Architectural Theories of Design

The mechanical engineer is usually hired by the Architect as part of the design team, while
the energy consultant, some clients prefer to hire the Energy Consultant directly.

DESIGN SEQUENCE:

1. SCHEMATIC DESIGN: Schematic is a time for becoming acquainted, for examining re-
quirements, for exploring assets, for investigating controls, and setting timetables . In
short, for charting course and setting sail. Energy conservation in the finished structure
will benefit greatly if at the kick-off meeting the client makes a simple statement to the ef-
fect that energy conservation is a matter of concern and asks the team members for their
off-the-cuff thoughts on the subject .

Clients should also be prepared to state their position with respect to life cycle costing (as
will be discussed in the next few pages) and the extent to which they are prepared to
make a higher initial investment in order to gain future saving . Clarity in presenting this at·
titude will facilitate the consideration of financially realistic options in energy design.

Finally, the Kick-off meeting should designate responsibility for the monitoring of energy
decisions throughout the development of the. job. Normally this will be the function of the
energy consultant, but should there be none on the team , the responsibility will fall to
either the Architect or the mechanical engineer.

Once the energy lead has been designated, the following information should be gathered
and made available for discussion:

1. Current and projected availability of energy fuels (oil, gas, electricity) and similar data
with respect to energy prices or rate schedules.

2. Current energy consumption by buildings similar in scope. These data will provide
energy budgets that can be valuable points of reference as the design process moves
along.

3. Current energy conservation techniques being employed in similar structures. In a
fast-changing field like energy, constant updating is critical; and the latest input from
professional, government, trade, and academic sources should be sought.

4. Recent changes in design criteria. Codes and criteria which affect energy are undergo-
ing substantial revision in the wake of the energy crisis. These constraints set most of
the standards under which mechanical equipment is currently designed. They involve
both specifications and performance.

5. Implications of alternate energy sources (solar, wind) with respect to the proposed
structure. If any feasibility is indicated, then space. structural, and cost parameters
should be prepared. Once these data have been discussed, their implications for the
design of the structure should be analyzed and assessed. The architect, whose res-
ponsibility extends to all aspects of the building design and not just its ~nergy aspect,
may not be able to accept all energy- related recommendations; but the options
should be made available.

To the architect, these energy implications are but one of a host of considerations that
enter into the design process as the first-concept sketches are prepared. Until the past
century, when the introduction of electricity and fossil fuels gave us the energy to
power new mechanical equipme':lt, architects tradionally planned buildings to mini-
mize the impact of the environment and designed their structures to be responsive to
it.

The characteristics of regional architecture throughout the world reflect these climatic
considerations, characterized as " PASSIVE DESIGN", and were long a part of archi-
tectural education and practice. Passive design considerations include:

1. Siting and orientation-The relation of the building to the land, the sun and the

wind.

338

2. Building shape -the less skin, the less exposure.

3. Nature of the envelope- Fenestration, insulation, thermal mass, wall shading, col -
or and reflectiv ity, openings and penetrations.

IMECHANICAL.~ Just as the introduction of energy fuels gave us the ability to
ignore many of the constraints of passive design and devote
E l E C T R IC A t - - attention to other considerations, so the energy crisis is forc-
ing us to return to our traditions. The concept produced by
I E'GUIPMENTS the end of the schematic phase should, therefore, re flect the
principles of passive design together with implications of the
ll CHEAP FUEL energy update data provided by the energ y leader of the
COST design team.

NEW MODERN vertical i511d horim1tat
DE516NS
fbi~ ~ide sotarsl1ading

piUS Wit1dbfl!aki119 ef~t

ENERGY Thicker~~ Mass (ntermal Wet!)

CRISIS mall a~ cfqlarirtg

EXPENS'lVE

FUEL COSTS

ENERGY CONSERVATION 8UJLDIN6
No wittdaw ~hadi11g

r - LanJe area of glazittg

1 mall wall 1tta~

BACK lU PASSIVE [I ~I t¥1/

DE5IGN

Dark COlor Roof
{kBat al750rDirtg)

Glazed
~ortl1 Wall

ENERGY CONSERVATION 9UILI11NG CON'It:NTION-41. EJUtLDING
RECTANGULAR- GReATER .5URFAC5
CUBICAL.. · MINIMUM 5URI"AC£ ARI!'A
AREA roe~
TO ENCLOSE ~IVEN I.OUIME
~ 6' YOLU M~

339

2. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT: This is the time when various energy options are explored

and aSsessed, and final strategies agreed upon. Conclusions are reached only after all

possible options have been explored. Yet because the work of each of the design profes-
sionals effects that of the others so strongly, a kind of cat-and·mouse game tends to de-

tovelop. If the architect is going be asked to provide a south-facing sloped roof to sup-

port a battery of solar collectors. It would be helpful to know this before she or he makes

a false beginning by starting to design a building with a flat roof. Similarly, the mechanic-

al engineer would like to have a pretty good idea of spatial shapes and aesthetics before

beginning the design of lighting systems.

One of the dangers of this phase, particularly as it affects energy, occurs when the Archi-
tect pursues and completes design development work with only minimal input from the
other consultants; then, having "fixed" the architectural design . The architect turns it
over to the other members of the Team for their input. Most mechanical engineers can
make almost any architectural scheme work, but if the structure has been fixed in most of
its details before they begin, their freedom to maneuver has been cut out from under
them, and the final energy efficiency of the structure Is bound to suffer.

It is far better to reverse this traditional sequence. Most schematic are in sufficient detail
to permit the consultants to satisfactorily explore the options, and any items needing am-
plification can be made available by the architect. With this procedure, the consultants
are free to consider the full gamut of options. Having reached their conclusions, the con-
sultants present and discuss them with the architect for incorporation into the work .

This change in sequencing is suggested because much of th e hardware involved in ener-
gy conservation, such as heat wheels or thermal storage devices. is new to many archi -
tects. Thus they are not yet familiar with the space, structure, and location required by
this equipment. Moreover, this uncertainty is bound to continue since the vast amounts
of energy research currently being conducted will inevitably produce a continuing flow of
new products and technologies.

Having conducted their investigation first, the consultants will be able to advise the ar-
chitect on such .matters as:

• Fenestration: The percentage of openings for each orientation.

• Insulations: For walls . roof and cellar levels, at interior partitions separating
spac;:es which are treated differently.

• Thermal Mass: Desired densities for wall and interior surface.

• Space and Structural Requirements:
Together with optimal locations for major items of equipment
such as reservoirs for energy storage.

• Horizontal Space Requirements: Ceiling and Roof Plenums.

• Vertical Space Requirements: For ducts, shafts, and insulation.

• Exterior Equipment: On roofs, adjacent to building on the ground, louver openi ngs,
and any other items visible on the outside of the building .

Reserve Spaces: Not needed for the energy supply situation projected for initial
building occupancy, but desirable to accomodate future
changes deemed probable in the light of continuing changes in
energy availability.

3. CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS ... during this phase, every element of the struc-
ture is committed to paper. This activity is carried out by large numbers of staff, many of
whom may not have participated in the broad exploratory investigations of the earlier de-
cision·making phase. (Thus a mechanical drafter may place an out moded duct and tan
sizes in the plan or an architectural detailer will place the insulation in the interior as is

340

always done instead of a new method decided by the previous top-level discussions).

4. BIDDING OR NEGOTIATIONS

Contractors call to clarify certain aspects of the construction documents. Since energy
technology is in a continuing state of flux, its equipment and procedures are constantly
changing, and questions relati ng to this work will be particularly numerous during this
period. Moreover, since the traditional bidding process emphasizes lower initial costs
rather than lower life-cycle costs, the calls may be greater than usual.

Since budgets are always tight, a list of alternatives which has been well throught out
should be included as part of the bid package. This is much preferred to the receipt of
suggested cuts from contractors who, new to the job, cannot be expected to be aware of
its long-range aims.

5. CONSTRUCTION ADMINISTRATION

Mechanical equipment is often late in arriving at the job. Many energy-related install-
ations rely on the efficient operation of groups of equipment, and not only on isolated
pieces. It is essential that the desired potential be achieved by adequate adjustment and
tuning up of the entire installation ; one should not fall victim to the last minute rush to
move in.

It is advisable for the staff who will operate the finished structure to be on hand while the
final tuning up is being accomplished. They should be given the appropriate equipment
manuals and operating instructions, and they should be acquainted by the design team
with the thinking that went into the design of the structure and the way in which it is to
be operated.

6. OCCUPANCY AND O·PERATIONS

It is advisable to schedule one or two meetings between the operations staff and the
design team during the first year even if no problems develop. After a year has passed,
copies of the energy bills should be sent to the design team for comparison with design
projections, for accurancy of billing and for suggestions or improving performance.

ENVIRONMENTAL
PLANNING

This is the whole essence of architecture. We plan people's indoor environment. A person's
relationship to the site is also necessarily the subject of planning. Neighbors are important.

Much consideration is due to other people ano to the buildings that adjoin any project. Final-

ly, nature has long since given us an environment. We shall now study the inter relationship
of nature and the interior environment.

Historic Architectural design reacted to its environment without reliance on mechanical
assistance which, in those early times, was not available. These design considerations in-
cluded:

• Siting and orientation: The relation of the building to the land, the sun and the wind.
• Building Shape: The less skin, the less exposure.
• Nature of the Envelope: Fenestration, insulation, thermal mass. wall shading, color

and reflectivity, openings and penetrations.

341

THE SITE .....

• SITE SELECTION

Selection options, if there are any at all are usually limited to a few sites within a communi-
ty. Most commonly, the client has already selected the site before coming to the architect
to discuss the proposed building; and the design consideration becomes one of developing
the site and the building as harmoniously as possible to minimize ultimate energy con-
sumption.

t- ------------------ ------_::::.::..?<>

II _,_... /

I /-

11 / / / - - Buildit1g OH 6r0011d

II .,......_.../ -

I ...--'/

I/

!I.-"_,.. / - eou11dery Geott~et~y as a
Gel1erator of b.Jildlrtg tont1

over Ground i11 Ground Uttdergrou11d

at base

UHderstope

it1 valley

\ ... ,

Bridgi11g valley

over valley

342

Build arourd
natural rocks

aoo trees

\ ~\\'\\~t'~,..,....,,.J.......­

mimic slope Relate buiJdi11g proftfe Cmrtrast profile
witn profile
to 1a11d w·Jtrt Jcnt:l

~/ 1-'~~.·.:-.S\ '
:'\

• SITE DEVELOPMENT

The two primary energy considerations in the siting of a building are orientation to the sun
and orientation to the wind. Landscaping can also improve performance; shade trees can
seasonally control direct radiation from the sun; ground surfaces can control reflected
radiation , planted ground cover can moderate air temperature and wind breaks can dimi-
nish the force of the wind.

• ELEMENTS OF SITE CONTROL

The purpose of site control is to modify adverse climatic forces at a distance before they
impact the building. The elements of site control include windbreaks. shade trees, ground

surfaces, orientation to the sun and to tM w ind, and underground structures.

1. SOLAR SHADING IN SUMMER

a. Shading by Structural Elements-This influence affects t he facades of buildings.

They are being designed to intercept exteriorly the rays of the sun in summer. Of
the many heat-contributing sources, direct solar heat gain is one of the greatest
causes of discomfort to occupants.

343

The overhzt~g taKe~ care The 011 ~·foratai ea~t wall
i11terr.eptG early ma-t1h1] ~ut1
of t~e rtear11ooYJ Hours
by ~t1ry whose- -tt1er111a1 ltla$$
duriHg the hotte,t day5 of 't:Jy ma~y ~ou~ 1~- rate
trat1~tnJ9'JOt1 to !ttd~
-6Utf1 ttter:

id montit1g· (low ~levati0\1) sut1 1~ interupred

t7y wide vertical p1lar;ten> as are the t11id2!fteti100YI
ray~ at a cornJl3rabfe ~lar ott3le.

Shading l7y horiZOtftal at1d vertial taffieS.
11fe EtMI'Vtfltlltftal 8uild1Hg at fHe Ulff~ity

of Ollifarttiii at llerkeley.

This figure illustrate the use of dramatically wide external vertical and horizontal con-
crete baffles, where the shading effect is clearly seen in the almost total exclusion of
the sun on the south elevation.

344

b. Powered Louvers to Diminish Heat Gain
If a building is arranged to intercept the intahse rays of the sun before they pass
through its glass walls instead of toward, the air-conditioning heat-gain load can
often be cut in half . In approximate terms, the external shading rejects about 80 % of
the fierce attack of solar energy while the internal shading accepts and reradiates
80% of it. The outside louvers have a chance to cool off in an occasional breeze, but
the inside drapes are part of a heat trap, and they constitute a system of hot-weather
radiant heating that discomforts those who must work near perimeter surfaces.
The amqunt of energy passing through 1 sq. ft. {.09 to .10 sq . m. ) of unshaded glass
on an east wall in the morning i~ often evaluated at over 200 Btuh. This is almost as
powerful as a cast-iron steam radiation which produces 240 Btuh.

In this Bank Building, inspite of the advantages of full air-conditioning, heat-resistant
glass, and the use of fully closed inside drapes employees moved their desks as far as
possible away from the hot exterior walls. Two 50-ton compressor running conti-
nuously failed to keep the building comfortable even on days when the outside tem-
perature was only 73HF . The heated drapes were found to be an unwanted radiant-
heating system that effectively cancelled the cooling efforts of the air conditioning
plant. The temperature between the glass and drapes was 120°F (48.8°C).

345

The solution was to install exterior, automatically controlled, power-operated sun
louvers on the east and south walls. (The north and west walls are solid brick). One
of the two cooling units kept indoor climate cool when outside temperatures were in
the 90s. Employees near windows were perfectly comfortable. Much light but little
heat was reflected illto the building . As the sketch shows, the louvers are not fully
closed, even when the sun's rays are in a plane perpendicular to the glass. Without
attendance, the louvers turn to exclude the sun as its relative position changes
through the day. They open fully when the sun no longer shines on the controlled
facade, or when cloudy conditions prevail. (Louvers manufactured by Lemlar Mfg.
Co. Gardena, Calif.)

2. WHITE ROOFS AND DESERT COOLING

a. Evaporative Cooling -In hot arid regions. a method of cooling simpler than that of
the compressive evaporate refrigeration cycle can be very effective. Employing one
electric motor instead of three, if saves a great deal of energy, though it use a little of
water.

Evaporative cooling is an ancient method of lowering air temperature. As water is eva·
porated to vapor, heat is drawn from the air, reducing its temperature; A blower
draws outdoor air in though grills, passing it through pads kept moists by recircu-
lated water.
The cooled air is then delivered directly to the indoor space. The effect of the gently
moving cool air is to cool the body and, additionally, produce further cooling by eva-
poration of body moisture. The thermal-evaporative cycle of the cooler is shown
thus:

/
/

/
/

/

Outdoor air at 105"F and 10% relative humidity can be considered as too unbalanced
a condition to provide comfort for humans. When outdoor air is as dry as this, the
adiabatic process of the air cooler results in air for indoors that is quite the same as
that provided by refrigerated cooling. The indoor condition of 7B"F and 50% relative
humidity thus produced are the same as those usually chosen as design standards for
refrigerated cooling.

346

DeSert Coolirtg . llle i<ryi;zm Residettce.

Palttf 5fX'I"gs, Ccllifi'Jnfia .View lod<iMg
di~Jy west. 5kadOW of i1te fn:Mt-ligfft-
~8 i~ tk6 titne to~ IFWAM.

Er~tire em (frottt) facade 1~ fully
~from ttw morrting !50t1 uy
ttatural plattting. Roof overhaHg 011 fife
~ put5 the few(higk) WiKOOW~
lamely In ~de. ~11ry wall~
delay tkenttal tralfsmisstcm by matfY
hour::; .The far {wer;t) el*:1 of 'fke hou$e
~ awt1i11gG. and ~ ~et18fitted by

additiattal ~ later as "tke ~
~ OOhitt:l 1ke mo<mtain~ . Tile whi're
roof, 1fpical of hat clima~~. r~ heat-
~~t, and -me livi11g ltVtt1 arcd
~rmms are at t11e cmt. ttartl1 ~ide.
Tke -~t CAJ!er"Ot1 the roof (left)
serv~ 1ke cen1Tal ~ of fke house.
wauTWo "fkrotlg~ • u•nt~ , ()ie l»f tke
e.a.st wall and one 0)1' tne we6t wau,
cOtHptete ttli~ il1ree- unit svap1rotive

caJii~ ~~tem.

9lower pulley (quiet ~tit)!)

bol~

AIR COOLER

347

b. White Roofs. In reflecting heat away instead of absorbing it, which increases the

temperature of rooms below, white roofs are effective.

OUTDOOR AIR 7JnfPI!ft411JRE! ?

Ncn4 , 40•c {1os•F)

~OOF SURFACE TEMFERAlURE

l\

I \

I \
I\
FRf:iSH WHI~ PAINT I
'10• ( IO!I•F) I 1P~P WHITll \

IMINT !SO~(IZJ, \

I lI '\

1 I

~o~(sr-pr) ~"c(•~
4'
C•ilittg ~rfa-.e ~tum
c&llicg n(64 tlltf~m Pcrrtition ~ tetttperafure

/1\v 4 \~~:~z•c ( s:kJ•F)
Rexlfff air w~ratum
Roam air 189tt~tu~ ·i 5t•&( tJ<fF)

zs•c (sr•F) G INTt:RIOR ~~

INTE~IOR S~CE

The room Temperature 4"C (8"F) cooler under the white is shown in above figure.
Also the interior is 12HC lower than the outside temperature.

3. PASSIVE SOLAR PLANNING

In utilizing the sun, the fir,st principles are to exclude it from interior
space In summer and to accept it interiorly (with adjustable drapes) for
warmth in December, January and Mid-February the cold months.
(winter)

The passive solar design is so called because it employs no sophisti-
cated collectors and no expensive technology to harness the sun's
energy. It is achieved by:

1. Orientation - By carefully considering the

location of the building, how it will relate to the
sun and breezes. The LAYOUT or planning-
major rooms are suggested to face south. The
west is solid masonry which intercepts the sun
and reduces and delays heat transmission to be
tolerated during cooler evening hours. Building
Facade acts as a wind deflector as well and
channels the breeze to other areas.

348

The size of the rooms, especially Offices
shoold be determined by the available natural
light.

A-- -- ENTRY

UP

LIVING ROOM p i<ITCHEN

!i01 f~T1tte~

~ of plammtg t11e
ewtrattte is~
CJ O
\'le8mf' flte Vl#WK
FtRST FLOOR PLAN
N

STUDY

SECOND FLOOR PLAN 5

HOLl.OW BI..OC~ 2. Materials - For passive design approach

Ma~ry waH materials to be used should not absorb heat.
For instance metal should be avoided. The
basic material is ceramic and perlite for the roof
and walls. Both materials possess exceptional
insulating capabilities. However. during cold
season, high-mass materials absorb the sun's
heat, such as Tile Floors and Formica. Roofing
materials should be painted in light colors so as
to reflect the sun and not absorb heat. Ceiling
and walling should be lined with heat-insu-
lating materials such as aluminum foil, fiber
glass batts and blankets, loose fill mineral
fibers, foam or rigid insulation .

349

3. Features - The building should be designed to

allow the free flow of the breeze to all work
spaces. Windows for instance, are low, wide
and structured in such a way that the prevailing
wind increases its speed as it enters the build·
ing .

4. Orientation to the Wind - Windbreaks con-

sist of either a fence or a row of trees or shrubs
which reduce air infiltration through windows
~....::::::,......._,.~,.....,_by diminishing the wind pressure. The most ef-
fective locat ion for a windbreak is upwind a

distance of 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 times the height of a

building.
H

1V2- 2'/r H
4. NATURAl HEATtNG AND DAYLIGHTING

If the sun's energy is to be used directly for heating in the cold season (winter), it can
also contribute to the illumination of the heated space. Hot air is effectively vented out
with the use of strategically located clerestories, which are windows located on the side
of the roof for ventilation purposes. The size of rooms especially offices should be deter-
mined by the available natural light.

HEAT STORAGE

By avoiding transport systems of ducts, pipes, fans and pumps as well as heat exchangers
and complicated controls, significant amounts of money are saved , the operation and main-
tenance are simplif ied and reduced in cost, and in comfort and efficiency can actually be in-
creased.

A SOUTH FACING VERTICAL.
SOLAR COLLECTOR AND
1-lEAT STORAGE WALL.

As the sun hits the blackened surface of the wall, the concrete in this case absorbs some of
the heat while some of it simultaneously heats the air which rises and enters the room. The
heat in the concrete migrates slowly inward, and when the sun has set, radiates into the
building while warm convection currents continue inside between the black concrete and

350 the transparent cover.

Natural daylight does much to relieve the electric lighting demand not only in the areas
receiving direct solar gain in winter bu't also in the two north classrooms where cleresto-
ry glass supplements the sliding glass doors in the north waiL The figure belows shows
this toplighting.

NORTH e:LEVATIOH
The two north classrooms benefit from clerestory natural lighting, which supplements
that from the first-storey glass panels.
The east wall is largely blank against low summer sun, as is the west wall.

~olar gai11 ard Mtural

G 0~~~:~
$0UTH
1F1F=---

Summer shading for the f our south classrooms is accompanied by a conventional over-
hang.

351

Multi-Zone System like this facilitate energy saving by the operation of one or several
zones only as needed . Room registers from and to the unit appear below.

One of the two 12 x 5 inch (.30 x .125) down-flow registers in classrooms.

the 30 x 24 inch (.75 x .60) open-
ing that will receive the grill
through which return air is drawn
into unit C.

5. WINDOWLESS BUILDINGS

It is quite evident that glass is frequently a problem sometimes it can be omitted. Build·
ings or large sections thereof can be enclosed by opaque walls. An example of a depart·
ment's store designed in this way is shown in this figure. The problem is a complex one
and should have careful study in each instance by engineering consultants.

I;

L.. ··~ ~-·-·-- - -· ·~ - · . _l

Alexatt~ &eparhttttft 5m at Roolevett Field ~"9 CsHtBr;

Gard8t1 City. New York.

352

Department stores are often best designed this way. Schools sometime~ are , Parame-
ters including function, esthetics and thermal interchange must be examined . During
daylight hours they are densely occupied and well lighted (though, admittedly, lighting
levels are becoming more conservative). The space gains of people-load and lighting-
load are usually sufficient to heat the building by day in winter (December-February cold
months). Often they exceed this state and must be cooled. Hopefully this is done by the
low-energy method of circulating cool outdoor air. Glass, no matter how well hand led in
summer, would add additional and instantaneous heat t hat is not needed. Quite dif-
ferently, the transmission of heat in through heavy masonry walls is minimal by com-
parison and usually delayed by 8 or 10 hours. Merchants do not need to have shoppers
distracted by views of the exterior . In schools, children at study can wait for r~iaxation,
to be enjoyed later in w indowed recreational area .

6. UTILIZATION OF NATURAL GROWTH
a. Shsde Trees

Deciduous trees provide shad~ in the summer and admit light in the winter.Ever-
green's provide shade in the summer and reduce window heat loss to the right sky in
winter.
A South-facing window shaded by a deciduous tree receives less solar heat than an
unshaded north -facing window (The-north Window received diffused radiation from
clouds)

353

Trees reduce window heat gain not only by blocking direct sunlight penetration but
also by lowering the ground surface temperature, as for example, when they shade
an adjacent parking lot. Placement of the trees should permit winter, {Cold months)
penetration while blocking summer heat.

solar altitude

leafles5 troes

do t10t ob.5truct

~olai gcill1

llllllllll IJIIJJJIII/1 ITI 111/lllllli/III/IJIJ/IIJ/11/1

COLO SEASON

(DECEMBER TO FEBRUARY)

Summer 9.m

Solar- altitude it1 summer

10M

~ ~~~<ft. 't>~r;:)\5 ''/-.~>,

of'.A\ _(''}: ,v.

"v'r>u '~~

-d~:''b2~-J-b #------view'\ at eye level 5.40

x.<.PJ below leaf growth

l!lllllllll!llll1 r""""' "," , 1J """ """"
SOLAR ALTITUDE IN SUMMER

354

b. Deciduous Ivy can also shade a building facade in summer and allow the sun to shine
through to warm it during the cold December months (winter).

Ivy in Full Leaf Summer S~a~ Energy fer PacifiC Northwest

~UIIdlttgS, c.srrrer fa" Enviromtfetriat

R~ . IJHi18rsity Of~ .1976.
355

7. EQUIPMENT ON THE ROOF

Services that connect to an active large building are numerous.

a. Entering Services-can comprise Electricity, oil, gas, and water.
b. Luving the building- ISewage and storm water, obviously relate to lower levels

of the structure.

Fresh air for ventilation and used air, re-
jected by .exhausted fans, frequently pass
through the building envelope near the
point of use. This can be at open mecha-
nical stories adjacent to air-handling
equipment. On the roof in tall buildings,
one finds a multitude of items including
roof-access penthouse, elevator machine-
ry, cooling towers, water storage tanks
and chimneys.

Tlfe Cfmse Mmrltattaf lblditrg ir New

y~ Ci1y: SkidltfOmI OwiHgS a,q Ur-

nII, Arc~it~. A helicopter ~ltJW •

On the roofs of smaller, low-rise buildings rooftop facilities can include chimneys, fan ex-
hausts, plumbing vents, security lights, and roof-access stairs.
The use of outdoor equipment is increasing, such equipment is necessarily weather-
resistant, locations can b~ selected. They can include space adjacent to the building or on
a roof. Often such locations are preferred to the use of indoor space, which is costly to
build and can be used for more suitable or productive purposes.
In the preceding figure, zonal installations for heating-cooling-ventilation are shown in
roottop locations. Each of these units includes compressor, condenser, and evaporator
coil. The latter is in a duct, which also houses a filter, blower, electric heating coil, and pro-
vides an adjustable fresh air intake on the suction side of the blower.

Exltaust Fans. At am~ of

peqM COtfCetftnri'iotf"

356

In this one storey motel, five or more self-contained weather resistant units can be used.
Each unit delivers warm or cool air to the space below through short duct-runs in furred
ceilings. The air is delivered through ceiling registers. Each unit thus constitutes a decen-
tralized zones.

Unlike some central-station installations, the zones can operate separate and turn-off
when not in demand. Hence energy is saved. Units are identified as white in color and
space-exhaust fans as silver-domed elements on black bases. Appearance of the equip-
ment is not unpleasaf"lt and no surrounding parapet is needed to mask them.

Opsrstion:

Each heating-cooling-vent~ation recirculates air to the
space below. The suction side of the blower draws air
from the space and admits fresh air from the downtown
gooseneck inlet at the left unit. By the action of the
blower, the air to be conditioned in the unit passes
through a filter, an evaporated cooling coil or, in
cold months (winter) an electric-resistance heating
coil. It is then delivered to the ducts below. The hot air
from this cooling process is discharged through the side
grills. Thus constitute the so-called heat rejection pro-
cess common to all refrigerant cycle cooling systems
the exhaust fan is used at areas of "people concentra-
tion" such as dining rooms, conference rooms, lounges
and bars used air is drawn away to prevent odors and

----...stagnation from building up.

;:....- ~i.l&e

8. UTILIZATION OF WATER AIR

r1 Thermal energy can be stored in three-foot 1.00M high
water-filled drums in front of the south-facing windows,
once the sun sets, this heat radiate through the house,

trapped by the insulation. A back-up gas heater takes
the chill off cold mornings and a wood burning stove in

the living room provides additional warmth.

Provision of a water pool or pond or eYen a fountain is
also very effective.

A Fireplace effectively heats the living room in the cold
December months. However, this heat can be harness-
ed and distributed to the different rooms by using a
hollow steel plate in the form of a fireplace. A few
millimeters above the floor are small openings to admit
cold air to fill the hollow. When a fire is produced, the
cold air around the hollow is heated and hot air goes
above to the ducts which goes to bedrooms through the
ceiling.

357

~ airdfmibutsd itlmu;~~t

~s~~~

6ttlok8 gcw
out 10 ckilffl18)'

wanttatr.

0 0 0 0 0 • ·0

FRONT cold air

9. THERMOSIPHONING

In some cases, it is possible to move the fluids (liquid or air) without mechanical aid, by

natural convection or thermosiphoning. As the fluid is heated, it tends to rise, and cooler

fluid flows in to take its piace. Pumping, however, usually gives greater collection effi-
ciencies.

This heat is directly used for warming the living spaces of a building in conventional
ways. Ex: Through radiators and hot air registers. When the building does not require
heat the warmed air or liquid (called the heat transfer medium) from the collector can be
moved to a heat storage container.

A backup gzrs heater ~ A 190- galloH cylit1ders
r
tokes 1tte dtill ofcold l101d water ftlat a~
- ...----
or: .tte0rt1i"gs atrd a wm ~time heat and t11er1
--- -::::· ·ares it il1to 11te house
bUrning s~
fi~~3Ce I~ 'Hfe 11VIt19 -- - at t1ignt
trott J:WVldeS
additional wamrf'h ,.-

In the case of the "air medium" the storage is often a pile of rocks, or some other heat-
holding material; This also requires duct works and larger installation space; Heat-trans-
fer coefficient is less than that of the water requiring farger collector surfaces; Panel
construction is simpler and not subject to problems of freezing, leakage, and corrosion.

358

In the case of LIQUID MEDIUM or water, the storage is usually a large, well-insulated
tank of water, which has considerable heat capacity. This requires piping for circulation
and distribution; It usually contains an anti-freeze solution and corrosion-retarding ad-
ditive is required for aluminum piping.
Heat is also stored in containers of chemicals called eutectic or phase-changing salts.
These salts which store large quantities of heat in a relatively small volume, melt when
they are heated and release heat later as they cool and crystallize. When the building
needs heat, the air or water f rom its heating system passes through the storage, is
warmed, and is then fed through the conventional heaters to warm the space.

10. BUILDING CONFIGURATION

The Overall shape of a building affects the amount of energy it will consume. In general, a
configuration that resists unwanted heat transmission for a given enclosed volume, a build-
ing should be constructed with minimum exposed surface area. A spherical or round build-
ing has less surface and thus less heat gain or loss than any other shape for an equal amount
of total floor area . A square building has less surface than a rectangular one of equal area per
floor, and so undergoes less thermal transmission loss or heat gain. However, the number of
stories modifies this relationship f or the building as a whole.

The exception to this generalization about a buildings configuration is the situation where
the primary thermal load is the result not of the environment, but rather of internally gene-
rated conditions. Where an office building, for example, generates large amounts of heat
from its lighting and computers, the problem may be one of dissipating rather than con-
serving thermal energy. In this case it may (depending on the climate) be desirable to have as
large an amount of building skin as possible to facilitate heat dissipation.

In its " Energy Conservation Design Guidelines for New Office Buildings" GSA adds the
following observations with respect to building configuration;

1. Tall Buildings: A tall building has a proportionately smaller roof and is less af-
fected by solar gains on that surface. On the other hand, tall buildings generally are
subjected to greater wind velocities, which increase infiltration and heat losses. Tall
buildings are less likely to be shaded or protected from winds by surrounding build-
ings and trees. They require more mechanical support systems, including elevators
and longer exhaust duct systems. The stack induction action in tall buildings in-
creases infiltration, thus requ iring special measures to reduce its influence on heat
gain and heat loss.

2. Floor-to-Ceiling Height: Greater ceiling heights improve environmental condi-
tions in the summertime by permitting warm air to rise. However, greater ceiling
heights increase the perimeter areas. thus increasing heat transmission through the
walls.

Reduced ceiling height reduce the exposed exterior wall surface area and the
enclosed volume. A reduced ceiling height can also increase illumination effective-
ness.

Floor-to-ceiling height is determined by physiological comfort, height of light
fixtures for proper light distribution, and height of w indows necessary for good natu-
ral lighting.

In general, increases in ceiling height need increase only the exposed wall sur-
face (not window surface). The effet of greater heights on energy consumption may
be rather small, depending on the thermal characteristics of the wall.

3. Ceiling Plenum Height: Deep ceiling plenums allow the use of lar~er duct sizes
with low pressure drop and reduced heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
IHVAC) air handler and fan reQuirements. Ducts can be larger, allowing greater

359

volumes and air to be moved with smaller pressure drops, permitting reduced fan
horsepower.

4. Roofs: Very low buildings may have greater roof area in proportion to wall area,
and the heating and cooling leads which they generate may, in turn, influence the
selection of the mechanical equipment. In tall buildings, the roof is a lesser influence
on the total heat loss and gain, and will rarely influence the selection of the total
heating and cooling systems.

5. 'Exposed Floors: Buildings that are elevated on columns or with first -floor areas
and large overhanging upper floors increase heat loss and heat gain because of the
extra exposed floor surfaces. While this may be of slight advantage all year in south-
ern regions, or anywhere in the summertime, it presents a serious increased heat loss
in colder climates. Locating parking garages on intermediate levels similarly in-
creases energy consumption from additional exposed surfaces.

6. Building Forms: A dome roof can permit warm air to rise and collect at the top,
leaving the floor area cooler. Pyramids, zigzag exterior walls, rhomboid-shaped
buildings, and other forms can all be used to control the influence of climate on con-
sumption.

7. Zigzag Walls: Zigzag configuration of east and west walls provides self-shading to
reduce summer solar loads, provides natural windbreaks, and can permit low rays to
penetrate the building in the winter to supplement the heating system, if the wind-

ows in the zigzag are facing south. By facing the windows north in the z.igzag in a

southern location, heat gain is reduced year-round; but, in both summer and winter,
natural lighting and views can be available at both east and west facades without the
penalty of increasing summer heat gains. However, the energy requirements result-
ing from the additional wall surface for the zigzag form must be weighed against the
other energy benefits.

'11. GROUND SURFACES (PAVED AND PLANTED)

This option involves the use of light-colored ground surfaces to reflect sunlight onto a
building, dark-colored surfaces to absorb sunlight and lower outside temperatures.

Light reflected from the ground represents 10 to 15 percent of the total daylight trans-
mitted by a first-floor window on the sunl.it side of a building.

Percentages of Incident Light Reflected
by Some Ground Surfaces

Material Percentage
Reflected
White paint: New
Old 75%
55%
Concrete 55%
Marble (White) 45%
Granite 4Q%
Brick buff 48%
30%
dark glazed 25%
Vegetation (average} 18%
Macadam

Ground reflected light transmitted through windows strikes the ceiling. This is beneficial
for dayiighting in two respects. First, the light is projected deeper into the room than
direct sunlight. Second, ceilings are usually light-colored and thus reflect light better

than darker floors.

360

Plant cover absorbs sunlight, yet has a lower temperature than paving because of eva-

porative cooling which occurs during the transportation of plants. The net heat ~ain

from the sun is rapidly dissipated by the enormous surface area of the leaves. Very little
heat is stored in vegetation because of its minimal mass.

Night air temperatures over grass, for example are therefore cooler than over pavemen_t.
The lower day temperatures and lower night temperatures of planted surfaces result m
less window heat gain and a reduced air-conditioning burden compared to the situation
of haying paved surfaces adjacent to the building .

12. UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES

eartk Placed between a building and the outside ele-
ments, earth slows the heat transfer from one to
the other, reduces the temperature difference bet-
ween exterior and interior, and at the same time

protects the building from cold winds and the
direct rays of the sun. While earth does provide
some degree of thermal resistance, it is not a par-
ticularly good insulator. A layer of insulation
therefore, must be located between the building
and the earth which surrounds it, or else the earth
w ill act as a heat sink, always drawing heat away

from the interior of the building.

earth Basic precepts to keep in mind when working with
underground structures, include the following:

itt~atiatr

1. Gentle South slopes are ideal for underground structures. They are easily built into
the hill and have south sunlight and positive drainage.

2 . Avoid tow-lying depressions. Heavy cold air drains into them; Frost and dampness
are more likely in these areas.

3. Make sure that surrounding construction (parking lots, septic systems, etc.) do not
drain into the site.

4. Identify ground levels before making decisions on placement and depth.

5. Adequate soil percolation is essential, particularly for sunken courtyards and
atriums. If there are problems, consider the installation of overflow drains.

6. Any structural system can be used, provided it is designed to applicable loading
conditions. General rules are 150 lb/sq. ft. for roofs with grass cover and 400 lb/ft.2
for roofs when the earth cover is to support small trees. Add water, (snow) and
pedestrian loads.

7. Wall design is generally the same as conventional basement wall or other below-
grade construction.

8. Place insulation outside the below-ground building structure; this allows the struc-
ture to serve as a heat storage mass. Insulation can be reduced in thickness as the
depth below grade increases.

361

9. Butyl sheets provide both waterproofing and a vapor barrier.

10. For earth berming against existing exterior walls, a cement plaster finish applied to

metal lath (hyrib) and a vapor barrier on the existing wall are advisable. This detail

discourages roots, insects, and rodents from getting into the wall.

Berm -a ledge or shoulder, as along the edge of a paved road.

11 . Avoid curbs or parapets to retain earth covering. Freezing and thawing action w ill
tend to crack these elements.

12. To control interior dampness, dry the air through circulation and/or dehumidica-
tion.

13. Earth pipes can be used to provide natu!al coolin.g. Air taken from the outside dur-
ing warm weather can be cooled by being passed through long pipes buried in the
berm or below grade. The same piping can provide some degree of pre-heating of
fresh outside air during cold weather.

14. Examine local codes, especially in relation to fire exits and ventilation.

15. Lighting usage should be thought out carefully. It will affect both comfort and
energy use more critically in an underground structure.

DESIGN FEATURES TO OFFSET THE EFFECTS
OF WIND, SUN, RAIN, TEMPERATURE

1. ORIENTATION TO THE WIND

When window placement of opposite sides of an interior space is possible, the building
should be oriented slightly askew to the direction of the wind. When window placement on
opposite sides of a space is n'>t pcssible t'ut placement on adjacent side is possible, the
building should face directly into the wind.
a) Windows on Opposite Sides

~~~

TurbuleHce 42•fa A
41""~
good overall
circulatio11

TurbuleHce %of tHe out~ide 1055
good overall wi"d velocity
circulatiOH
45%
36.2

Window location versus Air Circulation

It will be seen that if the wind encounters an inlet and an outlet in alignment with its out-
side direction, it will pass through the intervening space in a narrowly defined, high-
velocity stream. Very little ventilation will occur beyond that narrowly defined, stream.
However, if the wind is forced to change direction in transit between inlet and outlet, a
Turbulence within the room will develop. A circular current will encompass the sides
and comers of the room. The maximum airspeed is reduced compared to windows in
direct alignment with the wind, but the average velocity of air movement within the en-
tire space will be greater.

b) Windbreak consist of either a fence or a [
tow of trees of shrubs which reduce air
inf iltration through windows by IH
diminishing the wind pressure. The most
effective location for a windbreak is up- __..&4~-----,---+---·-L
wind a distance of 1 1/ 2 to 2 1/ 2 times - - -- z-Y-t-H c-+
the height of a building . 1'/a-

At this distance, the wind will be deflected up ana well over the building, reducing the

pushing action on the building's windward side and the pulling action on its leeward
side.

A wind break is more effective if it allows part of the wind to penetrate. A solid wind-

break creates a low pressure area on its leeward side with resulting strong eddy cur-

rents . These may be as destructive as direct wind in eroding the still air at the surface of

the window. Allowing a portion of the wind to pass through the windbreak tend~ to

relieve this leeward suction. rtfiJtimal eddy currem-

eddy- a ~rreKt if air,ar wa19r

mov1ttg a)al# 'Hfe mait1 cummt
atfd with circular mo1t0n. a

little wkirl,m ora little
v.flirlwind

AIRFLOW VERSUS FENCE OE.Sf6N

By protecting the window from the scouring action of the wind, the still layer of boun-
dary air outside the window is preserved, and heat loss is reduced as shown below,
wh ich illustrates changes in the film f actor with different w ind speeds.

~~~ ltt6ide air

363

Overall ventilation is consequently better, where the building interior is subdivided into a
series of interconnecting spaces, placement of interior partitions can provide the disrup-
tion of the otherwise straight path of airflow between upwind and downwind windows.

wiHdow

use prevai ~"9 . breeze!S use !at1dscapit19 ~s wind

a5 coolltrg aev•ce protectiot'l lr biOWitfg dust

Turt1 build~1195 Protect Slffail buildittgs

bacl< ro w1na witff tall tJteS

364

2. ORIENTATION TO THE SUN

- ~~ The general strategy for the placement of wind-
ows calls for the largest window area on the side
-- where the sun exposure minim.izes combined
heating and cooling needs sunflght transmission
will be a net benefit on an annual basis if the
winter (cold months) solar heat gain exceeds
(winter) cold months heat loss and summer solar
heat gain. The percentage of the incident solar
energy that a window transmits for any given day
depends on the angle at which rays of sunlight in-
tercept the window and for how many hours the
window receives sunlight.

- -r --- -- - ---, In general, buildings located in southern latitudes
(like in Manila) should have window areas concen-
II trated on the northern and southern exposures
lI (ideally with a projecting horizontal shading device
- -I I over south-facing w indows) to minimize the air-
conditioning burden. To obtain the greatest
1I benefit from the sun as a cold month (winter) heat
1I source, buildings located in northern latitudes (like
in Baguio) should have window areas concen-
II trated on the south (with minimal window areas to
--- -----I _ JI the north).

L...

.·.~~~: higher"" ~1-i NORTH )

.. . colder amas

\ usually. 0t1 tke WEST and on
the EAST very mit1imal wiHdows
\
Is ttfade
\
\ 365

\

{--- SOUTH
METRO MANILA

(warmer lrfla5)

Windows in summer are shaded by wooden overhangs. What heat does enter the
home is trapped by the same high mass materials inside and later removed by the cool-
ing night breeze.

cir&Uar

I

//j
I//
///
// / I
// /

/ / 1/ COf1tif1UOUS

I /1

II Fitf and Ramada

I/

"/
I

-1 Increasing the projection or Eaves and window panes.

~ oper.ol>le FIN

Use of media aguas and skirtroof, canopies.

eyebrow eavs

erleH~OH

366

iI Fixed or Movable
, !I
jaloosie or lruvers
IIII.II, I
(

V~11etia11 blitfds - useful at ar1y

trme of the day, cst1 ~ r1a~dled

at ~11y at1gle or cat1 ~ removed

ee55rly

wittdow

em¢.oyittg.a

Vertical fn1

etn~i~ a PRE-CAST

Screetf wall

367

pivot wittdow 0t1 11te SOUTH wide
over11arf9, Higl1 pitch
Ot1 tke NORTH hiqlf
roof , lOW big w·ttww
wittdow little O\erl1a11g
tilted 58COt1d floor overl1a119

I

RAINFALL

Building fOntt to ,rotect step floors ittside tv
aviod direct ~UH
glass areas

368

Bui\dit19 . [or'!' ~at permits 5Utf acc.eG~
at ~Al: tute

3. TO OFFSET RAINFALL

#~

c-arry r:vof prorection it1SU~ drahfaQe
~way from building
iv grOOt1d

_ _~_-_ _-_-_-_ _-_ '_ I_ J COllect mer atspecific Slq)e roof to drail1
1ttrougl1 buildilfg
Protectetrtriesfrolffroof poit1t5
-1.
dramage afd pruvid6aHOPies

rece9.Sefftry step up II
to etfter
for protectiOtf stope balcot1ies

for drah1age

369

4. TO OFFSET TEMPERATURE

Rai~e buildi119 for: Allow 11ot air

maxnnum drymg ~ up atfd out

cooli11g of surfaces

Air ~ista"s at witfd?wj

wkere heat loss .f gah1
occur!)

Another feature which may be added to a building
is a patio or interior garden in the middle of the
structure from where the breeze would circulate
to the building's other parts. The garden may have
a concrete trellis with decorative hanging plants
which filter the air.

370

~ ~UTI~~(Q)S)(W~

-f-1

A-

a

u~

ENCLOSURE

QUALITI-ES OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACE

PROPERTIES OF ENCLOSURE • Proportion
1. DIMENSION • Scale

2. SHAPE • Definition

ODD

3. CONFIGURATION • Fo rm

4. SURFACE • Colo r
• Texture
c----_·--·---~--·
·----'--'--- -

• Pattern

372

5. EDGES

.. ....... ...... .....~- '..... . . ....

6. OPENINGS .., ..~·A

• Enclosure
• Light
• View

OPENINGS IN SPACE

DEFINING ElEMENTS
DOORS -Offer entry into a room, and determine the patterns of movement and use within

it.
WINDOWS -Allow light to penetrate the space and illuminate the surface of a room , offer

toviews from the room the exterior, establish visual relationships between the room and ad-

jacent spaces, and provide ventilation for the space of the room.
The quality of a room's degree of enclosure. Light and View is affected by the size, shape,
and location of openings or voids within the enclosing forms of a space.

1. DEGREE OF ENCLOSURE-The form of
its space.

The degree of enclosure of a space, as de-
termined by the configuration of its defining
elements and the pattern of its openings,
has a significant impact on our perception of
the orientation and the overall form of the
space.

373

aoo 0

Openings lying wholly within the enclosing
planes of a space do not weaken the edge
definition nor the sense of enclosure of the
space. The form of the space remains intact
and perceptible.

-. . ......,,...._·,.· ,...., .:.... . .;. . ·.:;.,:.; .·- ':~~ i

·:,::~~~~-~F~~--=~~::;~:;f:;;;~- I

~ ·, ! L

'L~·,;· . . , . ij l ~ Openings located along the edges of the en-
closing planes of a space will visually
.,,.."'·····-···-JU.. weaken the comer boundaries of the space.
i While these openings can erode the overall
torm of a space, they will also promote its
i visual continuity and interlocking with adja-
cent spaces.
-..-: .-· -.:.. . .. ·...:..;·-;_-;.-. :.:-.: .

Openings between the enclosing planes of a
space isolate the planes visually and articu-
late their individuality. As these openings in-
crease in number and size, the space loses
its sense of enclosure, becomes more dif-
fuse, and begins to merge with adjacent
spaces. The visual emphasis is on the en-
closing planes rather than the volume of
space defined by the planes.

374

2. LIGHT . ... The illumination of its sur-
faces and forms.

The sun is a rich source of light for the illu-
mination of forms and spaces in architec-
ture. The quality of its light changes with the
t ime of day, and from season to season.
And it transmits the changing colors, and
moods of the sky and the weather to the
surfaces and forms it muminates.

Entering a room through windows in the
wall plane or through skylights in the roof
plane overhead, the sun's light falls on sur-
faces within the room, enlivens their colors,
and articulates their textures. With the
changing patterns of light and shade that it
creates, the sun animates the space of the
room, and articulates the forms within it.

By its intensity and distribution within the
room, the sun's light can clarify the form of
the space or distort it; it can create a festive
atmosphere within the room or instill within
it a somber mood.

Since the intensity of the light the sun offers
us is fairly constant, and its direction predic-
table, the determinants for its visual impact
on the surfaces, forms, and space of a room
are the size, location, and orientation of the
room's windows and skylights.

The size of a window or skylight will of
course, control the amount of daylight a
room receives. The size of an opening in a
wall or roof plane, however can be deter-
mined by additional factors other than
light, such as:

a. The material
b. The construction of the wall or roof

plane.
c. Requirements for visual privacy.
d. Ventilation
e. Enclosure of the space.
f. Opening's effect on the building's ex-

terior form and appearance.

375

The location and orientation of a window or An opening can be oriented to receive direct
skylight, therefore, can be more important sunlight during certain portions of the day.
than its size in determining the quality of Direct sunlight provides a high degree of illu-
daylight a room receives. mination that is especially intense during
midday hours. It creates sharp patterns of
tight and dark on the surface of a room, and
crisply articulates the forms within the

space.

Possible detrimental effects of direct sun-
light, such as glare and excessive heat gain,
can be .controlled by shading devices built
into the form of the opening, or provided by
the foliage of nearby trees or adjacent struc-
tures.

cat1opy-soli4 or
settfl-opet1
376

An opening can also be oriented away from direct sunlight and receive instead the dif-
fuse, ambient light from the "sky-vault" overhead. The sky-vault is a beneficial source of
daylight since it remains fairly constant, even on cloudy days, and can help to soften the
harshness of direct sunlight and balance the light level within a space.

Lat1d 6/ar~

377

Example of natural lighting:

\ ~L

se-CTIONS

PLANS
378

3. VIEW
Another quality of space that must be considered in establishing openings in the en-
closure of a room is its focus and orientation. While some rooms have an internal focus,
such as a fireplace, others have an outward orientation given to them by a view to the
outdoors or adjacent space. Window and skylights openings provide this view and estab-
lish a visual relationship between a room and its surroundings. The size and location of
these openings, of course, will determine the nature of the view seen through them.

A small opening tends to frame a view so that it
is seen as a painting on a wall.

379

PROBLEM: A large opening opens a room up to a bfoad
vista. The large scene can dominate a space or
view serve as a backdrop for the activities within it.
A large bay window can project a person into a
it scene.

Lor

~ limited view

SOLUTIONS: RM
RM

A window can be located in the corner of a
room to give it a diagonal orientation. It can be
located such that a view can be seen from only
one position in the room. It can be oriented up-

ofward to offer a view treetops and the sky. A

group of windows can be sequenced to frag-
ment a scene and encourage movement within
a space.

VIEWS FROM THE SITE:

zooe view spares 10 view provide acce55 1u view deck

side

aim fettestrati0f1 "toward
'lieN dice?ctiorr

380

vtew

frame viewG with approp,rjate Wit1dOW shape9

provide a view t:>ubble ort tne

buildir~g

VIEW PROPORTION BASED ON
VIEW PROPORTION AND SITE

srep use zone view from +rart5P.a~

space for access Iit1k be1Weet1 ~i~il'Tg;
to view
381
Raise spaces 1Vr view

ac~s over ob~tructiort

OPENINGS:
THE BASIC VARIATIONS
1. WITHIN PLANES

,'• ...

ffj-= -~ ro~·· =o·;
' ' : I·. r·
-.:!.; •• , H'

•-..0 L ,·.!.' :.....

... , ,i i.. ............. ..l •····· II

Off·cet1ier grouped deep5et ) _ ..... .._t

skylight

2. AT CORNERS [~--~JT" '''''f~iii.!Mi~l ./ i ------·-- ,,

~·~·· ];:;~ ! I1~~·.r-.. :i k':._ ......._,,,,_ , -·.
~---:
: , .·!, skyligl1t
' .. I

l .~

l.. .. ...............,_; L .. _............. ... .J

alottg one side along twoedgeS turnittg a corner grouped

3. BETWEEN PLANES

;· - ···-· ----- -·i· .... -·

f'
. r-· J
-··· ...... .._.. •-...( '---{

ver-tic~I -·--- ·-·-·-· _ _ j l......__ ... .. .. ., __ ,. _J ·--·-·-- .. ····- --~
···-· -·: --·- ..,
horizontal 3ff opewirtg
wittdow- wall

cet1ter OPENINGS WITHIN PLANES

(51'able) An opening located wholly within a wall or ceiling plane will appear
as a bright figure on a contrasting Field or background. If centered
r ·---- ----------, within the plane, the opening will appear stable and visually organ-
ize the surface around it.

Moving the opening off-center will create a degree of visual tension
between the opening and the edges of the plane toward which is
moved.

; The shape of the opening, if similar to the shape of the plane in
; which it is located, will create a redundant compositional pattern.

! The shape or orientation of the opening may contrast with the en-
closing plane to emphasize its individuality as a figure.
····----··~i. :-- . - ·-- ·-·-·····- ..-·······..

redu"cU!nt co~t~positi0t1

382

emphasis or

ittdividual ity

The individuality of an opening may also
be visually reinforced with a heavy frame
multiple openings may be clustered to

form a unified composition within a plane,

or be staggered or dispersed to create
visual movement along the surface of the
plane .

DO

DO

muti'iple openin~ may ~ ~Ju5t9t"~

+o fOht1 a ut1ifJBd ~~H"k7t1 w1t111n

a pk:sne.

or~ 5taggered ordi$penied to

create visua1 movement alof19 itle

6urface of the plat1e.

.. . r·. ·-----.. _:.. .. - --..... ,__ · --I l1~ ~-- as an. opening. wit~in
f~~m ~!~r.1 a
i: ; Plane 1ncreases m s1ze, it
1,
.: : (t· i; ~1.•~ .- Iwill, at some point, cease to

1! be a figure with in a enclos-
1•- ---- --~, ,I . f• !• m. g f"1eld, and become a po-
_. ____,_l:L, .....-,. -.-~J)~
l , .. . · -~. '~-.. sitive element in itself, a
a figuro with.ll1 transparent plane bounded
a" encla>ing field · - _ ___ ..J ..

(l'iegative) j 1Ta115paret1-t by a heavy frame.

(Fitive)

383

wall catrtirtuous

witk floor

• Floor and Ceiling Planes Concepts

ll _11 floor at1d ceilit1g conti11uous

cot1tit1uity ~iscontin uau~
it1 from out

roof as ceiling floor:£> a~ _fla:rting dropped ceifittg

• Balconies platf0rnt5 plat1es

STAIRS

384

SKYLI GHTS
DOORS
WINDOWS
ENCLOSURE (BUILDING ENVELOPE)

• Wall Concept s

wall cotrliHuity tkru glass w"ll as focus outside Wall

Texture diffenmt 385

ftom (ttside