Architectural Theories of Design

RHYTHM movement repetition spac1•ng

Music is an art that is heard. It is a combination of sounds arranged in such a manner as to
arouse various reactions of pleasure, interest or excitement. Architecture is an art which is
seen. It is a composition of elements so arranged as to serve a utilitarian purpose and, in
addition, to have an emotional appeal. The music of the western world is based upon
rhythm, melody and harmony. Rhythm is the foundation of music. Although it is necessary
that there be tones of pleasing quality, still these tones must first be organized into some
kind of time or spacing.
Unorganized sounds result in discord or dissonance; unorganized architectural forms cause
confusion. Movement is the basis of rhythm. The movement in music may consist of the
time, which may be fast or slow, or it may be the Tempo or repetition of the theme through
the composition, regular or irregular.
There is the same feeling of movement in architecture. A building is, of course, static. It re-
mains indefinitely upon its foundations. But there is a movement of the theme as it travels
across the facade of the building- the eye pausing here to look at this detail and then going
on to the next.
An unbroken wall has no rhythm. There is nothing except texture to arrest the attention;
nothing to be seen beyond the shape and contour of the surface.

TWO KINDS OF RHYTHM
1. UNACCENTED RHYTHM -if equally spaeed windows are introduced on the un-
broken wall, then regular repetition is present.

---.L---::._-_-=.-__-_---_-_- ------ t---- ,~_-__- ::=-

2. ACCENTED RHYTHM -if the openings or details are arranged in such a manner
that some are more important than others, then the eye grasps the significance of
this relationship and pauses longer in cbntemplating the larger elements.

138

--r--~----- --

/

(

I

"'----- regular repititiot-1

Rhythm refers to the regular or harmonious recurrence of lines, shapes, forms, or colors. It
incorporates the fundamental notion of repetition as a device to organize forms and spaces
in architecture. Almost all building types incorporate elements that are, by their nature, repe-
titive. Beams and columns repeat themselves to form repetitive structural bays and modules
of space.

Windows and doors repeatedly puncture a building's surface to allow light, air, views, and
people to enter its interiors. Spaces often recur to accomodate similar or repetitive function -
al requirements in the building program. This section c;liscusses the patterns of repet ition
that can be utilized to organize a series of recurring elements, and the resultant visual
rhythms these patterns create.

-- ·----=--=---~-=.:...=_- -

- --- - - -

ARCADE FRONTING TOWN SG,UA~ OF GARROVIL-LAS, S~IN

139

140

Rhythm is ORGANIZED MOVEMENT. It must be directed and controlled. If unrelated
noises occur, such as the din of the factory, there is no organization and hence no rhythm. If
w indows and doors are thrown into the facade of a building in a haphazard manner, there is
no scheme or sense to the arrangement and again no rhythm.

Rhyth m may be one of the following :
a. Rhythmic use of color - movement of the eye across a painting from spot to spot of
similar color.
b. Rhythmic use of line-repetition of a similar type of line in a piece of sculpture.
c. Rhythm of motion-the movement of dancers.
d. Rhythm of direction -continuity of a series of arches forming an arcade.

a1·--·- -· aa Rt· •••• --.,m ,.,.. _21!2. $ 42.21 ..; .. # JU¥ ¥J QS us. !,f%' 1

!

i
l

Iglesia !1i Kristo U1 Tondo. M21ni~

141

UNITY ... and ••• HIERARCHY harmony

Unity suggests harmony. If a structure has unity, it must have contrast, rhythm and scale.
To have harmony, all the unrelated parts of an architectural arrangement are brought into
proper relation to each other so that a satisfactory composition is obtained. If unity prevails,
all the unimportant parts must be kept in their places and be made simply to assist the major
units in the roles which they are to play in the development of the structure. This is similar to
a well-organized business group or a disciplined army. There must be the leaders and those
who assist the leaders, each with his own particular function to pertorm.

The simplest kind of unity dealing with motifs of more than one member is to be found in or-
dinary REPETITION . Like repetition of sound or beads of the same size and spacing. To
give emphasis and interest, an accent is then introduced.

In an architectural composition, the elements must be arranged in such a way as to insure
the domination of the less important parts by the major masses of the building.

COt1ti t1Uity

There are at least seven (7) ways of producing an effect of UNITY in a design.
1. There must be a central motif, a theme, or a center of interest. The attention of the
observer must be drawn to this focal point.
2. The major masses of the building should dominate the less important ones .
3. All the units should together form a compact and coherent ensemble:
4. The element of emphasis must be introduced. It may be secured by the size, posi-
tion, or tr~tment of a particular motif which is to give the desired importance to that
particular part of the building.
5. By limiting the amount of treatment seen at one time.

142

6. -By selecting details, materials, colors, etc. in harmony with the basic idea.

7. By selecting styles, furnitures and furnishings in harmony with the surroundings.

COMPETITION

When elements compete with each other for the place of importance. There is competition.
This causes ' DUALITY' or the presence of two strong conflicting personalities or masses re-
sulting in c;liscord and redundancy. The towers appear attenuated and unstable. The shared
element is too weak to counteract the overturning force acting on the towers.

53me height

co~petitiot1, dua1 ity

I t / cett+er of interest

143

Jack of u11ity

duality created by prese11ce of

two equally dom(nartt tower~

5al11e heignt give5 competitbt1

be1Wee11 first a11d 9econd storie5

lack of U11ity.

competit1cm between first anq
seCOttd stori$ : Heither more

Important, tack of unity

144

CONFUSION

Another kind of competition where dissimilarity is too pronounced. There is no harmonious
treatment and dissimilarities in architectural elements such as door, windows are combined.
There is no definite architectural character and no central the"me.

•

C011fusiol1 of two towers . dormers, wi11dows, tree

In this figure, the pointed arches and the half-timber-the semi-ecclesiastical and the domes-
tic qualities -are not in symphathy with each other, and confusion prevails.
In the figure below an attempt has been made to correct the faults which are apparent in the
confusing figure above. There is simplicity. The two towers have been reduced to a single.
important unit, and emphasis has been increased by the placing of the two trees so that the
eye is more easily led to this dominant part of the composition.

narmoHIOU5 ...~-..;..----.,__ emphasis-
tHrough ~metrt
at1d Elimirar
~~~of tree~
of treament

145

The principle of HIERARCHY implies that in most architectural compositions, real differ-
ences exist among their forms and spaces. These differences reflect in a sense, the degree of
importance of these forms and spaces, and the functional, formal, and symbolic roles they
play in their organization. The value system by which their relative importance is measured
will, of course, depend on the specific situation, the needs and desires of the users and the
decisions of the designer. The values expressed may be individual or collective, personal or
cultural.

In any case, the manner is which these functional or symbolic differences among a building's

elements are revealed as critical to the establishment of a visible, hierachical order among its
forms and spaces.

For a form or space to be articulated as being important or significant to an organization, it
must be made visibly unique. This can be achieved by endowing a form or shape with the
following:

1. Exceptional SIZE

D ODD A form or space may dominate an architectural composi-
ODD tion by being significantly different in size than all other
DDDDD elements in the composition. Normally, the dominance is
DOD made visible by the sheer size of an element. In some
cases, an element can also dominate by being significantly
DOD
smaller than the other elements in the organization and
placed in a well-defined setting.

146 View of FI<Jrm1C6 il/ustrati~ ike domil1~ of#te catttedral over t11e

Uli:at'f la.-rd5ai~

2. Unique SHAPE Forms and spaces can be made visually dominant, and
thus, important by clearly differentiating their shape from
DooDDe DoDo that of. the other elements in the composition. A discerni-
ble contrast in shape is critical , whether the diffe'rentiation ·
DDD DD is based out a change in geometry or regularity. It is im-
DDDDD portant that the shape selected for the hierarchically im-
DO DOD portant e_lement be compatible with its function and use to
have unity.

3. A STRATEGIC LOCATION : Forms and spaces may be:

DO strategically placed to call attention to themselves
DD as being the important elements in a composition.
Hierarchically important locations for a form or
DD
DDDDD space include the following:

DDDDD

147

CHINESE COURTYARD I-lOUSE:
PEKING, C HINA

(a) the termination of a linear sequence or axial
organization

D DD D DD B

(b} the centerpiece of a symmetrical organization.

O DD DO D

148

{c) the focus of a centralized or radial organization .

(d) offset, above, below or in the foreground of a com-
position .

•DOD DOD

Doo0 oo

ODD DO
0

~BBJ

149

NOTRE- 00, HAUT. Ronckamp . Fra11ce, 193J-~ Le C«busier

The erogenous ZO!Ies ofa kou5e aro a:z8>1"t>.;ated - TUJ{;doo"'. window,
1p11lawWteinsqt . Hsotaltytuwer,olidght - in t,ki6 C<JttvertioYt of a White 51tJcco bungalow

150

CHARACTER. • • • • . expressi•veness

Buildings have points of similarity, like walls, doors and roofs but have different purposes
and appearances. In any architecture which is worthy of the name, the exterior of a building
expresses the intemal function and so MANIFESTED CHARACTER is the External Expres-
sion of Internal Qualities. The element of character grows out of the function of the building
and the consideration of all the creative principles of composition.

Character in architecture is derived from three (3) types. They are characters from :

1. FUNCTION, Of use of the building.
2. ASSOCIATION, or influence of traditional types.
3. PERSONALITY, or the human quality or emotional appeal.

1. FUNCTIONAL CHARACTER

The most important kind of character in architecture is that which results from the purpose
of the building or the reason for its erection. The use of a structure naturally calls for a cer-
tain disposition of parts, and this arrangement affects the appearance of the exterior, by
which we largely judge character.

Examples:

a. Museum-must have galleries with ample wall space and top light, which elimi-

nates windows and necessitates the use of skylights.

b. A school building - must contain many windows to admit the necessary side light

and to offer an interesting contrast with the possible monotony of the classroom
walls.

c. Shop - a structure with large show windows is usually a shop for the display and

sale of merchandise.

d. Factory - readily seen from the exterior to express the efficient operation of the
manufacturing within. The exterior shows often only the structural mem-
bers - which are stripped of all unnecessary decoration together w ith the enclosing
expanses of the glass to light the interior. The building has little architectural show,
it is simple since it is to raise revenue.

e. Monument-serves to perpetuate a memory of a person or an important event. It
does not produce any revenue. It must be impressive and should have dignity and

command respect. Its function, then, is to be monumental, usually symmetrical. in
arrangement and uses permanent materials like stone, steel, concrete, or some du-
rable and heavy materials to produce a feeling of lasting effect.

f. A Bank-should have dignity-it is a building designed to house an activity which
is very near to the heart and mind of the average citizen-that of caring for his
money. The building should Inspire confidence in its integrity. This building houses
an activity which is work.

g. Movie- Cinema House -a place of relaxation or recreation after a hectic day of

discharging one's obligations of the day. In this building psychological use of color
and decoration is important. Bright colors and unusual or unique architectural ef-
fects quicken the imagination and cater to the holiday spirit. This building houses
an activity of man-that of relaxation.

h. House - should reflect the informal intimacy of home life.

151

2. ASSOCIATED CHARACTER

This comes from the influence of ideas and impressions related to or growing out of past ex-
periences. We know by association anq experience that the various races have different phy-
sical characteristics and we are thus able to distinguish between an Oriental, a Negro, a Cau-
cacian, and an Indian. We often associate such features as color, eyes, height, nose and
others.

In a similar manner, we have come to recognize buildings by features which have long been
associated with that particular structure. A spire atop a building with stained glass windows
has always told us that the edifice was a church. The use of the classical orders often indi-
cates the presence of a bank, and Collegiate Gothic frequently discloses the identity of an
educational institution.

However, when a mode of construction or type of design is found to be antiquated, it may
be discarded, provided that a worthy successor has been developed to take its place. The
ultra-modernists would eliminate all association with the past. They would allow the func·
tion of the building to control the exterior regardless of the effect.

The contemporary movement in architecture has, however, caused many revisions in our as-
sociation of ideas. It has been necessary to adjust our points of view to the many influences
which are now changing the character of our modern buildings. New method of construct-
ion have grown out of new materials, and it is now possible to use openings in ways which
were not practicable according to our former conceptions of the limitations of btick and
stone. Our attitude toward physical comfort has been revolutionalized .

The home must be more efficient in operation and more pleasant in its interior treatment.
The museum is no longer a place in which to contract museum fatigue by climbing monu-
mefltal stairways, and factories are now airy and cheerful.

If a building functions properly and is composed according to the rules of good design, it
then follows that the character shall or rather should be satisfactory. A bank for example,
need no longer be heavy and semi-fortified. Our bank architecture was borrowed from the
temples of Greece. The massive walls inspired the depositors with confidence. Changing
conditions have brought about a realization that there is a little relation between thick
stones, barred windows , and the security of investments and savings. Only the conspicuous
vault doors remain to advertise the safety of the deposits. Our banks have now become effi-
cient places in which to work, and they present cheerful and dignified interiors in which to
transact business.

ITiliTifl

UNIVERS ITY OF .S ANTO TOMAS

152

l

1' ....

BANK

MODERN CHURCH

153

MODERN BANK

3. PERSONAL CHARACTER

Personal character in architecture bears a certain relation to the same attribute in the life of
an individual. It is found .that the element of personality plays an important part in the reveal-
ing of character both with man and with architecture. Members of the·various races have
different traits-some common to several groops, some peculiar to a particular group. The
plantation Negro is often happy. and carefree. The oriental is a mystery to the Caucasian; the
gInadwiakninigs.stoical and taciturn. Individuals are gay or gloomy, sparkling or stupid, graceful or

Buildings have qualities which are directly related to their functions, but in addition, they
may possess characteristics which have to do rather with the emotional reaction set up in

the mind of the observer. Like members of the human race, buildings may be sterri and for-

bidding, light and playful, or sedate and dignified, with reference to the impressions which
they are capable of giving.

154

It is to these qualities of vitality, repose, grace, restraint, festivity, dignity, etc. that we give
the name of personal character. If the building is designed. in the proper spirit, this type of
character will grow naturally from the structure itself. It is quite essential that this intangible
quality agrees with the function of the building. Nothing could be more disastrous than to
have a power plant look like an entertainment pavilion -a substitution of festivity for effi·
ciency.

Example:

A dilapidated warehouse has a feeling of humility. A magnificent city hall can take pride
in its size and position.

Personality in a building has more to do with the spirit of the building than its pur-
pose-They are abstract rather that concrete. A building may display the quality of
strength. It may be simple or ornate, picturesque or formal.

A building in itself may be of good design but out of place when transplanted to a set-
ting for which it is not intended. A mountainous summer home would appear in-
congruous in Makati, and a magnificent cathedral would look ridiculous on the lonely
long superhighway. Character is thus also a matter of location.

r················ -----

r

.... '~ .·

__:...~. --·· · ~':..:..._..• • wo . . . . · - . . . . -

An exposition building designed and intended to convey the spirit of gayety and festivi-
ty. This is built for entertainment. The personal character is given through its lightness
and spontaniety of the decoration and the use of vertical accents, banners, etc. The
walls are ·light in thickness, indicating perhaps, a temporary structure. It also has a feel-
ing of openness which relates the interior to the surrounding landscape treatment.

155

A custom-house - here a sense of strength and solidity is required. Strong walls are
deemed necessary, ana heavy masonry with few openings is used to give the de-
sired character. Here all is business all is;seriousness.

A large house- for those who want to display evidence of his wealth.

156

A simple designed house-for the quiet and unassuming people.

~6%&~
,,
...

' '.
'
~~

Personality of character in a building can be attained by the ingenious application of masses,
lines and color treatment,

1 . heavy masses .... sedate (composed)

{dignified)

2 . straight lines .... sturdiness (masculine effect)

II

3 . horizontal lines -repose Irest, peace) stability, comfort, and widening effect.

4. verticallines-strength (power, vitality, dignity, inspirational emphasize height

and monumentality dynamic).

5. diagonal lines-action (movement, vigor and speed).

/

157

6 . irregular lines-informality (excitement).
7. curved lines-grace (refinement, feminine emotional, continuity, flexibility).

8. bright colors-Ired, yellow, orange, et.) conspicuous, cheerful, stimulating,
attractive, advancing effect.

®

@l!_\'·\
\\
\l

rv-,-----V

\V ' "
t ·---==---
9. cool colors-blue green, violet, etc. lunconspicuous, restful receding effect,

suggests distance).

[ / 'X)/ / \ "--0.,-1\ .......

\(;:--£~®

!--~-----·

Character then maybe expressed in Architecture by the following:

1. Scale ... when increased, it gives a feeling of grandeur, dignity and monumentali-
ty. However, when scale is reduced, these characteristics are lessened if notre-
versed.

2. Proportion ... regarded to produce formality in character when applied. Example
is triangular massing. The huge proportions applied in the parts of the classical
buildings give them the formal character.

3. Style ... many architects believe that style is character expressive of definite con-
ceptions as for example-grandeur, gaiety or solemnity. On account of tradi-
tions, certain styles of Architecture were adapted for specific types of buildings.
This give the proper or good "Ambience" say, for example, a neat and orderly
modern design of a beergarden as compared to a beergarden with indigenous,
all local materials used.

AMBIENCE -surrounding on all sides, an environment or its distinct atmosphere; or milieu.

MILIEU -environment,social or cultural setting.

158



PLAN COMPOSITION
SCHEME

Good planning is not the placing of areas together in an aimless way . A logical plan must
have a reason behind it - " a parti" , or scheme. If an exterior which tends toward symmetry,
or monumentality, is desired, the plan elements may .be arranged in a balanced manner
about a central axis.

----+- r ---- -~ -+----

D

D

- --+- .. - - - ~ - ~-----

If a more informal massing is required, the beginning of the development-the plan - should
assume this desired character.

A plan may be simple or complex, depending upon the use to which the building is to be put
and upon the number of units or rooms required. Regardless of the complexity which plans
may assume. They may all be reduced to the simple geometrical shapes which form the
basis for all architecture. Plans and also elevations consist of areas which are recognized as
the square, circle, rectangle, etc. selected for their suitability to the function of the building.

160

AXIAL ARRANGEMENTS

Wrth the exception of the most elementary forms, plans have direction. This direction is
related to the shape and to the relative importance of the sides which bound the plan. This
development of direction leads to the establishment of axis or !iRes about which the com-
position is organized.
As one approaches a building and faces the principal facade, the major axis usually carries
through the centre of the mass in a line directly away from the observer and at right angles to
the main elevation.

/ Major Axis

go•

The principal minor axis usually extends at right angles to the major axis through the centre
of the important element which tends to parallel the main elevation . In a complex plan the
various parts may be grouped around minor axis which show the direction of these units.
The simple rectangle has its long sides perpendicular to the line of sight of the observer
(sfnce in a represented plar-t the principal entrance side parallel to the street usually focus the
bottom of the sheet).

maJOr axis ( LottgitudiHal)

~1!1l!Jor- !!>cis (Tra"s""""')

-1------t:-----f-

i1 I

J !l

,c. \-street

It will be noticed that the major axis is at right angles to the directional quality of the area, in-
dicating that the shape of a plan is not so important on an analysis of this kind as the location
of the entrance and the arrangement of the internal units.
It will also be found that the axis are sometimes called "Transverse" which cuts the plan in
its shortest direction and "Longitudinal" which extends through the length of the composi-
tion.

PRINCtPLES

A plan, to be worthy of the name, must be "organic". All parts must fit together in such
a way that the composition wilt be disturbed if one element is moved. The axial arrangement
of the plan should connect to various units so that one feels the complete organization of all
the component parts. A plan is developed which will take care of the practical requirements
of the building.
A plan should have contrast of size, shape, character, direction, balance and " emphasis".

161

EMPHASIS

It is often desirable to direct a structure which will house a single important object or to have
one unit of the plan give emphasis to one particular phase of the activity which is to be car-
ried on within. It is necessary that the architecture frame and accent this important object or
activity.

In this illustration. This condition is secured by the use of the semicircular element with in-
ches which impa~ a decorative rhythm and point to the monument in the centre of the com-
position. This arrangement also illustrates the principle of radiation from a single point. The
centre of interest, the focal point-which contributes much to the quality of emphasis. _The
variety secured by the change of direction from the curved element to the straight line which
forms the axis, for the buildings on either side adds to the appeal of the design.

SECONDARY PRINCIPLES

a. Repitition may be present when a number of room of equal size and shape occur side by
side, or when windows, columns, or arches are spaced in a regular manner to give unac-
cented rhythm.

b. Alternation -a synonym for contrast. There may be alternating sizes of re<:tangular ele-
ments or alternation of shapes.
alternation of shape

162

alternation of shape

c. Transition -a satisfactory progression from one unit to another. Small vestibules pro-
tect and act as buffers for the lobbies which follow , and the lobbies allow the visitor to
become adjusted to the situation which confronts him upon entering the building. These
minor elements also give the observer some preparatory indication of the general charac-
ter and use of the interior before introducing him to the more important units.

' .3
2.

1

vesti bule

In a complex plan it is offer desirable not to tell the whole story at once but to allow the
beauty and interest of the interior gradually to unfold itself, reserving for the climax some
definitely predetermined accent. The most important thing to remember in plan analysis
is that a good plan must have organization. The presence of absence of this organic qua-
lity can be seen at a glance, but needs much thought and study. A beautiful plan based
on sound reasoning is the first prerequisite for a successful building.

d . Transformation
The principle of transformation allows a designer to
select a prototypical architectural model whose formal
structure and ordering of elements might be appropri-
ate and reasonable, and to transform it through a series
of discrete manipulations to respond to the specific
conditions and context of the design task at hand.
Transformation requires f irst that the ordering system
of the prior or prototypal model be perceived and un-
derstood so that, through a series of finite changes and
permutations, the original design concept can be classi-
fied, strengthened and built upon rather than des-
troyed.

A series of finite changes and permutations, the original design concept can be clarified,
strengthened and built upon, rather t han destroyed.

, - -- - - - -..., r- - ----.
I I
II II I

II I I I
_ _ _JI
.1 LI I
_..J
I L_
I

I

LI ___ ___,___JI

164



VISUAL ACUITY
AND PERCEPTION

Perception is the process by which we organize and interpret the patterns of stimuli in our
environment, the immediate intuitive recognition, as of an aesthetic quality.
The separation of two lines placed end to end can be perceived more readily than the separa-
tion of 2 lines placed side by side.

Ac,uity increases with increase in intensity of illumination.

SPATIAL PERCEPTION

All spatial implications are mentally conditioned by the environmental and experience of the
viewer. Vision is experienced through the eyes, but interpreted with the mind. Perception in-
volves the whole pattern of nerve and brain response as well as the visual 'stimulus'.
Man uses two eyes for the perception of objects in nature and continually shifts his focus of
attention. In so doing, two different types of vision are used STEREOSCOPIC and KINES-
THETIC . Having two eyes set slightly apart for each other, man sees two different views of
the object world at the same time.
The term STEREOSCOPIC is applied to his abilitv to overlap these views, which are slightly
different, into one image . This visual process created an illusion of three-dimensional depth,
making it possible to judge distances.
One of the most frequently employed types of information especially over short distances,
arises from 'Retinal Disparity' or unlikeness of the retinal images in the eys, which are in dif-
ferent spatial positions, thus, if we hold up a cube in front of the eyes, the right eye will see
slightly more of the side face on the right, the left eye slightly more of the side on the left.

\

\

\I
\I

¥166

If you focus your two eyes on a pencil held close to the face, while at the same time con-
sciously observing an object further away, the farther object will appear doubled and if we
shift the eyes to concentrate on the object while the pencil is in f,ront, the pencil will be
doubled and the object just one.

In KINESTHETIC vision, man experiences space in the movements of the eye from one part
of a whole work of art to another. Space is experienced while viewing a two-dimensional
surface because we unconsciously attempt to organize its separate parts so that they can be
seen as a whole. In addition, man explores objec.ts surmental recognit ion of them. Objects
close to the eye require more. Ocular movement then those more distant, and this factor
adds spatch illusion to man's Kinesthetic vision.

THE PERCEPTION OF OBJECTS:

Objects can be perceived not only visually but by the sound of familiar voices, people can be
recognized. In identifying objects, they may be touched and weighed in the hand. If they are
food objects, they may be smelt and tasted. Thus the observer may continue examining the
object and placing together the various sensory impressions until he has made up his mind
what it is.
Our behaviour through experiences has become habitual, automatic and effective. An ex-
ample is when we walk leisurely, or run hurriedly when a vehicle is approaching. We also
have an internal sense of position, by reacting automatically, shifting the body to one side
when riding a bicycle. We perceive visually whether the bicycle is upright in relation to the
road .

THE PERCEPTION OF SHAPE

The most important feature of a shape or object is its general outline or contour. Whenever
we look at objects, they seem to be clearly outlined and demarcated from their background.
With a sotid object the particular contour exhibited to us at any one moment varies with its
position in space. The visual shape of a square-topped table is square only when we look at
it from above.

167

~ 0
li11e
bat-~d

"FIGUREGROUND" - a phenomenon wherein drawings consisting of black lines, any line
which surrounds an area, and which is recognized as representing an object is quickly picked
out by the observer, and it then seems to him to stand out from the background in an ob-
vious manner. No field of view is perceived all at one dead level. Some part of it will always
tend to become "figural" and to be differentiated from the rest of the field which forms the
"ground" to this figure. This figure then stands out, is readily perceived and attended to and
its appearance and details are noted.

Example: If you look at the object, you will see a cross figure on a dark, background.
With a fixed gaze closely on the field, a switch is made and the white cross
becomes a background for the dark X figure .

Reversible Figure:

If a drawing is presented wherein two parts are equally meaningful, there may be
an alternation of "figure'' and "ground" between them.

168

a goblet

Reversible figure al1d groortd

The Rever-sible goblet i?

den1ol15tr-atiol1 ofa figure~ two people
grout1d r-eversal. Nate "H1af

eitner the li.g11t fXJrtiort ( Tke

goblet) ar fhe d:irk por-tion

(two profile~) cat1 be perceived

as a ffgure agait1~ta

background

~: ...

:.::~ .

. Ambig;us fJ9ure gmul1d eftects

.at1 ambig:Ju~ draWl'!_g that cart

be ~en eitker as a pretty

young wmat1 or~ an
unattractive old woma11

The old UXJrnan eye5 i5 the

ear of the young woman.

169

170

Vanity

When you look at this figure from afar it looks so much like a skull but when near, it clearly
shows a lady in front of a mirror.

This is a reversible
Figure.

Sometimes it is perceived as a
stair.

But sometimes perceived as a
ceiling.

or

171

Artistic use of reversible
figure cmd grout1d
Circle litttrr Nc (Heavetf a"d Hell)

a wood cut by Nf.C. Esl1e5. The
angels an4 evil alter11ate but neither
seemG 1o domittare the other lookitt_g
~t flfe black bat -tl1611 swift io

looking at itle white dove .

The slave market with disappearing bust of Voltaire by Salvador Oali.
In the Center of this painting is an archway reverse to form a bust of Voltaire.

172

"Ccmcavt and Conv~~" shows can "tna(rr view of the left-hand howe, an intenQ-r
view of the '<ight-IUJnd howe and f!l"the-r an e.xterior or interior view
of the howe in the middk, depending upon one~ choice. 19.U

173

FLUCTUATION

Instances of fluctuation are given by the phenomena of the alternating 'Figure' and 'Ground'
alternating perspective and retinal rivalry. In the following figures showing alternating pers-
pective, one part of the figure appears to stand out in front of the rest of the figure; but there
is alternation, first one pan standing out a·nd then !~e remainder.

NECKER CUBE

An illusion devised in 1832 by the Swiss naturalist LA. Necker.
When you look at one square the figure will look either of the following.

v

174

This figure may be perceived as either depressed or concave. But sometimes it is perceived
as convex or protruding outwards.

or

175

Stare at the dot and
it will give you two
fluctuating Figures.

IMPOSSIBLE FIGURES

When three dimensional forms are illustrated on two-dimensional surface.

When you cover the three prongs at the left with your palms it will show a U-shaped figure at
the right. However if you cover the U-shaped Figure at the right, it will appear as three
prongs.

176

An impossible Figure the Corrected Figure

177

178

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
AFFECTING ACCURACY OF
SHAPE PERCEPTION

The simpler the actual shape which is viewed like squares, triangles, circles, the more likely it
is to be perceived accurately, even though in a very short period of time.
There is a tendency of an observer to perceive for example a square when actually it is a rec-
tangle meaning a square and say it is circle although it is an ellipse.
This tendency to perceive shapes not exactly as they are but in somewhat modified form, is
given great importance by a German School of psychologists, known as the GESTALT psy~
chologist. The world means "FORM". According to them our percepts always possess
some kind of form or arrangement, and we tend to group together shapes close to each
other.
A form of simplication may be through continuity. A shape with a broi<en, disc<;mtinuous or
dotted outline may be perceived as a whole continuous figure. Dotted lines as shown below
are perceived as a Triangle and a Square.
In some complex Figure, a smaller Figure may become swallowed up in a larger whole and
an observer will have difficulty in noticing the simple figures in the complex ones.

a simple
rectangular
in perspective

it is lost
somewhere
in this Figure

The Accuracy and the amount of detail with which shapes can be perceived depends on the
length of time available for viewing them. A period of about a second is necessary for
VISUAL ·ACUITY to reach its maximum. The length of time taken to perceive a simple
shape is related to its size and brightness.

179

VISUAL OR OPTICAL ILLUSIONS

There are further difficulties in perceiving complex forms accurately in detail resulting from
the inability to perceive the parts of the shape independently of the whole. Many of the so
called Visual Illusions.

'VISUAL ILLUSIONS' make their effect because the observer's perception is influenced by
the inclusion of their parts in the whole pattern. In the figure below so-called Muller-Lyer illu-
sion, the upper horizontal line tends to look shorter than the lower, because it is difficult if
riot impossible to estimate the lengths of the two lines independently of the arrow heads
wh ich form part of the same figure .

< )> looks shorter ) aitrcetusaalmlye

lod<5 lettgffl

bgger

Another example below shows two horizontal Lines, actually straight and parallel, but be·
cause they are combined with the oblique lines, they look curved.

------> _______...

-----.....______

>

----_....

>

.~...-----..

180

A shape may be altered even by the background on which it is super_imposed. The two hori-
zontal lines are in fact straight and parallel although they appear stouter at the middle.

The mirror or water reflection of the word RIGHT becomes WRONG try it with a small mir-
ror.
If a contour divides_a Figure into an upper and lower part, There is a greater tendency for the
lower part to appear as the figure.

When two homogenous, differently coloured fields are shown with one considerably larger
than the other and enclosed it, then there is greater probability that the small enclosed field
will be perceived as the figure.

181

When two homogenous, differently coloured fields are sh own with one considerably larger
than the other and encloses it, then there is gr~ter probability that the small enclosed field
will be percieved as the f igure.

White figures against black backgrounds on black figures with holes in them.

(The white figure appear more readily than the black one with a hole in it.)

I \ b cl

I \

I \
I \
I \
I \

/I \\\
I\

I\
I\

J~------------~~

Which is longer distance "ab" or distance "de"?

182

Which is longer distance "ab"
or distance "de"

measure too see if you are
Hgtrt with your at1~wer.

Looks concave Two lines actually
parallel

183

This is perfect square -however-when the square is inscribed it looks distorted

This is a perfect circle-however-when in!;cribed by lines it looks distorted

0

When a square was preceded by a series of radiating lines the square distorted in the same
way as if they were expressed simultaneously.

184

PERCEPTION OF SPACE

DEPTH AND DISTANCE

An important feature of our perception of depth and solidity of objects is constituted by the
shadows which are casts upon parts of them by the general illumination. Normally, shadows
appear on the receding parts of objects and indicates recession and hence solidity. Changes
in the appearance of depth can be produced by altering the dir~>.ction of the incident light.
Parts of a surface in relief may be made to appear as if they protruded by directing light on to
it from below instead if from above as normal.

The perception of depth depends upon the direction of the light perceived, not on the physi-
cal direction of light. A concave relief (matrix) can reverse its depth and is then perceived as
a convex (patrix).

~ ~t\f2~HO'.:/ ~IM<X)gCJ Spet]f,f -fl~ ~'if ~f.ll1M

d/1/l )(aAI.fro awm~ MD~ s.p.Jad 3~1

.... ~ l ~J;~~·:l&~·:

""'

...
~ \..

.. ~ "' ~ ~.

185

FILED AND EMPTY DISTANCE

A depth filled with details appears to be greater than one of the same physical distance which
is empty.

I llllllltlllll

PROXIMITY ...
The proximity of the lines that appears to be in pairs ieads us to see three pairs and an

extra line at the right.

The sa,me lines ~s above, . but with, extensions, lead to the opposit~ pairing: Three
broken squares and an extra line at the left.

][ ][ ][ J

CONTRADICTORY DEPTH FACTORS

in this figure, it is perceived that the bigger square is
nearer. However, due to the factor of height location,
the bigger square can be farther away.

186

0

Small square is nearer due to height location' In this figure, when both squares are floating
it shows both are resting on a plane surface. in air. the bigger square is nearer.

VISUAL DEPTH

Despite the fact that the observer 'sees' and 'knows' in reality and feels with his feet that the
floor is composed of plane mosaic stones, it is impossible to avoid a perception of depth.

lrf f&is fl~m it is ifffposible Ahouse seen fromaR7\e can be lin open booJ<..

to ~etejliine wlftrHtm- the

Sprite '' llfllrer or(Urt1fer

away

187