Architectural Theories of Design

..,{ LI ~~' :· ~~ Specific human measurements
~-~--w-" :? are important in the production
of objects for them.

As an example, consider a chair.
What measurement do you think
determines the height of the-
seat? What about the backrest?
What about the width of the
seat?

The basic answers for all of these
questions involve measurements.
But in design we talk about "AN-
THROPOMETRICS" or the mea-
surement of the size and propor-
tions of the human body. (See
Chapter 3)

Anthropometries is a pure discipline. Measurements are objectively and scientifically obtain-

ed. Applying these measurements to produce a desired effect we call " ERGONOMICS or the

measurements of man implemented to accomodate him to machines. Anthropometries is

the tangible basis for producing optimum man-machine relationships. Clothing, furniture,

accessories: all are designed specificallv for people as the users. The physical space needs of

people are most critical in the drawing of floor plans. These needs are measurable, and so,

Aoor plans show physical spatial relationships.

There are other forms of physical space

too . In addition to the need of a certain

amount of area around each person,

everyone requires "VIS UAL SPACE": a

place to rest the ~y es. People prefer to

rest their eyes away from other people.

Indeed , it is a form of obtaining privacy

for which you do not need to be alone.

Just as you would not want a stranger to

I stare at you , neither would you want to
I stare at him for any length of time. For
both people, the feelings this activity can
/ create may be undesirable, for reasons we

/

/'

are not always aware.

We must consider another form of per-

ceptual space here. Even if the space an

individual has is physically large enough

and visually accomodating, noise can dis-

turb people·and give them a feeling of ina-

dequate space. Excessive noise is a com-

mon occurence. It can cause extreme psy-

..,,... chological illness, insomn ia, ulcers, heart
trouble and sundry other disorders. In
D addition, it dimishes the auditory sense it-
self. At a less severe level, it can provoke
anxiety and feelings of insecurity in peo-
ple who are continually subjected, to this

uncontrollable aspect of the environment.

238

SENSORY PERCEPTIONS Certain types of noise are all right. People
can habituate themselves to sounds that
1. Nose- "smell" olfactory (Air pollution, are regular and of low intensity. For ex-
carbon monoxide, factory nuisances, ample, the indistinguishable background
smogs) noise, called 'White sound" that we so
often hear in stores and large gathering of
* SEALED BUILDINGS people, usually causes no problems and,
in fact, is necessary. But exposure to in-
are used to control thermal environmental. termittent, high-intensity sounds, such as
police and ambulance sirens and screams,
2. EAR- "HEAR,. sonic boom from runways, for a long
(Noise, sonic boom) period of time may cause either physical
or psychological damage.
+ Acoustical Refinement.

3. EYE- "SEE"
* Judicious proper colors of light.

- - --Example of Physical space needs:

.76
239

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I SERVICE AREA

II CEILINEi
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LIVING AREA

LIVING AREA

C E I LII-J <:i

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+-- - 4 - TV CONSULE OR'JER
WASHeFt
+----J-TABLE', 1:'!!'51< ~----~--~ CABINETS
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SOFA. 9J:t.IGH, CHAIR STOVE'
FOOT STOOL SI"'K

FLOOR TOE CU:A~ANCE
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t----1-- DRESSER
t----1-- ORESSIN~ T.4BU;

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CH$f. S1tX:X.

240

Bottomof wall cabit1etss"(tmttrm)" Depth of ba?e c.abi11et

Ii ~........._....... 24" (Git711tm)

?witche4 and outlet~ 44"{tuBm~~---· !

counter ~· {911mm) - -····... U

mixit19 courrter 30' (8t3-~

pulloot or tatle top 30" (73?mm)vc::•~;--'"__._..!

KITCHEN

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ISINGLE BED CLEARANCES AND DIMENSIONS

241

THE PROCESS OF SPACE ORGANIZATION

The difference between the architecture of today and that of yesterday is profound and sig-
nificant. It is the result of a new approach made possible by changing social conditions and
advances in Technological contributions. Architecture no longer belongs to the past, but in-
stead to the present and future.

In the past, there was no freedom in planning since the designers only think of superficial
details. The inflexibility say, of the Renaissance exterior exerted a definite influence on inte-
rior arrangements. The regular spacing of symmetrical windows dictated the location of
walls which separated important rooms.

1Zt

~

'!1!1

a moderH way of WIHOOw
de5ign irregularity

In the past, the designers began and ended with a study of the external style, columns.
doors, windows. It proceeded from the particular to the general and not as first discussed in
Chapter 1, from the general to the particular, thus reversing the process of design. Today,
training in design begins with a study of the fundamental principles of planning based upon
the needs of people and the resultant architectural forms. Such training is possible because
architecture is no longer bound to tradition or style.

t

tf\ /I 1/

s tatic simple plaHning

Past Architecture-is static, heavy, inflexible, unreal

Now, arch itecture is dynamic, light, flexible, real, articulated planning.

242

In developing a set of basic principles for the production of a living architecture, the.architec-
tural designer should think of "space within a space", and not of solids in space.

Formerly we regarded buildings as piles of masonry for the purpose of separating man from
space. Now, architecture is space, conditioned to suit human needs. It is enc:osed with opa-
que, translucent and transparent materials in such a manner that man may exist comfortably
in it but may be spared the oppressiveness of heavy, confining walls.

The principles of space organization for architectural purposes are concerned with:

1. The use of space (utility, function) service to occupants.

2. The collaboration of materials (strength) permanence and security.

3. The contributions of aesthetics !beauty) architecture as distinguished from the first
two mere buildings.

The decision as to what type of organization to use in a specific situation will depend on.

1. The demands of the building program such as:

Functional proximities
Hierarchical classification of the spaces
Requirements for access, light or view.

2. Exterior Conditions of the site that might limit the organization's form or growth, or
that might encourage the organization to address certain features of its site and turn
away from others.

After knowing the 3 principles of space organization utility, strength and beauty. The archi-
tectural designer is ready to proceed with the organization and conditioning process. The
trained designer can think directly in terms of spatial relationships and can arrange in his
mind. The various three-dimensional volumes which produce architecture.

Those who possess the ability may go directly from a statement of the requirements of a
client to a picture of the various spaces or volumes combined in such a way that the needs of
the occupants will be served. This may be called " Design from Spatial Composition " in-
volving planning directly with three-dimensional volumes and the ability to comprehend
cubic contents anj proportions.

SPATIAL QUALITIES
y
for fux::tion5,
[II. If
c;:Joqed

D[jlJ

cowt p;rtrne11tal ized

243

l11tegrated Segr-egated

SCALAR FLEXIBILITY

MultipiB ceiling Multiple floor

"WARM" - " BRIGHT" - " MECHANICAL" - "COOL" - "DARK"

"INTIMATE" - "ORGAN IC" - "INVITING" - " ELEGANT"

(See, Scale Chapter 3) - "HOME-LIKE"

---...-: stairs

1
----1''

Elevator as vantage p:nHt

TAILORED SPACE

I F91

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OFFICES

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BATHROOM 0

LOBBY.. $n'TING AREA

SPACE TO SPACE RELATIONSHIPS

1. SPACE WITHIN A SPACE
A large space can envelop, and
contain within its volume, a smaller
space. Visual and spatial continuity
between the two spaces can be
easily accomodated, but the small-
er, " contained" space depends on
the larger, enveloping space for its
relationship to outdoor space.

245

The contained space should not be
too large as there will be no differ-
entiation in size and the original no-
t ion would be destroyed.

better too cot11pressed

The contained space may have a u11im~rta11t area
higher attention-value by:
<>
a. Taking the form of the envelop-
ing shape, but be oriented in a 0
different manner. This would
create a secondary grid and a set
of dynamic, residual spaces
within the larger space .

b. T he contained space may also
differ in form from the envelop-
ing space, and strengthen its im-
age as a freestanding object.
This contrast in form may indi-
cate a functional difference bet-
ween the two spaces, or the
symbolic importance of the con-
tained space.

r--- t .;•-----7:•1-
,·'-------'h'·
• •

246 . .•• •

D.
"I!
!!L'lfi ~ Moore House
!
Ori11da. Cal if0rt1ia. 1961

2. INTERLOCKING SPACE

In interlocking spatial relationships
consists of two spaces whose fields
overlap to form a zone of shared
space . When two spaces interlock
their volumes in this manner, each
retains its identity and definition as
a space . But the resulting configu-
ration of the two interlocking
spaces will be subject to a number
of interpretations.

v '\ Moore House

""--/ Orit1do. California . 196t

Three possibilites of the Interlock-
ing portion .

a. The interlocking portion of the
two volumes can be shared by
each space.

b. The interlocking portion can
merge with one of the spaces
and become an integral part of
its volume.

247

c. The interlocking portion can de-
velop its own integrity as a space
that serves to link the two origin-
al spaces.

Villa at Cartl1age : Tuni5ia. 1928 Le Cortusier

3. ADJACENT SPACES

This allow each space to be clearly
defined and to respond, each its
own way, to its functional or sym-
bolic requirements.

248

Four possibilities of Separating
Plane
a. Limit visual and physical access

between two adjacent spaces
reinforce the individuality of
each space. and accomodate
their differences.

b. Appear as a Free standing plane
in a single volume of space.

c. Be defined with a row of Col-
umns that allows a high degree
of visual and spatial continuity
between the two spaces.

0
~----··t

0

t-· --··t

0

d. Be merely implied with a change
in level or surface articulation
between the two spaces.

Mait1 Level: Three- .spa:es- tke livi11g, fireplace aKd di11i11g areas

are detaiHed by dfa11ges it1 floor level, ceitif1g

height, and q..mlity of light a11d view, ratker tha11

by wall planes.

249

4. SPACES LINKED BY A ircular Intermediate Sfa:e
COMMON SPACE

Two spaces that are separated by
distance can be linked, or related to
each other, by a third, intermediate
space. The relationship between
the two spaces will depend on the
nature of the third space to which
they share a common relationship.

WAYS OF LINKING COMMON
SPACE

a. The intermediate space can dif-
fer in form and orientation from
the two spaces to express its
linking function .

b. The two spaces as well as the
intermediate space, can be
equiva lent in shape and size
and form a linear sequence of
space.

b l"t\. i {\
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c. The intermediate.space can itself itrteflt'78diofe

become linear in form to link two

spaces that are distant (far)

from each other, or join a whole

series of spaces that have no

direct reJationship to one ano-

ther.

L--------1~():~-:::_-_-:_-_---+--_-_-_-_._. _._.--_---_-_-:_._. _._. _._.:_ =~ ==

\ ___/ 111termediate sp:xe liHkiHg a [ar disti:!Hced ~ce

d. The intermediate space can, if
large enough, become the domi-
nant space in the relationship
and be capable of organizing a
number of spaces about itself.

250

e. The form of the intermediate
space may be determined solely
by the forms and orientations of
the two spaces being linked or
related.

EXAMPLES OF SPACE TO SPACE RELATIONSHIPS

<t- --»

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(n ~

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~~

SPATIAl ORGANIZATIONS

A building's spaces can be arranged and organized in Five ways. However there are usually
requ irements for various kinds of spaces, such as:

1. Specific Functions, or requirement for specific
forms.

251

2. Spaces that are flexible in use and can be freely
manipulated.

3. Spaces that are singular and unique in their
function or significance to the building organi-
zation.

4. Spaces that have similar functions and can be
grouped into a functional cluster or repeated in
a linear sequence.

5. Spaces that require exterior exposure for light,
ventilation, view or access to outdoor spaces.

6. Spaces that must be segregated for privacy.

7. Spaces that must be easily accessible.

The manner in which these spaces are ananged can clarify their relative importance and
functional or symbolic role in a building's organization. The decision as to what type of or-
ganization to use in a specific situation will depend on:

1. Demands of the building program. such as:
Functions proximities, dimensional require-
ments, hierarchical classification of spaces, re-
quirements for access , light or view:·

2. Exterior conditions of the site that might limit
the organization's form or growth, or that
might encourage the organization to address
certain features of its site and turn away from
others.

FIVE CATEGORIES OF SPATIAL ORGANIZATION STUDIED IN TERMS OF:

• What kinds of spaces are accomodated and
where? How are they defined?

* What relationships are established among the
spaces, one to another, and to the exterior?

• Where is the organization entered and what
configuration?

• What is the exterior form of the organization
and how might it respond to its context?

Configuration - to form after an
arrangement of parts or a form or
figures determine by the arrange-
ment of parts.

Context -a joining together . The
whole situation, background or en-
vironment relevant to a particular
event. personalrty, creation.

252

FIVE WAYS TO ARRANGE AND ORGANIZE SPACE

1. CENTRALIZED
A central. dominant space about which a number of second -
ary spaces are grouped .

2. LINEAR
A linear sequence of repititive spaces.

DDODDDDO

3. RADIAL

l A central space f rom which linear organizations of space ex -
tend in a radial manner.

4. CLUSTERED

Spaces grouped by proximity or the sharing of a common
visual trait or relationship .

ODD DO 5. GRID
ODD DO Spaces organized within the field of a structural or other three-
dimensional grid.
00000
00000 253
00000

CENTRALIZED ORGANIZATIONS

A Centralized organization is a stable, concentrated composi-
tion that consists of a number of secondary spaces grouped
arounu a large, dominant, central space.

ltttroverted scheme that

focuses i11ward 011 it<3 cerrtral ~

The Central unifying space of the organization is generally re-
gular in form, and large enough in size to gather a number of
secondary space about its form.

The secondary spaces of the organization may be equivalent
to one another in function, form, and size. and create an
overall configuration that is geometrically regular and symme-
trical about two or more axis.

The secondary spaces may differ from
one another in their form or size as a
response to their individual require-
ments of function, relative importance,
or context. This differentiation among
the secondary spaces allows the form
of a centralized organization to res-
pond to varying conditions of its site.

254



DODD ODD Their significance can also be empha-
sized by their location: at the end of the
[I] t 2r Linear seq uence, offset from the linear
organization, or at the pivotal points of
a segmented linear form.

~DODD DO :(t- Because of their characteristic length,
linear organizations express a direc-
:O DDDDDD :4- tion, and signify movement, extension,
and growth. To limit their growth,
.linear organizations can be terminated
by a dominant space or form, by an
elaborated or articulated entrance.

~oooooooo ~

0000000~ Or by merging with another building
form or the topography of its site.

DODD

DDDDDDDDDD The form of a linear organization is in-
herently flexible and can respond readi-
Do ly to various conditions of its site. It
0 DoDo can adopt to changes in Topography,
maneuver around a body of water or a
D stand of trees, or turn to orient its
0 spaces to capture sunlight and views.

[J It can be straight, segmented, or curvi-
linear. In can run horizontally accross
256 its site, or diagonally up a slope, or
stand vertically as a Tower .

~~ I ~~@ II ~ rI D I 1<8> The form of a linear organization can
relate to other forms in its context by:
[~-------~~----·-------]-~ Linking and organizing them along its
11 length.

. .... Serving as wall or barrier to separate
·'' them into two different fields.

.·.·.... · .··.. '' . Surrounding and enclosing them
within a field of space.
.. :. ~ ·: ;''\.
.,. .. ·.. ·. ; ' .:.·.. .. :'· ·~·.

Curved and segmented forms of Linear
organizations enclose a field of exterior
space on their concave sides and orient
their spaces toward the center of the
field.

RADIAL ORGANIZATION

E'xtrove~t A radial organization of space com-
bmes elements of both centralized and
linear organizations . It consists of a do-
minant central space from which a
number of linear organizations extend
in a radial manner. It is an extroverted
scheme that reaches out to its context.

With its Linear arms, it can extend and
attach itself to specific elements or fea-
tures of its site.

257

The Central space of a radial organiza-
tion is generally regular in form. The
Linear arms, for which the Central
space is the hub, may be similar to one
another in form and length and main-
tain the regularity of the organization·s
overall form.

The radiating arms can also differ from
one another to respond to their indivi-
dual requirements of function and con-
text.

A specific variation of a radial organiza-
tion is the pinwheel pattern wherein
the linear arms of the organization ex-
tend from the sides of a square or rec-
tangular central space. This arrange-
ment results in a dynamic pattern that
visually suggests a rotational move-
ment about the central space.

258

.....-- ·-··---.. --..~.,.
,,v .~- , .... ~ ·-~

j',
I,
II

II ,
II

,.1

259

EXAMPLE OF A RADIAL.
···.. ORGANIZATION PLAN

~ -. q: ..~~~~~

.~AUFMANN (DESERT HOUSE) ~hn ~ngco.

CALIFORNIA . I~ Rictlartf Neutra
CLUSTERED ORGANIZATION

A clustered organization uses proximity to relate its spaces to
one another. It often consists of repititive, cellular spaces that
have similar functions, and share a common visual trait such as
shape or orientation.

Sharing commoH 611ape

(~ ~tape difteteHt 6iz.e.E)

A clustered organization can also accept within its composition
spaces that are dissimilar in size, form, and function, but related
to one another by proximity and a visual ordering device such
as symmetry or an axis.

Clustered spaces can be organized about a point of entry into a
building.

260

Or along the path of movement through it.

ooo0 The spaces can also be clustered about a large, defined field or
volume of space.

Do~

D

A clustered pattern lacks the compactness and geometric regu-
larity.

The spaces of a clustered organization can also be contained
within a defined field or volume of space.

Symmetry or an axial condition can be used to strengthen and
unify portions of a clustered organization and help articulate the
importance of a space or group of space within the organization .

DOD 0

D 0

oD 0

80 0

r•

tI
---- -l I
~..lo.....J~-$=====::::l~

.......

KARU!ZAWA HOUSE : CCXJ11try retreat 1974

Kisl1o Kumk'a'Na

261

GRID ORGANIZATIONS

A grid organization consists of form s and spaces
whose positions in space and relationships with
one another are regulated by a three-dimensional
grid pattern or field.

0 / ..• ..\ A grid is created by establishing a regular pattern
of points that define the intersections of tw o sets
v-.......: ~ '(r.; of parallel lines. Projected into the third dimen-
sion, the grid pattern is transformed into a set of
~A .....;;: repetitive, modular units of space .

I'---. A grid is established in architecture most often by a
skeletal structural system of columns and beams.
.rsu\?trac hve W ithin the field of this grid , spaces can occur as
r--- - ~ -t - ... ., - - 1.... - - isolated events or as repit itions of the grid module .

t , 'l Since a three-dimensional grid consists of repiti-
tive, modular units of space, it can be subtracted
.. I _...J _ _ j from, added to, or layered, and still maintain its
ident ity as a grid with the ability to organize
II spaces. These formal manipulations can be used
to adapt a grid form to its site, define an ent rance
t----t--+----1 - - - .,...._: or outdoor space. or allow for its growth and ex-
pansion .
·-·!

t - - - + - + -1 - - t -- f· ·• - '

t-+--+--+- 1--

"~ '···.~. ~.....~

262

.,r-··r-·-- -r--r-·

,.I
I ~1 I

r ·r - ~1-:-L:-1 _j

'I I II To accomodate the specific dimensional require-
ments of its spaces , or to articulate zones of space
. ,!- )- - ...I. I for circulation or service. a grid can be made irre-
.1:
I r gular in one or two directions . This would create a
I~ hierarchical-set of modules differentiated by size,
proportion anet tocc-rtion.
~ -~ L ~ ~ -~
I
- -·l - ~· .. -•.. 'I .J
'

Layera:t

A grid can also undergo other transformations.
Portions of the grid can slide to alter the visual and
spatial continuity across its field.

()' t-- A grid pattern can be interrupted to define a major
space or accomodate a natural feature of its site.

A portion of the grid can be dislocated and rotated
about a point in the basic pattern.

.263

The grid can transform its visual image across its
field from a pattern of points-to lines, to planes,
and finally, to volumes.

~---------·---------------------------------------------------------

ERK:; BOISSONAS HOUSE 1: New catfaal1, COtfttecticut I 19SG . Pkllip Jokl1sot1

A series of finite changes and permutations, the original design concept can be clarified,

strengthened and built upon, rather than destroyed.

~- --[r ?--\r-~-I-,t r-- r- - 1 - - -l

I ~

{

I I
I
L-- ___ J

ROTATED GRIDS

264

'\

'

St. MARI<S l'UVJER (Project) .
New York City , ~ . Frat1k Lloyd Wrtgkt

SPACE ARTICULATIONS

-=---- - -- l

~

I

I

1. The articulation of the surface of the
ground or floor plane is often used in
architecture to define a zone of space
within a larger spatial 'context'.

ArticuJa"tiOJ1 of a fi»1ctiol1221 Z0t1e wiH1it1

a 0118-rwtff liYittg Bl1viruHtn811t

265

2. Elevating a portion ot the base plane
will create a field of space and define
the boundary of its field and interrupts
the flow of space across its surface.
And if the surface continues up across
the elevated plane, then the elevated
plane will appear to be very much a
part of the surrounding space.

Build1hg ro site Tral19itt0l1

imperial villa , K3t!)Ura

I. .:··· •• •: •: •• I5
I I •I • I :I •... ...• • • • • • I I I

••o f C I I I (

a (carpet} around the elevated space only. Example -a carpet wrapped around
the floor and the elevated space.

. -- articulated 3. If the edge oondition is articulated by a
change in form, color, or texture then
I the field will become a plateau that is
separate and distinct from its sur-
-.-.~-.r _. ' roundings .

*. _1""--_

plat fOrn1 in a coquarG lake wrrou11ded by the

E'111pg~ livi11g quarter-G.

.266

..:::.:·:·.~...~..........::"::':::

Pre- ~I ·. New '1'ork 1970 Hamlt1el, 4. Within t he interior
spaces of a building, an
elevated floor plane can

define a space that

serves as a retreat from
the activity· around it. It
can be a platform for
viewing the surrounding
space. It can be used to
articulate a sacred or sin-
gular space within a
room.

Higl1 A\tar i11 the Olapel Of Mot1asiery of SA IN ,"E- MARIE - r::E-

t-.4- TCXJRETTE Ne~r R-.:mce 199.15·!39, Le CorbtJ"?ier

267

5. A field of space can be articulated by
deJjressing a portion of the base plane.

The boundaries of the field are defined

by the vertical surfaces of the depression.

To visually reinforce the independence of the de·
pressed field of space from its larger spatial context.
a contrast in form, geometry or orientation can be
used.

6 The ground plane can be de-
pressed to define sheltered
outdoor spaces for under-
ground buildings. A sunken
courtyard, protected from
surface level wind, noise, etc.
by the mass surrounding it,
can be a source of air, light,
and view from the under-
ground spaces opening onto
it.

UNDERGROUND VILLA6E near l.ayat1g, Chirle'

268

- - ----... ,. --- ---~---' -~"' ·~.~ ;-='----------~-

-< :"',

- - -·~ ---- -·- -. -:-:·-.- ~
' ' I!

A

7. Reading areas within a library space is defined by depressing their floor planes below the

main level of the library. The vertical surfaces in the reading area is used for additional

book· storage. LIBRARY wiTH ''sUNKEN''

naadir1g space:
'MJifsburg Cultur-al CEt1ter

E.:-55811 .6erma11y 1962.

Alvar Aalto

plane can be usua
pattern of its structural system.

Ma-;;ortry Vault Wood TruG~ ~+eel Joist
269

9. An area within a large room can be sunken to reduce the scale of the room and define a
more intimate space within it. The sunken area can also serve as a Transitional space
between two levels of a building.

------------- - -~,....-----------~-----··-·-·---·~-- ·-·

10. The ceiling plane of an interior space can ref-
lect the form of the structural system support-
ing the overhead floor or root plane. Since it
need not resist weathering forces, nor carry
major loads, however, the ceiling plane can
also be detached from the floor or roof plane
above and become a visually active element in
space.

11. The ceiling plane can be manipulated to de-
fine and articulate zones of space within a
room. It can be lowered or elevated to alter
the scale of a space, define a path of move-
ment through it, or allow natural overhead
light to enter it.

12. The form, color, texture and pattern of the
ceiling plane can also be manipulated to im-
prove the acoustical qualities of a space, or
give it a directional quality or orientation.

13. A vertical linear element, such as a column,
establishes a point on the ground plane and
makes it visible in space. Standing alone, a
column is non-directional except for the path
that would lead us to it.

14. The edges of the volume of space can be
visually reinforced by articulating its base
plane and establishing its upper limits with
beams spanning between the columns or with
an overhead plane.

271

•e 15. A row of columns or colonnades can define
the edges of a volume of space while permit-
e ting visual and spatial continuity to exist bet-
ween the space and its surroundings. It can
also be attached to or support a wall plane
and articulate its surface form, rhythm, and
proportion.

Examples of two uses of Column-Grid.
a) A column-grid establishes a fixed, neutral

(except for the circulation elements), field
of space in which interior spaces are freely
formed and distributed.

0• D 0 • Tst Floor Plan

MILLOWNERS': Ahmedatad ,

lt1dia , 1954 Le Cor~ier

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c:J 0 IJ

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b) A grid of columns a posts corresponds
closely to the layout of the interior spaces;
there is a close "fit" between structure
and space.

THIRD FLOOR PLAN

MILLOWNE~' AS50CIATle»J:

Ahmedotad l11dia : 1954 Le Corl:"x.J5J.sr

272

The Base Plane Elevated
A horizontal plane elevated above the ground plane establishes vertical surfaces along its
edges that reinforces the visual separation between its field and the surrounding ground.

The Base Plane Depressed
A horizontal plane depressed into the ground plane utilizes the vertical surfaces of the de·
pression to define a volume of space.

The Overhead Plane
A horizontal plane located overhead defines a volume of space between itself and the
ground plane.

16. A vertical plane will articulate the space that
is fronts.

It can appear to be merely a fragment if an in-
finitely larger or longer plane, slicing through
and dividing a volume of space.
A plane has frontal qualities. Its two surfaces
or "Faces" front' on and establish the edges of
two separate volumes of space.

.·

273

. .. .. ... .. .. . . . . The two faces of a plane can be equivalent

......... ... ·. ::~· and front similar spaces.
Or they can be differentiated in form, color, or
texture, to respond to, or articulate, different
spatial conditions. A plane, therefore, can
have two "fronts", or a " Fronts" and a
''back".

17. The height of a plane, relative to our height
and eye-level, is the critical factor that affects
the plane's ability to visually describe space.
When two feet high, a plane can define the
edge of a field but provides little or no sense
of enclosure for the field.

When waist-level high, it begins to provide a
sense of enclosure while allowing for visual
continuity with surrounding spaces.

When it approaches our eye-level in height it
begins to divide one space from another.

Above our height, a place interrupts visual
and spatial continuity between two fields and
provides a strong sense of enclosure.

274

19. Various elements in architecture can be seen
as parallel planes that define a field of space.
They can be interior walls of a building , the
exterior walls or facades of two adjacent
buildings, a colonnade of columns, two rows
of trees or hedges, or a natural topographical
form in the landscape.

KINESTHETIC QUALITIES OF SPACE

KINESTHETIC-
The sensation of movement or strain in muscles, tendons, joints. A good example of a build-
ing with Kinesthetic qualities of space is the Old Imperial Hotel in Tokyo designed by Frank
Lloyd Wright. It provides the Westerner with a constant visual, Kinesthetic, and tactile re-
minder that he is in a different world.

The changing levels, the circular, walled-in, intimate stairs to the upper floors, and the small
scale are all new experiences. The long halls are brought to scale by keeping the walls within
reach. Wright, an artist in the use of texture, used the roughest of bricks, then separated
them by smooth, gilled mortar set in from the surface a full half-inch.

,.~ Walking down these halls the guest is almost compelled to run his
fin gers along the grooves. The brick is so rough that to obey this impulse
would be to risk mangling a finger. With this device Wright enhances the
experience of space by personally involving people with the surfaces of
the building.

The early designers of the Japanese Garden apparently understood something of the interre-
lationship between the Kinesthetic experience of space and the visual experience. Lacking
wide-open spaces, and living close together as they do, the Japanese learned to make the
most of small spaces. They were particularly ingenious in stretching visual space by exagge-
rating kinesthetic involvement. Not only are their gardens designed to be viewed with the
eyes but more than the usual number of muscular sensations are built into the experience of
walking through a Japanese garden.

Z75

The visitor periodically forced to watch his step as he picks his way
along irregularly spaced stepstones set in a po.ol. At each roc~, he must
pause and look down to see where to step next. Even the neck muscles
are deliberately brought into play. Looking up, he is arrested for a mo-
ment by a view that is broken as soon as he moves his foot to take up a
new perch. In the use of interior space, the Japanese keep the edges of
their rooms clear because everything takes place in the m1ddle.

Q

D

.o 0

.Japattese rcom

Europeans tend to fill up the edges by placing furniture near or against walls . As a conse-
quence, Western rooms often look less cluttered to the Japanese than they do to us. In
America, the conventional idea of the space needed by office employees is restricted to the
actual space required to do the job. Anything beyond the minimum requirement is usually
regarded as a "Frill".
The concept that there may be additional requirements is resisted at least in part because of
the American's mistrust of subjective feelings as a source of data . We can measure with a
tape whether or not a man can reach something, but we must apP,IY an entirely different set
of standards to judge the validity of an individual's feeling of being cramped.

HIDDEN ZONES IN
AMERICAN OFFICES

People's reaction to office space reveals that the single most important criterion is what peo·
pie can do in the course of their work without bumping into something. Offices provides dif-
ferent spatial experiences. One office would be adequate, another would not.
One example is an employee who had a habit of pushing herself away from her desk and
leaning back in her chair to stretch her arms, legs, and spine .

away ~ (rvm · de~k shove

If the employee touched the wall when she learned back, the office struck her as too small. If
she didn't touch the wall, she considered it ample.

276

There are 3 HIDDEN ZONES in American Offices:
1. The immediate work are of the desk top and chair.

0 2. A series of points within arm's reach outside the area men-
tioned above.

3. Spaces marked as the limit reached when one pushes away
from the desk to achieve a little distance from the work with-
out actually getting up.

An eclosure that permits only movement within the first area is experienced as " cramped".
An office the size of the second is considered " small". An office with zone 3 space is consi-
dered "adequate" and in some cases "ample".

Kinesthetic Space is an important factor in day-to-day living in the buildings that architects
and designers create. Hotel rooms are too small when a person cannot move around them
without bumping into things. Comparing two rooms, identical in shape and area, the one
that permits the greater variety of free movement will usually be experienced as larger. Interi-
or spaces should be improved in the layout, so that people are not always bumping into each
other.

this room loot<s lar(jU ihan this

277

Given the fact that there are great individual and cultural differences in spatial needs, there
are still certain generalizations which can be made about what it is that differentiates one
space from another. Briefly what you can do in it determines how you experience a given
space.
A room that can be traversed in one or two steps gives an entirely different experience from
a room requiring fifteen or twenty steps. A small restaurant with say twenty five small tables
for four people, when filled up will always look crowded and will give a person an experience
he is eating in a popular restaurant. While a spacious restaurant with say eighty tables for
four, when occupied only by the same number of people as the small restaurant or 100 cus-
tomers will still look empty and gives an impression of not fully occupied.

took~ empty

A room with a ceiling you can touch is quite different from one with a ceiling that is high.

In large outdoor spaces, the sense of spaciousness actually experieQced depends on
whether or not you can walk around.
In an Ex hibition room, as shown p . 279 the viewer is given the kinesthetic experience by
making the display pictures in a variety of levels, contrast of verticals and horizontals, large
anrl small panels, which are all done to m ove the viewer's eye. Some picture frames are at

c:e1ling heights, some are hanging and some are at near the floor level. others are just at eye

lev el.

PLANNED TRAFFIC FLOW
One example is the photographic art exhibit called " the Family of Man" -503 pictures

occupying some 8,000 Feet !2. 700 meters) o t wall space in New York's Museum of Modern
Ar t Planneci and executed by Erlwaro Sti!IChen . A f loor Plan was made by Architect Paul·

278

Rudolph, which is a crucial step in determining the overall arrangement of pictures.

To give the show pace and rhythm, Steichen and Rudolph wanted to be sure that peo-
ple saw the pictures in a certain order-large Keynot pictures alternating with contemplative
images, sorrowful subjects interspersed with lighthearted ones, The existing wall space is
used as well as for the construction of supplementary panel-which not only increased the
available display area but also functioned as conduits for the flow of traffic. Further, .after the
plans were moade, a reduced scale model was made so that the planners could see a small
but full version of the show.

In the miniature laboratory, pictures were tested in arrangements. The photographs
were reduced proportionately and positioned in the model; Steichen could then see pictures
'juxtaposed' in relative size, When adjustments were called for, the pictures could be reposi-
tioned and altered in size: entire panels could be moved around to establish new relation-
ships among groups of pictures.

11 1

~ElLING H!}IGHTI FRAMES (

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floor level J low level

b«! ofgravel fOr protectiof1 floor d1~p1ay

of ptcturo:; from toucH
VARIETY OF LEVELS, CONTRAST OF VERTICAL. AND HORI1.0NTAL5,
I
LAR6E AND 5MALL. PANELS ARE OONE TO MOVE THE VJEWER5 EYI:

279





APPEARANCE OF
THE STRUCTURE

The principles related to appearance was discussed in Chapter 3 wherein composition of
mass, volume, areas and details were organized according to contrast, scale, balance, pro-
portion, rhythm, unity and character. Architecture does not necessarily result from the deve-
lopment of a functional building that is based only upon the importance of use and materials.
The various units of the structure may be correctly related to each other. but the proportions
of the different volumes could be so inharmonious that only ugliness and confusion would
exist.

It is necessary that a building be organized for appearance. The plan and the resultant

masses, volumes, surfaces and details-should be developed according to the ru les of compo-
sition. The principles of composition may be applied alike to the two-dimensional plans and
surfaces or to the three dimensional volumes.

LINE GENERATED CIRCULATION

SHAPES IN PLAN LONGITUDINA L SECTION CROSS SECTIONS

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282

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283

FORMS AND IMAGES

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SPACE - CIRCULATION RELATIONSHIPS

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DIAGONAL

NE"CK L lt-.IK

284

SPACE TO CIRCULATION LINKAGES

51N6LE LOADED DOUBLt:: LOADED

ENVELOPe-D

ALTERNATE SOLID VOID
BUILDING IMAGE

285

CHECKLIST OF CATEGORIES OF CONCERN
FOR A DESIGNER

1. FUNCTION {activity grouping and zoning), p. :llo

2. SPACE (Volume required by activities), p. 234

3. GEOMETRY (circulation, form and image), p. 282
4. CONTEXT (site and climate), p. 328

5. ENCLOSUR E (structure, enclosing planes and openings), p. 372
6. SYSTEMS (Mechanical, electrical, etc.), p. 388
7. ECONOMIC (first, costs maintenance costs), p. 436
8. HUMAN FACTORS (perception, behavior), p. 458

a. Where the designer should concentrate his design efforts on his perceptions of the

problems essence and its unique characteristics.

b. What the physical elements to be manipulated are within each of the issue cate·
gories.

Examp1es:

1. FUNCTIONAL GROUPING AND ZONING

( HYGI E:Nr:.) (RECREATION )

SEDROOM BEDROOM [T~8] c-~-N-N-15-rWIMMJNq }r-5-U_N_D_f:ZC_K__]

5La:FPJNG

'TOILET DeN LIVIN& RCICM DINING KlTCH~N

HOUSE (FOOD)

Under this category we study the need for adjacency, similarity in general role, relatedness
to Departments. goals and systems, sequence in time, required environments, relative proxi·
mity to building, volume of people involved, extent of man or machine involvement. degree
of emergency or critical situations, frequency of activity occurence, etc .

CIRCULATION

MOVEMENT THROUGH SPACE

The circulation path can be conceived as the perceptual thread that links the spaces of a
building, or any series of interior or exterior spaces, together.

Since we move in TIME, through a Sequence of Spaces, we experience a space in relation
to where we've been, and where we anticipate going .

The following are Five principal components of a building's circulation system as positive
elements that affect our perception of the building's forms and spaces.

CIRCULATION ELEMENTS

1. THE BUILDING APPROACH

286 The distant View

Prior to actually entering a building's interior, we approach its entrance along a path. This

is the first phase of the circulation system, during which use are prepared to see, experi-
ence, and use the building's spaces.
The approach to a building and its entrance may vary in duration. from a few paces

through a compressed space to a lengthy and circuitous route. It can be either.

a. Frontal

• A frontal approach leads directly

to a building's entrance along a

straight, axial path.

• The visual goal that terminates
the approach is clear; it can be
the entire front facade of a build-
ing or an elaborated entrance
within it.

b. Oblique
• An oblique,approach enhances the
effect of perspective on a build-
ing's front facade and form.

• The path can be re-directed one
or more times to delay and pro-
long the sequence of the ap-
proach.

287