Architectural Theories of Design

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPTS
AND THE INTERIOR

MECHANICAL-ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

The designer should be well-versed with HVAC, Heating, Ventilating, Airconditioning sys-
tems, as well as vertical transportation which include elevators and escalators. He should
also be well acquainted with Electrical Systems, wiring, lighting and communication and
signal systems. In here, the plumbing and sanitary control is included. With the proper
knowledge of these systems, the designer can properly locate the machines, raceways, wir-
ings, motors, generators and the like in its proper places. This will greatly affect the Design
Concepts of the designer from the start of conceptualizing the project.

THE BUILDING INTERIOR:

A look at the interior of a building .and its dependence on mechanical and electrical equip-
ment can serve to illustrate some basic design choices. Away from the perimeter and its visi-
ble interaction with climate and other outside forces, the interior is potentially an isolated en-
vironment. As the designer manipulates heat, air, light, sound and water to best match the
environment of these interior spaces with their function, the following choices must be
made.

a. Mechanical-structural integration

As the complexity and size of the mechanical distribution systems was increasing
with technological development {typically, more air is required to cool a space than
would be required for simply heating it} increased strength of materials was reducing
the size of the structural system. The "uncluttered" Floor areas between the more
widely spaced columns became desirable for flexibility in spatial layout. Keeping the
mechanical systems at or within those columns allowed these floor areas to remain
clear, so mechanical-structural integration was given further impetus. With the new
expectations for cooling, the refrigeration cycle's cooling tower often moved to the
roof, taking the air-handling machinery with it. This further encouraged the merg-
ing of systems, for one system was growing wider as the other diminished.

mcrea$i~ i11creasi119 curnulatiye
supply ana returH a1r
cumulative
VOIUtrl~
structure
Tect1Hical SUp?Jrt ~'{Gtem with roof top air-
388
ha11dlil1g the total area duct $1Ze decrea5es
towards tl1e grauttd eonversely, tke 'totaJ
structural load increa6e5 toward tne ground

AIR "'rnROUGI-( Sll.J.. W mAlf? -rn~~~ ~n.~o; retun1
RET\J~ Pl91\N ~
pta trulff ~IOtJ sit
51U.~

.I return duet i"tegraf wffk flfe ~

·Dual- Duct. hiQh •vefOcrty 389

q:' fhe BlUE tRoss - BLUE ~eild buildittg.

Yet the functions of these systems are very different; compared to the on-off air,
water and electrical distribution systems, the structural system is static-gravity nt:ver
ceases. The moving parts in mechanical systems need maintenance for more fre-
quently than the connections of structural components. Changes in occupancy can
mean enormous changes in mechanical systems, requiring entirely different equip-
ment. Structural changes of such magnitude usually occur only at demolition. Me-
chanical systems can invite user adjustment; structural systems rarely do.
Thus, while it is possible to wrap the mechanical systems in a structural envelope, it is
of questionable long-term value, given the differing life spans and characteristics of
these systems. The probability of future change suggests that the mechanical
system be the exposed one, despite the appeal to many designers of the structural
system's cleaner lines.

Recommet1ded
exposed ~de

b. Concealment and Exposure
The pipes, ducts, and conduits that take the necessary resources to and from the in-
terior are often carried within a network of spaces unseen·by anyone but builders
and repair people. The advantages of concealment include: less water and air noise,
fewer surfaces requiring cleaning, less care necessary in construction (leaks, not
looks are important), and more control over the appearance of the interior ceiling
and wall surfaces. Although maintenance access to such hidden supplv line is more
difficult, a variety of readily removable covers is available, particularly in suspended
ceilings.
On the .other hand, the exposure of these supply network provides an honest and
direct source of visual (and occasionally acoustical ) interest. Exposure in corridors
and service areas, and concealment in offices is an approach used in many office
buildings.

This wooden ceiling module
serves both the office and
the corridor space; the
Fluorescent office lumi-
naires spread lightly even
at desk heights.

390

The incandescent spot
li_ghts send sharp patterns
across the otherwise plain
walls of the corridor.

Flexibility is usually encouraged by exposure; changes can be easily made when not
accompanied by a need fOf neatly cut holes in concealing surfaces. However, Flexi-
bility from movable partitions requires constant ceiling heights, which is a feature of
the suspended ceiling approach.
One of the more spectacular examples of exposed mechanical (and structural sys-
tems is the centre Georges Pompidou, Paris- The result of a design competition for
a museum of modern art, reference library, center for industrial design center for
music and acoustic research, and supporting devices.

The view from a -noisy and
congested street; an open
square on the other side is
thus protected by the build-

ing.

391

When users are invited to play an active role in adjusting conditions inside, exp~sure
of the switches they manipulate is helpful. Not only are users reminded of their op-
portunities by seeing these mechanisms, but user interaction is encouraged; adjust-
ments are sometimes discovered that the designer had not anticipated.

c. Uniformity and Diversity

The flexibility in office arrangements that are accompanied by uniform ceiling
heights, light placement, grille, locations, and so on, can extend a building's usable
life span. However, uniformity is not always attractive to users, and diversity is often
encouraged at a more personal level, with office furnishings, for example. A more
thorough approach to diversity can provide stimulus to the user who spends many
hours away from the variability of the exterior climate.

If offices must be uniform in ceiling lighting, air handling and size, the corridor, that
connect them and the lounges, or other supporting service spaces, can be delibe-
rately different as shown in the ceiling illustration above. Diversity requires that the
designer be complete and detailed about creating places, it gives the builder a more
complex and interesting task, and it can provide orientation and interest to the users.
The attractiveness of diversity is evident in most collections of retail shops where
light and sound, and sometimes heat and aroma, are used to distinguish one shop
from the next.

USER REQUIREMENTS

ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEM

As tor Architectural systems, it is important to start with the USER. This is called the "USER-
ORIENTED CONCEPTUAL PLANNING" the designer shall recognize his or her characteris-
tics and constraints. Determine the user's needs, create a place for the user to perform
whatever tasks he or she expects to do. The following steps are suggested in conceptualiz-
ing an architectural system.

Step 1: Define and examine the needs of the total user population, for example in design-

ing an office building, do not concentrate only on the primary resident, but look at

the needs of his or her visitors or clients and the people who will serve the primary

resident in the proposed facility. e>
MULTIUSE OF SPAC(D

Day use Different tim~ cfday
Different 1ime5 Of year
39.2

1110t1. 'tUBS.

Different day5 cf the weeK

1915 - l99s- zoz~

Multi use of part of (?uildif9

~imilar U5e~ Differettt u~ Multi u~ of ~re ~ildi11g

: - - - - - -- - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4

II

I II
I
I
I

I

I

I

I

Multi use of exteri~-;~- - - - - I

I

l
I
I

- ---- - ---.....1I

393

'II

'/ /.....

)I'

Frne use

D

0
D
lat1e f£A HVAC (heati119, vetttilatitfB.
Zone for $ee0rity
a1 rcottd i t io H it1g)

Step 2: Examine and define the various tasks that each of the above users has to perform.
Determine what these tasks imply in terms of space, environmental control, sup-
porting furnishings, and utilities. (Heating, ventilating, Airconditioning , lighting,
electrical, acoustics, communications, elevators and escalators, plumbing and
sanitary pipings, waste disposal, insect cont rol etc.)

Step 3: Explore the interactive as well as the isolative needs of the various users and their
furnishings and equipment. Examine alternative arrangements to determine the
most convenient organization of people, furnishings, spaces, buildings, etc.

Step 4: Create an enclosure for the most effective alternative defined in Step 3 and add ap-
propriate partitioning to provide desired environmental control. privacy and security.

5egregateti lt1tegrated

394

OIV1510~ OF oG'PACE

~tvrage or fireplace gl<m

Duct D~play panel, pJtted plant~

~cu fptu re

pool .f . pia~

fDUt1t23lt1

Rail

L__J

0 c[

8 Ill

~

Batkra>m

395

DIVISION OF SPACE

Step 5: Select an appropriate site that will accomodate the building defined in Step 4 and
locate, position , and arrange the buildings with respect to appropriate site and
building access.

After these 5 steps have been completed, you are now ready to examine the concept in terms

of aethetic features, including architectural style, special material effec~ and landscaping.

Because people are different, it is a mistake to assume that a system can be designed for the
so-called average person. Understanding these differences and accomodating the proposed
concept to them are vital to the eventual operation of the system.

USER POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS

Characteristics Architectural Implication
1. CULTURALFACTORS
Considerable variation exists among people with respect
2. BODY SIZE to their cultural background, including social mores, reli-
gious attitudes, intellectual development, skill develop-
396 ment, attitudes toward others, and where and how they
live in terms of spatial feat.ures and modern Technolo-
gical amenities.

Language differences create an important barrier to com-
munications in many system operational settings .

People of different nationalities, as well as individuals of
the same nationality, vary considerably in terms of size.
There are also differences in size between children and
adults, between men and women, and between mem-
bers of special user populations. Differences in size im-

pact on architectural space, including clearances and
reach distances.

3. MOBILITY The agility of various individuals varies considerably
(example between the young and the old and between
handicapped and nonhandicapped persons), and mobili-
ty may be restricted by the garments people wear. The
impact of restricted mobility on human-architectural inter-
faces may be critical to the operational utility of a system
concept.

4. STRENGTH Very young and very old people have considerably less
strength than those in the middle range, women are ge-
nerally weaker than men, and handicapped persons may
have virtually no strength. Architectural features that re-
quire lifting, pushing, pulling, or twisting must be tailored
to the weakest member of the expected user population.

5. SENSORY FACTORS Principal sensory factors associated with architectural
6. MOTOR SKILLS systems relate to vision, hearing, and touch. Although
only persons with so-called normal capacities may make
up the expected user populations of special systems (be-
cause of operator selection restrictions), most general
system concepts require consideration of the more
limited capacities of elderly and handicapped individuals,
especially the visually and aurally handicapped.

A limited number of people have superior motor skill ca-
pabilities as a result of either innate capability or training.
Other are limited both innately and by lack of training . Still
others are even more limited by physical handicaps.

7. COGNITIVE SKILLS Variation in cognitive skill occurs because of age differ-
USER EFFICIENCY ences, differences in education and/or technological op-
portunity, and innate mental handicaps. Understanding
the !>J)erational aspects of the proposed architectural
concept is critical to its effective use.

It is often said.that "user efficiency does not sell products-appearance does". From a human
factors point of view, however, efficiency is of prime importance to the eventual effective-
ness of any system. The Table below should be considered carefully during the conceptual
phase of any architectural system development.

Parameter Variables
1. VISION
What a person sees clearly establishes the basic input to
that person. His or her use response depends on how
well the architectural concept implies what the designer
intends the user to do with it. The critical variables in-
clude the following:

1. VisibilitY-Are critical features bright, or are they
obscured by intervening elements, glare or shadow?

2. Legibility-Are critical features clear, or are they dis-

397

2. HEARING torted by lack of contrast, parallax, exaggerated em-
3. STABILITY bellishment, or illusory geometries?
3. Conspicuousness - Are features that are important to
detecting, recognizing and understanding lost in the
background.

4. Recognizability - Are features natural, familiar and or
similar to the observer's expectations, or are they dis-
torted or purposely made to look like what they are
not?

What people hear not only affects their ability to commu-
nicate but may also affect their general capacity to per-
form other tasks.

The critical variables include:

1. Audibility: If certain sounds must be heard, the
acoustic environment must be designed to carry the
sounds and not block them.

2. Intelligibility: The acoustic environment must be
designed so that it will not distort the sounds intended
for the listener.

3. Signal-To Noise Ratio: The combined communica-
tions and acoustic system must be designed to maxi-
mize the probability that extraneous noises will not
obscure the desired sound signal.

4. Noise Annoyance: Adequate noise attenuation must
be provided to minimize the possible deleterious ef-
fects that an annoying noise can have on individual
task performance.

How well a person performs ambulation or biomechanic-
al or other manipulative tasks depends on the stabili·
ty-aiding elements of the architectural system and/or
the possible impediments designed into the system. In
addition, there are critical visual interactions that may
add to the instability.of the user.

Among the typical features to examine are the slope of
floors, walkways, stair treads, handrails and door
thresholds. Structural vibration also. impacts on user
stability.

too narroN ~~

"~"'"''llT be gra~ptrl

398

4. MOBILITY How well people perform dynamic tasks tasks in which
5. CONVENI ENCE they must move their bodies and limbs depends both on
the clearances provided around their task envelope and
on the supporting area provided to maintain stability.

How well people perform various tasks depends to a
great extent on how conveniently they can move from
one place to another. This requires careful consideration
of functional relationships.

The sequence of events, time constraints, and emer-
gency demands in order to create a logical and energy·
saving arrangement of spaces and activities within
spaces, lack of convenience not only reduces immedi-
ate user efficiencies but also may add to fatigue and
possible operator failures.

HANDICAPPED USERS

Special consideration should be given to the needs of the handicapped when it is obvious
that they too can be expected to utilize a proposed architectural system, this shall include
the elderly persons .

1. CONSIDERATION FOR THE BLIND

Blind or partially sighted individuals get about by depending on sound signals and tactile
cues. They require the following special features.

a. Well-defined, rectilinear walk ways, streets, cor-
ners and curbs which the blind person can touch
with a cane.

b. Pathway obstructions that go all the way to the
fl oor or around so that the blind person's cane
does not pass beneath the object and thus allow
the person to run into the object.

c. Nothing at head height, such as signs, guy wires
that support telephone poles, and trees with low
branches.

d. Special braille signs for key public locations for
identifying a building name and number, a street
corner, or a bus stop.

e. Sound signals so that the blind person will know
when a DON 'T WALK signal is on whether an
elevator is going up or down.

f. Guardrail and/or special tactile identification of
pathways to keep the blind person from veering
into the street.

2. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE DEAF

Whenever an audio signaling device (warning) is used for the general population because
of the chance that people may not be looking in the directio'n of a hazar.d, and accomJ,>a-
nying visual and/or tactile {vibration) signal should be devised for deaf persons to draw
their attention to the hazard also.

399

3. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE ORTHOPEDICALLY HANDICAPPED
Architectural mobility for the orthopedically handicapped can be increased by the follow-
ing;
a. AdeQuate clearance, smooth ground and floor surfaces, especially at thresholds of
doorways, curbings and ramps for change of elevation, and reachable heights for
such items as drinking fountains, telephones, and built-in workable tops and shelves.
b. Limited force application reQuirements for opening doors.
c. Door handles and cabinet handles that can be pushed rather than grasped or. squeez-
ed and turned.
d. Stairs that are notsteep and railings that can be grasped and held firmly in the arthritic
hand.

4. CONSIDERATIONS FOR PEOPLE WITH DIFFERENT HANDICAPS
Extreme care should be exercised in developing mobility aids, or con-
cepts for people with one specific handicap, since the same facility may
have to be used by people with other handicaps (ex: a smooth, ramped
intersection comer designed to aid the wtleelchair user may remove the
very tactile cues that tell the blind person where the street begins).
In addition, care should be exercised in terms of how some aids to the
handicapped may affect the use of the facility or devise by nonhandicap-
ped persons. In many cases, however, the aid may help both the han-
dicapped and the nonhandicapped person. For example, larger clearer
street signs are needed in most cities today for the normally sighted
motorist and for the partially sighted person, who might be able to use
these signs if they were not so small.

STRUCTURAL AND ENGINEERING
CONCEPTS FOR ARCHITECTURES

OVERALL APPROACH TO STRUCTURAL EDUCATION

The objective of architectural design is to create an effective environmental whole, a total
system of interacting environmental subsystem. Since the architectural challenge is to deal
in a coherent way, with organizational, symbolic, and constructive complexity, fragmenta-
tion of technical knowledge does not contribute to a creative response by designers . This
leads to an educational conclusion that the learner must never be allowed to forget that his
ability to conceptualize overall space-form interactions will allow him to control the need
for details, and not vice versa. It also suggests that a common educational strategy for stu-
dents of both engineering and architecture would be to move deductively; from an introduc-
tion to structures that consicrers the schematic implications of buildings viewed as space-form

400

wholes, to a logical el.aboration of this basic understanding. The basic understanding focus-
ses on consideration of major structural subsystems and discrimination of key elements,
whereas, the act of elaboration involves attention to the details required to realize the whole.

The good sense of such an overall approach to education can be vividly characterized by
considering what we often termed the nonstructural space enclosure and subdivision as-
pects of architectural design. The spatial organization and articulation of the various proper-
ties of activity spaces calls for control of the external and internal adjacency and interface

potentials. Horizontal and vertical surfaces in the form of floors, walls, roots, and penetra-

tions through these surfaces must be provided to establish varying degrees of spatial diffe-
rentiation, enclosur~. access, and geometric definition.

Imagine that the physical components of a spatial organization scheme were designed with
no thought for their structural implications. The probability for major revision of early con-
cepts due to structural requirements will be high . Now, in contrast, imagine that these com-
ponents of spatial organization were organized from the beginning with overall structural im-
plications of the schematic space-form system in mind. The probability for major revision
would be minimized, and the symbolic and physical integration of the structure with the
overall architectural scheme would be insured.

It became apparent that an ability for overall thinking can make it possible to apply structural
knowledge to the total architectural design effort from the very beginning and with a mini-
mum of distraction by lower..jevel details. It alone can enable the architect to think of the
physical issues of a space-structure in a context that is inherently compatible with his mode
of dealing with the many organizational and symbolic issues of space-forming. Thus it can
assure that the emphasis on components conceived as acting together as total systems
rather than separately, an independent parts. It is also apparent that much can be gained
from applying this overall-to-specific model of educational management to a reconsideration
of teaching and writing strategies in many specialized field of design-related knowledge.

STRUCTURE AND OTHER SUBSYSTEMS

There are other important reasons for suggesting that structural thinking should be intro-
duced at the very earliest stages of the design process. These derive from the need to pro-
vide buildings with mechanical and other environmental service subsystems that support ho -
rizontal and vertical movement of men and materials as well as provide for heating, ventila-
tion, air-conditioning, power, water, and waste disposal.In addition, provision for acoustical
and lighting needs is often influenced by structural design.

Vertial cirruratiot1 1owerS - -- - - - (a) Yertiatl Movemet1t 5u1?-
al90 19!7ist horit{)t1ial force;
~y~tem5 tal1 play ~tc

~tructura/ ~~

'-----7"":...-§leKder ~lum~ tl?t ~uiltfd

to J119ist Jt:Jn"mntal ~

401

Vertical movement of objects through a building requires rather large shafts, and overall
thinking can result in the use of these service components as major structural subsystems.

The requirements for provisions of heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, power, water, and
waste services can be visualized in the form of a Tree diagram. These services usually origin-
ate at a centralized location and must trace their way horizontally and vertically throughout
the structure in order to serve the activity spaces. Large trunk-chase spaces may be re-
quired, and their structural implications should be considered early in the design process.

USE V.SOC USE VSS" USt:: USt:. (}.s5 u$"

In terms of acoustics·, it is clear that the structural shape of a spatial organization can directly
iofluence acoustical prQperties. In addition, if a spatial organization calls for heavy equip-
ment to be located such that it impinges on a flexible structure vibration and acoustical dis-
turbances can be transmitted throughout the space because of an incompatible interface
between machines and structure.

SOJND DISTRIBUTION
lS INFLUENCED B'l'

1'HE C1JERALL SHAPE

OF SPACE

Mechanical Equipment Sound is transmitted through
structure. When the structure is flexible, vibrations are
also transmitted.

The requirement for artificial and natural light brings up other considerations. Artificial light-
ing often calls for integrating consideration of structural subsystems with considerations of
the spatial qualities of light and of the spatial requirements f or housing and the lighting fix-
tures. The structural implications of natural ligthing are even more obvious.
402

minimum

Lighting systems should be made
to interface well with structural
sub-systems

dept11 maximum -~, cirasmferettt,-al
apr.v~ rei11(orcemenr

f'a?r irrlerfaee maximi~ ~~ral

dept-11

lightiHg

t1

For example, consider a fully enclosed space-form with all lighting provided artificially. Then
consider an open-top Spatial organization with a heavy reliance on natural lighting through-
out the space.
NATURAL LIGHT AND STRUCTURE
INTERACT AT OVERALL LEVEL

a) Fully enclosed box represents simple structural
problems but provides no natural light.

b) Fully transparent roof provides natural light but
poses more complex structural design prob-
lems.

403

c) Bearing and shear wall design with few wind-
ows is simple but admits little light.

d) Frame design is more complex but allows up to
80% of the wall to be transparent for light and
view.

BUILDING FORMS CONCEIVED AS SPACE-STRUCTURES

If plan89 are 'ftt)
tffit1, They will
Pucklt: attd t1fe

form will colla~

404

TUBE ACTION CAN BE ACHIEVED FOR A VARIETY OF SECTIONAL SHAPES AND BY
MEANS OF STRUCTURAL CORE DESIGNS

BALANCED FRAME ACTION REQUIRES THAT INTERIOR COLUMNS BE ABOUT TWO
TIMES STIFFER THAN EXTERIOR COLUMNS

-· -T--·-r-T' -· "T' -· -,1· II I -} f
: tI I
t I

III I

t I1 I

I I1 I

- - +I - - - I - -- - 1 - - - -1r - ---,1- I

--+ ., - I

1I II

I II I
I I
II II
1
II

I 1I II v "/ '\ / \ vI'\I
- J_ · 1
oI A._ l

·-·- ·-'- -l-...,--'-

I II II II I

Otre COtmectio11

405

use more tkalf OHe c.ainectlQrf

The overal Stiffness and Efficiency of a Basic Frame is improved by a combination
of more columns and Connector.

n -wld~h

~

A8 C ComPirt~tia1 is efficiel1t
jt1heret1tly eff)Ciet1t

Vertical and Horizontal Subsystems may be combined in many ways to provide
overall structural integrity.

Exterior S~ear Interior Shear v.elf
(or Frames)
wall (Frames)
Core Tube
406

Tul?e m Tul;)e

Braced Tut>e

Clu5tered Tut.\9s (Frames)

407

At conceptual stages, the designer need only keep in mind the four basic structural sub-

system interactions that must be provided in order to achieve overall integrity in the struc-

tu ral action of a building form:

_JJU-
.. ~ 1. Horizontal subsystems must pick up and transfer vertical
~- - 7 loads in the vertical subsystems,

2. Horizontal subsystems must also pick up horizontal loads ac-
cumulated along the height of a building and distribute them
to the vertical shear-resisting subsystems.

3. All of the vertical subsystems must carry the accumulated
dead load and live loads, and some must be capable of trans-
ferring shear from the upper portions of a building to the
foundation .

4. Key vertical subsystems that can resist bending and/ or axial
forces due to overturning moments must be provided. Where

possible, they should be interacted by horizontal subsys-
tem s.

,-- - ------,

I
I

I
1
I

~~.1:1¥1""'

K~ignt of columou~ 1:7uildirrq
Four corner Ghaft~ carry
botH vertical crnd f1oriz0t11al
1cad6

40()

High Rise Building- Steel Framing

I

.. ut;taggerBCJ Tnm

wit1d Co11t1eetion 1<- braci11g K- brOciHg

Shear Connecti~ rteo~tumt tamectiot1

'"~\\.\\. AWYJI
1'\ /

'\ /
I'\v
\v
f\ vvvvv
..... f - - L - f\
1'\
Circular 1'\

framing 1\

V\

v~
L~
""~
v '\

/~ 0
~ 1\.
~quare caumn
I / :'\.
pattern
v1/ [\,
1\

Tru~ Framing

409

l~otated

Footit1g

GHear l.edg81

Hole C.Ontit1UOUG

410

CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND
STRUCTURES AS EXPRESSION
OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

BUILDING

The purpose of a building is to provide a shelter for the performance of human activities.
from the time of the cave dwellers to the present, one of the first needs of man has been a
shelter from the elements. In a more general sense, the art of building encompasses all of
man's efforts to control his environment and direct natural forces to his own needs. This art
includes, in addition to buildings all the civil engineering structures such as dams, canals,
tunnels, aqueducts and bridges.

The f orm of a building is an outgrowth of its function, its environment and various socio-

economic factors. An apartment building, an office building, and a school differ in term be-

cause of the difference in function they fulfill. In an apartment building every habitable space
such as living rooms and bedrooms, must have natural light f rom windows while bathrooms
and kitchens can have artificial light ana therefore can be in the interior of the building.

In office buildings, on the other hand, artificial light is accepted for more uniform illumina-
tion, and therefore the depth of such buildings is not limited by need for natural light.

FORM, SHAPE AND APPEARANCE~

Environment may affect both the shape and appearance of the building. An urban school
may create its own environment by using blank walls to seal out the city completely, and a
country school may develop as an integral part of the land scape even though both schools
fulfill the same function.

The form of a building is affected by a variety of socio-economic factors, including land,
costs, tenancy building budget, and zoning restrictions. High land costs in urban areas result
in high buildings. A housing project for the rich will take a different form than a low cost
housing project. A prestige office building will be more generously budgeted for than other
office buildings. Buildings with similar functions -therefore take on different forms.

STRUCTURAL FORMS:

The beam or arch have developed through the ages in relation to the availability of materials
and the technology of the time. The arch developed on a result of the availability of the
brick . In the Technology of buildings, every structure must work against the gravity, which
tends to pull everything down to the ground.

A balance therefore must be attained between the force of gravity, the shape of the struc-
ture, and the strength of material used. To provide a cover over a sheltered space and l)ermit
openings in the walls that surround it. Builders have developed four techniques consistent
with these balance between gravity, form and material.

Wall } a. Post and Lintel

.=Jf".~...=r_~_,= -1 -~=- =- baEhamoribzeotnwteaeln
;s-II.:: :::::.-- - . tM:> vertical

~pr;om

4 11

b. Arch Construction

voussoirs

covering an open space by placing
wedge-shaped units together with
their thick ends outward.

c. Corbel or Cantilever

a projection from the face of a wall
.fixed in position to support a weight.

d. Truss Construction

allowing for the use of a pointed
roof.

412

CONCRETE

Concrete is 8 conglomerate artificial stone. It is made by mixing 8 paste of cement and water
with sand and crushed stone, gravel, or other inert material. The chemically active sub-
stance in the mixture is the cement that unites physically and chemically with the water and,
upon hardening, binds the aggregates tOgether to form a solid mass resembling stone.

A particular inherent property is that concrete may be made in any desired shape. The wet
mixture is placed in wood, plastic, cardboard or metal forms in which it hardens or sets . Pro-
perly proportioned concrete is hard and durable materials. It is strong in compression but
brittle and .almost useless in resisting tensile stresses.

MASS or PLAIN concrete is used in members in which the stresses are almost entirely com-

pressive such as dams, piers, and certain types of footing.

_.......-v~ ~ n nrra~ toHO~ beart1
a
.fdicffaettrpe-t·1ecses·ton aoovefmake .tt~norler

~ '---? __, ~~ · ,at ~d5

r.-- ~

WI1Siot1 atcewter

ttmtces. ~e ~

~r at1d -rears

b -+he bwer CGH'fei

G
In order to avoid compression and tension, reinforcement made of billet steel and rail steel,
usually intermediate grade is introduced . This is called REINFORCED CONCRETE.

L/4

-------.S~'A"..:..=. _=_.=.,_=..=__,._...-..-_-_-_-c<_.:;::_.:,:._=-_- -_-- - ---- -

-' -- .........- -

L/5 L../5

413

REINFORCED CONCRETE is produced in different ways:

Slav ~-) 1. CAST IN PLACE -when a concrete is
--___,.---1"-----4"'------:-----:.r- poured at the jobsite whose beams. slabs
and columns are set in form s on scaffold-
ings and later on rernoved after the concrete
is hard. Usually the minimum length of time
for walls is 12 days and for beams and col-
umns, 7 to 11 days. A rule of thumb is tore-
tain the bottom forms 2 days for each inch
of thickness of concrete.

the fOrm of For a 3.000 lb . concrete a ratio of 6 gallons
the SIDES of of WATER per sack of cement will produce
beamS caM be a watertight concrete. 6 1/2 gallons should
removed earlier- be the maximum .

0 Two Types of Mixture Tests:

0 Sometimes, the mixture of concrete is too much cement-
sand mortar caused by water, and sometimes insufficient
SLUMP TEST cement-sand mortar which produces honey combed sur-
faces. To test the consistency of mixes of plasticity, we
have the SLUMP TEST and to test the strength of the con-
crete, we have the COMPRESSION CYLINDER TEST.

n

C=)

fI1- - -.2-(·)-·---- --4 1

!_

With an truncated cone made of sheet metal . with dimensions shown as above,leave the
top and bottom open. Freshly mixed concrete is placed in the mold in three layers, each
being rodded separately 25 times with a 5/8" (16mm) diameter rod. When the mold is fill-
ed and rodded the top is levelled off, and the mold is lifted at once. Immediately the
slumping action of the concrete is measured by taking the difference in height between
the top of the mold and t he top of the slumped mass of concrete.

414

RECOMMENDED SLUMPS SLUMP METRIC

TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION MAX. MIN.

Reinforced Foundation walls 0. 125 0.05
and Footing 0.10 0.025

Plain Footings, substructure 0.15 0.075
walls 0.15 0.075
0.75 0.05
Slabs, beams, reinforced 0.75 0.025
walls

Columns
Pavements
Heavy Mass ConstructiQn

COMPRESSION TEST

This is the test given to concrete for strength. The specimens to
be tested are cylindrical in shape and have a length twice the
diameter. The standard is 6 inch (0.15) in diameter and 12 inch
(0.30 in height.

(plait1 Freshly made concrete is then placed into the mold in these se-
parate layers, each about one-third the volume of the mold.
Rodded with a 16 mm, bullet-pointed rod. After the top layer
has been rodded, the surfaces is leveled with a Trowel and
covered with glass or planed metal. After 2 to 4 hours, .when the
concrete has ceased settling , the specimens are capped with a
thin layer of neat cement paste and covered with glass or metal.
It is customary to keep the specimens at the site of 24 hours.
After which they are taken to the laboratory and cured in a moist
atmosphere at 70°F. Tests are usually made at 7 and 28-day
periods.

In making specimens, extreme care should be taken to see that
the ends are plane-parallel surfaces. After the specimen is
placed in the testing machine, a compressive load is applied until
the specimen fails. The load causing the failure is recorded, and
this load divided by the cross-sectional area of the cylinder gives
the ultimate compressive unit; stress usually in psi.

2. PRECAST CONCRETE

Prefabricated reinforced concrete which have been cast and cured in a factory rather
than in place on the site. Then delivered by long trailer trucks and installed by welding to-
gether all the components. These include floor and roof slabs, columns, girders, beams
and joists, wall panels and stairs. Whole wall sections are precast and later raised to po-
sition in what to be called TILT-UP Construction.

415

Advantages:

1. Casting and curing conditions, as well as concrete design, can be rigidly controlled re-
sulting in consistently high quality concrete.

2. The cost of forms and scaffolding is reduced since they can be placed on ground rather
than having to be suspended or supported in position.

3. Where mass production of a unit is possible, forms can be made precisely of steel en-

suring long use and very smooth surfaces.

4. Structural members can be mass-produced in a plant while excavations and founda-
tion work are taking place at the site.

5. Pre-cast concrete members are then delivered as called for in work schedules and in
most cases erected directly from truck bed to the structure without rehandling at the
site.

6. Close supervision and control of materials and a specialized work force in a centralized
plant result in a high-quality product.

7. Finishing work on concrete surfaces can be done more easily in the plant than in posi-
tion on the site.

8. Because of superior reinforcing techniques the dead load of the structural members
themselves can be reduced.

9. Plant production is not normally subject to delays due to adverse weather conditions
as so often happens to jobsite operations.

Two General Classifications of PRE-CAST Structural Members.

1. Normally reinforced

2. Prestressed

a. Pre-tensioned

b. Post-tensioned
Normally reinforced precast concrete are designed according to accepted reinforced-con-
crete practice prestressed concrete unit is one in which engineered stresses have been
placed before it has been subjected to a load.

When PR~·T ENSIONING is employed, the reinforcement, in the form of high-tensile
steel strands, is first stretched through the form or casting bed between two end abut-
ments or anchorages. Concrete is then poured into the form, encasing the strands. As
the concrete sets, it bonds to the tensioned steel; when it has reached a specified
strength, the ends of the tension strands arereleased. These prestresses the concrete, put-
ting it under compression and creating built-in tensile strength having been prestressed.
Members have a slight arch or camber.

l t---ftOM17-al - - -:}

I

I Prete"sion aJHcrete t>eam

t U11Joaded

416

Load

loaded TT
Loaded

POST TENSIONING involves placing and curing a precast member which contains.nor-

mal reinforcing and in addition, a number of channels through which poststressing cables
or rods (tendons) may be passed. Sometimes the tendons are wrapped in oiled paper for
easy sliding. One side is anchored securely at the end and one side is held by a cone.
After concrete has hardened tothe desired strength : The cone is fitted to a hydraulic jack

and is pulled to the allowable strength then a small steel plate is wedge so as the tendons
will not go back to its normal position. Post tensioning is usually carried out when the
member is very large or when only one or a very few of one particular kind of unit are to
be made. In general, post-tensioning will be used if the unit is over 45 feet (14 ml tong or
over 7 tons is weight.

&:!m

-t11is ~ is itt~erted
whett pulled 10 n:quired

s1Te11gth or P5l.5o -Hat

the tet1dot15 1~ permanently

G1mc~ed -

BE'AM, COLUMNS, JOISTS. FlOORING

chamref sfa~ linT

417

...-.i~:JP---==-=---------~-----;-;:-r- a serie~ of pr-e-cast
curtai11 wall welded
1 --- --

I ro the 5tructuraJ
1I
l beams will hasten
I coHstruction time

and elimin~ mo5t

of tke fan!twork~.

wall pat1els - are precasted custom- designed arc~ita::tural

p::mels wiii1 ~~dally. d~_igt1ed wat~rp~ joint~.
tl-1i~ i~ alro u~ fOr tl1d1VIdual 11ousmg umt6.

3. LIFT SLAB BUILDING SYSTEMS

Lift slab is a systems approach to construction based on advanced Technology. But un-
like some competitive systems, lift slab is designed to fit your requirements instead of try-
ing to make you fit its requirements. In lift slab Building systems, floor and roof slabs are
cast one on top of the other. After a short curing time, they are lifted to their final positions
by hydraulic jacks and secured to vertical supports. The result efficient utilization of man-
power and desing versatility .

No large expenditure is required on the part of the general contractor who uses lift slab.
Nor does the architect or engineer need to limit his design creativity to fit a restrictive
system.

How Lift Slab Lowers Costs

a) FORMS ARE REQUIRED ONLY ON THE OUTSIDE EDGE OF THE SLABS. Lift slab
eliminates 90 percent of the formwork required for a cast-in-place concrete building
and reduces the number of carpenters to a minimum. With very little waste and trash,
costly cleanup is eliminated. Irregularly shaped floor plans are easily formed.

Ready mixed cot1crete

~. 0 . .~· ' :• . ~b . 0 . • .,. • .. ,. ••• •
.. . ......· ~ . . ' .,a
: Q .co. ..

~ 4, • . 0 • : • t 0 • •0 • A 0 • 0.,0. • 0 •
,.I I
at Il

'•.J 'III Il

II

b) SLABS ARE CAST ONE ATOP THE OTHER.
After the first slab is laid out, it serves as a template for subsequent slabs. This elimi-
nates layout on all but the initial slab, and cuts mistakes to a minimum. Electrical,
plumbing, and mechanical work is fast and accurate; craftsmen are able to work more
efficiently.

418

fu3t ten~ioning TENDONS

sleeves (fir eleciri2l

at1d plumbing pi~)

Here Post-Tensioning Tendons, mild steel reinforcement rods and forms to block out
openings in the slab are all in place, ready for next slab to be poured.

There is no wait for erectfon of complex elevated formwork. This shortens the time interval
between pouring one slab and the next. The bottom of each slab is exceptionally smooth
(just like the top); it is ready for finish paint or spraying without additional preparation.

c. Two Casting Systems are Available

... All slabs are cast and cured on the
:. ~ ......' ... ~. .. ~ ' . ground and then raised into position and
secured. The ground-level casting me-
thod is used for structural frame lift slab
building systems up to twelve f loors and
bearing wall lift slab building system up
to four floors.

.. : ... ..· . ... ~ ..•. ~. ./
. . .. ....·..... ..., :.. :-.. '..;..
. .. .....·....~.. - •· ..·.. : . ' . ~.. ~.
-. .' ~ :. .. , .. .
. . .. . .
.~.

"' I • •

coKcrete sla~ ~

419

1co 0 E-~

C0 I A 0 e'?·

Powerful hydraulic lifting tacks provide the muscle to lift
up to 150,000 pounds (72,777 kg.) per tack at rates of eight
to twelve feet (2.40-3.60 m) per hour or more. As many as
48 1ifting jacks can be used at the same time.

First the designed footing is laid out and poured then the reinforced
concrete column is enclosed in a form and poured. Up to a height
of 3 1/2 floors. When all slabs had been lifted. The top of the col-
umns is again smashed to expose the steel bars and another one
and one half floors height of column is 'connected by welding and
poured to a smoothened top finish. This will accomodate all the
hydraulic jacks in one horizontal elevation.

,..___ steel em.Pedded
to coluf'tfn aJ1d
sla.b fOr weldirtg
purpo5es

420

!

R-

..,_

....

-'lMIRD COlUt.llf
R 51MI!

7...-... .5-

s-

n -5RCOND COLUNN 4-

R R~ STA6R- f- . 3
-INITIAL <XlL1JMH &
7 r 3-
STABE 2-
'!>
7-- 6
<4 -
6 lel r4. = ::t---:_ ·---! 54
3~- ~_,.

. .a _ /

(1) SEVEN SlABS @ ROOF 5~ LIFTED @ 21110 THRU TTH (_!,) CsOuNsTINsOE UF"mj& @ ALL SLABS 114

F~A5:1==:=:~• ~es tN TEMPORARY roSJnot.~ FINAL. FOSI110N

SLABS IN PERM4N!NT PCSlTlON

A. ALL SLABS CAST ON THE GROUND

R- c:::::::;n:;:=::J R- c:= :!::=:::::J

Jt1itt2!1 COioniP1
s-mge

c::==:::::=:::s 1il.A8S IN 1llt..ti"'RAJI"( POSITION @ 7TH AHD Slit FLOOR SlABS
CN»T CF LIFTING MO
r:=====' SUBS .. ~POSmON GASTIN6 CDNTINUES ON11L
AU. SUBS ARE CAST
c.::=-:::::::::.::J 5&.A8S CAST ON I..FT!D SlA8I

SEE EXPLANATIONS ON NEXT PAGE

421

CASTING ON LIFTED SLAB·s- Four slabs are cast at ground level (see 1). The roof slab
~ ttlen raised to a temporary position 2) The remaining three slabs are raised . with slabs for
floors two and three secured in position 3) and 4) Two slabs {three and four sandwiched
together) serve as the base form for two new slabs that are cast in the air at roughly the
third floor level. An unusual flying form and work platform around the edges may be
secured to the two cured base form slabs and to the roof slab one floor higher. The two
base form slabs are next positioned and secured as floors four and five. The roof slab is
moved up 5} The new slabs serve as the form for two more slabs... and the process is
repeated as many times as necessary.
This method is used for structural frame Lift Slab Building Systems over twelve floors
and bearing wall Uft Slab Building Systems over four floors. Use of this method means
that the lower floors are ready for finishing more quickly. The result is earlier completion
of the project.

Hydraulic jack

422

4. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

" Prestressing is a basic principle of design in which stresses are buift into a structural ele-
ment, such as a beam, in order to offset load-carrying stresses. The stresses directly op-
pose the stresses created when a load is applied to the beam , and, in effect, tend to "can-
cel out" the load stre_sses. In the case of prestressed concrete, high tensile strength strand

is used in either of two prestressing techniques-pretensioning .or post-tensioning .

This is a construction method also known as an Integrated Building System .

Fco1irtg HOW IT WORKS:

1. The Foundation site is excavated and pre·
pared while the structural components
are fabricated at the plant.

2. As soon as the foundation is ready, the
structural components are delivered to
the construction site.

3. Erection immediately follows using heavy
lifting equipment. Completed portions of
the building are immediately ready for fi -
nishing .

4.23

U-BEAMS are used as floor and roof units. Length up to 6.00 m (20 feet) Depth from .10 to
.15m (4 to 6 inchesL

DOUBLE TEES - are used as floor and roof SINGLE TEES - are used as floor units.
They are capable of spans of up to 28
units or as wall panels. meters (90 feet) Flange - from 1.20 to
2.40 or (4 to 8 feet).
Length - up to 15 meters (50 feet)

depth - from .25 to .45 (10 to 18

inches.

Concrete BEAMS, Concrete STAIRS, WALL PANELS are all precasted in the Factory.

Wall Panel Joints Deta;I 5c!rtion B

The· solution to the problem of water
proofing of joints spells the success of
the precast wall panel application.
Comprehensive detailing providing tor
water drains and sealants prevents see-
page of water through joints.

424

....... ..

.

425

U· Beams are set Atop the

prestressed Beam/Girder then

a concrete toppi11g ~ placed iu

the de,ired thickness arrd level

426

5. SPANSTRESS
This method speeds up construction, and saves on expensive equipment, since it takes

cranes out of the way. Span-stress prestressed Concrete T4 Joist Floor and roof system is

more compact and light-weight. Easier to transport and handle.
Span-stress prestressed T-Joist can be used with filler blocks or with collapsible steel
forms, or plywood forms. It eliminates or reduces scaffoldings to the minimum. Length

goes from 3.00 meters to 9.00 meters.

WITH FILLER BLOCKS

tA,WitH fiHer
..·.
<:0

f?.C. ~m

o.OB tH iwa irtn:atm1ee,r1e1re~toop. tpsinog.c. EW

~111 111

R.C. ~eam @

WITH COLLAPSIBLE STEEL

With Collzrpsiple 4te81

r:...bi~

427

428

6. PRECAST WAFFLE SLAB SYSTEM

This modular precast posttensioned waffle SLAB SYSTEM is the first application of two-
way post-tensioning in a precast concrete floor system. This is a new system of con-
structing floor slabs that consist of singular square precast concrete modular elements
laid out in checkerboard pattern and integrated together into the structural flooring
system of a building by means of post-tensioning in two perpendicular directions.

+----~=~t~r1-·- -+

This precast concrete modular elements are mass-produced and stocked in the ,.;,anufac-
turing plant. Columns can be precast/prestressed or cast-in-place concrete or even steel,
depending on the requirements .

CEILING VIEW
During the construction stage, the elements are set, four units at a time, on steel scaf-
fold s pre-arranged to support the elements in a checker-board pattern.

429

Initial concrete grouting is then applied to the gap between elements and contoured to
follow the strand cable profile. After the grout has set, the cables are laid on and final
concrete grouting is poured up to the level of the precast concrete elements.
Curing time is thr~ days and the strands are then stressed . When all the strands have
been stressed, the steel scaffolds can then be removed, and the whole operation is com-
pleted.

6routing O~iot1 .
.i11itlaJ groutitt;3 1$ fWrW IHID
tke gap Mwe811 t11e WGtffls
BI6Hf8Hf1r imd c.oti'll:XJra:i 10
follow tke catilfe profils

430

7. SUP FORM METHOD

This method has been utilized extensively in agricultural and industrial com-
plexes. In particular the silos, either cylindrical or straight-sided have found
the most practical applications.

Lately, however, this has been applied to elevator core constructions and
even multi-storey hotel buildings. It can be applied to any construction in-
cluding multi-storey buildings.

Advantages:

a) short construction time

b) low labor cost

c) small timber requirement

d) smooth concrete surface

e) minimum of construction joints

The conventional conrete construction which was earlier discussed utilize a
lot of bracings and scaffoldings for the forms, are fixed and after pouring
concrete cannot be removed until after 15 days.

SLIPFORM modifies the method of forming in the conventional concrete
construction. It utilizes very much less framework, no scaffolding at all and
some braces. The whole form system is distributed over several hydraulic
jacks. The hydraulic jack system is the heart of the slipform method of con-
struction.

~(I r·. ~.~.... ,:J. 0. •. ..- : 1 - - - - - - 1
" ... tr 4> t> ~-.
0 •••
# • I> b • • p. ••

'# ., ii . t> _"! o.· ~

.......4.: ...... •• . ,. •• t4
~-
·; _:~-~ 11•• ~
,;t-o
I r,-. -o·-·~•·"-'· --i II
171
lI
I I

I

431

The complete wall system of the structure is formed
about a meter and a half in height . When everything
is f ixed to the jacks and the hydraulic syst em tested
to good working condition, concrete is poured into
the forms and as all the forms are filled and the con-
crete starts to set, the forms are jacked up systema-
tically until the whole structure is completely con-
creted at which point the jacking operation stops and
the lost segment allowed to cure in the time periods,
required.

With slipform method t his last segment is stripped
within a week from the time the last concrete was
poured . A well-experienced slipform group should be
able to finish concreting a structure at the rate of
twelve inches (0.30 m) per hours.

... ...' ::;::.:.:::.......;. .· ::: ·::::: ,. . . : .. .

::r,~:;:::::"_: ~~~t~~t=J ·

8. COMPOSITE FLOOR
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM

Designed and developed by an Ottawa firm of consulting engineers, a flooring system for
both poured concrete, masonry construction and structural steel buildings has become
very popular in Canada.

The system, known as D-500, has been patented by Hambro Structural Systems Ltd . of

Ottawa in Canada and in about two dozen other countries around the world .

Basically, the D-500 system incorporates a special Z-shaped col~-rolled steel top chord
(the top member of a conventional open web joist) which is automatically "locked" to
the concrete floor on hardening. In addition, the top chord is slotted to permit the inser-
tion of "roll bars" between joists.

These bars provide support for plywood sheets laid over them. Reinforcing mesh is then
draped over the joist and the concrete floor poured.

Once the conrete has set, it is a simple matter to unlock the "roll ba'rs" and remove the
plywood for use again .

4 32

Butts, Magwood & Hall Ltd., also consulting engineers in Ottawa, originated the concept
as a cost-control building system in 1967. To bring the invention to the marketing stage,
the aid of local builders was enlisted and Hambro Structural Systems ltd. was formed.

In 1970, Minto Construction Ltd., Canada, used the system for an eight-storey apartment
building, and had since used it in four other buildings.

Minto's architect, John Russell, likes the system because of its flexibility and cost
savings. These result from dispensing with propping f or short to medium spans. It also
enables subcontractors to move in quickly after the floor has been poured.

In one of Minto's recent projects, in which concrete had been poured the day before for
the eighth floor, plumbing and electrical wiring had started on the seventh , wiring was
complete and plumbing was complete at the sixth floor, and the ceiling on the fifth floor.

In contrast, for conventional poured-in-place conrete construction the building has to ad-
vane& through six floors before the subcontractors can even get started.

Such acceleration of other subcontractors leads to obvious savings in time. In addition to
the capital cost savings arising from the use of the Hambro 0 -500 floor, it has been estab-
lished by Hambro that there are significant savings in electrical subcontractors alone over
the conventional concrete construction.

re~Hp;rary ~F¥'' tit?g .

· metHW17 :

,... Nol"e : Roll ta~ are rotated

' "':~- for removal of {Ont1~

433

9. FLOOR DECKING - made of high strength zinc-coated steel decking which acts as both
permanent formWork and positive tensile reinforcing steel in one-way reinforced ooncr~te slab

construction forsecond level to high floordecking.lt mechanically and chemically bond on concrete

slab to form a solid flooring panel. Steel Decking provides permanent formwof1(, and acts as a

ceiling that looks pleasant to the viewer in the lower floor.

A. STEELDEK (by PhiiMetal) .'-~~... LEAH.. • POURED CONCREt E
" .. . .
THIM REIHFORCENEMT . . .. ~ . ··. · ca">
NO.IO

DECK ON IEAM

length up to 13.7 m

B. STRUCTURAL-DECK (by Condeck lfl\ernational) CONCRETE (11 11 )

RE"INf'ORCEMENT BAR
NO.(IO

·.•-.. - .. .
...-- ~ . ..... . "
~ ..

:~... :' ', ._ ..

STRUCTURAL - DECK

434



ECONOMIC

THE COST OF THE BUILDING STRUCTURE

FIRST COST

The economical aspect of building represents a nonphysical structural consideration that, in
final analysis, must also be considered important. Cost considerations are in certain ways a

constraint to creati~ design. But this need not be so. If something is known of the relation-
ship between structural and e:onstructive design options and they cost of implementation, it

is reasonable to believe that creativity can be enhanced.

The cost of structure alone can be measured relative to the total cost of building construc-

tion on the average, purely structural costs account for about 25 percent of total construc-

tion costs. This is so because it has been traditional to discriminate between purely structural

and other so-called architectural costs of construction. Thus, in tradition we find that archi-

tectural costs have been take~ to be those that are not necessary for the structural strength
and physical integrity of a building design.

"Essential Services" forms a third construction cost category and refers to the provision of
~nical and electrical equipment and other service systems. On the .average, these ser-

vice costs account for some 15 to.30 percent of the total construction cost, depending on

the type of building. Mechanical aRd electrical refers to the cost of providing for air-condi-

tioning equipment and the means of air distribution as well as other services, such as plumb-
ing, communication, and electrical light and power.

The salient point is that this breakdown of cost suggests that, up to now, an average of

about 46 to 60 percent of the total cost of constructing a typical design solution could be

considered as architectural. With high interest costs and a scarcity of capital, client groups
are demanding leaner designs.Therefore, one may conclude that there are two approaches

the designer may take towards influencing the construction cost of building.

The FIRST APPROACH to cost efficiency is to consider whenever architectural and struc-
tural solutions can be achieved simultaneously, a potential for economy is evident.

This is what is meant by:

"Form and Function are one" - Frank Llyod Wright

"Less is more" - Mies Van der Rohe

"Maximize the number of - Alvar Aalto and
Jobs done by each design component. Louis Kahn

Since current trends indicate a reluctance to allocate large ~ of a construction budget
to purely architectural costs, this approach seems a logiest necessity. But even where

money is available, any use of structure to play a basic architectural role will allow the non-

structural budget to be applied to fulfitl other architectural needs that might normally have to

be cut back.

The SECOND APPROACH achieves economy through an integration of service and structu~
ral subsystems to round out one•s effort to produce a total architectural solution to a
building design problem.

the final pricing of a project by the constructor or contractor usually takes ~ different form.
The costs are broken down into 1) Cost of matert&r. brought to the site, ~~ Cost of Labor in-
volved tn every phaae of th4t construction process, 3) Cost of equipment purchased or rente<t
far the project, 4) eo.t of management and overhead and 5) profit.

436

Rough approximation of the cost of building a structural system is done by either the "per-
centage estimate", the "square meter" costs, or "volume-based estimates like per cu.m.
per truckload , per kilo, per bag etc .

CONSIDERING EASE OF MAINTENANCE
DURING THE PLANNING STAGE OF DESIGN:

If it is considered at all during the planning stage, facility maintenance traditionally becomes
a question of how can this facility be maintained as we have designed it? In other words, too
often the question of ease of maintenance does not come up when key architectural confi-
guration decisions are being made. In spite of this traditional attitude, all facilities have to be
maintained, and by human beings. 1he following key maintenance functions should be part
of any design concept trade-off analysis.

1. Daily housekeeping cleaning floors, walkways, windows , walts, ceilings, etc.

2. Periodic inspection and repair; inspecting and repairing windows, roofs, walls and
w oodwork, hot water heaters, plumbing, etc.

3. Periodic REFURBISHMENT: repainting exterior and interior surfaces; replacing
roofs, replacing plumbing fixtures, etc.

4. landscaping maintenance: watering lawns and shrubs, removing trash, etc.

COMMON HUMAN FACTORS PROBLEMS
ASSOCIATED WITH MAINTENANCE-RELATED DESIGN

1. One cannot get to the spot that requires inspect ion, adjustment, cleaning, removal, re-
placement, or refurbishment.

2. There is insufficient space to do the job once a person has reached or located the mainte-
nance problem.

3. There is insufficient illumination to see what needs to be seen.
4. There is a lack of appropriate service connections to enable use of the necessary tools at

the work site.
5. The device to be repaired or replaced is buried into the structure, requiring major destruc-

tion and eventual repair.
6. Main service shutoffs (example: water, electrical or gas} are variously distributed, hidden

and /or inacessible, requiring an inordinate amount of time to find them.
7. The composite land-site-structural relationship precludes the normal and safe use of

common maintenance aids such as ladders or scaffolds,

ARCHITECTURAL SAFETY:

An objective conceptual planning should be to create an environment in which the user can
be as safe as possible. Although this is a tall order, many of the accidents that frequently oc-
cur in homes, offices, schools, factories, and elsewhere are due as much to the facility de-
sign as they are to user errors. The following typical safety considerations are applicable to
all architectural systems:

7 1. Use nonflammable, nontoxic materials.

2. Eliminate sharp edges, corners, etc. that could cause in-
jury.

3. Create properly designed stairs, ramps and w alkways.

437