Architectural Theories of Design

If~··'· • If a building is approached at an
extreme angle, its entrance can
project beyond its facade to be
more clearly visible.

c. Spiral

• A spiral path prolongs the se-
quence of the approach, and em-
phasizes the three-dimensional
form of a building as it moves
around the building's perimeter.

·~'·. ·

-·-. '1

.. ... '?
.'·.,v..~:-"::~:7

L D;:;:A.:;-.:
.~/ " ..,

:." ' ,··

288 • The building's entrance might be
viewed , intermittently during the
appr-oach to clarify its position, or
it can be hidden until the point of
arrival.

2. THE BUILDING ENTRANCE

From Outside to Inside

Entering a building, a room within a building,
or a defined field of exterior space, involves
the act of penetrating a vertical plane that
distinguishes one space from another, and
separates "here" f~om "there".

It can be the passage thrqugh an implied,
rather than real, plane established by two pil-
lars or an overhead beam.

.'\ In more subtle situations, where visual and
spatial continuity between two spaces is de-
.... sired, a change in level can mark the passage
from one place to another .
\
SIDE WALl<
90° Regardless of the form of the space being entered, or the
form of its enclosure, the entrance into the space is best
\ signified by establishing a real or implied plane perpendicu-
\ lar to the path of the approach.
\

5TRE!ET

\

- sTReET

289

Entrance may be grouped formally into the following categories.
a. Flush -entrances maintain the continuity of a walls' surface,
and can be, if desired, deliberately obscured.

b. Projected-entrances announce their function to the ap-

proach and provide shelter overhead.

c. Recessed-entrances also provide shelter and receive a por-

tion of exterior space into the realm of the building.

In each of the categories above, the form of the entrance can be simi-
lar to, and serve as a preview of, the form of the space being entered.

Or it can contrast with the form of the space to reinforce its bound-
aries and emphasize its character as a plane.

.290

In terms of LOCATION, an entrance can be centered with

the frontal plane of a building .

I

Or it can be placed off-center and create its own symmetri-
cal condition about its opening.

The NOTION of an entrance can be visually reinforced by:
• Making the opening lower, wider, or narrower than

1

anticipated.

-¢==:::::11

• Making the entrance extra deep.

• or Circuitous;
(Ramps, Stairs)

~

lll J

It

291

• Articulating the openinj:l with ornamentation or decorative
embellishment (climbing plants, sculpture, columns, statues,
glass mosaic, etc.).

292

3. CONFIGURATION OF THE PATH The sequence of Spaces
All paths of movement, whe-
••• •• •• ther of people, cars, goods or
services, are linear in nature.
And all paths have a starting
point, from which we are
taken through a sequence of
spaces to our destination •

The Contour of a path de-
pends on our mode of Trans-
portation.

While people, as pedestrians,
can turn, pause, stop, and rest
at will, a bicycle has less free-

>' dom, and a car even less, in
changing its pace and direc-
tion abruptly.

While a wheeled vehicle may
require a path with smooth
contours that reflect its turn-
ing radius, the width of the
path can be tailored tightly to
its dimensions.

Pedestrians, on the other
hand, although able to tolerate
abrupt changes in direction,
require a greater volume of

} space than their bodily dimen-
sions, and greater freedom of
choice along a path.

l D---J- ' L•1 The Intersection or crossing of paths is always a

• ~ ~oint of decision making for the person approach-
• 1ng.

Cotitihui-t;' ,

293

J~ ~~~7I.-." _ The continuity and scale of its path can help us
distinguish between major routes leading to major

spaces and secondary paths leading to lesser
spaces.

--- - ----

Iii

!} l.___ When the paths at a crossing are equivalent to
one another, sufficient space should be provided
-:::;-...1. Jr-r( to allow people to pause and orient themselves.

~

.¢. ,:::::=::==:=="=:)> straight The nature of the path's configuration
influences, or is influenced by, the or-
curvi \it1ear ganizational pattern of the spaces, it
links. It can either be:

a. Linear - all paths are linear. It can

be curvilinear or segmented inter-
sect other paths, have branches,
. form a loop.

intersectoo

loop

~--

294

b. Radial-A radial configuration has
paths extending from, or termi-
nating at, a central, common point.

c. Spiral-A spiral configuration is a
single, continuous path that origin-
ates from a Central point. revolves
around it, and becomes increasing-
ly distant from it.

~rnooot: ]JL0J·U0L[ d. Grid -A grid configuration c~nsists
:JJoooooooogocc of two sets of parallel paths that in-
JDDC3BB88oE tersect at regular intervals and cre-
:JDDDDDC ate square or rectangular fields of
space.
l n n r:JOOOOOC[
-::,1n0r&0r10r10r0-Tr 295

e. Network-A network configura-
tion consists of random paths that
connect established points in
space.

f. Composite-A building normally

employs a combination of the five

patterns above. To avoid the crea-
tion of a distorting maze. a hierar-
chical order among the paths can be
achieved by differentiating their
scale, form and length.

4. PATH-SPACE RELATIONSHIPS

Edges, nodes, & terminations of the Psth.
Paths may be related to the spaces they link in the following ways. Paths may:

<i [C C CLl( ~J a. Pass by Spaces
0
0 D A0 -; • The integrity of each space
is maintained.
axially ~
0> • The Configuration of the
obliquely 0 path is flexible.
0
·~ ll 0 • Mediating spaces can be us-
ed to link the path with the
D0 spaces.

b. Pass through Spaces

• The path may pass through
a space.

• Axially. obliquely and or
along its edge.

• In cutting through a space.
the path creates patterns of
rest ar)d movement within
it.

c. Terminate in a Space
• The location of the space
establishes the path.
• This path-space relationship
is used to approach and
enter functionally or sym-
bolically important spaces.

296

•

·. BOISSONA5 HOUSE II

.,::;J Philip Jo~I1SOI1

Frat1ce, 19~

5. FORM OF THE CIRCULATION SPACE

Corridors, Balconies, galleries, stairs .& rooms. Circulation spaces form an integ-
ral part of any building organiza-
0• tion, and occupy a significant
amount of space within the build-
~----~r------------- ing's volume. If considered mere-
ly as functional linking-devices,
then circulation paths would be
endless, corridor like spaces.

ut1der a water-fall

over a pool

promenade - a suitable place for walking for plea- The form and scale of a circula-
tion space, however, must acco-
sure, as a mall. modate the movement of people
as they promenade, pause, rest,
or take in a view, along its path.

Mall - a public plza, or system of walks set with trees The form of a circulation space
and designed for pedestrian use. . can vary according to how:

• its boundaries are defined.

• its form relates to the form of
the spaces.

• its qualities of scale, propor-
tion, light, and view are articu-
lated.

297

• entrances open onto it;
• it handles changes in level with

stairs and ramps.
A CIRCULATION SPACE May
Be:

• Enclosed. forming a corridor
that relates to the spaces it
links through entrances in the
wall plane;

• Open on One Side, to provide
visual and spatial continuity
with the spaces it links;

- ~25 \. 150 • Open on Both Sides, to be-
come a physical extension of
the space it passes through .

The width and height of a circulation space
should be proportionate with the type and
amount of traffic it must handle. A narrow,
enclosed path will encourage movement.

A path can be widened not only to sccomo-
date more traffic but also to create spaces
for pausing , resting, or viewing.

=

298

STAIRS-

In accomodating a change in level, can rein-
force the path of movement.

corridor ----...-- -...~ ........

-lAa.?. r--·
--• ~
~

1"-
r-

interrupt it.

: accomodate a change in its course.

IE! Icorridor 1 <A l up

or terminate it.

~ 1--1-L....,up .. ~
~
----j

/! A up ~

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l ·-II ;

up UP

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PLAN stairca§e

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per5pective "OOJeLe ACTIOt-.1 5TAH<CASE

SEMANTICS

The study of meanings is called semantics, which is usually thought of as the meanings of
words. Architectural meanings then are discussed as architectural semantics.

Meaning is not only the first mental entity to come into consciousness, but that it is also the
entity which commonly inspires creative work. A memory image of an earlier perceived form
changes in the direction of the nearest form. During this change of the image, the subject
also experiences a trend to add a meaning to what was originally a perception of a 'non sen-
sica! form'.

300

This figure is often interpreted by different people as a Female torso

adumbell and a violin

below is an example of a picture with manifold meanings. It shows a beautiful young girl
but as you look at her ears, it becomes the eve of an old woman. The face of the young girl
becomes the nose of the old woman and the neck becomes the mouth and chin of the old

woman.

1. SIGNAlS AND SIGNS

To understand the meaning of a perception implies for an animal that it is a signal for a cer-
tain action. For example a trained dog hears the ringing of a clock and this is a s1gnal for the
dog to take food: for a human being, a thing may be a signal for a certain kind of behaviour.
The gong sounds and we sit down at the table and eat. We see a certain traffic light and start
our car. In this connection, it is also customary to speak of signs. A traffic policeman makes
a sign to the motorist, who·obeys this sign.

SYMBOLIC SIGN

There are three main types of Signs

1. Indexical S•gn, or Index
Something which had an ~xistential relation between signifier and signified : Smoke
with fire, footprints with foot. In architecture every sign has an indicative compo-
nent: a glass door indicates itself and what is behind, arrows indicate circulation. a
weathercock indicates the direction of the wind, a window indicates view . These
are the literal signs and one can imagine a low level significance architecture made

301

up from them such as vernacular, or industrial building, a building of cliches which
does not, particularly, refer to metaphors, symbols or aesthetic ideas apart from
itself.

The perceiver sees these forms as a matter of fact and generally there -has been no
intention to communicate on the part of the designer. Indexical signs are learned by
the perceiver over time and in this sense really are disguised symbolic signs which
have a peculiar quality. The Indexical sign is important for architecture in as much
as many new forms are introduced for pragmatic or functional reasons which then
become continuously re-used in this context until they become symbol ic signs. An
index therefore is a sign, or representation which refers to its object not so much
because of any similarity of, or analogy with it, nor because it is associated with
general characters which that object happens to possess, and because it is in
dynamical {including spatial) connection, both with the individual object on the one
hand and with the senses or memory of the person for whom it acts as a sign.

2. The Iconic Signs-

Concern a different set of relations between signifier and signified although, of

course, there is always present an existential and therefore indexical relation as well.

Most 'functional' architecture is of this sort: pie-shaped or wedge-shaped auditoria,

tube-shaped circulation corridors, structurally-shaped bridges, hot-dog stands in the

shape of liot dogs, folkhouse with a facade that looks like a real fireplace. And the

'reduse of forms and materials according to their inherent emotional overtones as ag-
gressive; passionate etc.). · · · · ··

.-._':-.:~'t"....... :.,:___?!!1£'

302

~ ··~·

.l!l·· -·

•

An ICON therefore is a sign which refers to theobject ·that it denotesby virtue of cer-
tain characters of its own and which it possesses just the same, whether any such
object actually exist or not.

Cheese-grater precast unit a sign of 'parking garage'.
Glass and Steel Cage Signifies an office.

Truncated Wedge or wind-
ow less 'Pie-Shape' .

Is codif ied as A udito-
rium , cinema. t heatre.

Wi•dcwlll."-§ w~ere $ka~. or a v'.eSi!O;;e w1tk a..t}e ~. ~1Jiflf;8.>
C••et~~a , Tlleztre <.,.. aua;tOf'ium il<e '.iJg!rt ~ ~r<- hn~ m~y
Q!'llf<!r.!lt\'.l ~h <J~ape:s al1d me oode Of m<!dern arc~it«ts
*t''fGn~<ul61'6d lln~ vfcclrurJrltlei~asif.l;; ··.....,.-.:~·. 1\MlHi kdv, le ~C<>T!I>OvW<l-i~srnattut6dd
t~e semi11a! way aJ!ll it
.l:t1rri•g us&:~
v~.u;,r; <'li tltougfl ~re ~ otll6r 'v.ord'' jilr ff<ea~. Th..,
wi!tl <>i!j iti in f.m !he l?n~tai t::OtJtltnj CluJ> Til~

Roys/ Pavilion -John Nash a version of the hin-

du style (bulbous domes), latticework, Gothic
Tracery) as a symbol for this royal escape
palace.

304

BiS T

I

Bringing Business to stores best.

3. Symbolic Sign -

Where conventional usage sets the arbitrary relation between signifier and signified
samples of this are the conventional use of three orders of classical architecture
(Doric for banks etc., masculine).
The classical style used f or tow nhouses, old English for country retreats; The
emblems on pubs, and the great menagerie of animals and amazons which decorate
and hold up buildings.
A symbol is a sign w hich refers to the object that it denotes by virtue of law, usually
any association of general ideas, which operates to cause that symbol to be inter-
preted as referring to-1hat object.

305

2. SYMBOLS

For a human being, the meaning of an object in addition, appear instead of another mean-
ing. as a symbol of the latter. The simplest way of understanding what this means is possibly

to imagine that one is making a symbolical representation of a mechanical, electrical, circuit

plan or plumbing device of a building. Every detail in this plan takes the place of the real
detail. Fuse, range, refrigerator, water closet, lavatories, etc. are all symbols for the real
things.

Architectu ra I Some examples of Symbols Electrical
Plumbing

Earth

w W.C. Water -sc....-. -- Switch
Closet

: ...·- ....Concrete'0' ... ·.. [Q) Lav. Lavatory ~ Ceiling Light
. .........~... Wall light
t . ~ . ~ . ... : She . shower t(

·' .
II>··.·. . . 4 . . "

.•<J .,. 4
..... 4 . ......... . .......... .

Wood

C.L. Castiron Pipe C.O Wall

I G.l. Galvanized Convenience
Outlet
I• Iron Pipe
Steel

C.P. Concrete Pipe

insulation

Bench Mark column line

--0--door •
window

mn6 ifw

SYMBOLISM

Symbolism -assumes primary importance as the basic strategy of perception whereby
learning and perhaps heredity establish what symbols define the important features of the
sensory milieu. This facility has survival value since the rapid recognition of a mismatch in
the world of the senses can mean the difference between life and death. The use of symbols
is therefore something which is deeply imbedded in the central nervous system, and which is
by no means confined to man.

306

Reduced to its simplest, a symbol is a phenornenon (Object, sound, smell or tactile sensa-
tion) which has a meaning additional to that which is communicated by its superficial con-
figuration or stimulus profile. It stands for a ' Landscape' of meaning without a precise hori-
zon because of the contrast between the relative simplicity of the object and the potential
complexity of the meaning, towards which it points, the experience of symbols evokes an
emotional reaction . Most of these reactions remain out of reach of consciousness , but can
nevertheless have a decisive influence upon mood and demeanour.

BIOGENIC SYMBOL SYSTEM

An example is the Italian Piazza wherein the dimensions were determined by the distance at
which the features of a face could be recognized. This was a basic biological determinant
shaped jointly by security needs and the visual capacity of the brain. It may will be that anx-
iety about space builds up once this transactional' distance has been exceeded. In some, this
anxiety assumes pathological proportions.

At the opposite extreme is the anxiety induced by construction. Even in such sophisticated
surroundings as a theatre, the biogenic value system can eclipse all others if the emotional
brain is unsure about such things as escape routes, or a sufficiency of all and light. Such pro-
blems are accentuated by inadequacy of circulation space. Take for example a splendid
modern theatre. It looks pleasing outside, however, in one re.spect, it fails. Access to the
auditorium is at first floor level, and there is only one staircase to serve the whole audience.
Consequently, the time involved in making an exit can be considerable. There are emergen-
cy exits, but these are unknown quantities, and thus form no part of the 'cognitive map' of
the building. This one fact may establish an undercurrent of anxiety which may detract frorn
what might otherwise be totally enjoyable experience. It may never come to the surface. but
simply register as an unspecific qualitative reservation about the building as a whole.

Plan arrangements which cause people to be conspicuous may represent a biogenic
deficit. Entrance to a worship area of a church which are situated either side of the sanctuary
or platform constitute a powerful disincentive to late comers to go through with it .

LEARNED SYMBOLS

In architecture a number of stock images have come to associated with certain buildings.
Law courts favour a stern classicism, suggestive of the logic of Greece and Firmness of
Rome.

Town halls in Britain tended to favour the gothic in the last century. No doubt the architec-
ture was meant to symbolize Christian integrity and compassion, virtues attributable to the
city fathers.

REPRESENTATION, COPY. REPLICA, PICTURE

Many illustrations in books are photographic or drawn representation of objects. A repre,
sentation is a symbol in so far as it is a substitute for the real object, which cannot be in-
serted in a book. At times, a representation may be found inadequate, and then a copy·or
model is required. For example, when one wishes to give information on a building site
about some detail. The difference between a representation and a copy is, that a represent-
ation shows only the most characteristics attributes of the original, while a copy shows all

athe details of the object, and-above-all-presents them in the same modality of perception as

that of the original, if a copy is an exact reproduction or it is called facsimile. If the copy is
made the same size and of the same material as the original-for example, if a marble
sculpture is copied in marble, we often speak of a replica.

307

Finally, if something which appears to be a representation -for example, a naturalistic pic-
ture-is not a representation of some object which can be pen::eived, but only exist in the
imagination of the artist who created it, we do not speak of a representation but of a picture.
(anything closely resembling or strikingly typifying something else. perfect likeness or im-
age} It is however, evident that a representation a copy. a replica and a picture have one cha-
racteristic feature in common. They are all used instead of a perception or an imagination, a
characteristic which is also found with respect to a symbol. A symbol is, however, a wider
concept. since it comprises such meanings as are used instead of the non -perceivable. (For
example, words for abstract concepts).

3. EXPRESSION

Both signals and· symbols mu~t be distinguished from a third kind of meaning, namely ex-
pression . If a face has an angry expression, this does not imply that a person entertains an
emotional complex for which he exhibits a symbol. The angry facial expression forms a part
of the physical and mental totality which the angry person represents.

In a similar manner the ARCHITECTURAL EXPRESSION forms a part. as the semantic ac-
; tive component in the mental totality, which the experience of a consummate piece of archi-

tecture involves . Architectural expression, however is not the same as the expression of an
emotion.

Special Character of Architectural Expression

In architecture, we can talk of visual (seeing). auditory (hearing) haptic and tactile (relating
to touch) Gestalts (a new figure) in studying the semantics of these, the first question will
be: Does any other spontaneous meaning exist except facial expression , gesture, and sign
language? These three kinds of meanings imply perceived motion or change. It is not the
static gesture which carries the meaning but the pantomine movement . Such a motion is
rarely used, however. in architecture where gastalts are static.

If some spontaneous architectural meanings can be found, it will also be of interest to study
the pattern of evaluation used for them as an example, the Greek Temple is taken as a sub-
ject for architectural values.

When a number of people are asked " which colonnade in the figures (left} . gives the best
expression to support?" all will give the same answer. The uppermost columns seem too
weak, the ones at the bottom makes themselves ridiculous as they are so many and so
strong, yet carry so little with each other's help". This common answer indicates what is
spontaneously judged as the most obvious expression of the idea of support. There is an in-
clination to call this expression the 'best' and the 'most beautiful' one as well, providing an
answer with a characteristics of aesthetics as well. Whenever such expressions are met, the
experience tends to be that of a piece of architecture.

BUILDING DESIGN AS AN ICONIC SYSTEM
TRANSFORMATIONS

1. Pragmatic design - in which available

materials are used, earth, stones, tree-
trunks branches, leaves, reeds bamboos,
animal skins, tendons were put together ini-
tially by trial and error until a building form
was achieved which actually 'worked'. Prag-
matic design is still used in design with new
materials plastic skin inflata bles, suspension
structures, and so on.

308

• .• . t i&U[Ctp . t ii$0.9. . Jlt!.l 111$1

~·

Examole the munich Olvmpic stAdi••m

2. Typologie Design- in which the members of a particular culture share a fixed 'mental im-

age' of what the design of the building form should be 'like using the materials which
happen to be available, at a particular place with a particular climate, to house an
established life-style. Often encouraged in primitive cultures by legend, traditions, work
songs which describe the design process, by the mutual adaptation which has taken
place between way of life and building form.

309

The Lever House in New York
1952 became the Fixed Mental
image for a generation of ar-
chitects and clients as to what of-
fice buildings should be like.

3. Analogical Design - the drawing of analogies (usually visual) into the solution of one's
design problems with existing buildings , with forms from nature, from painting and so

on. Structural analogies with the feeling of tension and compression in the designer's
own body; philosophical analogies with principl~s from physics, biology (general systems
theory)

Frank lloyd Wright described at the opening of
service the way he had derived the roof form of
this church at Madison, Winconsin (1950). From
the shape of his own hands.

r::::--·-- --:··-; ·-··:_ .:, .. . >>!""!t'IJl!IIIIV-7''___,...,.._ _ ~,_,-...

lei

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CE

A rnOttdrian de stiJI as a t;lear Reltveld5 311
~kro.sder Heme
p3111tiftg aHalogy to
at utmcltt

The CHAPEL Of NOTRE DAME. Roncttamp , Haute 5a&1e (19'50·5)

LAI?ORATORY TOWER: Joht1X711 Wax Build1119
Racirre, Wr.?COI1':li11

Frat1k lloyd Wnght

·AFc~~.._:arr. . :9:9 E:·;,, :,le-t'i;;~~.J.;r1
. .. . ......- ·--·-

312

4. Canonic (Geometric) desi~n; in which the form is generated by some two or three dimen-
sional geometric system, originated by the Egyptians given extensive philosophical stif-
fening by the Greeks (plato, Aristotle) and utilized in the design of the Gothic catnedrals,

renaissance palaces and so on. Current manifestations include le corbusier's modular,
dimensional co-ordination and prefabricated building systems.

./ / / / -: ~ ·./ .

:~ -~--~;;

-.;. . ;.

-~:: ~ ~<~·,
. . ··" ,
./

,•

The Parque los Caobos in Caracas - uses same geometric system in planning of the park,
including paths, avenues, paving and tree planting and for the educational systems of the
building, including the board marks on the concrete and the openings for ventilation.

313

VISUAL EXPRESSION OF FUNCTION

When we look at an object, we connect meaning with it depending on private associations.
What is of interest is to see whether there are any meanings spontaneously connected with
the perceptions. The first of such meanings will be found in the fact that the spontaneous
perception of an object indicates something about its function. This is a most interesting fact
from an architectural point of view. The following description of the expressions of functions
construction, or (production) and material refers to facts about semantic experience which
can be verified by any experienced architect.
On or about the 1930's, a new style of architecture appeared in Europe called "function-
alism". From the beginning, many young architects, thought perhaps that archt. Louis
Sullivan's well known dictum "form follows function" could be interpreted in such a way
that if buildings were only made to function well from a practical point of view. all would be
well. It was very soon discovered that no architect could do a good piece of work if he did
not, at the same time, give a good visual expression to the function of the building.
It should be said that a true expression of a function can only be given to an object which
functions well technically. Consequently, a designer cannot give an aesthetically satisfying
form to an object if he does not know its Technical function. He must either find out what this
function is; or the technical engineer must study the laws of architects. This is a matter of in-
terest and concern not only to the specialist in aesthetics, but for everyday life as well. Our
culture is decidely influenced by the way in which its milieu is shaped.
As has already been pointed out, a common 'understanding' of a piece of art depends on
whether the meanings connected to the perception are based on private associations only,
or given spontaneously to the perception in accordance with some elementary structure of
the human mind.

List of common and typical practical Functions:
1. To be Grasped by the Hand

The handle of the iron is meant to be grasped by the hand. The expression of the function
of the iron is taken into consideration. The whole unit is called a 'TOOL' which expresses
the function in words as well as the visual or form does.

The problem of making 'push-pull' handle so as to give a clear expression to their tunc·
tions is a problem of practical signals as well as of aesthetic expression, and one in which
modern architects are very interested. Some architects have co-operated with sculptors
in this work.

314

a kaHdle to push a nar~dle to pull

The illustrations give an idea how the visual perception of the form is changed into a hap-
tic (relating to touch) image . The basis ·of for the expressions 'push' and 'pull'. This plea-
sant haptic expression is based here on smoothly rounded forms without sharp edges or
straight lines.

Tactile sensation also play their part since a smooth surface is more preferable to handle
than a rough one. Expression, in this case is based on the transportation tendency from
visual perceptions (glossiness) to haptic and tactile images (conceptions) of smoothness .

2. To Supports Human Body

If a vi st,~a l form shall express its purpose of supporting a human body, sitting or lying, the
form perception must be capable of a tendency to change into an image of a comfortable
haptic form which is given high value.

For a rider, the shape of an English saddle, will give this expression of support.. High
formal aesthetic value is combined with extremely clear expression . that of the idea of ef-
ficiency.

In the chairs shown in the followin g illustrations. There is a difference between the older
cha ir. covered with decorative ornaments and the modern chair, where ornaments are
avoided and replaced by a thoroughly sculptured form intended to express the idea of
comfort.

The basis f or this expression is the transformation tendency from visual form perception
to Kinesthetic image or conception, plus the tactile sensations of softness and warmth
.....-~-""""'- adding their contributions.

3. To contain or Support Something At1 aHciel1t ex~io;nsts 'culpture

Of flfe iHvitatiott ~ SIT DOWN Pl-EASE'

The expression of containing or supporting something other than a human body, an ob-
ject, fluid, or gas, cannot be described or explained by a transformation tendency as in
the last two cases. What the designer has to do is to create such a form -a container for
example-which will be an expression of the forces which must function within its walls
and make it capable of resisting pressure from its contents.

The illustration herein shows that the form stresses the fact that it contains and supports
its contents. The buoyant contour seems to react against the heaviness of its contents
and strives energetically and successfully to withstand pressure from within. The handles
do not hang limply without expression but are worn and inviting to grasp. The cover
forms a vaulted and protecting the contents. The total form makes a closed and expres-
sive figure, and its expression can be described as containing and protecting, in combina-
tion with easy handling.

316

Other expressions which have a
definite expression of containing
or w ea ring something are found
in the water tower .

This figure shows that the de-
signer combined the expression
of containing and pouring.

317

.:~f:.:

·{Jr\~

.. :.~ ·.

Water tower- it1 tke PARISH
~uvurb of Vaiettce. Architect Gomi~

aHd ~culptor Pilola~

The expression of a function must be combined with or based on a good practical func-
tion. A pot which creates the impression that it can pour well when in fact it cannot is a
bad object. The practical as well as the psychological evaluation must be satisfying. It is
precisely this combination between practical, formal aesthetical and semantic evaluation
which is decisive for the value of an object. While containers for shapeless materials such
as fluids and gases have been described. The function of simply giving support can be ex-
pressed by a Table, with a top and four legs.
4. To Deal with Static or Dynamic Forces
Described as one of wearing, supporting, or tension. The strength of a supporting archi-

tectural detail can be symbolized in such a way that the detail may represent a strong

man, an elephant and so on. For more developed taste, this function can be expressed

more adequately without using representations or symbols. In the rest, the Greek Temple
was introduced as a classical example of this. expression. Today, Techniques are more

developed, as an example, reinforced concrete, while on the other hand more compli-
cated functions have to be expressed.

The columns in the office of

building for Johnson Wax
Co. U.S.A. an attempt to

express the fun<:tion of a
structure in reinforced con-
crete.

318

Forms like these give a fair expression to the function of simple wearing but it is some-
times necessary to create a structure which not only wears but bends like a bow, as
shown in the bridge below, the classical example of such a fusion of expressions. The
supporting or tension stay, the vault, the arch-buttress and the beam also belong to this
group of expressions.

·- .:,_-. ........,~..~'' ....~·· _··· ....

--~---: , -.·~.--..:.,.·.: :: ··.·.·· .... . --....___'___·....·..-..·

. •..J ··..

5ALGINA1VI3EL BRIDGE'
~itzer1zs11d 1929·30

Rot?ert Maillart

5. To Protect and Hem In

Visual hemming in-sometimes appreciated as a protection sometimes avoided as a hin-
drance- is one of the most important architectural expressions. The expression of hem·
ming is given by inner floor, walls, and ceiling.

The Steep roof of a building can give a strong expression of protecting. A flat roof gives a
weaker impression, but this can be compensated by heavy eaves, as seen from under-
neath. Buildings without eaves seem unprotected.

Other perceptions add to the attributes of visual form. Dull and dark colours. and a pro-
nounced texture, especially a pronounced deep texture. contribute to the expression
mentioned.

1

fl

Heavy eave3 compe~ S1To11g expr~5iol1

tl1e imp~ion of protectiot1

319

Wit~out eavef., t?UildiHg ............, _________ IIi l li

~1'11 u11protected I'

-.
'·------....,

6. To Open and Connect ·...i..----· ... . - --..- - . .. _______

The expression of protection can become so strong that it develops into an expression ot

closeness or stuffiness. lr:~ such a case, it may become necessary to insert doors and win-

dows in the wall. These elements will visually connect the closed room with adjacent

spaces. Prottcted outlook ofa wiKdow1

D

Stuffine5~ Visual Cot1t1ectio11

The perception of a door - even when closed -is transformed into an image ot un,mpern -
ded motion. whilst a window which does not reach the floor is connected with the idea of
a protected outlook.

If the window does not reach the floor, it is likely to combine with an image of unimpeded
motion as well. Such an image can become very unpleasant it the window is many
storeys above the street. In well-designed houses, it can sometimes be seen that the ar-
chitect has been aware of this, and has therefore placed the windows higher up in the
wall on these storeys furthest from the ground.

Wit1d0W reac:hiHg flaT DOD O G;:.
')
dtiey iH fi~ floor I

7. To Distribute

One visual form which very well expresses the function of distributing light, sound, air
and water, is the trumpet form, which with sufficient variation can be used for light fit-
tings, megaphones and air mouthpieces. A tunnel -sha ped object. Can also have the ex-
pression of catching and sucking in air or sound. as in the old-type.

320

The PH ~Lamp is a classic example of a quite convincing expression of distribution. The

light fitting itself is about fifty years otd , but is still looked upon as modern design.

8. To Move and to be Stable

A function associated w ith the ability of ships cars and aeroplanes to leave their way dur-
ing their rapid motion through air or water streamlining is the visual form expression of
this function. The motor boat gives a definite expression of speed and efficiency as it
makes its way through the water, and to this expression, the sharp stern is probably the
most important contribution.

No more than six horse- s-t;u ---·~··..·'.,.;;Z...-~:j- j ~L.·.~·~·-~·~ .. .·-:~~· ..;!.-:-·

power is needed to ~ • ! :::.~=...:. . . ,1..;g::.l;i;i£~.:_ :~::;z:t.::;:•:~r...
overcome air resistance at
50 mph . This results in less
fuel consumed.

And impressive fuel
economy figures are not the
only result. The airtlow is
directed to reduce lift for
improved stability and
directional control.

Other perceptions, for example visually glossy and tactily smooth surface can also con-
tribute to the expression of speed .

321

Usually needed in connection with buildings and especially monuments, is the static ex-
pression of stability. This static expression is usually achieved by using edged forms. but
can also be achieved by rounded forms .

The 5'tockholtf1 City litlrary

giv~ exp~io~sto i~

~tate ~tability by meaH5

of i'P? cylit1dric book 'lvwer
risi119 arove tke ~m

mam\ 0

buildiH9

9. Tool Expression

Tools which are meant for 'dressing' or manufacturing have a special kind of semantic in-
terest. They very often give spontaneously created and spontaneously perceived expres-
sion of their function. An example is an axe which immediately expresses its fun ction.

Architectural expressions cannot be tufty understood merely by reading books. Practical
experience is absolutely necessary.

THE VISUAL EXPRESSION OF PRODUCTION

The purpose of an object cannot often be visualized without at the same time visualizing
how it is produced. The following main groups of production expressions can be men -
tioned.

1. Cutting-off-Material

The visual expressions for sawing .- planing, dressing and twining on a lathe, boring
milling, cutting and so on.

2. Modelling a Given Quantity of Material

A definite expression of a production method is by modelling, a given quantity of
material into a new shape.

Iron work, moulding, casting, chasing, throwing, rolling and so on belongs to this
group.

322

I- Beam- ~ult of l'ffoderH
il1dustrialired, ~.rolling

giv~ a definite .f t?ea'utiful

expr~iot1

Plaiting and weaving are indeed venerable techniques which have been used all over
the world. Baskets demonstrate the way in which the appreciation of the expression
of the technique is closely combined with a formal aesthetic evaluation of the pattern
created by the technique.

y ; .--·-.."'-

4. Fitting Together

The putting together of objects by means of fitting different details closely is a tech-

nique, which is, from the point of view of expression, often highly appreciated.

ki4 ;l " Al. .._, ·.r.

,T"!'". .

.

: .. I '
,~ ~." .

.·~

a chair Wker8 tke artH
and 1tg ars fitt9d 1aJefHer

323

5. Joining Elements

It is sometimes necessary to assemble parts of a building by specially made framing ele-
ments for this purpose. The professional Engineer or architect can obviously better ap-
preciate this kind of expression than the layman especially a proper technical under-
standing of the structure highlights the expression.

' ' I; ~ {"

..~It•·

.0

\

Art irot1 Footit19 ~Jtoe

for a woodew pillar

Ahattgar roHt cf
differelrt detail~

6. Frameworks
The construction of a Framework in which the openings between the frames can be
filled in with sheets of wood, glass, iron plates and so on is also a very old method of
construction which gives a most highly appreciated expression.

324

This Method of construction is used today on a much greater scale w ith frames of
concrete and fillings of other materials.

7. Fusion

The use of intimate fusion between different elements of the same or different mate-
rials is a relatively new technique based on a certain modern inventions such as rein -
forced concrete, plastic laminated plywood and welded iron structures.

.. ....

A 9Nedi~k ~lded. rtxJf ~

325

D?RSAL VIEW
DEVfL RAY
FQOM QUEENSLAND

GANGES SUARJ<

McDONNEL

VOOD:? F-IOlA

I~SLt-

ACANTI-IoTfUTHIS ANT14VlJS
AND BoNES OP 071-IER

PR.£1-IJSTOR.IC .SQUIIX,;
~U~$SJC PERIOD)



THE BUILDING ENVELOPE

The envelope of a building is not merely a set of two-dimensionai exterior surfaces, it is a tran-

sition space-a theatre where the interaction between outdoor forces and indoor conditions
can be watched. Some of these interactions include the ways in which sun and daylight are
admitt ed or redirected to the interior, the channeling of breezes and sounds, and the deflec-
tion of rain. This transition spaces, which forms the envelope, is a place where people in-
doors experience something of what the outdoors is like at the moment, and w here people
outside get a glimpse of the functions within .
At entries, where there is a space crea ted in the transition from one environment to another,
a person will be most aware of the difference ~tween outdoors and indoors. Below is an il-
lustration or an example of entry as space, not just surface.
This South-facing entry to an architect's office in Oregon becomes a microclimate that buf-
fers the transition between the indoors and outdoors.

a. Three kinds of entry are visible :
1. The awning (over wi ndows of a restaurant).
2. The cable roof w ith bare rafters (over the planting in the architect's entry) .
3. And the arcade, a sepond story carried ou t over a covered walkway, that links
shops.

328

The change of seasons brings deep shade to th is entry in summer .

The envelope also has a fourth dimension; it changes with time. The seasons have a marked
effect on the illustration above, and a more subtle effect"on the east-facing balconies of the
apartments shown below. The year round usable volume of thP-se apartments is increased by
making the balcony into a sun porch.

a) June 21, 8:30 A.M. t~e sun is high and
nearly due east, so shading occurs only
from balcony overhangs and from blinds at
the railings.

b) Dec. 21, 8:30 A.M. the suD is low and c) On August morning several year later,
shining from the southeast shading occurs showing the conversion of balconies by
hot from balcony. Overhangs but from ver- many of the occupants.
tical balcQny-divider walls.

COMPONENTS OF THE ENVELOPE

Basic Components are:

-windows
-walls
- roofs

The wim.lows can include !tkylights, clerestories, screens, shutters, drapes, blinds, diffusing
glass, and reflecting glass-an array of components that determined more exactly how the
envelope does its job of making the transition between inside and outside. A component

also should be thought of by its function in the exchange of energies: as a filter, connector,
barrier, or switch.

Ftlter - a means to make the connection indirect (Controlled)

Connector - a means to establish a direct connection

Switch - a regulating connector

Barrier - separ.ating element

An opaque wall thus serves as a filter to heat and cold, and as a barrier to light. Doors and
windows have the character of switches, because they can stop or connect at will.

329

Two different concepts of Envelope Design

1. The Closed Shell-in harsh climates (or when unwanted external influences such as
noise or intruding activities abound), the designer frequently conceives of a building's en-
velope as a closed shell and proceeds to selectively punch holes in it to make limited and
special Contacts with outdoors.

2. The Open Frame -in the hot-humid regions (or where external conditions are verv

close to the desired internal" ones). Th e envelopes begins as an open structural frame,
with pieces of building skin selectively adderl to morlity only a few outdoor forces.

The open-frame and closed-shell approach to envelope design, when combined with materi·

al availability and influence of local culturP., can produce a distinc t regional architecture.

OPEN FRAME: A barrier root of local plant materials is
Hot Humid Climate: added to reject rain and sun. A ra1sed floor
avoids damp earth and its creatures and
allows breezes to pass over anrl under its
users.

Tempera.te Climate : This open frame is wrapped in light-filtering
animal skin. doubled near the ground. Wind
and rain are rejected; protection against cold
is provided by user's clothing (blankets}
more than by the envelope. The switch at
the crown controls smoke.

CLOSED SHELL: TENT
Arid Climate:
The closed shell of mud block is a barrier to
330 wind and sunlight, it filters heat by both de-
laying and reducing its impact on the interi-
or. Some light and heat are admitted directly
by small connectors; the door and window
typically so south-facing. By early morning

the cold, interiors are abandoned in favor of
rapidly-warming south terraces.

...~ PUEBLO

.-..-..... . The igloo's closed shell of ice is a filter to
Cold Climate: light and heat, a barrier to wind. Holes for
entry and for smoke are allowed, but spa-
ringly. Fur-bearing hides hung inside can in-
crease thermal comfort for users.

lGLOO

With a wide range of energy sources, bu•lrling materials and mechanical equipment avail-
able, it is possible to design buildings anywhere that are connector dominated, despite the
climate . The consequences from the resulting energy consumption can be severe. By con -
trast , of defending against outdoor conditions becomes an overriding consideration, then
barrier-dominated envelopes can occur in any climate. The resulting fitness for human
usage - and the potential of using solar heat directly - can be reduced. The designer's com-
binations of connectors, filters and barriers (and the switches that allow those elements to
respond to changing conditions) are basic to the design of building exteriors and can give
them the liveliness that makes a building an attractive addition to its neighborhood .

1.. CONNECTORS -are strong indicators
that something outside is welcome in-
side. They are characteristic of regional
architecture in milder climates, but sun
con nectors are dominant in solar-heated
buildinQS anywhere. Connectors, being
open to outside influences, are often one
position of a tswitch that in other posi-
tions becomes a filter or barrier.

331

Alters i11 va,rious p05itio11s of a switcff. 2. FllTERS wprest!ll l deCISions about
how much or wha t l<.~nrl o l ou tdoor condi -
Le Corbusie~ PAVILliON 5UI5SE, 1930· 1932. tion IS to he adrmtted . fhey are fou nd 111
some form in all building envelopes and 1n
at tl1e UNIVERSITY OF PARIS all climates, an<i they inclu<ie a V\'lde
variety ot types. Because they adm1t de-
4. SWITCHES AND USER'S CHOICE Sired amounts or qual1ties of light. air.
and sound they offer an opportunity for
an enhanced awareness of selected out·
s1cie conditions from 1nsidc the building.

For example. the stainerl glass of a
church selects the blue ot a north sky. or
the warm reds anrl oranges of a sunset ;

the 'texture' of the sky's cloud patterns •s
not admitted to the interior - only its col-
or comes through. Often the filter is one
of the positions ot a swttch. as in the case
of the wil"rlows of bwldings which have
venetian bl1nrls or Jalousies.

3. BARRIERS ··are more drastic in the1r
complete severance of the outrloor-m-
door relationship. They are charactenstic
of regional architecture in harsh clima tes.
but are also common to spaces needing a
tightly controlled environmen t (such as
auditorium). Barriers to rain are an almost
·un1versal building features; barriers to
w1nd are at least seasonally common in all
cl1mates. except hot-hum1rJ ones. Bar-
ners to sun are more likely to be one posa-

tlon of a switch , unless a bUJirl111g IS suf-

fused w ith electric light or other plentiful
sources o f 1nternal heal that m <:1ke solar
hea t permanently unwelcome. In prtlc-
tJCe, cultural Influences oft en ovemrle
those of chmate, harners 10 sun are
erected even in cold, damp-environ·
ments.

.,..., . ... - · -

,;,

Tne North wall is mostly a barrier

.332

I /
,/ .'

·; /

~I

I

/

I

." .'./.

Er~tire soutl1 wall It cal'f be i?olated

cart be a con~ector to varryittg degre~

to su1111grrt from #fel out5ide by

operati11.9 switcheG.

This house was designed with an Important addition of switches that can make the wind-

ow more of a barrier when appropriate. The house is provided with a large amount of ther-

m al mass, so that some of the heat admitted o n a sunny day can be stored for·night time

warmth. The users of th1s house must often base their actions of the moment on what

w ill be needeo later, by ma111pulat111g thermal switches. This is called " Thermal Sailing"

and is similar to actions of outdoor workers •n the far north, who learn to unbottom their

coats 1n the cold early hours ot the workrlay before they begin to sweat and rebu tton their

coats in the rela tive warmth of the late afternoon before the rapidly fallin g temperatures

near dusk can ch1ll th~ skin.

The use of daylight to supplement or re -

place. Electric light involves in a more fami -

liar switch : The one that controls elect ric

lights. Jt seems obvious that · electric lights

near windows should be controlled locally so

that. when d aylight is su fficient, they can be

turned off. Many buildings are electrically

lighted w ith all controls at a cent ral point to

reduce the installation cost. The removal 01

t hese switches from the lighted areas usually

resul ts in w al r-to -wall elect ric ligh ting

l~'2?.B~f2~~~~~~;m- ~--~--~· ~- ~"~~~~~ whenever anyone uses this space, even if
f>-;· ·.· ,· ·.::··~ ·... · ·· ''<'<O'·· ~ ' " '· one of those w alls provides a plentiful supply

fa of daylight.

Designers of electric lighting systems must
recognize two basic conditions of use: With·
out and with daylight; the luminaries and
their controls should b e chosen and located
accordingly. The figure as the left shows a
separate recessed lighting layout at the peri -
meter or just inside these windows and con-
trast with the fluorescent lighting further in-

333

side. The warm color of daylight; their ra-
diant heat can be welcome on cold dark
days, and they can be switched off in the
warmer, brigther days of summer.

Another way of combining general daylight
and specific electric light. Alvar Aafto's
library at Mount angel Abbey (Oregon} uti-
lizes a central north-facing skylight to pro-
vide daylight on two levels of the interior.

yvindows are also subject to glare from
direct or reflected sunlight-a problem that
can conflict with the desire for heat gain or
daylighting. Th is can be especially trouble-
some when the sun is low in the sky, appear-
ing near eye level. rooms open to the sun for
heat-gain purposes are not alone in this pro-
blem, as shown in this figure.

SUN VERSUS VIEW

This restaurant along a coast has connectors that give both a view of the sea and blinding
dinnertime sun. As diners arrive, switcHes are employed to block the sun but to leave open
some ocean vistas in other directtons.

Sun control devices that encourage heat gain but discourage glare are typically located inside
glass surfaces, where sunlight can be converted to heat and kept within the space. Where
the sun's heat is unwelcome, filters or barriers should be located outside can be carried off by
outdoor air. This exterior location enlivens a facade, but it can also cause problems of dirt
accumulation, wind damage, and weathering.

334

Heat heatoutsi

~···· INSIDE glare

glare. / I;)

outsicle ...:

.../·

heat~,;;;

Otl1er approacl1es to solar cotrtrol

Vet1etiBI1 blitfd5

i11side cat1 be ttaHipulated

INSIDE

OUTSIDE

aw11i11gs cat1 be exte11doo three -dime11sio11ar filrers i11 the -ttrm of
below or- pulled up overhu11gs, dott1i11ate tke soutk facade.

The weGt wit1dows uses it1tert1al swite11e5
over11u11g5 a~ !es$ effective.

> IN SlOE.

Two- dittteMsiot1al filter of

reflective gta% skeatltes

all face5 of this des.l9" but

se11ds a l7eattt of reflected

5LU11igl1t to neighoors.

335

ENERGY AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

Heat, light, sound and water are important elements in the design of spaces, along with col·
or, texture, materials and form. A fountain without water w ith its usual coolness, sparkle

and splash, and a fireplace without firelight, heat, crackling sounds and a smoking aroma is
not a functional design. All the elements mentioned can be blended to give each place its

distinctive character. The users of spaces have five measurable senses of perception; utilizing
all of them when designing for people can result in particularly successful architecture.

ENERGY CONSUMPTION
IN BUILDINGS

The energy consumed by a building is the result of the energy needs of the structure and the
efficiency with which those needs are satisfied. Energy ~onservation aims at both reducing
basic demand by cutting a buildings energy appetite and improving the efficiency of the
energy supply system by eliminating waste.

The energy demands ot a structure are a function of:

1) its design

2 ) tl':te environment in which it is located

31 the way in which it is operated

A Homeowner is primarily concerned with replacing the heat which escapes in winter
through the building envelope, or in counteracting the heat which penetrates the envelope in
summer. In complex buildings, the lights or computers man office may throw off so much
heat that the building may have to be cooled even though outside temperatures are below
freezing.

In effect there are no simplistic solutions which apply to all situations. Before one can deter-
mine what steps can be taken to conserve energy it is necessary to predict how energy will

be consumed in a new structure or to document how it is being consumed in an existing

one.

PRIORITIES

Nationwide the systems which consume the most energy in order of magnitude, are heating
and ventilating, lighting, air conditioning (cooling) and ventilating, equipment and pro-
cesses, and domestic hot-water.

However, the relative order of magnitude of energy use among the first three systems will
change, depending on the climate; the building constru ction, use and mode of operation,
and type, control and efficiency of the mechanical and electrical equipment.

Example:

a. The amount of energy required for domestic hot water is significant in hospitals,
housing , and athletic or cooking facilities in schools and colleges. In Baguio hous-
ing, for instance, the amount of energy needed to heat water is second only to space
heating, and to air conditioning in Metro Manila. In hospitals the amount of energy
required to heat hot water may exceed the amount of energy needed for lighting.

b. Religious buildings anq public halls, which frequently include meeting rooms, offices
and school facilities are most likeliky to conserve energy in the same pattern as office
buildings in the same geographic location - but in smaller quantities per square
meter of floor area .

c. In those retail stores with high levels of general illumination and display lightning,
and/or a large number of commercial refrigeration units, electricity consumes the
greatest amount of energy.

336

d. Wh~re the designer should concentrate his design effort on his perceptions of the
problems essence and its unique characteristics.

e. What the physical elements to be manipulated one with in each of the issue catego-
ries.

Example:
1. FUNCTIONAL Grouping and Zoning:
HOUSE
Under this category we study the need for adjacency, similarity in general role, re-
latednesss to Departments, Goals & Systems, sequence in time, required environ-
ments, relative proximity to building, volume of people involved, extend of man or
machine involvement, Degree of emergency or critical situations, frequency of acti-
vity occurrence, etc.

BUILDING PROCESS

Successful! Conservation techniques have three aims:
1. To make the client both aware of conservation as one of many needs and willing to
provide the money to satisfy it.
2. To create a similar awareness in tr.e designer to include conservation as a design
consideration.
3. To ensure that the builder capably incorporates these determinations into the final
structure.

The process starts well before a designer enters the picture; it begins with a client in need. A
client stating needs establishes a scope of work which sets the outside limits of energy con-
sumption when a selection is made of a geographic region or a particular site on which to
build. It not only determines the climatic environment, but also subjects the client to the
availability of local fuels and the rate schedule to be followed in paying for energy purchased
from local utility companies.

DESIGN TEAM:

The energy core of the design team consist of ·the:
a. Architect- chief of the design team. The Aryhitect's design concept has basic
energy consequences and establishes the limits within which all subsequent
energy decisions are made.
b. Mechanical Engineer-has responsiqility for plumbing. heating, ventilating. air con-
ditioning, electrical, and other mechanical systems required by the building or
its occupants. The actions of the client and architect create the energy
demands which the mechanical engineer satisfies.
c. Energy Consultant-An emerging specialist created by the energy crisis. The job is
similar to a construction manager but limited to energy considerations. Func-
tions include programming. planning, technology, construction supervision, fi -
nancing, and operations.

337