Architectural Theories of Design

ILLUSIONS OF DEPTH

The illusion, the Transformation of what is real into what is believed to be real, has been a stand-
ard architectural technique since the renaissance .

In France it developed into what we term as trompe L' Oeil, walls or ceilings were painted with
scenery and backdrops in perspective which one would consider as real, adding dimensions to
small areas and widening the visual coverage to even outdoor spaces. Today, wall papers of
sceneries like mountains, forests, rivers, from floor to ceiling and from wall to vvall are available in
the market.

•••••• An example is the ceiling treatment of San Agustin
Church in lntramuros which look like a coffered ceiling
in the architectural sense of the word, but a representa-
tioh of the Italian coffered ceiling of the renaissance
period in the form of intricate painting on Tin. In other
words, it is an illusion.

painted The use of illusions in a room can be achieved by de-
signing a modern mural of columns, combined with
abstract color wash, and placing it on wall facing strate-
gic places such as entrances and hallways. The color
gives that extra lift, and the illusion of space gives
depth.

fac-tual sectio11

-·

This moden1 mural of columns at the loooy of ViVa Films offlC8
c~ tke i/IUGIOM Of !:ipace PY ~tf miguel ~

188

MONOCULAR CUES TO DEPTH

Artists are able to give depth to a picture because they can make use of the many monocular
cues that tell us the distance of objects.
Four types of cues that are used in depth perception.
1. SUPERPOSITION -

If one object appears to cut off the view of another, we usually perceive the first ob-
ject as nearer.

but cat1 be

However it can be concluded that both playing cards are the same size and that the six of
hearts is further away .

189

2. APPARENT MAGNITUDE and RELATIVE SIZE-
If there is an array of like objects of different sizes, the smaller ones are perceived as
being farther away.

Side Viev.J

0
0

These spheres are viewed as spheres of the same sizes but the smaller ones are far-
ther away such as. the planets.

Which has bigger area, the smaller plain square at the left or the square at the right?

answer: they have the same
area.

190

The example below shows that the inner circles are perceived to be different. The
small circle 'b' looks bigger than the small circle 'a'.

@

b

actually 'a' and 'b'
small circle have the
same diameter.

The experience of apparent magnitude also depends on the total field of perception if the
surroundings are smaller the object looks bigger, if the surrounding objects are bigger, the
object looks smaller.

oo o0o0o

Ooo 00

oo

D oQo
ap

Circle 'a' and square 'a' both looks smaller than circle 'b' and square 'b' at the right. Actually
they all have the same sizes.

191

Below is an example of Apparent Magnitude.

When the hand holding the stick is covered the first appears to be a large one. If the body is
covered it becomes a small fish.

Apparent magnitude is experienced in relation to a known object. Particularly in comparison
with human beings. This is of particular interest to architects when planning room interiors.

-

These 2 rectangular However if you place In fact, rr the rectangles were
lines are of the same two tapering lines ttie
length. upper one looks bigger. real objects lying between
the tracks, we would cor-
rectly Judge the more dis-
tant one to be larger.

3. HEIGHT IN PLACE -

As we look along a flat plane, objects farther away appear to be higher, so that we
can create the impression of depth for objects of the same size by placing them at
different heights.

-

192.

The nearer an object is to the horizon. The greater the distance to it is perceived to
be . For objects on the ground, 'nearer the horizon' implies that they are situated
higher in the field of vision.

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c

aQ attY

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4. TEXTUR E-

For irregular surfaces such as rocks or waving surface of the ocean, there is a gra-
dient of texture with distance so that the 'grain' becomes finer as distance becomes
greater.

. ... .. .. ... ... ........

.. ..

193

PARADOX OF DEPTH

Engraving by the Dutch Artist M .C. Escher 'Waterfall'. The artists "false
use" of depth cues makes the water appear to move uphill through a series of
"level" channels.

Th~ false depth cues makes the person going down the stairs appear to be

go1ng up from where he came from.
194

CONTEXT:

The hypotheses tested and the percepts formed depend not only on the features of the ob-
ject, but also the context within which the object is viewed. In the example below the center
figure can be seen either as the letter B or the number 13, depending on the context in which
it appears.

12

1-\ 13 c

14

195





ARCHITECTURAL CONCEPTS

Traditionally architectural concepts have been the designer's way of responding to the
design situation presented in the program . They have been the means for translating the
non-physical problem statement into the physical building product. Every project has within
it what might be described as prime organizers, central themes, critical issues or problem
essences. These all exist within the project situation or within the designer's perception of
the problem situation. The designer must establish what they are, and then out of them, or
in response to them, create concepts for dealing with them architecturally. The designer's
concepts are sometimes called the "BIG IDEA," " BASIC FRAMEWORK" or "PRIMARY
ORGANIZER".

Concepts may be process or product oriented, take place at any stage in the design process
occur at any scale, be generated from several sources, have a hierarchical nature, possess in
trinsic problems and be plural in number and concern within any single building.

As the designer, we are presented with project situations. They come to us from program-
mers or clients and they require a building to satisfy the ou~lined needs. Often, we think of a
building design as consisting of one concept or overall idea . Although it is true that the
design of the project may begin with a single overall direction of how to respond to the pro-
blem, any building design is in fact composed of many concepts. The designer must divide
the project situation into a manageable number of parts, deal with them individually and
then synthesize them into one whole "simultaneous" building.

Some general categories under which the concerns and issues of a building may be listed
and addressed in design are:

1. Functional zoning
2. Architectural space
3. Circulation and building form
4. Response to Context
5. Building Envelope

Economy applies to all of these. The issues of most building types fit conveniently under
these Five categories and taken together, the categories seem to describe most of the impor-
tant concerns about building design.

Depending upon the designer's personality and individual design method he may address
conceptual issues in a rigid sequence or skip among them in some order or at random until
the mosaic of the building solution is finally complete. This sequence of attention to the
respective problem issues and the assignment of emphasis to them by the designer will have
a profound effect upon the nature of the solution. Those issues addressed first in design are
usually the most important in the designer's mind and tend to be solved first. Also, because
they are solved first, they tend to be formalized early and so become the context for solving
the other issues. The remaining issues must adapt themselves to the ones solved first.

CONTEXTS FOR CONCEPT GETTING

Before addressing considerations dealing directly with building projects, there are some
broader concerns which form a context for understanding architectural concept getting.

1} General philosophy and life values of the Designer some psychological categories
that combine to influence the formation of a design philosophy and which affect the
making of design decisions are:

a. Motivation and interest
b. Enhancement of self-image

198

c. Dependence on or independence of outside reinforcement of self-worth
d. Expansion of one's sphere of influence
e. Concern for fellow man
f. Immediate and deferred goals
g. Conservation of what is scarce and valued.
h. Quest for simplification
i. The material and the spiritual

The designer's posture with respect to these and other issues combine to form his general
life view. (see Chapter on VALUES) p. 468.

2) Design Philosophy of the Designer.

The designer, through his training and experience, has usually developed a design
philosophy, a set of postures or values about design which he relies upon for making
form in building design. Whether articulated on a conscious level or not, these views
of design which the designer possesses profoundly affect his work. His design activi·
ty takes place within and is, in a sense, governed by these basic values about design.

Within a design philosophy there is usually room for many design methods, pro-
cesses and building solutions, all of which. are consistent with the designer's context
of values. Because of his basic tendencies, however, the designer often gravitates
toward some of these more than others.

The designer's general post,.u. re about design almost always includes ·attitudes and

values about a ranQe of issues that are closer to design activity. These notions that
are held by the designer have a direct impact on specific projects. The values of the

designer regarding these sub-categories of design philosophy provide a mosaic of

him as a maker of buildings. The more sub-categories he uses to describe his view of

design, the more complete the mosaic. Listed here are some of the issues about
which the designer may hold values:

a. artistic scientific
b. conscious subconscious
c. rational irrational
nonsequential
d. sequential evaluate when you're done
unknowns
e. evaluate as you go society
f . knowns universal
g. individual visual
wants
h. personal random
unstructured
i. verbal point unimportant
j. needs subjective
k . ordered multiple solutions
I. structured common place
m. beginning point important client needs
n. objective general
o. one answer nature
p. creative minor issues
q . your needs simplicity
whole
r . specific random process
response to facts
s. man mechanistic
design for future
t . critical issues
u. complexity
v. parts
w. patterned process
X. preconceptions
y . indeterminate

z. design f or now

199

1. Busy - Empty space

2. Dynamic - Serene

3. Filled with distractions - Organized and peaceful

4. Matte - Shiny

5. Sophisticated - Rustic

6. Natural - Man-made

7. Worthless - Precious

As a designer accumulates experience, test his ideas and reflects on his basic inten-
tions, his postures about design surely evolve. At any given point in time however
his philosophy in its present form is brought to bear on the project at hand.

3) View of the problem by the designer presented with a specific design project.

The way that the designer perceives, understands and describes that project occurs
within the framework of his life values and design views. Different designers will
"see the problem" differently. The designers perceptions about the project at those
early stages before planning formally begins, will be some of the most important
thinking that he does in the entire planning processes. This is the area of entire plan-
ning process. This is the area of architectural concept getting at the most general
level. The designing that comes later will be done within the context of this early
thinking.

There are several judgements that the. designer makes about the project that, toge-
ther, constitute his view of it.

a. Whether the project calls for an architectural solution {whether it is in his
province to satisfy the needs). The client may need a new managerial system
rather than a new building.

b. What the limits of the project are: What are the project edges in terms of the
designer's responsibility? (The designer may not be involved in site design).

c. What the categories of concern are within the project that the designer will
use as a checklist this include:

1. FUNCTION (Activity Grouping and Zoning), p. 216

2. SPACE (Volume Required by Activities), p. 234

3. GEOMETRY (Circulation, Form and Image). p. 282

4. CONTEXT {Site and Climate), p. 328

5. ENCLOSURE : (Structure. Enclosing Planes and
Openings}, p. 372

6. SYSTEMS (Mechanical, electrical, etc.), p. 384

7. ECONOMIC (First Costs, Maintenance Costs), p. 436

8. HUMAN FACTORS: (Perception, Behaviour), p. 454

d. Where the designer should concentrate his design efforts on his perceptions
of the problems essence and its unique characteristics.

e. What the physical elements to be manipulated are within each of the issue
categories.

200

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The architectural concept for Saint Andrew' Parish Church 1968 was a symbolic one, based

on the Apostle's crucifixion on an X·shaped cross. The free form interior was designed to

take advantage of its corner-lot site (Archt. Leandro Locsin)

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Dining room

Coffee shop
Swimming pool
Locker roorns

This unique Golf Clubhouse (Valley Golf Club by Gabriel Formoso) is shaped to resemble a

golf ball on a tee.

201

BAGUIO HYATI TERRACES Hotel was evolved from a design concept which projected the
rugged character of the mountainous region in its exterior and invoke an intimate commu-
nion with nature in its interior. The north facade has been slanted at approximately the same
gradient as the famous Banaue rice terraces thereby opening the guest room balconies to a
maximum of sunlight and mountain air.

EXAMPLES OF ARCHITECTURAL CONCEPTS

PRISM SCULPTURE

202

Constraint-confinement or restriction, "PRISM SCULPTURE" - growing from
the ground - This prismatic form of the new
repression if natural feelings or behavior Academy for performing arts on Wanchai's
(to hold back, draw together). waterfront, Hongkong is the result of the Ar-
chitect's desire to reflect the art and of con-
straints of the site. (The site also presented
problems at the foundations stage as the
building straddles a mass transit railway tun -
nel).

This design concept by Simon Kwan and associates w as the winner of the Royal HK jokey
club architectural competition and the design was a natu ral result of the shape and the site
and the art involved since performing arts require an artistics theme and the result - a sculp-
tural building.

Original design concept envisaged the prism in metal cladding, reflecting light and embody-
ing the idea of movement. As often happens when art meets reality, the concept was
modified to meet the client's financial requirements. The final designs showed a prism clad
in ganulite strips which give a different, more sculptured expression to the concept.

From outside the building is monolithic being taller than the architects originally intended
because of the impracticalities of creating a basement. The mass is broken however, the
organic form of the prism and by triangular windows on the administration block that reflect
the reticulation of triangular space frames.

Inside the atrium, the external granolite finish is used to provide visual continuity. The
theatre block will use different with out schemes to denote th e different walls, using mainly
acrylic coating on the walls, and carpeted floors with some PVC or rubber tiled areas. The
outdoor area is hard landscaped, but in soft curves to contrast with the geometric buildings.

A 70-storey, stepped profile on Honkong's
Bank of China, uniquely designed by Ar-
chitect IM PEl . The sleek lines of the
building look modern, b~t the inspiration
for its design came from classical
Chinese philosophy and iconography. The
design is an integrate piece of geometry,
a mass of t riangles in steel and glass.
The building seems to be propelled higher
with each new segment or growth . Pei
relates these measured segments as sym-
bolizing the Bank of China's quest for
strength and excellence, and architec-
turally signifying the modernization ef-
forts now being undertaken by the PRC.

203

The structure's tiered construction is set on a solid two-storey granite base from which four

triangular towers emerge- The highest shaft rising 315m. capable of withstanding wind

loads as high as 615 kg./m2. The tower is designed to wave almost like bamboo during HK's

typhoon winds. The design strength is contained in the building's framework where struc-

tural steel members are bonded with reinforced concrete for stiffness and strength. A new

concept in bracing is employed by using diagonal beams to brace the structure and this

reducing the number of columns and composite reinforcement. This allows higher floor

loadings and reduces the steel required by approximately 40% .
__ ___ -----·-.-_. .. ......... ...
.. -..... ...

A new and Innovative solarium architectural design concept that allows customers to enjoy
the sun in a cool and garden-like ambience is featured in the third Wendy's outlet at EDSA.

LIVING

IN

CAPSULES

Looking like toy bricks stacked together, the Nakagin Capsule tower Building just off Ginza,
Tokyo, is actually made of Capsules-self. Contained living units with bed, toilet bath, tele-
phone, colour tv set, heating and air conditioning. The deluxe capsules also contain desk-
top calculators, stereo sets, digital clocks and tape decks.

These factory-produced units were attached to two square towers with the aid of a steel
framework whose perpendicular accuracy was kept within 140 mm. There are 140 capsules
attached to the towers, which house lifts, prefabricated stairways and service pipes. The
two towers are connected by corridors on the 3rd, 6th, 9th and 12th flooring. The capsules
are one-man units.

204

CREATIVITY ...

Some people are more creative than others. However there are ways in which you can in-

crease your idea production, which is the basis of creativity. In short creativity is the process

of coining up with new ideas.

e~J 3 Essentials to Development of Creative Skills

1. Ideation-refers to the mental process itself. To ideate
means "to think" and that is of course, how to train one's

self; think in new and unique ways.

~!etta to r-emove 2. Idea Quantity-means that the person who is capable of

producing the largest number of ideas per unit of time has
COJ1tet1~ the greatest chance of producing the trully significant one.

0 !Z/ In other words, the odds of your coming up with a really
creative idea are best if you have a lot of ideas from which

to select.

3. lmagineering -letting your imagination soar and then
engineering it back to reality.

new cottcept Be careful to proceed in this order. In other words, don't
confine yourself to reality and all of its constrain before
self 9PeniMQ you begin thinking of ideas . Think outlandishly, origif}ally,
and recklessly at first. The longer you spend thinking of
eli111ittat~ 'lite ideas, the more apt you are to produce a really wild one.
cat:t opeHer
Example, before, a zoo is where you cage animals and
people roam around to w~tch them, now in some coun-
tries it is the reverse. The people are caged inside their cars
and the animals roam free.

205

STAGES IN DESIGNING Why do we think of so many great ideas? Because
Design involves problem solving and solving
I. DESIGN ANALYSIS demands idea production. What then is the
PROBLEM?
Bionics:
How did nature. Solve the prob- Creativity need a "positive attitude". So don't dis-
lem? Spider webs-stronger ten- miss your own or another's ideas too quickly. Ar-
sile strength as steel, anthills ticulate them, listen to them fully, and if possible
and the honeycomb which gives add other ideas to them. Talking through ideas
a good housing shape. with another person or a group can help in their
development. An example is:

II. TENTATIVE 'SOLUTIONS' 'BRAINSTORMING'-a group process in which
Example To design a chair. several people, for a given amount of time, gather
Solution (Morphological together and discuss a particular problem. During
this time, they all contribute positive thoughts to
synthesis) the discussion and try to produce a workable solu-
Write several characteristics tion. Also keep an open mind.
that describe the chair, such as:
Materials : (wood, canvas) "Patience" should be practiced. Don't be too
anxious to come up with the perfect solution.
(aluminum, rubber) Your well-aimed arrow might end up hitting the
Shape (round, square, angular) wrong target.
Features (folding, stacking)
Above all have "faith and confidence" in your·
Ill. CRITICISM self. Say what you feel. Question what you do not
understand. Speak out when you disagree with
•problem something. Let your thoughts be known: maybe
someone ~lse will hear them and will help you to
@. develop them into a successful venture. Don't be
afraid to have some criticism thrown at you. Con-
so1ut1011 structive criticism can be very helpful and you
should seek it. Don't be afraid to try something
206 new.

If your design is criticized by others, we may find
that they are applying further objectives or dif-
ferent priorities from our own. The problem is
changing and the information and objectives tend
to increase. Thus the spiral can be used to illust-

rate the process to indicate that our knowledge of
the problem increases as we attempt solution after
solution.

cri-tic islt15 Another important trait is "TENACITY". Put ef-
fort in what you think and do. Stick with it. Force
yourself to work at your ideas. Have goals and
work toward them with conviction. Take them se-
riously but don't take yourself too seriously. You
can always do better than you have done in the
past, but work on yourself in the present.

Ptay down your mistakes. Don't dismiss them, and don' t deny them; Just play down
their significance if the situation appears to be wearing dowri your confidence. Spend
your time evaluating the situation: What you did right, what you did wrong, and what

can be done to improve things. Don't second-guess! Accept what you have done, what
has happened, and make the best of the situation.

Recognize the value of criticism, and when you give it, be sure it is constructive. Con-
structive criticism tends to be positive and usually elicits a better human response from
the person who is on the receiving end of it.

PSYCHOLOGICAL BLOCKS ...

These are ideas that society has ingrained in us, consciously or unconsciously. Values
imposed upon us can influence our thinking;_our hopes, wants needs and eventually
our, mine or your values. They can prohibit us from being free in our thought, not to
mention our actions. Let's concern ourselves with thinking.

In order to design objectively, you have to be able to think freely, uninhibited by your
deep, dark past. Don't let people tell you that something can't be done or that you can't
do something. The key to coming up with creative, innovative ideas is to think without
being inhibited . Think unconventionally! Just because an idea seems strange or weird or
just different, don't throw it out. With a little help and confidence, it could turn out to be
your best idea of the day!

You must also use ingenuity to detect what the real problem is. Otherwise, you are
finished before you have begun. You might as well forget the whole deal.

Exatt~ple:

r _j1 - l~;~

\ :Ji! :..

L-------' L___ __ _
soluti011

You have a problem, but let us assume that you have been through the process of
analysis, synthesis, and examination; and decided that the concept produced is general·
ly acceptable.

207

Now, think about these:

1. Have you solved the problem?

2. What was the real problem?

a. You are a designer / draftsman and is behind in your schedule.

b. You had to make as many sketcht!s, or schemes as possible.

c. You had to select only one final scheme.

Actually the problem is solved, because of the f inal schemes, you now translate the
sketch design into the building process information and calt this "working Drawings".

But you created another problem: What will you do with all the sketches you made?
The flaw in this solution to the problem is the conventionality of thought that precluded
looking at the case holistically. The investigation considered ~nly one aspect of the pro-
blem: How to make the building safe, and beautiful.

What about tommorrow? No thought was given to the manufacturing later, what would
happen to the construction if the design concepts and details cannot be manufactured?

The holistic approach to a problem, commonly known as "systems approach", allows
us to look at problems from many different angles and disciplines. In the field of housing
and interior design particularly, influences from art, technology, psychology, sociology,
medicine, and physical education, are strongly influential and must include them in the
study.

Since much more information is needed to co-ordinate the building work and to allow
the prediction , measurement and ordering of the many materials and increasing number
of factory-made components. The result is that the initial, tentative solution re-
mains tentative for a considerable time while the details of the design are investigated
and coordinated.

IV. OPERATIONAL PROCESS

It is therefore more reasonable to use the terms 'conceptual design' to describe the
sketch, and 'operat;o.nal design' instead of working drawings. The conceptual arrange-
ment is largely a statement-ofintent for the guidance of structural and service engineer-
ing consultants and for use in obtaining information from the many manufactures and
suppliers who will be involved in the work.

With experience. skill and good fortune, it is possible for the architect to produce a con-
ceptual design which will require very little modification in the process of developing the
detailed drawings and specifications of the operational design . In most cases there will

be constant modification. Often the operational design will reveal problems that have

not been considered at the earlier stage. The result of this process is for the concept to
bE! changed in many ways, usually for practical purposes, before the operational design
reaches the stage of being final working drawings.

The more complex the building, the greater the
number of specialists, the·greater the need for an
agreed conceptual stage. Otherwise, major
changes introduced after this stage by one mem-
ber of the design team will lead to the work of
others being frustrated. The economics of design
work will not allow this kind of duplication of ef-
fort. The smooth working of the team will be des-
troyed if one member upsets the work of others.
In this sense the operational stage may be consi-
dered as the work done by architect and special-

208

ists in t he investigation of their own area of work,
but within the framework of the Basic concept.

The operational stage is, by its very nature, much more a development of stability. Struc-
tural systems and construction. It is thus very easy to lose sight of the conceptual objectives
during the operational process for this reason, it is sometimes helpful to introduce another
design phase.

V. GEOMETRIC
The detailed visual inter-relationships between all the parts of the building as the opera-
tional stage develops. The visual objectives should be kept in mind at all stages but, be-
cause of the inherent difficulties of design team working, there is an increasing need to
consider detailed enginearing decisions in. geometric terms. A heating or a structural unit
may be perfectly practical, in accordance with the conceptual intentions and yet its
visual relationship to other elements of composition may be quite terrible. This will make
the unity or expressiveness of the design. Specialists and Engineers involved should in-
form the architect therefore when the visual design is likely to be affected.

The greatest need is for a closer integration of all objectives in design. With more people
involved this means better communication . The design process is a synthesis of many
objectives and everyone involved contributes to the total design. Each is capable of
damaging the whole entity. Architecture is the complete design, not a specialization
among other specializations.

MARLBORO BOX TO BOX DESIGN CONTEST

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Sometime in May, 1965, the local magazines and newspapers advertised in the papers
the first Box-to-Box contest using empty marlboro flip top boxes with a minimum of 30
boxes with a maximum of 200 boxes. This shall be connected to ea~h other only by
scotch tape and glue without using any other materials like sticks , cardboards, etc. This
contest was a brain child of Mr. Ronnie Pasola of PAC.

This attracted about 2,500 entries from north to south and as .a preliminary selection 100
entries were selected from photographs sent earlier. This author was one of them. The
100 selected entries were required to be shown in its actual form during the interview
session and of these, 10 were selected to comprise the first 10 winners, out of these 10,
the first. second, third and so on were picked out and the author is proud to say that his
entry, entitled tour of Luzon won the Grand price of P10,000.00 presented at Philamlife
Bldg., Sept. 7, 1965. The presentation of awards was accompanied by the Box-to-Box
pop art show with an exhibit of hundred thrilling designs like the sphinx, eiffel tower,
tower of Pisa , Tinikling, Philippine Eagle, space walk and others. The show was biHed
as " proof of Rllpino Artistry and Ingenuity". The author's entry has the following
features which made it win. It used exactly 200 boxes, the maximum. The wheats of the

209

Bicycle moves when it is guided, and when you leave it alone, it is balanced by the two
wheels through the flat boxes. One side of the red marlboro box was used as the riders'
uniform which make it easily visible an,d outstanding .

METHODOLOGY

In order to Identify a problem. solving it through analysis, and then evaluating the solution;
there should be an 0 RGA NIZATl 0 N. This process can heIp you save time, make better use
of your time and know what you do with your time... It can also tell you what you should
be doing.

Methodology or the systematic method of problem solving, builds upon the concept by
helping to make the best use of the design tools acquired in creativity.

Interior design and housing has usually been associated with art, which is at the creative or
intuitive, end~of the spectrum. It is, to a high degree, a creative vocation, as it concern,
themselves with the improvement of life. This is best achieved by developing new
ideas.... then developing it to its fullest, most complete extent.

After training yourself to think freely and unconventionally, to be creative. It is now time to
control and direct the thought process. You must not be purely methodical or purely in-
tuitive. In the design professions, you must be a combination of the two.

"Methodology involves the systematic breakdown of a body of knowledge into its workable
parts," When faced with a complex, multifaceted problem, a methodical person will solve
that problem methodically, or in steps. He or she will dissect and attack the problem in a
logical order. This is similar to eating food one piece at a time and not swallowing the whole
piece at once.

DESIGN METHODS AND DESIGN TOOLS

The Design fields thrive on problems. It takes many forms and pervades many professions,
and it is from·some of these professions, particularly science and engineering that designers
have adopted much of their systematic methodology. But why use a method when solving a
design problem, especially since people in design are supposed to be creative and uncon-
fined in their thought.

In the important concept of crea'tivity, there was a word "lmagineering" which means that
you let your imaginatiOn soar and then engineer it back to reality, and achieve a balance. (In
the past people used to imagine themselves flying, towards the sky, now after the invention
of the airplane, they can go to the sky, it is now a reality ).

The organization of a problem from its discovery through its solution can spell the difference
between success and failure. To Brainstorm without recording your thoughts can be a waste
of time. You may forget some valuable ideas. Challenges that you undertake are complex,
no matter how simple they at first may appear to be. It is worthwhile to investigate all
aspects of them so that you know their scope and your actual goals.

At first glance, solving a problem methodically appears to be a Tedious, complicated t~sk.
Success requires tenacity. But there are some hidden benefits to adopting a problem-solving
method. Perhaps the most important benefits is that it forces you to identify the real prob-
lem. Next, it compels you to record your findings in an organized fashion so that you won't
be tempted, literally, to jump to conclusions. Last it provides as efficient mechanism for you
to thoroughly think through your problem before you begin to produce a physical setting. In
short a "Design Method" is the vehicle you use to get a project from its beginning to its
end destination.

2.10

A DESIGN PARADIGM ... (a pattern, example, or model)

DESIGN TOOLS ... ... .

1. Prestatement- This is a statement of the problem that you, the designer will have to
resolve. It may take the form of your initial contact with the client, in which you learn
what he or she thinks should be done. However, sometimes what the client perceives as
being the problem, in fact, may not really be the problem.

Example : Client says "we don't have enough room for all of our good students." All we

need from you is a regular room for the kids to learn in- 30 desks, chairs, and a

blackboard. Just tell us where to put this room, order the furniture for ·it, and
we'll do it.

2. Problem Statement

Although this is the second item on the list, you don't write the problem statement until
after you have determined the problem. First proceed to step 3 and gather "information"
and then you can state the true problem.

Exampl e: The school needs a space in which low-achieving students will feel motivated
to learn and investigate . It should be away from unnecessary environmental
distractions but near the other classrooms and students. The area should sup-
port a variety of classroom activities, including lectures, group discussions,
and physical activity. Flexibility is highly desirable.

3. Information-

This is the exhaustible stage at which you uncover all of the details that relate to your
problem. This is the point at which you do the research: reading, observing and scrutiniz-

• ing. At the stage you meet the people involved in the project, observe them, talk to them,

and sometimes, get to know them.

Record all of the information you will eventually use from:

a. Literature: record, document. and preserve all information that you discover
from written materials books, magazines, etc.

b. Experienced persons: ask verbally or unite anyone who can provide informa-
tion to help your cause.

c. Observation: Your own personal observation of the present situation is essential
in personalizing and validating your data. It provides you with intimate views of
what your problem entails. Personally observing individuals, corporations and the
subtle differences in projects, will enrich your information data .

Examples:
1. Good colors for concentration are pastel yellow, pink, green and blue.
2. Small group discussions and lectures will occur in the space.
3. Outside distractions, such as noise, are undesirable.
4. Twenty-six students will be accomodated.
5. Carpeting will help cut down on noise.
6. Strong contrasts of colors will enliven the space.
7. Free space will add flexibility for furnishings and cJassroom activities.
8. The atmosphere must be conducive to learning.
9. The students are usually unmotivated toward learning .
10. Special Teaching aids are necessary to attain student interest.

211

4. ANALYSIS ...

After completion of information search. You can begin to analyze your data. This is a
'Think Stage" and so do not conceptualize the total solution here. You should be think-
ing about the situation-in parts (Methodically), which you can later arrange into the order
that you determine to be best.

Getting back to the solution of the problem, remember to approach it in stages, a little at
a time. Begin by looking back at the information you collected. Pull out several items that
are relafed and form them into a group . This will become a "partial solution" , which is
actually the solution to one part of your problem.

After itemizing all information, search for all commonalities. Find several it.ems in the list
that seem to be similar in some way. Then compose a unifying statement that incor-
porates these individual statements to form the partial solution. Continue this process un-
til you feel you have formulated a solution for every aspect of your problem.

Next, on the partial solutions, look again for commodities and call them "combined
solut;ons", which are actually verbal description of the final decision you have made for a
major aspect of that problem, if the problem entails more than one part. If it does not,
then the combined solution will be the final project solution but only verbally.

Example:

Partial Solutions Combined Solutions

1. Carpeting should be placed where lec- 1. Two classroom sections will be created:
tures occur so that the space will be one for small group discussions will uti-
quieter. lize contrasting color schemes; a lecture
space will be painted a pastel color. For
2. Strong color contrasts should be used acoustical purposes, the entire space
where discussions will occur. will be carpeted. Venetian blinds, allow-
ing for light and visual control of the
3. Audiovisual aids should be placed where outside surroundings, will be installed at
the entire ciass can benefit from them. the windows. Audiovisual aids and other
teaching aids will be available through-
4. Audiovisual aids that can be operated out the space for individual and group
individually by each student should be use.
provided.

5. SYNTHESIS ....

The conceptualization of your project's solution in a graphic manner. Now you can make
your visual materials and show what the final product will be. This is the point at which
you actually layout spaces, select furnishings, finishing and construction materials.

Examples: All drawings, sketches, verbal descriptions, models, or other visuals that
relate to the project belong here.

6. EVALUATION .. ..

The evaluation of a project may take place at different times. You may do it after the pro-
ject has been finished and has been in use for a while. By visiting the space then, you can
very effectively judge your res.ult and make whatever changes are necessary. This techni-
que is a good one, because it allows you to change unsatisfactory aspects of the design.
However there is an extra expense to you.

The alternative is to check your design before the actual construction of the project. This
type of evaluation consists of a series of questions that you ask yourself, based on what
you set out to accomplish. In each project, there are specific objectives that you must

212

satisfy. Ask yourself questions based upon these objects. Should you answer " NO" to
any of the questions, go back and see what you can do to change your answer to a
"YES". All yes answers will more than likely mean that your solution will basically work.
You should aim to minimize the number of major changes that could occur due to over-
sight .
To evaluate a project before it is constructed, ask yourself questions similar in style to
those examples listed below:

1. Does the space accomodate twenty six students in both physically active and
sedentary activities?

2. Is the space flexible?
3. Does the space contain a variety of teaching aids and areas?
4. Are outside destructions minimal?

In any given locality the height of buildings/ structures shall be governed by the
following factors:

a. Population density:
Consider both the present and projected density in the area.

b. Building bulk:
For a given volume of buildings/structures, that which has.alesser area of
ground coverage may be bui.lt higher than that of greater area of ground
coverage.

c. Widths of streets:
Provide for adequate light and ventilation and accessibility.

d . Traffic conditions and parking/loading requirements:
Provide effective control of traffic and adequate parking/loading facilities.

e . Provisions of land use plans and zoning ordinances .

f . Geological conditions:
Consider soil characteristics, location in relation to fault lines and earth-
quake belts and proximity of volcanoes.

g. Hydrological conditions:
Consider the water table at the site and distance to waterways and
shorelines.

h. Meteorological Conditions:
Consider the frequency and instensity of destructive typhoo~s. prevailing
wind direction , relative humidity, amount of precipitation and the prevailing
ambient.

i. Environmental conditions:
Provide effective control of air, noise and thermal pollution. Promote growth
of vegetation. Optimize natural light and ventilation.

j. Availability and capacity of public utility/service systems:
Consider the availability and adequacy of electric power, potable and non-
potable water supply, drainage and sewerage, transportation and com-
munications facilities.

213





FUNCTIONAL GROUPING AND
ZONING

HORIZONTAL DISPOSITION

Solving problems in Architectural Design begins with the familiar study of plan elements,
which develops into consideration of interior and exterior areas and details.

The various units of plan are first arranged in a horizontal manner in order to s£"cure a work-
able relationship between the different areas. This pattern is dictated by the function of the
building and the desirable size and shape of the units themselves. The rooms of a house, the
galleries of a museum, or the units of a factory must be laid out to facilitate movemen_t
through the building, quickly and easily. There should thus be economy and directness of
circulation.

This is called Planning For Potential Circulation . Structures are built to be used, and the
purpose is defeated unless people can go easily and directly from one area to another, and
unless the related areas are adjacent to each other. Architecture thus, begins with a two-di-
mensional plan which is translated into foundations for vertical development.

THE PRINCIPLES RELATED TO FUNCTION

1. Under this category, we study the need for adjacency.

DINING KITCHEN t.ET

2. Sim ilarity in general rule . Cl-UBHOUSE I Et-ITERTAlNMENT,
HEALTH c~ue, !ift'f?T'G <GHO~
0
I

L

RECREATION

2 16

3. Relatedness to departments. Gqals and Systems .
Example: Hospitals

NUR!3'1NG'

J Pediatrics

~~~ve~J

Ero11ary care ]

J[ Ortl1opedics

~ical !

~rgical j ADMINIST'RATION

(1b5f-Par~~ (Offi~~Acct ~:J

Example: Delivery Suite /~~
( NU~
Nurses
-~'-.....::f r-../

F-:\
eJ
---- /_..
........

217

This is also called the "BUBBLE DIAGRAM" of SCHEMATIC relationship of units- This

allows the organization of the tasks in a space according to their relationship to each other.

4. Sequence in Time
Example: Parking Garage

•H

CHECKING IN

EMtei ~ carChe~k _.. Get Exit
1icket ~ by
Garage Foot

THEN

''CHECl<IN6 OUT"

-Returl1~ul'i'mlt Mal<e Get Wait Get ......... Depart-
for ~ TicKet Payment ~ Reciept
for ~ Car

Car L:;Jr

5. Required Environments
a. Furniture Types
b. Need for view

No v1ew

c. Need for ceiling Height or shape

218

d. Access to ground or roof r/-~
e. Need for vents or exhausts
'-1
f. Relative Security
lilt-~;~~~~

'. i

l1i
I~~~-Ki-l-..-W~
I +---

11

£J~~TJOR,~ --M-E-CKANL lCAI-

L ___ - ·----· ··--· - -

g. Need for visual and sound privacy

r- ___.____.____ . ¢f-=- tlearttinq msource

room~-=r- z.ccaaur.te-tl:c"elor~ d
,

arnmi
I;
, .. ...,.=-...;.=..:...._3,.~CCQt1~t1oe

I

__;._ .- ·--- ______,

h. Need for Acoustic Control
i. Need for noise Control
j. Relative Maintenance

219

k. Plumbing involvement

)( S""ROOM

J~OROOMJ EINING ) ( Bf:DROOM

( LIV ING

I. Relative Visual Access

CoH g r e g a t i011

visual pri18cy

J[ AdmiHi5'ficrliltt

6. Types of Effects Produced

a. Radiation Produced

b. Chemicals
c. Smoke & Fumes
d. Relative heat produced (kiln, welding, kitchen)
e. Observation intensity

Jtttettsive care

unit

J~(o~~-ticm

..,
)~ttuI rCsUery
J~(ReOO\ery

)

f. Potential for contamination
g. Asset to public image
h. Revenue produced

220

i. Relative Weight

j. Noise produced - by Gymnasiums, Music,
mechanical rooms.

k. Vibration - machinery

I. Wet dry wet -laboratories, toilets, kitchen
dry-offices

m. Trash production (Food prepa ration, Dishwashing)

n. Relative visual clutter

o. Odor production

8

J[tra5h

non- S~:"OkiHg

seattttg

7. Relative Proximity to Building

~

Lz_

>

I J...

I

I Vl

~

221

8·: Relatedness to Core Activities

I I I IHouse Keepin9 Janitors Closet

Offices INurse Station

IWai t i ng Clean C!rd Cbctors Nurses Medical
Lockers PreFBrdf·
St erile Lockers
& Sleep
Uti lit_y

Prici?=~l

Sequence

Depart

INNOVATIONS IN AIRPORT DESIGN

To relieve congestion, several designs isolate passenger terminals from airplane boarding
gates. In airports with gates confined to remote satellites, passengers are carried by moving
sidewalks or fix ed-rail vehicles. At others, passengers board small buses that link directly
w ith the aircraft.

SIX lNNOVATlONS IN AIRPORT DESIGN

a. Central Terminal with remote satellite.

CATWICK, LOt1dot1

222

b. Central Terminal with remote concourses.

[___ "=-=::]

1t t:: tt
!I
[l

II HARTSFIELD, Atlanta
11

~+::++
II

I' - - - - t - r - 1-~

:t.~.!..~1:r :tt

Il
II
l1

L.- _I _1 ___.

c. Central Terminal with Pier Concourses.

cars

d. Linear Unit Terminal.

DE GAULLE II

~ Paris

lf:t1'-t-t '\~

223.

e. Multiple Unit Terminal.

KIN6 J<HALID, Riyadl1

f. Central Terminal with Remote Aircraft.

DULLES, Wa5hi119ton DC.

DDDDDDDD

,----------

1
+--------·--. --·-·· ____.

9. Characteristics of People Involved.

224

10. Volume of People Involved.

(1 rfl co11domi11iums Apart111e11t!;

5iHgle House Duplex

11. Extent of Man or Machine Involvemen t.

Sales peope

craCts tools

Storage rnad1itte
Forkl ifts
U111oadittg
~levators
Delivery
Truc1<5

FUNCTIONAL DESIGN

This deals with the development of a plan arrangement to serve in a purely mechanical way
the functions of the building. It discovers the proper sizes of rooms and their relations to
each other . It furnish es the elements of comfort: Light , heat and ventilation.
It determines the correct size and location of the structural members which give the building
strength . However, even when all these requirements are satisfied, architecture does not ne-
cessarily exist. The building may remain only an engineering structure without the spirit of
architecture which is called logical beauty.

225

FUNCTIONAl- DIAGRAM 0

{abstract forms) SCHEMATIC PLAN

(spatial relatiOt'Jship~, boundaries
articulations, circufati011- ~h?m5.
siU? <( skapeG )

p (fully ~FlINedALdrawPi1L1AqN4 fittalized

PRELIMINARY PLAN fUtiCtiOtfat relatiOH5Hip.;)

(scaled proportiOtts )
226

ACTIVITY ANALYSIS AND LINKAGES FOR EFFICIENCY IN SHELTER

Design from linked Requirements in a Housing Problem

We can only grasp design problems fragmentedly. That is, there are practical limits to the
number of notions that can be thought of simultaneously when trying to solve complex
problems. The way that we overcome this inherent difficulty is to break a complex situation
down into smaller parts, dealing with these parts separately, and then bringing this new
ideas together to understand the situation.

When the problems of the physical environment are broken down into concepts like " ser-
vices", " heating", "community", '!structure". "safety", etc. and ideas about how these
needs or properties are best dealt with are formed. It is highly probable that any particular
way in which they function together will be forgotten. This breakdown of usefully inter-
related thought, (not encountered in small problems) suggests that some other way of find-
ing the component parts of the environment may be useful, and preferably parts that are de-
pendent on as many of the physical properties of the environment as are necessary.

Except in very rare circumstances we do not design a new object to satisfy environmental
needs from scratch. In the case of a house, library, town or piece of furniture , for example

we have the knowledge of what is happening in the use of these objects or complexes at the

moment. The concept of the failure of a specific piece of the environment to work with the
rest of the environment is well known. A simple case involves doors with pull handles which
can only be opened by pushing. A more serious example is when a window which must be
opened to achieve adequate room ventilation overlooks a noisy street. Both of these exam-
ples illustrate functional connections between different parts of the environment, in the first
case between door handles and door hinges or stops and the second between ventilation
and noise sources. Both are situations which are outside the range of normal human adapta-
tion, but in the second case there is no simple way at all for both parts to be compatible. In
the example of ventilation and noise it is perfectly possible to introduce a long acoustically
absorbent ventilation duct, but clearly the problem is one of separating rooms that need
quiet and heavily trafficked roads. Buildings close to noisy streets cannot be ventilated by
opening windows without also letting in disturbing noise. The way in which the physical en-
vironment fails at the moment is taken as the pointer to a basic requirement.

A requirement is a situation that must be present otherwise an observable human or social
need would go unsatisfied. Most requirements are dependent in th~ir solutions on other re-
quirements. Any two requirements that would either help or hinder one another in solution
therefore interact and need to be thought of together if a satisfactory solution is to be found
for both. For example the requirements that visitors need to be able to park near their.desti-
nation and residents need to be able to control the noise that enters their dwelling will not
both be fulfilled by simple organization of thought of in isolation, as in the suburban street,
where next door's visitors awaken a neighbor by car doors or engine noise outside a
bedroom wall.

A collection of requirements and interactions {or links) in pairs of this form have inherent in
them a structure, which if understood makes it very much more probable that a solution will
be found. The problem of finding this inherent structure in a set of pair-linked requirements
is purely mathematical once it is accepted that any requirement is a requirement and that any
link is a link. That is, there either is a requirement or there is not, and similarly for links {either
it would be useful to think of the two requirements together or it will not) . This seems to be a
concept that is hard to accept, but after spending a large amount of time trying to find what
is act ually a requirement, it is pointless then to go on and say it is less important or more im-
portant than others, and again similarly with links.

227

Requirements are thought of as points and links as lines between them. Once these groups
of heavily interlink requirements have been found we have the necessary size of problem,
without it being limited to a single recognizable conceptual classification. It should be possi·
ble therefore to design a schematic solution to this group of requirements. A diagram is the
most useful description of the solution and memory aid at this stage.

When all groups of requiremenrs have been solved conceptually they can then be combined
together, according to the g~oups that are most interlinked and a new higher, set of schema-
tic diagrams formed, involving the principles of the groups that have already been resolved.
And so on until either one final organizational diagram is produced or a small set of com-
pletely disjoint diagrams. This diagram or these diagrams are then used as the basic organi-
zation of a concrete scheme.

The method involves f inding a set of requirements and their natural links, which toge-
ther define an abstract structure, analyzing the set, that is finding the abstract structure, and
synthesizing diagrams, which is to build on the abstract structure.

Use in the Housing Project

Concerning the boundary between an individual dwelling and the rest of the site and not
the Layout of the spaces or rooms within an individual dwelling, or type of construction.

LIST OF REQUIREMENTS

1. People should be able to dispose of refuse without having to store it in their dwell-
ing and without having to leave their dwelling.

2. Refuse which is capable of being disposed directly into a soil system should not
have to be collected.

3. All stored refuse should have barriers to prevent germs and smells polluting the sur-
rounding air.

4. Refuse for collection should be stored in such a way as to facilitate ease of transfer
to a disposal unit.

5. For a heating system to be efficient there should be minimum heat loss from the
dwelling.

6. For a ventilation system to be efficient there should be provision for a through flow
of air in the dwelling.

7. All dwellings should have some sunlight in day living areas.

8. The people in each dwelling should have access to a sunlit space which is visually
private.

9. People should be able to leave a baby in a pram in the open air where they know it
will be safe.

10. Delivery men need well defined routes for delivery which do not involve unnecessa-
ry retracing of steps.

11 . Delivery men should be able to leave their deliveries in a secure place, those in
receipt of goods should feel that their goods are secure.

12. People should be able to collect deliveries {milk, bread, etc.) protected f rom the
weather.

13. Visitors should be able to park their cars near their destination.

14. Visitors should be able to find an address they want easily.

15. A parked car should be able to move off the site without the necessity of moving
other vehicles or interfering with the flow of traffic.

228

16. Pedestrians should feel that they are entirely safe from traffic.

17. People should feel that their car is part of their possessions and that their parking
space is their own.

18. Each person should be able to maintain (e.g. wash his car without causing annoy-
ance to other people.

19. Children need supervision when away. from the dwelling.

20. Children should be discouraged from playing in places where they might come to
harm (near refuse, etc.}.

21. Children should be discouraged from playing in places where they might cause a
nuisance (access ways, etc.J.

22. People should feel secure against intruders into their dwellings.

23. People should not be able to see directly into any other dwellings.

24. People need and arrival point to their dwelling which is protected from the weather.

25. People should have off site noise reduced to a minimum level below that of discom -
fort.

26. People should be able to control the noise that enters their dwelling.

27. People should be able to control the noise between spaces within their dwelling.

28. People should be able to stop too much dirt coming into their dwelling.

29. Peope should be able to get large objects (pianos, prams, etc. I in and out of their

dwelling easily.

30. People should feel that their dwelling is not forcing them into a state of loneliness or

isolation .

31. People need the opportunity to meet their neighbours without feeling committed to
their company.

32. People should feel that their dwelling is uniquely identifiable as their own.

33. People should be able to get to the shops and the city centre easily.

34. People should be able to get to a point of safety from any part of the site without
having to go through any part which might be on fire.

35. There should be a control on the spread of fire should it arise on any part of the
site.

36. Water for fire fighting should be available so that a hose can reach any part of the
site should a fire break out there.

37. People should not have to climb more than three flights of stairs to reach their
dwelling.

38. People of any one social group should not feel that they are m any way differen-
tiated from any other social group (e.g. research students).

39. Children and animals should be prevented from interfering with or scattering
refuse .

40. Each family needs a storage space related to its dWelling for bicycles, .canoes. etc.

41 . .People should not be inconvenienced by the noise and dirt of subsequent building
operations after they have taken up residence in their dwelling.

42. Invalids should be able to reach their dwelling without physical help from anyone
else.

43. People should be able to bring large objects (prams, pianos. etc.} to their dwelling.

44. Service maintenance men should not have to enter dwelling to carry out their work

unless absolutely necessary (i.e., to read meters, etc.). 229

2
3
4

9
10
II
12

19 INTERACTION MATRI X

20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35

36
37
38

39
40

41

42
43
44

230

The requirements abov~ are only numbered for later reference; they are in no particular
order. Some are straight-forward physical failures like visual privacy in outdoor spaces,
some are physical failures that lead to communal breakdown and some are physical failures
to give the right feelings within the community, and all are concerned with site organization
(except 27 which was subsequently omitted) and all pointed to some specific kind of organi-
zation that must be present. Requirement writing took about 3 weeks once we had decided
what kind we wanted.

It was often possible to find a distant isolated case where the possible solution to two
requirements might conceivably affect one another. The diagram shows pairs of require-
ments considered interacted. The numbers refer to the requirement numbers and a blob on
the matrix to an interaction. So, 14, visitors should be able to find an address they want easi-
ly interacts with '32, people should feel that their dwelling is uniquely identifiable as their
own' since both deal with the distinction between dwellings, the size of groupings of dwell-
ings and how far apart they are; and does not interact at all with '9, people should be able to
leave a baby in a pram in the open air where they know it will be safe' which needs a small
private space adjacent to an overlooked by each dwelling.

The first problem is to find a measure of just how "good" any particular groupings of re-
quirements are in terms of most links inside groups and least links between groups. This
measure can then be used to compare any divisions of the whole set until the best one is
found. The mathematics to drive such a measure is complex and demands that all require-
ments have an equal probability of finding a total solution whether links are positive !i.e. the
two requirements help one another in solution) or negative (i.e. they hinder one another).

In this particular case the procedure used was to compare all possible groupings of just
a single requirements together with all the rest left as groups of just a single requirement.
When the best pair had been found it was called a single unit and then the best pair again

found of this new set. And so on until no further combination of a pair of units (i.e. either a

group of requirements or a single requirement) produces a better division into groups. In this
way the groups of heavily interlinked requirements were 'built up' from the set of single re-
quirements.

In the real life hill-climbing programmed it is necessary to repeat the procedure a number of
times with, say, the requirements in a different order since in the initial stages of the process
any pair is as good as any other. The more sophisticated programmes have in practice, how-
ever, been found to give essentially similar results for even low number of tries.

So there was no reason why the small groups should not be dealt with in the best way that
we could think of at the time, but now with a great deal more knowledge about which part of
the problem they were most likely to fit with. These changes, with one requirement rejected,
brought the number of groups down to eight, most of which were dealing with a·recogniz-
able scale of problem. The final groups are shown in the diagram.

A schematic diagram for each of the groups was then produced as the result of further dis-
cussion of what we originally intended by the requirements. It was also possible to state the
basic idea behind each diagram, which necessarily left out the details.

231





1. THE CONCEPT OF SPACE

A. The System of Spacas

Man orients to 'Objects' that is, he adapts physiologically and Technologically to physical
things, he interacts with otl"ter people, and he grasps tbe abstract realities, or 'Meaning'
which are transmitted through the various languages created for the purpose of commu-
nication .

• Spatial of Most of man's actions comprise a spatial aspect, in the sense that the

a certain objects of orientation are distributed according to such relations as inside

dimension and outside, far away and close by; separated and united; and con-

tinuous and discontinuous space therefore is not a particular category of

orientation, but an aspect of any orientation. Man, therefore has to understand spatial

relations and unify them in a 'Space Concept'.

Man has created space to express the structure of his world. We may call this creation,
Expressive or Artistic Space, and finds its place next to the top, together with cogni-
tive space. Expressive space needs a space concept which systematizes its possible pro-
perties. We may call this Aesthetic Spece.

The creation of expressive space has always been.the task of specialized persons, that is,
builders, architects, planners , while aesthetic space has been studied by architectural
theorists and philosphers.

Architectural Space is defined as a concretization of man's existential space. It has to
adopt itself to the needs of organic action as well as facilitating orientation through per-
ception. It could also illustrate 'certain cognitive theories of space as when building a
cartesian co-ordinate system with concrete materials. But above a11 it is related to the
space schemata of man's individual and public world-which is created through interac-
tion with existing Architectual spaces.

B. The Concept of Space in Architectural Theory

Architectural space is divided into two classes:
1. This which are based on Euclidean Space and study it's grammar - The Euclidean

approach has recently been.stimulated by the importance of three - dimensional geo-
metry.

In Connection with 'SPACE FRAMES'

Prefabricated Building Systems

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and Certain Utopian City-Planning Schemes Interior Dividers

235

2. Those which try to develop a Theory of a Space on the basis of perception pyschology.

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VIBES

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19lt1 (45.7 tiff) Fig. A

eoOY' OEP'TH

Fig. c

.BOD'i EI.U PSE. Fig. B

Figure A (left) . Illustration of Fruin's "touch zone" based on a "body ellipse' · buffer zone
with a minor axis related to body depth and a major axis related to shoulder breadth, allow-
ing a queuing area of 3 sq. ft. or 0.29 sq. m . per person. Below this boundary the frequency
of body contact between pedestrians is increased. Rgure B adapted from Fruin, Pe-
destrian Planning and Design, 1971 . Figura C :{right). Illustration of Fruin's "no touch

azone," based on an expanded interperson spacing of 36 in ., 91.4 em. and 7 sq. ft. or 0.65

SQ. m. area per person. Fruin contends that body contact can be avoided between 3 and 7
sq. ft. or 0.29 to 0.65 sq. m. per person.

236

Fig.E

Fig.D

to· Ftgure 0 {lett). Illustration of Fruin's " personal comfort zone, " expanding the body buffer

zone a 42 in. or 106.7 em. diameter and a 10 sq. ft. or 0.93 sq. m. area. A full body depth

separates standees, allowing for limited lateral circulation by moving sideways. Figure E

{right). Illustration for Fruin's '"circulation zone, " expanding the body buffer zone to a 48 in .
or 121.9 em. diameter and 13 sq. ft. or in 1.21 sq. m. area. Fruin contends that 10 to 13 sq.
ft., or 0.93 to 1.21 sq. m. per person would allow circulation wit hout disturbing others.

SPACE

SPACE , in every sense of the word, is one of the most infl uential aspect of the "analysis"
stage in design problem solving. Before you actually design a space for people to behave in,
it makes a great deal of sense for you to be aware of how they behave to begin with. Know-
ing what activities, conditions, and people you are planning for, you should be able to use
your time and pffort constructively and in a worthwhile fashion.

PHYSICAL SPACE
It is easier to design for people's physical needs than to provide for their social and psycholo-
gical needs. Because physical characteristics are a measurable commodity. You can
measure, for example, how high storage can be placed in a kitchen by finding out how high
a person of average height can comfortably reach. You can measure the furnishings that are
being put in a space, add in the area needed for easy human movement, and learn the ap-
propriate size for that space. Everything is concrete: You don't have to analyze people's feel-
ings about the proper kitchen counter top height, for example. Most of these standards for
building are already determined for you.
Objects are designed for people's convenience and comfort. We Iake into consideration the
manner in which that object will be_ used. Then we obtain the appropriate average
measurements for reference.

237