Architectural Theories of Design

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2. SUBTRACTIVE TRANSFORMATlONS:

A form can be transformed by subtracting a portion of its volume. Depending on the
extent of the subtractive process, the form can retain its initial identity, or be transformed
into a form of another family. For example, a cube can retain its identity as a cube even
though a portion of it is removed, or be transformed slowly into a polyhedron approx-
imating a sphere .

SUBTRACTIVE FORMS:
We search for regularity and continuity in the forms we see within our field of vision.

If a platonic solid is partially hidden from our view, we tend to complete its form in a regu-
lar manner, and visualize it as if it were whole. Similarly, when regular forms have frag-
ments missing from their volumes, they can retain their formal identities if we perceive
them as if they were whole and complete. We refer to these mutilated forms as sub-
tractive forms.

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38

Because they are highly recognizable, forms that are simple and geometrically regu-
lar, such as the platonic solids, adapt readily to subtractive treatment. These forms will

retain their formal identities if portions of their volumes are removed without deteriorating

their edges, corners and overall profile.

Ambiguity regarding a form's original identity will result if the portion removed from
its volume erodes its edges and drastically alters its profile.

In the series of figures below, at what point does the square figure with a corner portion
removed become an "l" configuration of two rectangular planes•

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Volumes may be subtracted from a form to create recessed entrances, well-defined, pri-

vate courtyard spaces, or w indow openings shaded by the vertical and horizontal sur-
faces of the recesses.

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3. ADDITIVE TRANSFORMATIONS:
A form can be transformed by the addition of elements to its volume. The nature of

the additive process will determine whether the identity of the initial form is retained or
altered.

IL REDE.NTORE vetrice 1577 -92 A11drea falladio

ADDITIVE FORMS:
While a subtractive form results from the removal of a portion of its original volume,

an additive form is produced by the addition of another form of its volume.

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FOUR {4) BASIC possibilities for two forms to group together are:
1. by SPATIAL TENSION -this type of relatiooship requires t hat the two forms be
relatively close to each other, or share a common visual trait such as shape,
material of color.

2. by EDGE to EDGE CONTACT -in this type of relationship, two form s share a
comn1on edge, and can pivot about that edge.

3. by FACE to FACE CONTACT-this type of relationship requires the tw,o forms
to have flat, planar surfaces that are parallel to each other.

4. by INTERLOCKING VOLUMES-in this type of relationship, two forms interpe-
netrate each other's space. These forms need not share any visual traits.

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41

Additive fOfms, resulting from the accretion of elements to one another, can be charac-
terized generally by their ability to grow and merge with other forms. For us to perceive
additive groupings as unified compositions of form, as figures in our visual field , the com-
ponent forms must be .related to one another in a coherent and close-knit manner.

In order to categorize additive forms according to the nature of the relationship that
exist among the component forms as well as their overall configurations.

THERE ARE FIVE (51 DIAGRAMS as shown below.

1..CENTRALIZED FORMS - - -

Consist of a number of secondary forms clustered about dominant, central,
parent forms.

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Centralized forms require the visual dominance of a geometrically regular, cen-
trally located form, such as the sphere, cylinder or polyhedron. Because of their
centrality, these forms share the self centering properties of the point and cir.cle .
They are ideal as freestanding structures, isolated within their context, dominat-
ing a point in space, or occupying .the center of a defined field. They can embody
sacred or honorific places, or commemorate significant persons or events.

42

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2. LINEAR FORMS- - -

Consist of forms arranged sequentially in a row.
A linear form can result from a proportional change in a form's dimensions, or the
arrangement of a series of forms along a line. In the latter case, the series of
forms may be repetitive, or they may be dissimilar in nature and organized by a
separate and distinct element such as a wall or path.

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A linear form can be segmented or curvilinear to res-
pond to conditions of its site such as topography, view,
or vegetation.

• a linear form can be used to front or define an edge of an exterior space, or de-
fine a plane of entry to the spaces behind it.

• A linear form can be manipulated to enclose space.
44

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• A linear form can be oriented vertically as a tower element to fix a point in
spa ce.

• A linear form can act as an organizing element to which a variety of f orms can
be attached.
examples: row houses, tovv ·1h ous·.~

- - - - - - - - - - - -+-

3. RADIAL FORMS - - -

Are compositions of linear forms that extend out ward from central f orms in
a radial manner.

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A radial form. consists of linear forms that extend outward from a centrally

located .core element in a radiating manner . It combines the aspects of centrality
and linearity into a single composition .

The core is either the symbolic or functional cen~er of the ·organization. Its
central position can be articulated with a visually dominant form, or it can merge
with and become subservent to the radiating arms.

The radiating arms, having properties similar to those of linear forms, give a
radial form its extroverted nature. They can reach-out and relate or attach them-
selves to specific features of their site . They can expose their long surfaces to
desirable conditions of sun, wind, view, or space.

Radial forms can grow into a network where several centers are linked by
linear forms.

The organization of a radial form can best be seen and understood from an
aeiral view. When it is viewed from ground level, its central core element may not
be clearly visible, and the radiating patter~ of its linear arms may·be obscured or
distorted through perspective.

4."CLUSTEREO FORMS- - -
Consist of forms that are grouped together by proximity or the sharing of a

common visual trait.

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While a centrali.ted organization has a strong geometrical basis for the order-
ing of its forms, a clustered organization groups its forms according to functional
requirements of size, shape or proximity. Lacking the introverted nature and geo-
metrical regularity of centralized forms, a clustered organization is flexible enough
to incorporate forms of various shapes, sizes, and orientations into its structure.

Considering the flexibility of clustered organizations, their forms may be or-
ganized in the following ways:

1. They can be attached as appendages to a larger parent form or space.

2. They can be related by proximity alone to articulate and express their
volumes as individual entities.

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3. They can interlock their volumes and merge into a single form that has a
variety of faces.

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Ma5~acl1u~ett~ 1eez-93 ?Gatn:1y at1d :;tearHc;

5. GRID FORMS- - -

Are modular forms whose relationships are regulated by three-dimensional
grids.

A grid may be defined as two or more intersecting sets of regularly spaced
parallel lines. It generates a geometric pattern of regularly spaced points (where
the grid line intersect) and regularly shaped fields.

The most common grid is based on the geometry of the square. Because of
the equality of its dimensions e:md its bilateral symmetry, a square grid is essential-
ly neutral, non-hierarchical, and non-directional.It can be used to break the scale
of a surface down into measurable units and give it an even texture. It can be
used to wrap several surfaces of a form and unify them with its repetitive and per-
vasive geometry.

The square grid, when projected into the third dimension, generates a spatial
network of reference points and lines, within this modular frame work, any num-
ber of forms and spaces can be visually organized.

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ROTATED GRIDS

ARTICULATION OF FORM

Articulation refers to the manner in which the surfaces of a form come together to define its
shape and volume. An articulated form clearly reveals the edges of its surfaces and the cor-
ners at which they meet. Its surfaces appear as planes with distinct shapes; their overall con-
figuration is legible and easily perceived. Similarly, an articulated gmup of forms accen-
tuates the joints between its constituent forms to visually express their individuality.

A form and its surface planes can be articulated by: FOUR WAYS

1. differentiating adjacent surfaces with a change in material, color. texture or pattern.

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2. developing the corner as a distinct linear element independent of the surfaces.

3. removing the corner to physically separate adjacent ptanes.

4. lighting the form ·to create sharp distinctions of light and dark at its corners.
In contrast to the above, the corners of a form can be rounded and smoothed over to em-
phasize the continuity of its surfaces or a material , color, texture or pattern can be carried
across a corner and the adjoining surfaces to de-emphasize the individuality of the surface
planes and emphasize instead the volume of a form.

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EDGES & CORNERS

For a comer to be formally active in our visual field, there must be more than a slight devia-
tion in the geometry of the adjoining planes. We search for regularity and continuity in the
forms within our visual field, and we will tend, therefore, to regularize or smooth out slight ir-
regularities in the forms we see. For example, a wall plane that is bent only slightly will ap-
pear to be a single, f lat plane, perhaps w ith a surface imperfection. A corner could not be
perceived.

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At what point do these formal deviations become an acute angle? A right angle?

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a segmented line oo···· ·· · ... oo ······ a stra ight line?00 ........ .. ........ . . 00 ......... .... ....... 00

a circular segment? a change in lines contour?

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CORNERS define the meeting of two planes. If the two planes sil'(lply touch, and the corner
remains unadorned, the appearance of the corner will depend on the visual treatment of the
adjoining surfaces. This corner condition emphasizes the volume of a form .

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FOUR WAYS A corner condition can be VISUALLY Reinforced
1. by introducing a separate and distinct element that is independent of the surfaces it
joins. This element articulates the corner as a linear condition, defines the edges of
the adjoining planes, and becomes a positive feature of the form.

2. if an opening is introduced at the corner. one of the plane will appear to bypass the
other. This opening de-emphasizes the corner, weakens the definition of the volume
within the form, and emphasizes the planar qualities of the surfaces.

3. if neither plane is extended to define the corner, a volume of space is c~eated tore-
place the corner. This corner condition deteriorates the form's volume, allows the in-
terior space to leak outward and clearly reveals the surfaces as planes In space.

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4. Rounding off the corner emphasizes the continuity of a form's surfaces, the com-
pactness of its volume, and softness of its contour. The scale of the radius is impor-
tant . If too small , it becomes usually insignificant; if large, it affects the interior space
it encloses and the exterior form it describes.

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Tke cort1er co11ditio11 detailed ( defiHil1g ~ e')(pressi119
the rneefi11g of elemet1+5.

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museum cor11er unadort1ed
(volume of form rG empka-5i-zed)

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ARTICULATED CORNERS-
independent of the
adjoining planes-
strengthening the
edges of a form.

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Ei11steht Tower

Rounded corners emphasizing continuity of
surface, COMPACTNESS OF VOLUME
AND SOFTNESS OF FORM.

PLAN CONFIGURATIONS

l·shaped configuration of planes generates a field

of space from its corner outward.

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r one of the corner can be articulated as an independ·
erit element that joins two linear forms together.
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one of the arms can be a linear form that incor-
porates the comer within its boundaries while the
other arm is seen as an appendage to it.

a building can have an L-configuration to establish a
corner of its site.

or enclose a field of outdoor space to which its interi-
or spaces relate, or to shelter a portion of outdoor
space.

[]0 L-configurations of planes are stable and self-sup-
porting, and can stand alone in space. Because they

are open-ended, they are flexible space-defining ele-
ments. They can be used in combination with one
another or with other elements of form to define a
rich variety of spaces.

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}(ingo Housing Unit An L-configuratioo of rooms around an
outdoor living space. Typically, one
by: Jom Utx011 Dmurl' w ing contains the group living spaces
while the other contains private, indivi-
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dual spaces. Usually occupy a corner
GAROI:N
position, or is string along the backside
A BASIC UNIT of one of the w ings.
The advantage of this type of layout is
its provision of a private outdoor

space, ·sheltered by the building form,

and to which interior spaces can be d i-
rectly related.

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SASE PLANE parallel planes define a volume of space between
them that is axially orienteo toward the open ends of the
configuration.

To visually reinforce the spatial field,
along the open ends of the configura-
tion, the base plane is manipulated or
overhead elements are added to the
composition.

The spatial field can be visually expanded by ex-
tending ·the base plane beyond the open ends of
the configuration.

cr:: Openings in one or both of the planes will also in-
troduce secondary axes to the field and modulate
the directional quality of the space.

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U-shaped configuration defines a field of space that has an in-
ward focus as well as an outward orientation .

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Secondary zones are created when openings are introduced.

pri11cipal

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The open end will remain \primary
the "primary face" and
the plane oppposite will
be the " principal element"

the corners of the configurations can be seen to consist of linear forms. The corners can be

articulated as independent elements. This U-configu ration can be used iri building forms

and organizations. ,.. ,..

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AU-shaped building can define a forecourt for a building's approach as well as a recessed
entrance within the volume of the building form itself.

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Fo ur planes-closure - since the field is completely -enclosed, its space is introverted.

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If openings are introduced at the corners of the space, t he individual identity of the planes
will be reinforced and encourage movement.

Openings provide continuity w ith adjacent space, they can begin to weaken the enclosure of

the space, depending on t heir size, number and location. ..

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To achieve visual dominance within the space, or become its primary face, one of the en-
closing planes can be differentiated f rom the others by its size, form, surface, articulation, or
the nature of the openings within it.

pro-nary

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SURFACE ..... .

Architectural surface are·Areas of materials which enclose a building and are of secondary
importance to the masses which they create. But in order that a building may be wholly sa-
tisfactory in its appeal, the necessary attention must be given to the Treatment and articula-
tion of the exterior. The surfaces of a structure must have texture, tone, and color.

A. TEXTURE

Refers to the quality of surface treatment. Texture is usually associated with materials. Lime-
stone may be polished and reflect light in sparkling manner,

folished black graHite us~ a5.
cmrtra5titf.9 color at1d textu~ wath

limestot1e wan.

The tex11Jre Of a t)rJcl< wall;
ttre diaper pattert1 with cort1ice,

belt coor~e,ard an;:;Hes.

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or it may be rough and coarse

HorizOtJtal litte~ crea-ted l:7y

siding . Whlfe wall$ witk ~tt~.
Wood. brick, metal, al1d gl~.

comparisot1 of textur~ of fietf

stoHe, 5hi11Qle5. at1d lead dawf1-

spout. lt1formality

and give to the building a _feeling of strength and simplicity. Stucco, with its various texture

Of treatments to catch the sunlight, has played an important part in the design of homes

which are mediterranean in character. ·

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stucco walf6, ca# cot~ crete columt1~, and tile floor,

RoPt1Gt ~implicity.

Surface covered with brick have a different character from those in which wood is emloyed.
Thus, texture depends largely upon the choice and use of materials. The selection of a
definite material fixes, to some extent, the character of the f inal effect , but the treatment
which is given to that material often produces startling results.
There should be a consistency in the selection of the texture of materials-a harmonious re-
lationship between the various surfaces. Contrast and the variety must be present but the
character and the quality of different textures should agree.

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Simplicit-y of co11tempor~ arcf1i1ecture p~uce~
le~~ tone. Restricted ro sfladowg of c:a11opy, mcised .,.,
li11e~ , and opettinqs. ,

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Polished marble and bright chromium are symphathetic with each other but usually do not
combine well with rough field stone or brick. The character of each particular type of room
or building calls for a corresponding type of texture.

Texture can be used to destroy a form perception. The figure below showing the different
texture on different sides of the cube cause the experience of form to be disturbed. We do
not perceive a unit from here, but a fragment of a larger now destroyed form. The percep-
tion of a room can also be destroyed in the same way.

Two ways in which the attributes of a sensation of grain may vary hard-soft, smooth-
rough. Material examples of four extreme is shown in the figure below:

HARD HARD

smooth rough
(glass) brick, hollow block

SOFT SOFT
smooth rough
(wool)
(silk)

c&.; Building : NtNf York City

19'Z- 64- Eero Saarmew al'fd

A~ciatQ!;

Linear patterns reinforcing the \,
height or, length of a form, UNI- I
FYING its SURFACES and DE-
FINING its TEXTURAL QUALITY.

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Openings and cavities creating tex-
tile with shadow patterns and inter-
rupting the continuity of a form's
surfaces.

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The texture of a plane's surface, together with its color, will affect its visual weight., scale
and light-reflective qualities.

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simple surface of opening articulated surface and opening

B. TONE

Is a variety in the use of the gradations from black to white. Tone comes from the change
of impressions carried to the eye as a result of the juxtaposition of dark and light areas.
Tone, or the creation of light and shade, may be secured by the use of doors and windows,
or by shadows cast by projecting parts of the building, or by mouldings.

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Tone cau~ by p~oja;ting surfaces and· by JUXTAPOSITION

contrast1119 matenals of walls aHd roof To put side by side or
close together (to juxta-
ResideY!ce , Pasade11a. pos~)-to pose for a
painting or picture tak-
ing, to put in position .

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8rilliat1cy a11d sparkle; 1~

accent by use of opet1ing

Ca' .:f Oro, Venice.

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Tone gives interest to an exterior and if the results are to be entil"ely satisfactory, requires the
same careful study that was devoted to the general massing . Poor arrangement of windows,
plasters, and cornices can mar a powerful composition.

C. COLOR

The warmer climates have usually produced the most colorful architecture, as in Spain and
Italy with their walls o.f delicate hues, tile fountains and wainscots, and richly contrasting
roofs, Color as distinguished from tone, results from the hues of the spectrum. It may be in-
herent as in marble which is colored by nature, black or gray stones, white or cream stone,
red clay bricks. It may use colored tiles or metals. It may also apply colored wallpapers.

Or it may apply or rather be applied, as in the case of surfaces which are painted or decor-
ated by man.

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Color requires intelligent handling and a thorough knowledge of harmonies and values·: The
color scheme .of a building should be carefully studied, with an understand,ing of the
character of the materials which are to produce the colors. Simple conventionalized ar-
rangements in subdued tones are preferable to garish and bizarre effects.
The relationship between color and the character of a building results from the combining of
warm and cool colors in the proper amounts.

67

the warm colors, the reds and the yellows, tend to advance toward the observer (usual-
ly for wide roo.ms)

the cool colors. the blues and the greens, appear to recede, showing infinity, immensi-

ty of space (usually for small compact rooms)
Also the more neutral colors should be used for the larger areas, reserving for the more

brilliant accents those bright colors w hich overpower the composition unless sparingly used.
The visual weight of a plane can be increased or decreased by manipulating the tonal blue of
its surface color.

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PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF COLOR

Various colors have a strongly emotional effect on people. It ref lects the spirit of the people
who create it Color is definitely related to the lives of the individuals and the material things
with which they are associated. Spanish art which is gay and sparkling for example are pro-
duced by a dashing, vibrant people.

RED - tends to produce rage or passion; it is exciting and stimulates the brain.
It has an aggressive quality and is frequently associated with violence
YELLOW and excitement.

ORANGE (medium red) suggests health and vitality
BROWN
GRAY (bright red) often has amorous connotations.
WHITE
PURPLE - denotes gayety; stimulating cheering - to the lazy, upsetting to the ner-
BLUE vous. It is the most luminous color. Yellow also demands attention, and
GREE N so it is used in dangerous locations, such as the edge of a subway plat-
form to mark the hazard, while red used to be the color for firetrucks,
yellow is now preferred.

- has a stimulating effect and should usually be used in relatively small
amounts. The occupant of an orange office, for instance will become ill
at ease after a short time and will leave it at every opportunity.

- is restful and warming but should be combined with orange, yellow or
gold because it could be depressing if used alone.

- suggests cold and is also depressing unless combined with at least one
livelier color.

- is cheerful, particularly when used with warm colors like red, yellow and
orange.

- is sedative and soothing. It suggests a stately or melancholy atmos-
phere. Cheerfulness or cowardice, cheapness.

- is peaceful and tranquil. It reduces excitability and therefore helps one
to concentrate.

- has a cooling quality and it acts as a sedative.

This psychological use of color has been related to architecture for centuries. Theatres and
circuses are gay and brilliant with banners, decorations and pageants. Bright colors
stimulate the imagination and excite the senses to produce a feeling of joy and pleasure.
While the funeral chapel is sombre in its color appeal. Garish hues would be an offense to
those who come in a mood of respectful worship, whereas, subdued colors lend themselves
to the spirit of the occasion. The color scheme of a restaurant for dining and dancing should
be quite different from that of a library for reading and meditation.

Color can be used functionally. We can make it maximize or minimize the size of objects.
Color can be used to help express architectural forms - and -if carelessly used, it can
destroy architectural form. Color on walls, floor, and ceiling is modified by other colors pre-
sent in the same area. For instance, if three walls of a room are a warm gray and the fourth
wall is a shade of yellow, the yellow will be reflected in the g ray walls and will modify their
appearance. Again, the pate green may look good in a room until a bright shade of green is
used next to it. Suddenly the gray green looks gray and quite inadequate.

70

An enclosed room which is painted with warm colors makes those who work in it feel warm.
Similarly, if a large, open, windowed space with a great deal of glass painted with coot col-
ors, people who work in it .sometimes feel chilly.

One is 'prepared' "for a room's color if the entrance is painted a complimenta.y color. Deep
colors always seem to make the walls of a room seem heavy, while pale pastel colors seem
to make the walls light. If a room is long and narrow, its appearance can be modified by
painting the end walls with warm colors-red, yellow, orange. Similarly in a small room, the
walls can be made to recede by painting them with cool colors such as green and blue.

COLOR USAGE ....... .... .... .. ..... ... ....... ... .. .. .... . varies according to lo~ation

1. RESIDENTIAL

Colors used within the home must be tolerated by the whole family. If members of a fami-
ly have tastes which differ widely, they may be satisfied by selecting the colors of their
own rooms.

The plan of living of a household group should be studied before any color selections are
made. Someone engaged in a business which uses a great deal of energy shl"luld have a
retreat at home-a room with a quietly harmonious color scheme . A person whose day is
spent in a monotonous business, on the other hand, will probably enjoy color contrasts
and bright colors.at t.ome.

2. COMMERCIAL

The commercial institution is a home away from home for many people, and the inclina -
tion to introduce some of the principles used in residential work is always present. But all
the colors in such an installation must relate to each other and to a central scheme. and
personal choice which conflicts with the appearance of the general scheme cannot be
tolerated.

There are a number of reasons for such color ~ont rol, the main one being that there is
usually a certain amount of circulation of personnel ; and everyone may have different col-
or opinions.
In most cases the walls of the lobby of a commercial building should be stimulating and
exciting, and the corridors should be neutral, so that when the doors of the offices are
open, harmony will be apparent. Individual offices may vary in color, texture and
materials, but they must have a basic similarity.

The main objectives in determining the color scheme of a commercial installation are to
provide colors which are rich, definite, and harmonious which will be easy·to live with,
and which will contribute to the efficiency and well-being of all who tenant the building.
Colors should be subtle; for example, no brash greens or blues should be used unless
compensating colors are used with them. Where offices are located upon an uninterest-
ing interior court, the colors of such offices should be ''sunny" and brilliant.

3. INDUSTRIAL

The kind of artif icial light must be taken into consideration in the design of industrial inte-
riors. It will depend, to a large extent, upon the type of operation performed. It is equally
important that the proper kind of light be used to avoid shadows and glare. For ease of
seeing, it is generally wise to keep the wall color darker than the machines or work
benches. If the space is small, the walls can be warm in color (yellow, orange, etc.)

71

\: ,,, /j~~!'if ~t~~~~J i\ p.t:pg!fc. ~Yf!~1 ~ t~ fi~1IO.-iii·W~•~the walls
,~ 0 ~jifa~l~, oe ~in~a(ioOl color. ~SJ9·.qf the sjze, Qf th•;SPaqer to ~ically

assiSt the workers to bear the he,al. -.t .. ,.. ~,,... ..

Qeo<1 'lt-J .,CS~f"IWMltaO(Jtly.Sl~1'4 ·qeA~dY#.,l11•,~t!~ldu,..:s~t~ii;~~HP-dl,ng9pJ~~. -Y'f~t"rfP\e~r.~~Jt)lO!~J~pa~~~irltfld~,IIJ .;,Yo'?nJi_e!twttJowr avlelar-.
t ..

'ld b• ~.. mipi~ to POintthe,n put ~«? OJ*8toi'S qf trucksr forklifts;.etc. •

91h • • , 9r\f · ·~••if'>"' ·

.at. ~ SAFJi.T¥·GO.LOA GUID.ES

RED - " Stop"
basis color for identification.

no rn:lol oJ 0n,h1iJ:J , a, fV• protectfo.n equipment and :apparatUs, suE,h,J~ purqe_~~eta,

Sprinkler piplngs.

b. dang.erous caria of inflammable liquid, ba.rJr/k'T-.al'd1re·s-.ln"''r t~a-m- ~o~-o.r- a- ry obs·

tructions.

met G ~ c.;' st~ ..!stop~ts oh 'I"I~Jild~QS maentt"fMM;' si~"'tiLltdnj or switches
JJ ORANGE ~-
indlcat$s pfohibltion. ''
Y~LLOW
to

- "Danqer"

.Dangeroua perts-1if machihe or energizelr equfpmeM.
('
- "Caution"' or Rjsk,

1 ~ph~ hazards~ . . ~ of~, Jailing, trip-

ping, striking against something, 9f~ "caygt\t1ln ~."' It In-

dicates dangers such as fire, exr>JOiSioA, radiation, and poi~Uri . Solid

yellow, yellow and black stripes sl"!ould be ~Jnte{c~ly, em-

ploying the combination whicl"! will attraCt the rriost attention iri the par-

•tfcular,sitvation:
·"szt -... afe' f.t,l"
1 •

1 'l r~,t.,r;.s.t "81'(0l ..u.r..al!:t~Cnsary Of kI'ts1 stretC'~IVJ'"!¥ -_..,:,c_a_ttvJ U...aG::..aJUg8 •~h,owers, etC.

escape routes.

n- ~"M•ualtnl ~~~•t,~o, rl,v, n'A.~1c.:_"t-Q;i~po·e,nr"l• t• ;J:O..n~· ()t ~· of·~,!P·,m..terrt,,o <t _J.- ~tfon or bei ng

'fl ut or
repair&d. Also an obligation to wear p8raonal pr'OtectlOn,~ipment.

rl.- "R~if1ian li~'' .,
~o tMt 4,ed l~..,e~i~tion WiUl1Y~IQW f~r "mark«a such n tags~

~. ~. and floor ma~. .b

BLACK, WHIT6, or corltblnetlon' ot both~\refftc... and th:ru'aekeeping

. ~i!'lgl.

Information concerning Warning: If :>U
safety condition: First aid
Are risk

4. INSTITUTIONAL

The interiors of institutions such as hospitals, youth detention centers, child care
facilities, nursing homes, and mel)tal health facilities-are carefully studied in order to pro-
vide the most favorable environment for patients, visitors and staff. The aim should be to
provide an atmosphere that is friendly and inviting .

Color and illumination are probably the most important of the visual elements. While

pastel colors are most often emplo')(ed in patient rooms, variety can be obtained by deep-

ening the tone of the bed wall, painting the window wall plus an adjacent wall a deeper
tone, or perhaps using a contrasting color on one or two of the other walls. If the room is
an odd shape, the judicious use of the two tones of color can help visually improve its
proportions. A dado of wood or other material is an additional tool for providing color
variation. The use of pattern to provide visual relief should be taken Into consideration in
the overall scheme of patient rooms as well on other areas.

Reception areas, dining rooms, day rooms, libraries, and chapels can provide patients,
staff and visitorS with welcome relief from the functional areas. Colors, furnishings, and
illumination can· be varied to provide relaxing atmosphere.

Laboratories and specific examination areas such as X-ray, operating and other treament
rooms may be attractively designed with cheerful coJors. The use of wall graph_jcs is often
a good solution. There is no reason why an X-ray or radiology room cannot be treated in a
decorative manner, despite the seriousness of the activity therOquite abstract graphic
design on a wall, complementary to the color scheme, may provide just the right balance
to the awesome equipment to remind both the patient and professional that they are not
isolated from the real world. The use of colorful utility cabinets and other accessories can
also be considered.

73

In rooms with plaster ceilings. perhaps decorative ceiling lighting fixtures can add the

needed note of interest, or it the ceilings are high, they can be painted a color or other

than white. Vinyl wall coverings should also be considered.

As with any other group of spaces, there should ·be a basic scheme to unify the whole,
but the individual areas should each reflect their own personality.

Long corridors can be used as a tool to unify; the tack ot interest can be countered with art
work and with colorful accents- unusual treatment of the ends of the corridors, of doors
and frames, or periodical spaces, or of handrails, for examples. The flooring in corridors
should also r.eceive careful attention, as it can be employed to good advantage to create
areas of interest.

5. EDUCATIONAL

Very young children prefer strQng colors, but when they grow older, their taste becomes
more sophisticated and subtle. In most contemporary schools almost anything that can
be colored is treated in a bright and brilliant way. Corridor walls, for instance, are
sometimes yellow ; rooms facing cool north light are given warm tones, and those facing
warm south light are given cool tones. The front wall of each classroom is often painted
darker than the other walls of the room. Every effort should be made to select a color that
will be of approximately the same value as the color of the chalkboard so as to minimize
eye fatigue.

It colors are pastels. bright accents are employed for furniture and accessories- say
bright blue, yellow, chinese red, or blue green. Doors and trim are usually darker than the
walls in which. they are located, and painted doors can be given variation and additional
interest by the use of various colors.

However, while a stimulating atmosphere is desirable in a teaching situation, care should

be exercised to prevent overstimulation, which may produce restlessness, tension and

fatigue. .

NOTE

Establishments such as department stores and retail or specialty shops require special color
treatments. By careful observation, one can be able to formulate guidelines similar to those
given above. Each type of building has its own needs, and these must be analyzed before
any color scheme is designed for a specific project .

COLOR AS AN EXPRESSION ELEMENT OF DESIGN

The uniform colour of the wall of a room.

When four {4) sides of wall was painted with four grey colours say c, e, g and i, c was almost
white, i was dark grey while the other two colours were inserted between these extremes at
similar intervals.

When the room was finished, it was impossible to distinQuish any difference in colour bet-
ween the walls painted c and e, and the same was true forthe walls painted q and i. In the
corner where e and i met, however, a distinct difference in colour could be seen and this was
also the case in the corner c, q.

The explanations is that the two sides of a corner form part of a room. As ·a result of this

pressure, we try to perceive a uniform colour and this is easier when the.colours are 'shadow
colours' of each other. They are then perceived as the satne local colours in different il-
lumination. This perception is impossible if the difference in lightness is too great, and then
lhe two wall colours are perceived at different local colours.

74

One special result of the influence of form on colour is the "spread1ng effect". In this figure,
divide into halves by a finger or pencil placed betw een the black and wh1te gnlles. Where the
red meets the black parts of the grill, it becomes darker tllan where it meets the white, an ef-
fect directly opposed to contrast induction.

75

The effect of the visible size on colour
A colour covering a sma11 surface is less intense in colour than the same local colour spread
over a large surface. This may be called the "area effect" . It is well known to architects and
interior decorat ors that a w all painted in accordance with a given colour sample has a much
stronger colour than the sample itself .

The colour on a figure may change at times according to the distance from which it is
observed. The deep blue and pale yellow bands change to black, and nearly white w hen
looked at from a distance. Thjs is apparently caused by the diminution in size of the retinal
image.

Colours on a non-uniform background
Such colours are subject to many unexpected changes. The blue areas in the pattern below
are printed with exactly the same colour ink. Note their different appearance, a hightened ef-
fect can be seen if the design is tilted or looked at from a distance.

76

The blue areas in the pattern are printed with exactly the same Ink. Note that the left s1de
blue seems darker than the blue at the right. Now look at it from a distance, the effect is
heightened .

The effect of colour on form

If the form are able to change the colour, then the colour is also able to change the form.
THe figure sliows what is called al" !radiation phenomenon-a small, light-coloured object,
seen against a dark background appears larger than the same object, darker coloured, seen
against a white background. !radiation is considered to be physiological phenomenon met
frequently in neurology.

Fields of different colours whose breadth is geometrically equal may, at times, be perceived
as having different breadths.

77

When the widths of red, white and blue are
all equal, the blue band looked wider than
the red one.

When blue band became bigger geometric
ally, when seen fron afar, RWB seems to
be all the same breadth .

The iradiation effect-the white figure looks larger in size than the black one. They are
geometrically equal.

78



THE PRINCIPLE OF COMPOSITION

Architecture has the same basic principles which are common to painting, sculpture, music
and literature. It deals with unity, balance, rhythm, and composition. It is organized around a
central plot, as in a novel. It has design, as has a sonata. It can be rhythmic as the dance. A
painting has contrast of color, and a fine piece of sculpture has beauty of form and line.
Good architecture attains pleasing composition through the relation of contrasting masses
and tones.

It is difficult to isolate a single quality and consider it alone. A synthesis of all the principles is
necessary in order to insure a unified and satisfactory composition, but for the sake of
study, it will be nec.es~ry to analyze separately these qualities and their application to archi-
tectural problems. Mere recognition of these principles does not, however, insure a success-
ful design. An individual may be a good critic but still be unable to write a poem, paint a
landscape, or design a building.

Creative ability, in addition to a knowledge of application of the elements of design, is neces-
sary for the production of distinguished results. Ability to discern between what is fine and
what is mediocre that quality which we call TASTE-must be developed.

GOOD TASTE is that discerning judgment which one exercises in connection with the bet-
ter things of life. Good taste steers an individual through the seas of social adjustments and
aesthetic decisions. It enables him to choose correctly in accordance with cultural or artistic
standards. Popular taste, however, is so often a matter concerned with group action and
changes so with the times, that it is not a reliable guide. Taste must, therefore, be based
upon a knowledge of the rules of proper conduct with respect to our actions and of the prin-
ciples of good composition in regard to our artistic endeavors. Good taste and creative abili-
ty together should produce buildings which merit the name architecture.

HOW GOOD IS YOUR TASTE7

by Maitland Graves

To determine to what degree you are gifted with good taste, study each pair carefully and
check the one, A or B that appeals to you as more unified, better balanced, more satisfying.

In each pair, one design is definitely more unified, better balanced or more interesting than
the other.

if you get 12 - you possess extraordinarily good taste ranking with professional
painters, interior decorators, commercial designers.

if you get 9 to 11 - this indicate superior taste, occasionally you make errors, but usually
you choose pleasing designs and colors.

if you get 7 to 8 - this indicate taste above average .
less than 7 correct - you will do well to listen to expert advise when buying clothes or de-
Answers on page 500 corating interiors.

(devised by Art authority, Maitland Graves)

... .·....·.·..·:.-:

I· A 1-8

80

•~ 2-8

t;;::j

2 -A

3-A 3 -B

4 -A

*. .,;·,) t *....~j~~~;!-~. ~ 1/.. .'
.,:. ~ (
'~~· . vrV. .i.t. .. ...V. . .A

t'

*
5-A 5-B 6-A 6-6

81

7-A •

~ 7-S

• •
9-B
•

9-A

10-A

82

,I

l

12-A 12 -B 13- A 13-B

14-A 14-B

Answers on page 500.

HOW ARTISTIC ARE YOU?

by M11itland Graves

Here is a test that may help you find out just how artistic you really are. On these pages are
eight pairs of designs; they are not intended to depict or represent anything or look like any
familiar object.

Study each pair as long as you wish and check the one, A or B. that you consider be the bet·

ter design.

If all selections correct - you should have faith in your taste or innate artistic sense, how-
ever, there is a great difference between appreciating art and
creating art. In addition to appreciation, the creation of fine art
requires talent, study, training and indefatigable effort.

if 6 or 7 for a man - you have no hesitation in choosing your own neckties and shirts
no matter how loud you like them, or in selecting gifts.

for a woman - regardless of what the children say, paint the room any color you
like or buy any kind of hat .

if only 4 right - study up a bit on the elements of art - color harmony, unified
and balanced design.

83

1- A 1- B

2-A 2-B

.·~ . ·.. : ..:· ..... ....
:...·.....; :..=..··.
3-B
• •I • ••
4-B
3-A
5-B
Lt-A

5- A

84

G- A 6-8
7-B
·~

...'

7-A

8- A 8-B

The following discussions is concerned with the application of the BASIC principles of
composition to space - enclosing elements .

DIMENSION I. CONTRAST .. ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. variety
II. PROPORTION . .... .... . ... ... ... .. relationships

GRAVITATIONAL Ill. SCALE .............................. size, magnitude
CURVES IV. BALANCE equilibrium

HIERARCHY V. RHYTHM .. .. . .. .... .......... .. .... repetition
VI. UNITY .. .. .. .. ... .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. harmony

VII. CHARACTER .. .. . .. .. . .... .. .. . .. expressiveness

85

CONTRAST ............... variety

Our physical impressions are made possible through contrast. We can hear because of the
contrast between silence and sound, because of the difference between the lengths of the
sound waves~ We can feel because of the contrast between the quality of objects. The
nerves in our finger tips tells us that some things are cold and smooth whereas others are
warm and rough. W e can see a building because of the contrast in the shapes and textures
of the surfaces which enclose space to make architecture.

Not only is it possible for us to see a building through the element of contrast but also the
building is given beauty and interest by t he difference between the types of treatment which
are introduced . It is essential that certain areas, directions, and colors vary or differ from
others so that by contrast the qualities of each are emphasized. It is t hrough contrast that we
secure proper scale, proportion, and unity and consequently, a satisfactory design.

TYPICAL CONTRAST:

1. CONTRAST OF FORM
shape
mass

2. CONTRAST OF LINE
direction
type

3. CONTRAST OF SIZE
4. CONTR AST OF TONE

1. CONTRAST OF FORM

In order for a shape to be interesting there must be variety or contrast . Square and
circular areas may create a diversified interest.

If form is more properly conceived in three d imensions, the architectural result is
mass o~ ~olume. If c~mtrasti.ng bulks are combined, it is possible that the resultin g
composttton may be rnterestmg and satisfying.

an arc11 "pleasing
cot1trast tq t11e opet1ir1g

on eri11er Side.

T\"!0 DIMENSIONAL :;HA~-t------:~o....~L--__...

mass of the lower p3rt of i11e ivi.J..€r of the tuildthg giveE
variety i11 tf1e arraygement of t11e
tne baEe COI1trasts with parts.
i11e elongated Heck

86

2. CONTRAST OF LJNE
Lines may vary with reference to direction. It is possible to have a horizontal line op-
posing a vertical or diagonal lines may form a composition.

01 RECTIONAL

A line may also offer contrast on account of its change in type or character. It may be
curved or straight, regular or irregular, broken, or continuous.
In an architectural example, contrast of type of line gives an interesting contour or
silhouette to a building.

zI

curved straight

/VV'NVvV\!V

re~ulejr

~

;v)\;W~

broken

CQtf(tl\OlS

3. CONTRAST OF SIZE
Deals with objects which may have the same shape and direction but may vary in
size. If this change in size is gradual and uniform, the result is called gradation .

87