for dinner.

Heating and airconditioning are regulated electronically, and the computer tracks tempera-
tures in each room so that the new occupants can assess airflow throughout the house.
Once computerized, the entire house can be run from any one of 10 personal computers by

pointing with .a light pen to a particular room pictured on the screen, and designating a task

to be completed: lights on or off, specific music to be played, tv show to be recorded.

Or "scripts" can be written that coordinate activities for emergencies, normal household
maintenance, even family tends to take care of intruders, a security script: If a security sen-
sor detects a break-in, the computer could be programmed to flash all the lights, blast the
stereos, wake up and tell the residents where the stranger is lurking, perhaps even inform
the burglars that they are being filmed.

The Interior looks like the tv series Star Trek. Instead of a wall-sized painting, an elec-
tronic sculpture welcome visitors. THe black components of an audio ahd video systems are
set into a glosSy, black metal wall on shelves not visible to viewers. Recessed lighting along
the wall edges adds to the effect.

'SMART HOUSES' OF THE FUTURE

(Turn to page456)

17

THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
ESSENTIALS OF THE STRUCTURE

The various periods of historic developments have left to this age buildings which may be
identified as temples, cathedrals, factories and bungalows. These have been built to house
the activities of man, and to these structures has been given the name of architecture.

Architecture may be a group of buildings or a profession. The term "architecture" is an in·
elusive one. lt may refer to the process of designing a building and supervising its erection. It
may also be regarded as the procedure assisted with the conception of an idea and its realiza-
tion in terms of building materials.

Architecture is represented by a building which meets in a satisfactory manner the require·
ments of logical function, sound construction . and beautiful composition. It is only when all
of these qualities are present that good architecture can be said to exist. In its broader
aspects, architecture is shelter, not only for man during the various hours of his daily exist-
ence-work, recreation and sleep-but also to protect all the activities of human race.

Man begins to create shelter by surrounding space with the materials provided by nature and
made usable by the ingenuity of civilized peoples. Space, in itself is indefinable and intangi-
ble and has no limits. Yet when it is enclosed with stone and steel according to accepted
rules of composition. the result may be called " architecture".

In providing shelter it is to be observed that buildings have walls and roofs, doors and wind-
ows, and that these elements are assembled in a simple or complex manner. Whatever the
type or character of the building, parts of it are more evident to the observer than others-
the exterior is more readily seen and understood than is the arrangement of the rooms,
which is called the plan. Thus, there exist the invisible and visible structures, or the plan pat-
tern and the apparent volume.

THE INVISIBLE STRUCTURE

The plan is the be~inning of a building. It is the foundation upon which the scheme of the
structure rests. It relates the various units to each other. It is the most important element of
volume and should receive early consideration .whenever the solution of a problem is at-
tempted. "We should proceed from within to without" from a satisfactory arrangement
of the plan units to the enclosing of these units by the shell which is called the exterior.

fi"ott1 Within to Wiii1out

18

THE VISIBLE STRUCTURE

By enclosing space, volume or mass is created. If this space has.no relation to the activities
of man, there exist only the simple geometric forms of the cube, the pyramid or the sphere.
If the surfaces of these volumes and the enclosed interiors are treated so that the forms are
related to human needs, then they may be regarded as architecture. Visible structure is com-
posed of form and surface as follows:

1. FORM
MASS or volume or evidence of the 3 dimension
• direction -vertical or horizontal axis of the mass
• shape - geometric qualities

2. SURFACE

AREA - surface with two dimensions as in a facade of a building
• texture - surface treatment identified with materials whether rough or smooth

• tone - light and shade caused by openings, projections
• color - inherent or applied color caused by spectrum hues

FORM

In an architectural discussion the accepted definition of form deals with shape and when the
figure is three dimensional, it becomes mass.

In architectural composition, mass is more important than surface. In the design of a build-
ing, "we should proceed from the general to the particular". from mass to detail. The
approach to design should not be through the details of a style but rather through a consi-
deration of the mass of the building which grows out of the function for which it is planned.

Ge11eral part-iculai

(Ma%} roof

wlrtdows
doors

walls

detai ls

MASS can be vigorous or weak; it can have vitality and strength, or it may be indecisive
and faltering . If it is correctly composed in an arresting manner, mass alone will arouse a de-
finite emotional reaction. It will stimulate the observer with the sense of its completeness.
Ornament should simply enhance a building .

tn order that mass may be decisive, it should be directional. It should be either'horizontal or

vertical. !

\

In architecture mass is usually volume, and the surfaces which enclose space have area.

19

Horizot1ta\ 'lertical

Simple rectsngular tnaS$

MaJOI a11d two 111i11or horizo11tal$ Domirtat1t vertical with l1orJzo11taiG
(emphasi~ 011 tl1e ce11tre ut1it)

20

Major Horizontal , Two major 'lerticats

Two t11i11or horizontals. (ThiS t?reaks up

t11e purely horizontal quali-ty of the

compositiott)

Major and rt1it1or hori-zontalS comt:Jined Major and mittor ve::.tjcals

with a dominant ver-tical

VOLUME;

A plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction becomes a volume. Con-
ceptually, a volume has three dimensions: length, width and depth. All volumes can be ana-
lyzed and understood to consist of:

21

lvertices) where several
plat1es come together:

~-~---- planes (surfaces) ttte limits or
bour1daries of a volume.

-lines (edges) where two planes
meeT.

- solid

a vol~me can either be solid, space displaced by mass,
or VOJd, space contained or enclosed by planes.

(void space)

FORM is the primary identifying characteristic of a volume, it is determined by the shapes
and interrelationships of the planes that describe the boundaries of the volume.

1. VISUAL PROPERTIES OF FORM

a. Shape: The principal identifying characteristic of form; shape results from
the specific configuration of a form's surfaces and edges.

22

form of .a tree 0D

circular lt1 shape D0

~ Since our perception of a plane's shape is distorted in perspective,
we see the true shape of a plane only when we view if frontally.
~

b. Size: The real dimensions of form, its length, width and depth ; while
these dimensions determine the proportions of a form, its scale is
determined by its size relative to other forms in its context.

c. Color: The hue, intensity, and total value of a form's surface; color is the
attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its environ-
ment. It also affects the visual weight of a form .

light darker dark

23

d. Texture: aThe surface characteristic of form; texture affects both tattile and

light-reflective qualities of a form's surfaces.

e. Position: A form's location relative to its environment or visual field.

left side of a river, left side of t+te road. rtgl1t side of a tree.
front oF a hotel. Back of a warehouse.

24

OBJECT

• at the tJack cf .left side of the road, 20 ttl away

the warehouse • in Front of the hotel

TREIOS

• left side or the r·Ner

• or right side of tHe trees
• or t'efore the building or welcome sigt1

f. Orientation: A form's position relative to the ground plane, the compass points
or to the person viewing the form.

The cardinal points NESW have since remote times been given
prime importance among the factors determining the structure of
the world. The word orientation comes from "orient" the direction
of sunrise. Christian churches were always oriented by the altar to-
wards the East. The East as the origin of light is also the source of

life. The west as the place Qf the setting sun is filled with all the ter-

rors of the earth.

NORm

AMIANAN - I~OCANO
HllA6A - TA6AL06

WEST EAST
LAUD- ILO~C-A-H-O-------~-----------C-\4YA- lLOCANO

I<ANLURAN· TA6Al.Q:; 51LAN6AN- TA6A1.06

SOUTH 25

AEW;ATAN- ILOCANO

TIMOS - TA6AL06

-"~"'~"-"!.- ~- ~>-"~~t.---J- 1_-- Q___,.LANE .
Q_ ---- ------ JAJ.~
FRONT t..EFT SlOE RIGHT SIDE

person viewing -+he form

WORMS EYE / BIRDS EYE

N ~'NE

I

I ,/

':,/)...,

.W - - ·--+--~-(-.--E

I

sI

RELATI\IE TO 5ROUND Pl.At-JE .90 atx>ve groo11d

le\lel.

g. Visual Inertia: The degree of concentration and stability of a form; the visual iner-
tia of a form depends on its geometry as well as its orientation rela-
tive to the ground plane and our line of sight.

<))

• All of these visual properties of form are in reality affected
by the conditions under which we view them:

1. our perspective or angle of view

,.[ ~· ~I <0
'I \
\I l
I ' .\
\I \ 'I
' \ .....I •I I f'I
'\~''I'
26 I

2. our distance from the form
3. lighting conditions
4. the visual field surrounding the form

SHAPE

Shape is a plane's primary identifying characteristic. If refers to the edge contour of a plane
or the silhouette of a volume. It is the primary means by which we recognize and identity the
form of an object. Since it is seen as the line that separates a form from its background, our
perception of a form's shape will depend on the degree of visual contrast between the form
and its background.

SILHOUETTE 27

In Architecture, we are concerned with the shapes of:
1. planes (floor, walls, ceiling} that enclose space
2. openings (windows, doors) within a spatial enclosure
3. the silhouettes of building forms

PRIMARY SHAPES

should be viewed as it is distorted in perspective.

a. t/Je circle: a series of points arranged equally and balanced about a point.

-- '.............

I/ \
1\
__ I
' ..,.\ I
........
/

b. the triangle: a plane bounded by three sides, and having three angles.

c. the square: a plane figure having four equal sides and four righ t angles.

DD

28

CIRCLE: the circle is a centralized, introverted figure that is normally stable and self-
centering in its environment, Placing a circle in the center of a field will rein-
force its natural centrality.

0 0\,0~ 0
o~ " I:('0

a~ +-O

a,;"J't'\~o
0 00

Placing an element along its circumference, can induce in it an apparent
rotary motion.

' .

I I
I
\
I
'\
___............... ..... / /

0000

stable fixed in self-centered dynamic
place
•
•

29

Composition of circles and circular segments

TRIANGLE: ... signifies stability When resting on one of its sides, the triangle is an ex-
tremely stable figure. When tipped.to stand on one of its vertices, however, it
can either be balanced in a precarious state of equilibrium or be unstable and
tend to fall over onto one of its sides.

PLAN

30

SECTION OF AN ART MUSEUM

SQUARE: ... represents the pure and the national. It is a static and neutral figure
having no preferred direction. All other rectangles can be considered varia-
tions of the square, deviations from the norm by the addition of height or
width. Like the triangle, the square is stable when resting on one of its sides,
and dynamic when standing on one of its corners.

stable

31

PLATONIC SOLIDS

The primary shapes can be extended or rotated to generate volumes whose forms are dis-
tinct, regular and easily recognizable. These forms are referred to as the platonic solids.

Circles generate spheres and cylinders; triangles generate cones and pyramids; squares
generate cubes.
The SPHERE is a centralized and highly concentrated form. It is, like the circle from which is

generated, self-centering and normally stable in its environment. It can be inclined toward a
rotary motion when placed on a sloping plane. From any viewpoint, it retains its circular

shape.

.....,·

Project fOr a11 agriculture looge
by : C. IedouX

32

-" -:_; .,;_ ~

chapel : MlSssac:;~wsetts Institute of TeeJ1MT~y­
'rJy : Eero saant1e11

The CYLINDER is a centralized about the axis defined by the centers of its two circular
faces. It can be extended easily along this axis. The cylinder is a stable form, if it rests on one
of its circular f aces; it becomes unstable when its central axis is inclined.

r'"~

~stable_Q_ (~0 ~'
Ut1stable "'-
The CONE is generated by rotating an equilateral triangle about its vertical axis. Like the cy-
linder, the cone is a highly stable form when resting on its circular base, and unstable when
its vertical axis is tipped or overturned . It can also be stood on its apex in a precarious state
of balance.

UI1Stabfe

coHical ce11otaph by: E. f!outee

33

The PYRAMID . .. has properties similar to those of the cone. Because all of its surfaces
are flat planes, however, the pyramid can rest in a stable manner on any of its faces. While
the cone is a soft form, the pyramid is relatively hard and angular.

pyramid Of cheo~

The CUBE ... is a prismatic form that has six square faces of equal size, and twelve edges
of equal length. Because of the equality of its dimensions, the cube is a static form that lacks
apparent movement on direction. It is a stable form except when it stands on one· of its
edges or corners. Even through its angular profile is affected by our viewpoint, the cube re-
mains a highly recognizable form.

e;table a 110U5B

34

REGULAR FORMS

Regular forms refer to those whose pa_rts are related to one another in a consistent and or-
derly manner. They are generally .stable in nature and symmetrical about one or more axes.
The platonic soli"s are prime examples of regular forms

OLD

Forms can retain their regularity even when transformed dimensionally, or by and the addi-
tion or subtraction of elements.

A~0' /J

IRREGULAR FORMS

Irregular forms are those whose parts are dissimilar in nature and related to one another in an
inconsistent manner. They are generally asymmetrical and more dynamic than regular
forms. They can be regular forms from which irregular elements have been subtracted or an
irregular composition of regular forms.

--r---..-- ..._

'\ --7

\/
\/

\

35

Since we deal with both solids and voids in architecture, regular forms can be contained
within irregular forms. Similarly, irregular forms can be enclosed by regular forms.

irregulzsr composi'tion oF

r~ular fbr-ms.

..--- regul2!r composrriot1 of regular fbnt1s

L d

/~ Irregular forms withiH a

4 v~~' regular field

36

THE TRANSFORMATION OF FORM

All other forms can be understood to be transformations of the platonic solids, variations
that are generated by the manipulation of their dimensions, or by the subtraction or addition
of elements.
1. DIMENSIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS:

A form can be transformed by altering one or more of its dimensions and still retain
its family identity. A cube for example, can be transformed into other prismatic forms by
altering its height, width, or length. It can be compressed into a planar form, or stretched
Into a linear one.

::-::~~

I cr:.---1

II I
tI I

- --t I I

I......_ It _ _.I,

~...., ......... ,.,.,..-....
A spherical form can be transformed into any number of ovoid or ellipsoid forms by
elongating it along an axis.

A pyramidal form can be transformed by altering the dimensions of its base, modifying
the height of its apex, or by moving the apex off of its normal vertical axis.

~ ---- -

/
I
I
I

A cube can be transformed into other rectangular prismatic forms by shortening or
elongating its height, width or depth.

37