ASNT NDT Handbook Volume 3 Infrared and Thermal Testing

field of vision: Range or area where focusing, automatic: (1) Feature of
camera, usually incorporating a range
things can be perceived
organolf>ptically nt a point in time, finder, whereby the lens system
assuming the eye to be immobile. 1
filter: (1) Network or device that passes adjusts to focus on an object in part of
the field of view. (2) Metaphorical
electromagnetic wave energy over a attribute of a borescopic instrument's
described range of frequencies and depth of field (the range of distance in

attenuates energy at all other focus). The depth of field is so great in
frequencies. 1'4 (2) Processing the case of video borescopes that
component or function that excludes
focusing is unnecesscuy for most
a selected kind of signal or part of a applications. 1 Longer depths of field
signal. 1 (3) In optics, a sequence of are obtained by reducing the optical

materials so arranged to pass selected aperture.
wavelengths and to block or attenuate focusing, primary: l:ocusing of an image

others. by the lens onto a fiber optic bundle
filtering: See low pass filtering.
filter, spectral: Optical element, usually at the tip of a probe. 1

transmissive, used to restrict the focusing, secondary: Focusing at the

spectral band of energy received by an eyepiece of a borescope or other
instrument's detector. optical instrument, specifically the

fine crack: Discontinuity in a solid manual refocusing needed when the
material with a very fine opening to viewing distance changes. 1
focus, principal plane of: Single plane
the surface, but possessing length and
depth greater than the width of this actually in focus in a photographic
scene. 1
opening. Usually the depth is many foreground temperature (see instrummt
times the width. 1 ambient background): Temperature of
the scene behind and surrounding the
finite element analysis: Numerical instrument as viewed from the target.
technique for the analysis of a system foreign materials: They may appear as
isolated, irregular or elongated
whereby that system is decomposed
into a collection of finite sized variations not corresponding to
elements. 1
focal plane array (FPA): Linear or two- variations in thickness of material or
to cavities. May be sand, slag, oxide or
dimensional matrix of detector dross metal or any material included
elements, typically used at the focal in the material being examined. 1

plane of an instrument. In forging crack: Discontinuity formed
during mechanical shaping of metal. 1
thermography, rectangular FPAs are
used in staring (nonscanning) infrared foundry: Establishment or building where
imagers. These are called IRFPA metal castings are produced. 1
imagers.3
focal point: Point at which the frame: Complete raster scan projected on
instrument optics image the infrared a video screen. In North America,
there are 30 frames per second in a
detector at the target plane. In a
radiation thermometer, this is where standard video output, either
Electronics Industry Association (EIAJ
the spot size is the smallest. In a RS~170 or National Television
Standards Committee (NTSC) format;
scanner or imager, this is where the
instantaneous field of view (lFOV) is in Europe, 25 frames per second in
smallest.3
focal zone: Distance before and after the phase alternation line (PAL) or
Systeme Electronigue Couleur avec
focal point in which the intensity J\,f{~nwire (SECAM) formats. A frame

differs a specified amount (usually may be comprised of two interlaced
6 dB) from the focal intensity. Also fields, each displaying part of the total
called depth of field or depth of" fows. 1 frame. See also {ield.l
focus: Position of a viewed object and a
lens system relative to one another to frame repetition rate: Time it takes an

offer a distinct image of the object as infrared imager to scan (update) every
thermogram picture element (pixel);
seen through the lens system. See in frames per second.:{
accommodation and dept II of field. 1
fu1l scale: The span between the

minimum value and the maximum
value that any instrument is capable

of measuring. In a thermometer, this
would be the span between lhe

highes't and lowest temperature that
can be measured.:{

686 Infrared and Thermal Testing

G hertz (Hz): A unit of measurement of
signal frequency; 1 Hz = 1 cycle per
gas tungsten arc welding (GTA\N): Inert
gas shielded arc welding using a second.::~
tungsten electrode. Also ca11ed tunssten
inert gas (fiG) welding. I holes: Voids remaining in an object as a
result of improper manufacturing
general examination: Test or processing. Often called sas lwle.~,
examination of a person's knowledge, all'ities or air locks.'
typically (in the case of nondestructive
testing personnel qualification) a hot tear: See crack, hot.
written test on the basic principles of a hue: Characteristic of light at a particular
nondestructive testing method and
general knowledge of basic equipment bandwidth that gives a color its
used in the method. (According to name. 1
ASNT's guidelines, the general hundred percent testing: See ow: hundred
examination should not address Jwn·eut testing.
knowledge of specific equipment, hyperthermia: Heating so excessive that
codes, standards and procedures it can damage or kill plant or animal
pertaining to a particular application.) cells. 1
Compare practiml examination and
specific examination. 1 illuminance: Density of luminous flux on
a surface. Ivfeasured in the SI system
gray body: See grarbody. bylux. 1
graybody: Radiator ·whose spectral
illuminate: Shed light on.'
emissivity is uniform for all illumination: Act of illuminating or state
wavelengths (but not 1.0) and has
value less than 1.0. Sec blackbody. 1 of being illuminated. See also
gray level: Integer number representing illuminate. Compare illuminance.IJ•
the brightness or darkness of a pixel image: Visual representation of a test
or, as a composite value, of an image object or scene. 1
comprised of pixels. 1 image display tone: Gray shade or color
hue on a thermogram.3
H image enhancement: Any of a variety of
image processing steps, used singly or
heat: Energy associated with the random in combination to improve the
and chaotic motions of the atomic detectability of objects in an image. J
particles from which matter is image guide: Fiber bundle that carries the
composed. All materials (hot or cold) picture formed by the objective lens at
contain heat and radiate infrared the distal end of a fiber optic
energy. The unit for measuring heat is horescope back to the eyepiece. 1
the joule (J), equal to about 0.24 image, infrared: See thermogram.
calorie (cal) or 9.481 x J0-4 British image orthicon: Television tube that uses
thermal units (BTUs). Compare photoemission to create an image.
infrared radiation and tempemture. 1 image processing: Actions applied singly
or in combination to an image, in
heat checking: Surface cracking caused particular the measurement and
when metal rapidly heated (or cooled alteration of image features by
and heated repeatedly) is prevented computer. Also called picturC'
from expanding freely by colder metal processilig. 1
below the surface. Friction may image pt·ocessing, thermal: Analysis of
produce the heat. Sometimes ca1led thermal images, usually by computer;
thermal fatigue. I enhancing the image to prepare it for
computer or visual analysis.·~ In the
heat treatment: Heating and cooling a case of an infrared image or
metal or alloy in such a way as to thermogram, this could include
obtain desired conditions or temperature scaling, spot temperature
properties. Heating for the sole measurements, thermal profiles, imagf'
purpose of working is excluded from manipulation, subtraction,
the meaning of this definition. 1 discontinuity detection, qualitative
asse-ssment, quantitative
heat wave: Thermally produced variation characterization and storage. See
in flue gas density that distorts images signal processin,g.
of objects in a firebox.l image segmentation: Process in which
the image is partitioned into regions,
hemispherical properties, radiation: each homogeneous. 1
Radiation properties (emissivity,
absorptivity, reflectivity) as referenced
to all directions of hemispherical
space.

Infrared and Thermal Testing Glossary 687

imager, infrared: An infrared instrumenl infrared camera: Radiometer that collect~
that collects the infrared radiant infrared radiation to create an image
of the infrared radiance field. This
eneq,'y from a target surfare and image may then be transformed to an
produces an image in monochrome image of the temperatme field. 1

(black and white) or color, where the infrared focal plane array {JlUPA):
gray shades or color hues correspond Linear or two-dimensional matrix of
individual infrared detertor elements,
respectively to target exitance.:l typicallr used as a detector in an
imaging radiometer: Infrared thermal infrared imaging instn1ment.:~

imager that provides quantitative infrared radiation: Radiant energy
thermal images.:t beyond the color red, of wavelengths
from the red visible (0.75 pm) to
impurities: Elements or compounds about 300 pm, between the visible and
microwave regions of the
whose presence in a material is electromagnetic spectrum. 1,h
unintentional. 1
infrared radiation thermometer:
incandescence: Emission of visible Instrument that converts incoming
radiation due to thermal excilation. 1 infrared radiant energy from a spot
on a target surface to a measurement
incandescent: Emitting visible radiation value that can be related to the
as a result of heating. 1 temperature of that spot.~~

inclusion: Foreign particles or impurities, infrared thermal imager: Instrument or
system that converts incoming
usually oxides, sulfides, silicates and infrared radiant energy from a target
such retained in metal (welds or surface to <I thermal map, or
thermogram, on which color hues or
castings), forming during solidification gray shades can be related to the
or subsequent reaction of the solid temperature distribution on that
metal. 1
in control: \-\'ithin prescribed limits of surface.~t

process control.' infrared thermography: Imaging of a
indication: Nondestructive testing temperature field through the emitted
infrared radiation. See infrared
discontinuity response that requires radiation. Compare t!Jermogmphy.
interpretation to determine its
inspection: See examination.
relevance. Compare defect, discoutinuity instantaneous field of view (IFOV):
and false indication.'
indication, discontinuity: Visible Angular subtense (expressed in angular
evidence of a material discontinuity. degrees or radians per side if
rectangular and angular degrees or
Subsequent interpretation is required radians if round) over which an
to determine the significance of an instrument will integrate all incoming
indication. 1 radiant energy; the projection of the
indication, false: Indication produced by detector at the target plane. In a
radiation thermometer this defines the
something other than a discontinuity. target spot size; in a line scanner or
Can arise from improper test imager it represents one resolution
procedures. I element in a scan line or a

indication, nonrelevant: Indication due thermogram and is a measure of
to misapplied or improper testing. spatial resolution>{
Jvfay also be an indication caused by intensity, radiant: Luminous flux per
steradian emanating from a visible
an actual discontinuity that does not source, measured in lm·sr1• Also, the
affect the usability of the object (a wdiant flux per steradian emanating
change of section, for instance). 1 from that source and measured in
'.V·sr1•
indication, relevant: Indication from a interface: lloundary between two
discontinuity {as opposed to a adjacent mcdia. 1
nonrelevant indication) requiring interprctalimt: Determination of the
evaluation by a qualified inspector, significance of test indications from
the standpoint of their relevance or
typically with reference to an irrelevance. Tht' determination of the
acceptance standard, by virtue of the cause of an indication or the
discontinuity's size or location. 1A evaluation of the significance of
indium antimonide (lnSh): Material discontinuities hom the standpoint of
whether they arc detrimental or
from which fast, sensitive inconsequential. 1

photodetectors used in infrared
scanners and imagers are made. Such

detectors usually requiring cooling
while in operation. Operation is in tlw

short wave band (2 to 5 pm).
inertia, thermal: See thermal e({usil'ity.

infrared: lleyond infrared, referring to
radiation with frequency lower than,
and wavelength greater than, that of
the color red. See in(mred radiation.

infrared and thermal testing:

Nondestructive testing that uses heat
diffusion and infrared radiation as

interrogating energy.

688 Infrared and Thermal Testing

IR: (1) Abbreviation for infrared. (2) In laser: Acronym (light 'implification by
ASNT, an abbreviation for the infrared stimulated emission of radiation). The
and thermal testing method.
laser produces a highly mono-
IRFPA: See iu{rared focal plaue array. chromatic and coherent (spatial and
lRI<PA imager or camera: Infrared
temporal} beam of radiation. A steady
imaging instrument that incorporates oscillation of nearly a single
a two·dimensional infrared focal plane
array and produces a thermogram electrom;:tgnetic mode is maintained
without mechanical scanning.3 in a volume of an active material
irradiancc: Power of ~lectromagnetic
radiant energy incident on or radiated bounded by highly reflecting surfaces,
from the surface of a given unit area. called a resonator. The frequency of
Compare radim1ce. 1
isotherm: Locus or pattern superimposed oscillation varies according to the
on a thermogram or on a line scan
that includes or highlights all points material used and by the methods of
that have the same apparent initially exciting or pumping the
temperature.3 material. 1•0
isotropy: Condition in which significant laser pyrometer: Infrared radiation
medium properties {velocity, for
example) are the same in all thermometer that projects a laser
directions. 1 beam to the target, uses the reflected

K laser energy to compute target
effective emissivity and automatically
. kelvin: Absolute temperature scale related
to the celsius (or centigrade) relative computes target temperature
scale. The kelvin unit is equal to 1 "C; (assuming that the target is a diffuse
0 kelvin= -273.16 "C; the degree sign
and the ·word degrees are not used in reflector). Not to be confused with
describing kelvin temperatures.3 laser aided aiming devices on some
radiation thermometers.3
Kirchoff's law: Principle that the
summation of all flux exchanges leak: Opening that allows the passage of a
(aborbed, reflected, transmitted) on a fluid. 1
semitransparent object equal unity.
leal<age: ~vfeasurable quantity of fluid
L
escaping from a leak. I
lack of fusion: Discontinuity due to lack leakage rate: Quantity of leakage fluid per
of union between ·weld metal and
parent metal or between successive unit time that flows through a leak at
weld beads. 1 Also called incomplete a given temperature as a result of a
pe1zetrati011. specified pressure difference across the
leak. 1
lambcrtian: Having a surface that emits leak testing (LT): Nondestructive testing
uniformly in all directions. A blackbody method for detecting, locating or
is a Jambertian source.
measuring leaks or leakage in
lamination: Discontinuity in plate, sheet pressurized or evacuated systems or
or strip caused by pipe, inclusions or components. 1
blowholes in the original ingot. After lens: Translucent object that refracts light
rolling, laminations are usually flat
and parallel to the outside surface. passing through it in order to focus
Laminations may also result from the light on a target,1
pipe, blisters, seams, inclusions or lens optics: See geometrical optics.
segregation elongated and are made light: Hadiant energy that can excite the
directional by working. Lamination retina and produce a visual sensation.
discontinuities may also occur in The visible portion of the
metal powder compacts. 1 May appear
in the form of rectangles or plates as electromagnetic spectrum, from about
inclusion stringers between rolled 380 to 770 nm. 1·6
surfaces. Short, intermittent light, speed of: See speed of light.
laminations may be detrimental if the limited certification: Individuals who are
object is subjected to high bending
stresses in service.I certified only for specific operations
are usually called limited Lew! (f, II or

Ill) or are designated as having limited
certification because they are not
qualified to perform the full range of

activities expected of personnel at that
level of qualification. 1
line pair: Pair of adjacent, parallellim•s

used to evaluate the resolution of a
specific imaging system. See also
miuimum li11e pair. I

Infrared and Thermal Testing Glossary 689

line scanner, infrared: Instrument that material noise: Random signals caused by
scans an infrared field of view along a the material structure of the test
strJight line at the target plane in
order to collect infrared radiant energy object. A component of background
from a line on the target surface, noise. 1
usually done by incorporating one
scanning element within the mathematical morpholo&'1': Image
instnuncnt. If the target {such as a processing technique of expanding
sheet or \Veb process) moves at a fixed
rate normal to the line scan direction, and shrinking. The basic operators in
the result can be displayed as a mathematical morphology are dilation
thermogram.J
(expanding), erosion (shrinking),
line scan rate: Number of target lines opening and closing. 1
scanned by an infrared scanner or matte: Tending to diffuse light rather
imager in one second.:l
than refJect it; not shiny. The term
liquid crystals: Liquids (generally matte is generally applied to smooth
cholesterol esters) whose optical surfaces or coatings. Compare
properties cause t11em to reflect vivid specular.'
spectral colors for temperature measurement spatial resolution,
changes. Their adjustable response is IFOVmeas: Smallest target spot size on
sensitive and can be made to change
from red to blue over a temperature which an infrared imager can produce
gradient as small as 1 K (1 °C:::::: a measurement, expressed in terms of
1.8 °F). 1
angular subtense (mrad per side). The
lot tolerance percent defective: In slit response function (SRF) test is used
quality control, the percent defective to measure JFOVmcas.J
at which there is a 10 percent
probability of acceptance in a measurement system: Entire system from
production run.l sensor to display inclusive.1

low pass filtering: Passage of low mechanical properties: Properties of a
frequencies or long wavelengths, with material that reveal its elastic and
attenuation of high frequencies or inelastic behavior where force is
short wavelengths. applied, thereby indicating its

lumen: Luminous flux per steradian from suitability for mechanical applications
a source whose luminous intensity is 1 (for example, modulus of elasticity,
candela. Symbolized /m.l
tensile strength, elongation, hardness
luminance: Ratio of a surface's luminous and fatigue limit). 1
intensity in a given direction to a unit medium, transmitting medium:
of projected area. Measured in candela
per square meter. I Composition of the measurement path
between a target surface and the
luminosity: Luminous efficiency of
radiant energy. 1 measuring instrument through which

lux: Unit of measure for illuminance in the radiant energy propagates. This
Sl. Equivalent to lumens per square can be vacuum, gaseous (such as air),
meter and symbolized lx. Formerly solid, liquid or any combination of
known as rneter-candlc.l
these.:~
M
melting point coatings: Coatings that
machine vision: Automated system melt at some specific temperature.
function of acquiring, processing and
analyzing images to evaluate a test Anomalies are usually associated with
object or to provide information for a temperature increase, so the
human interpretation. A typical
system consists of a light source, a materials melt first over anomalks.
video camera, a video digitizer, a A·telting point compounds also are
computer and an image display. 1
comparatively insensitive and require
magnitude: Absolute value of a complex relatively high surface temperatures.'
number.
mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe):
manual zero: Control on a test l'vfaterial used for fast, sensitive
instrument that allows the user to zero
the instrument p;:mel metcr. 1 infrared photodetectors used in

mask: (1) Spatial filter in the sensing unit infrared sensors, scanners and imagers
of a surf<Ke inspection system. (2) An that requires cooled operation..~
11 x H matrix that serves as a filter in
image processing.1 Operation is in the long wavelength
region (8 to 12 pm).

micrometer (pm): One millionth of a
meter (1 x IO-(; m); a unit used to

express ·wavelength in the infrared
band.
micron: Disfavored term for miovmeta
milliradian (mrad): One thousand til of a
radian (1 radian= lSO·n-1); a unit used
to express instrument angular field of

view; ann angle wlwst' tangent is
equal to 0.001; 1 mrall =

0.057 295 7SO).<

690 Infrared and Tllermal Testing

minimum line pair: Closest distance that noise equivalent temperature
difference: Temperature difference
a specific imaging system can resolve
that is jusl equal to the noise signal; a
between a pair of adjacent, parallel measure of thermal resolution, but not
lines (line pair) used to evaluate spatial
system resolution.! taking into account characteristics of
minimum resolvable temperature the display and the subjective
difference: Thermal resolution; interpretation of the operator.3
thermal sensitivity: the smallest nondestructive characterization (NDC):
temperature difference that an Branch of nonde$lructiw testing
instrument can clearly distinguish out
of the noise, taking into account concerned with the description and
characteristics of the display and the
subjective interpretation of the prediction of material properties and
operator. 3 with the behaviors of components and
MKSA: System of measurement units
based on the meter, kilogram, second systems.
and ampere. nondestructive evaluation (NDE):
modulation: In general, the changes in
one ·wave train caused by another; in Another term for nondestructive testing.
thermal scanning and imaging, image In research and academic
luminant contrast communities, the word evaluation is
(lmax- lm!nHLmax + Lmin)~1 •3 often preferred because it emphasizes
modulation transfer function (MTF):
Measure of the ability of an imaging interpretation by knowledgeable
system to reproduce the image of a personnel.1
target. A formalized procedure is used
to measure MTF. It assesses the spatial nondestructive examination (NDE):
resolution of a scanning or imaging Another term for nondestructive testing.
system as a function of distance to the In the utilities and nuclear industry,
target.3 exa1ni1zation is sometimes preferred
because testi11g can imply performance
N trials of pressure containment or
power generation systems. 1
narrow banded: Relative term denoting a
restricted range of frequency nondestructive inspection (NDI):
response. 1 Another term for nondestructive testing.
In some industries (utilities, aviation),
National Institute of Standards and the word inspection often implies
Technology: See NIST. maintenance for a component that
has been in service.I
NBS: See NIST.
NDC: Nondestructive clzaracterizati011. nondestructive testing (NDT):
NDE: (1) Nondestructive evaluation. (2) Determination of the physical

Nondestructive examinati011. condition of an object without
NDI: N011destructive i11spection. affecting that object's ability to fulfill
NDT: Nondestructive testi11g.
NIST: National Institute of Standards and its intended function. Nondestructive
testing techniques typically use a
Technology (formerly National Bureau
of Standards), United States probing energy to determine material
Department of Commerce, properties or to indicate the presence
Gaithersburg, Maryland.3
NIST traceability: Traceability to the of material discontinuities. See also
National Institute of Standards and 1101ldestructil'e clwracteri?.ation,
Technology (NlST) is a means of 1W1Ufeslructive evallwtimi, twndestructiw
ensuring that reference standards examination and IWWlestructive
(such as calibrated leaks or heat inspecti011. 1
sources) remain valid and that their
calibration remains current.J nongraybody: Radiating object that does
noise: Any undesired signals that tend to
interfere with normal reception or not have a spectral radiation
processing of a desired signal. The distribution similar to a blackbody and
origin may be an electrical, photonic,
thermal or acoustic source- can be partly transparent to infrared
indicating either small discontinuities
or abrupt changes in properties of the (transmits infrared eneq,')' at certain
test material. 1 wavelengths); also called a colored body.

Glass and plastic films are examples of
nongraybodics.3 The emissivity of a
colored body has a spectral

dependence.
nonrelevant indication: See indication,

nonrelevant.
numerical analysis: Technique to

generate numbers as the solution to a
mathematical model of a physical

system. Used in place of a closed form
analytic expression. Usually requires
digital computation. 1

Infrared and Thermal Testing Glossary 691

0 period: Absolute value of the minimum

objective: In discussion of a lens system interval after which the same
(camera, horescope, microscope, characteristics of a periodic waveform
telescope), of or pertaining to the end or a periodic feature recur.l,s
or lens closest to the object of photoconduction: Method by which a
examination- at the end opposite vidicon television cam.era tube
from the eyepiece. Distal; tip.'
produces an electrical image, in which
objective lens: Primary lens of an optical conductivity of the photosensitive
system, On an infrared instrument,
usually the interchangeable lens that surface changes in relation to intensity
defines the total field of view. 3 of the light from the scene focused
onto the surface. Compare
one hundred percent testing: Testing of photoemissiou. 1
all parts of an entire production lot in
a prescribed manner. Sometimes, photodetector (photon detector): Type
comph>te testing entails the testing of of infrared detector that has fast
only the critical portions of the part.
Compare sampling, partia/. 1 response (on the order of

opaque: Impervious to radiant energy. In microseconds), limited spectral
thermography, an opaque material is response and usually requires cooled
one that does not transmit thermal
infrared energy.:t operation; photodetectors are used in
infrared radiation thermometers,
optical element, infrared: Any element scanners and imagers,3 because, unlike
that collects, transmits restricts or thermal detectors, direct photon
reflects infrared energy as part of an
infrared sensing or imaging interaction obviates external heating
instrument.3
of the detector for the signal to he
opening: Image processing operation of sensed.
erosion followed by dilation. A single
opening eliminates isolated single pyroelectric detector: Type of thermal
pixels. See also closing. 1 infrared detector that acts as a current
source with its output proportional to
optimum frequency: Frequency that the rate of change of its tempemtme.J
provides the highest signal-to-noise
ratio compatible with the detection of photoemission: Method by which an
a specific discontinuity. Each
combination of discontinuity type and image orthicon television camera tube
material may have a different
optimum frequency. I produces an electrical image, in which
a photosensitive surface emits
organoleptic: Relying on or using sense electrons when light from a viewed
organs, such as the human eye. 1 object is focused on that surface.
Compare photocmuluctiou.I
orientation: Angular relationship of a photometer: Basic measuring instrument
surface, plane, discontinuity or axis to
a reference plane or surface. 1 of photometry. Accurate meters
measuring radiant energy incident on
orthicon: See image orthicon. a receiver, producing measurable
electrical quantities. I
p
photometric brightness: Luminance of a
parts per million (ppm): Expression of light source. 1
concentration of a substance as a ratio.
For example, a tracer gas photometry: Science and practice of the
concentration might be 10 ppm in air measurement of light or photon-
or nitrogen. The more specific terms
p.L·L~1 and pg·g-1 are often used for emitting electromagnetic radiation.
proportions of volume and mass, See also relatit'c pllotometrr. 1
respectively. photon: Particle of electromagnetic

pass: In welding, a single bead along the radiation (not limited to visible light).
entire weld length or the process of photoreceptor: Light scnsor. 1
laying down that bead. 1
physical properties: Nonmechanical
peak hold: l'eature of an instrument
whereby an output signal is properties such as density, electrical
maintained at the peak instantaneous conductivity, heat conductivity and
measurement for a specified duralion. 3 thermal expansion. 1
picture element: See pixel.
picture processing: See image protessins.
Planck's distribution law: Fundamental

law that relates the emitted energy
spectral radiance to wavelength and to

emitted surface temperature.
porosity: Discontinuity in metal resulting

from the creation or coalescence of
gas. 1

practical examinatim1: In certification of
nondestructive testing personnel, a
hands-on examination using test

equipment and sample test objects.
Compare scucml t•xamiuation and
specific examination. 1

692 Infrared and Thermal Testing

process: Repeatable sequence of actions to qualified: Having demonstrated the
bring about a desired result. I required amount and the required
type of training, experience,
process control: Application of quality knowledge and abilities. See also
control principles to the management qualifiwtion. 1
of a repeated process. 1
quality: Ability of a process or product to
process testing: Initial product testing to meet specifications or to meet the
establish correct manufacturing expectations of its users in terms of
procedures and then hy periodic tests efficiency, appearance, longevity and
to ensure that the process continues to ergonomics. 1
operate correctly. 1
quality assurance: Administrative actiOJJs
propagation: Advancement of energy that specify, enforce and verify a
through a medium. quality program.1

pscudocolor: Image enhancement quality control: Physical and
technique wherein colors are assigned administrative actions required to
to pixels in an image according to ensure compliance with the quality
their intensity. assurance program. May include
nondestructive testing in the
psychophysics: Interaction between manufacturing cycle. 1
vision performance and physical or
psychological factors. One example is quality of lighting: Level of distribution
the so~called vigilance decrement, the of luminance in a field of view or in a
degradation of reliability based on visual environment. 1
performing visual and/or repetitive
activities over a period of time. 1 R

pulsed thermography: See tllermal wm'e radian: Angle equal to 180·n-1 degree-'> or
57.295 78 angular degrees.:~
imaging.
radiance: Radiant flux per unit solid
pyroelectric detector: Type of thermal angle and per unit projected area of
infrared detector that acts as a current the source. 1vfeasured in watt per
source with its output proportional to square meter steradian. Compare
the rate of change of its temperature. 3 irradiaucc. 1
(Heating or cooling of pyroelectric
material creates charge accumulation.) radiant energy: Energy transmitted
through a medium by electromagnetic
pyroelectric vidicon (PEV): Video camera waves. Also known as radiatiou. 1 See
tube ·with its receiving element also radiauce.
fabricated of pyroelectric material and
sensitive to \Vavelengths from about radiant flux: Radiant energy's rate of
2 to 20 ].tnlj used in infrared thermal flow, measmcd in watt.1
viewers. Sometirnes called pyroelectric
vidicm1.3 radiant intensity: Electromagnetic energy
emitted per unit time per unit solid
pyrometer: Optical radiation angle. ~vfeasured in watt per steradian. 1
thermometer for remote measurement
of spot radiation levels, rather than radiant pov•ter: Total radiant energy
imaging a scene in the manner of an emitted per unit time. 1
infrared video camera. 1·2 Usually a
device with digital outputs. It may be radiation, thermal: }.-lode of lwat flmv
mounted in place or hand held. See that occurs by emission and
pyrometry. absorption of electromagnetic
radiation, propagating at the speed of
pyrovidicon: See p}'melectric vidico11. light and, unlike conductive and
pyrometry: Measurement of fire or of hot convective heat flow, capable of
propagating across a vacuum; tht• form
objects, such as the monitoring of of heat transfer that allows infrared
furnace or foundry conditions. See thermography to work because
pyrometer. infrared energy travels from the target
to the detector by radiation.·~
Q
radiation reference source: Blackbody or
quadrature: Relation between two other target of known temperature
periodic functions when the phase and effective emissivity used as a
difference between them is 90 degrees reference to obtain optimum
(that is, the time delay is one~fourth of measurement accuracy, ideally,
a period). trace<1ble to the National Institute of
Standards and Technolob"'}':{
qualification: Process of demonstrating
that an individual has the required radiation thermometer: See illfl·ared
amount and the required type of mdiati011 thennoJJJcteJ:
training, experience, knowledge and
capabilities. See also qualified. 1 radio frequency display: Presentation of
unrectified signals on a display
screen. 1 See also \'ideo presentation

Infrared and Thermal Testing Glossary 693

radio frequency interference: See reflectivity: Ratio p of the intensity of the
EMT/RFT1wise. total energy reflected from a surface to
total radiation on that surface:
radiometer: Instrument for rn"r~suring
radiant power of specified frequencies. p 1-£-T
Different radiometers exist for
different frequencies.' For a perfect mirror, reflectivity p
approaches 1.0; for a blackbody the
radiosity: Total infrared energy (radiant reflectivity is 0.3 See also reflectance
and reflection.
flux) leaving a target sUrface. This is reflectometer: Photometer used to
measure diffuse, specular and total
composed of radiated, reflected and reflectance. I
transmitted components. Only the reject: Instrument function or control
radiated component is related to target used for minimizing or eliminating
surface temperature. Also called low amplitude signals (electrical or
exitance.J material noise) so that other signals
radiometric photometer: Radiometer for may be further amplified. Use of this
measuring radiant power over a control can reduce vertical linearity.
variety of wavelengths. I Also called suppressiou.I
rankine: Absolute temperature scale rejection level: Value established for a
related to the fahrenheit relative scale. test signal above or belmv which,
The rankine unit (0 R) is equal to 1 oF; depending on the test parameter, test
0 oR = -459.72 °F; the degree sign and objects are rejectable or othenvise
the word degrees are not used in distinguished from the remaining
describing rankine temperatures.3 objects. 1 Compare acceptance lel'el.
mster: Repetitive pattern ·whereby a relative humidity: Ratio (in percent) of
directed element (a robotic arm or a the water vapor content in the air to
flying dot on a video screen) follows the maximum content possible at that
the path of a series of adjacent parallel temperature and pressure.:~
lines, taking them successively in turn, relevant indication: See indication,
always in the same direction (from top relevm1t.
to bottom or from left to right), remote viewing: Viewing of a test object
stopping at the end of one line and not in the viewer's immediate
beginning again at the start of the presence. The "\VOid remote previously
next line. Following a raster pattern implied either closed circuit television
makes it possible for electron beams to or fiber optic systems remote enough
form video pictures or frames and for so that, for example, the eyepiece and
a sensor bearing armature to cover a the objective lens could be in different
predetermined part of the surface of a rooms. High resolution video and
test object.1 digital signals can now be transmitted
ratio pyrometer: Infrared thermometer around the world vl'ith little loss of
that uses the ratio of incoming image quality. Compare direct viewins. 1
infrared radiant energy at two repeatability: Ability to reproduce a
narrowly separated wavelengths to detectable indication in separate
determine a target's temperature processings and tests from a constant
independent of target emittance; this source. I For thermal measurements,
assumes sraybody conditions and is expressed in degrees difference or a
normally limited to relatively hot percentage of full scale.3
resistance, thermal (R): ~vfeasure of a
targets, above about 420 K (150 oc "' material's resistance to the flow of
thermal energy, inversely proportional
300 °F).3 to its thermal conductivity k, where
Recommended Practice SNT.TC.JA: See k ~ l-R-1.'
resistance temperature device (RTD):
ASNT Recommended Practice No. S]\rJ: Sensor that measures temperature by a
change in resistance as a function of
TC-lA. temperature.;{
recommended practice: Set of guidelines
resolution: Aspect of image quality
or recommendations.I pertaining to a system's ability to
reference junction: In a thermocouple, reproduce objects, often measured by
resolving a pair of adjacent objects or
the junction of the dissimilar metals parallel Jines. See also minimum line
that is not the measurement junction. pair and resolving power. I
This is normally maintained at a
constant reference temperature.3
reflectance or spectral reflectance: Ratio
of ·wave energy (radiant flux) reflected
from a material to incident wave
energy (incident radiant flux) per unit
area. U See also reflectivity.
reflection: General term for the process
by which the incident flux leaves a
surface or medium from the incident
side, without change in frequency.
Reflection is usually a combination of
specular and diffuse reflection.l·6

694 Infrared and Thermal Testing

resolution, discontinuity: Property of a sector: For a line scanner, a portion of the
test system that enables the separation total scan angle over which
of indications due to discontinuities
located in close proximity to each measurement is made at the target
other in a test object.'
plan!2.:o~
resolution test: Procedure wherein a line
is detected to verify a system's seebcck effect: See thermoelectric effect.
sensitivity. 1 sensitivity: Measure of a sensor's ability

resolution threshold: Minimum distance to detect small signals. Limited by the
between a pair of points or parallel signal~to-noise ratio. 1See minimum
lines when they can be distinguished resolvable temperature difference.
as two, not one, expressed in minutes setpoint: Any temperature setting at
of arc. Vision acuity in such a case is which an activating signal or closure
the reciprocal of one half of the period
expressed in minutes.l,6 can be preset so that, when the
measured temperature Teaches the
resolving power: Ability of detection
systems to separate two points in time setpoint, a control signal, pulse or
or distance. Resolving power depends relay closure is generated.3
on the angle of vision and the
distance of the sensor from the test shock: Sudden application of force, for a
surface. Resolving power in vision specific time duration; also the
systems is often measured using
parallel lines. Compare resolution. I temporary or permanent damage to a
system as a result of a shock.3
response time: Time it takes for an shrink: Internal rupture occurring in
instrument output signal or display to
respond to a temperature step change castings dtie to contraction during
at the target; expressed in seconds cooling, sometimes caused by
(typically, to 95 percent of the final variations in solidification rates in the
value, and approximately equal to 5
time constants).3 mold. Includes shrinkage sponge,
small voids (stringers or bunches) or a
retina: In the eye, the tissue that senses
light.1 fingerprint pattern of semifused seams.
Also applied to surface shrinkage
robotic system: Automated system cracks. 1
programmed to perform purposeful SI: The International System of units of
movements in variable sequences. 1
measurement. An international system
s of measurement based on seven units:
meter (m), kilogram (kg), second (s),
sample and hold: Feature of an
instrument whereby an output signal kelvin (K), ampere (A), candela (cd)
is maintained at an instantaneous and mole (mol).I.s
measurement value for a specified
duration after a trigger or until an signal: Response containing relevant
external reset is applied. 3 information. 1·4

sampling, partial: Testing of less than signal processing: (1) Acquisition,
one hundred percent of a production
lot. See one lumdred percent testing.1 storage, analysis, alteration and output
of digital data through a computer.1
sampling, random partial: Partial (2) In infrared and thermal testing,
sampling that is fully rclndom.l
manipulation of temperature signal or
sampling, specified partial: Partial
sampling in which a particular image data for purposes of enhancing
frequency or sequence of sample or controlling a process. Examples for
selection is prescribed. An example of infrared radiation thermometers are
specified partial sampJing is the testing peak hold, miley hold, averaging and
of every fifth unit.l sample and llold. Examples for scanners
and imagers are usually referred to as
scan angle: For a line scanner, the total image processing and include
angular scan possible at the target qualitative characterization,
plane, typically 90 degrees.3
quantitative characterization,
scanning: Movement of a sensor over the alignment, isotherm enhancement,
surface of a test object in a controlled
manner so as to achieve complete image subtraction, image averaging,
coverage. 1 and image filtering.3
signal~to-noisc ratio: Ratio of signal
scan position accuracy: For a line
scanner, the precision "\Yith which values (responses that contain relevant
instantaneous position along the scan
line can be set or measured.3 information) to baseline noise values
(responses that contain nonrelevant
information). See noise.lA
slit response function: l'vfeasure of the

measurement spatial resolution
(ll:ovmeas) of an infrared scanner or
imager.3 See modulation transfer
function.
smoothing: In image processing, use of
positive coefficients in a linear

combination of pixel values to
smoothen abrupt transitions in a
digital image.'

Infrared and Thermal Testing Glossary 695

SNT-TC-JA: Sec ASNT Recommended spectrophotometer: Instrument used for
Practice No. SNT- TC-lA. spectrupJwtometry. 1

spatial resolution: Spot size in terms of spectrophotometry: lvfeasurement of
working distance. In an infrared electromagnetic radiant energy as a
function of wavelength, particularly in
radiation thermometer this is
expressed in milliradians or as a ratio the ultraviolet, visible and infrared
wavelengths. 1
(D/d) of the target spot size
(containing 95 percent of the radiant spectroradiometer: Instrument used for
spectroradiometry. 1
energy, according to common usage)
to the working distance. In scanners spectroradiometry: Jvfeasurement of

and imagers it is most often expressed electromagnetic radiant power and
in milliradians.3 spectral emittance, used particularly to

specular reflector: Smooth reflecting examine colors and to measure the
spectral emittance of light sources. 1
surface that reflects all incident
radiant energy at an angle spectroscope: Instrument used for
spectroscopy. 1
complementary (equal around the
normal) to the angle of incidence. A spectroscopy: Spcctro photometry or

mirror is a specular reflector.3 spectroradiometry in which the
spectmm, rather than being analyzed
spectral response: Spectral wavelength
interval over ·which an instrument or only by a processing unit, is presented
as a digital signal for computer
sensor responds to infrared radiant
energy, express~d in micrometer (pm): analysis or in a visible form to the
operator for organoleptic
also, the relative manner (spectral examination. 1
response curve) in which it responds spectrum: (1) Amplitude distribution of
over that interva1.3 frequencies in a signal. 1
spectral reflectance: See reflectance. (2) Hepresentation of radiant energy in
spectral transmittance: See transmittance,
spectral. adjacent bands of hues in sequence
spot: Instantaneous size (diameter unless according to the energy's wavelengths
otherwise specified) of the area at the or frequencies. A rainbow is a ·well
known example of a visible spectrum. I
target plane that is being measured by
the instrument. In infrared spectrum response: Amplification (gain)
of a receiver over a range of
thermometry, this is specified by most frequencies or wavelengths. 1
manufacturers to contain 95 percent
specular: Of a mirrorlike surface,
of the radiant energy of an infinitely
large target of the same temperature reflective or shiny, with little or no
and emissivity.3 diffusion.

storage operating range: Temperature speed of light: Speed of all radiant
extremes over which an instrument energy, including light: 2.997 925 x
IQR m·s-1 in vacuum (about 186000
can be stored and, subsequently,
mi·s-1). In all materials the speed is
operate ·within published performance
spedfications.3 less in practical measurements and
varies with the material's index of
subtense, angular: Angular diameter of
an optical system or subsystem1 refraction, which itself varies ·with
expressed in angular degrees or wavelength.l,6
milliradians. In thennography, the
standard: (1) Physical object with known
angle over which a sensing instrument
collects radiant energy.3 material characteristics used as a basis
specification: Set of instructions or for comparison or calibration. (2)

standards invoked by a specific Concept established by authority,
customer to govern the results or
custom or agreement to serve as a
performance of a specific set of tasks model or rule in the measurement of
or products.1
quantity or the establishment of a
specific examination: In certification of practice or procedure.' (3) Document
nondestructive testing personnel, a
to control and govern practices in an
·written examination that addresses the industry or application, applied on a

specifications and products pertinent national or international basis and
to the application. Compare general usually produced by consensus. See
examination and practical exawination. 1 also acceptance standard, working
spectral power distribution: Hadiant stmulard and refi'rence standard. 1•4
power per unit \Navelength as a standard atmospheric conditions:
Atmospheric pressure of 101.325 kPa
function of wavelength. Also known (14.6959 lbrin.-2). Temperature of
as spectral energy distribution, spectral 293.15 K (20 'C, 68 'I' or 527.67 'R).
density and spectral distribution. 1 See
Planck's law. The density of dry air at these
spectral reflectance: See reflectance. conditions is 1.2041 kg·m-:~ {0.07517
spectral transmittance: See trammittance. lb-ft-'). 1

696 Infrared and Thermal Testing

Stefan·Boltzmann law: Relationship thermal detector, infrared: Type of
governing the 'i\'avelength infrared detector that changes
independent rate of emission of
radiant energy per unit area. The law electrical characteristics as a function
relates the total radiation intensity to of temperature; typically, thermal
the fourth power of absolute detectors have slow response, (on the
order of milliseconds) broad -spectral
temperature and emissivity of the
material surface. For example, response and usually operate at room
temperature; thermal detecto~s are
intensity (heat flow) from a copper
block at 100 "C (212 "F) is 300 W-nr2 commonly used in infrared radiation
(95 BTU·ft"2·1r'). (Stefan-Boltzmann thermometers and in some imagers..1
constant for photon emission =
1.52041 x JOIS photon-s-'-nr'·K-'.)' thermal diffusion: Process by which

stereo photography: Close range thermal energy is transferred from hot
or cold regi<;>ns and finally is spread
photogrammetric technique involving out. See also conduction and thermal
the capture and viewing of two images di({usivity.
thermal diffusivity: Speed at which heat
of the same object in order to
reconstruct a three dimensional image diffuses through an object. Expressed
of the object. I as the rate a of temperature change

subsurface discontinuity: Any with time. Each material has its own
characteristic value of diffusivity,
discontinuity that does not extend
through the surface of the object in combining the overall influence of
which it exists.1 See near surface thermal conductivity k, density p and
dis continuity.
specific heat cp.

T In a practical sense, thermal diffusivity
determines how fast a material will
target: Object surface to be measured or
imaged. 3 heat up or cool down. The rate of
temperature change with time is more
temperature: Measure of the intensity of rapid in a material with a high
particle motion in kelvin (K), degrees
celsius ("C) or degrees fahrenheit ("F) thermal diffusivity (for example,
or, in the absolute scale, kelvin (K) or metals) and sluwer in a material with a
degrees rankine CR), where an
increment of 1 K= 1 °C = 1.8 oR= lower diffusivity (for example,
1.8 oF. Compare heat. I plastics).l

temperature measurement drift: Reading thermal effusivity: See cffusivit)~ tllerwal.
change (error), with time, of a target thermal equilibrium: Condition of an
with nonvarying temperature, which
may be caused by a combination of object wherein temperatures
ambient changes, line voltage changes throughout the object remain
and instrument characteristics.J
constant.'
temperature resolution: See minimum thermal viewer: Nonmeasuring thermal
resolvable temperature (difference),
MRT(D).3 imager that produces qualitative
thermal images related to thermal
test surface: Exposed surface of a test
object. 1 radiant distribution over the target
surface. 3
thermal: Physical phenomenon of heat
involving conduction, convection or thermal wave imaging: Term used to
radiation. describe an active technique for

thermal conductivity: See conductivity, infrared nondestructive material
thermal. testing, in which a sample is

thermal conductivity vacuum gage: stimulated ·with a pulse of thermal
Instrument that operates on principle energy and in which the time based
that as gas molecules are removed
from a system, the amoUnt of heat returned thermal images are processed
transfer by conduction is reduced. This to determine flaw depth and severity.J
relationship is used to indicate Also called pulse stimulated imagins or
absolute pressure. 1 pulsed lllermosraplly. 3
thermistor: Temperature detector, usually
a semiconductor, whose electrical

resistance decreases predictably and
nonlinearly with increasing
temperature.3 The coefficient of

electrical resistance with temper<1ture
is typically on the order of
-4 percent K-1.

thermistor bolometer, infrared:

Thermistor so configured as to t.·olJect
radiant infrared energy; a type of
thermal infrared detector.3

Infrared and Thermal Testing Glossary 697

thermoelectric effect: Phenomenon that time constant: Time it takes for any
sensing element to respond to 63.2
explains the operation of percent of a step change at the target
thermocouples; that in a closed being sensed.ln infrared sensing and
thermography1 the time constant of a
electrical circuit made up of two detector is a limiting factor in
junctions of dissimilar metal instrument performance, as it relates
to response time.3
conductors, a direct current will flow
as long as the two jtmctions are at total field of view (TFOV): In imagers,
the total solid angle scanned, usually
different temperatures. The rectangular in cross section. See also
phenomenon is reversible; if the field of view.'

temperatures at the two junctions are transducer: Any device that can convert
reversed, the flmv of current reverses.3 energy from one form to another. In
thermography, and infrared detector is
Also called seebeck effect. a transducer that converts infrared
radiant energy to some useful
thermocouple: Device for measuring electrical quantity.3
temperature based on the fact that
transfer calibration: Technique for
opposite junctions between certain correcting a temperature measurement
dissimilar metals develop an electrical or a thermogram for various errors by
placing a radiation reference standard
potential when placed at different adjacent to the target.3
temperatures.3
thermogram: Thermal map or image of a transfer standard: Precision radiometric
target ·where the gray tones or color measurement instrument with NIST
hues correspond to the distribution of traceable calibration used to calibrate
radiation reference sources.3
infrared thermal radiant energy over
the surface of the target (qualitative transient heat flow: Heat fluw occurring
during the time it takes an object to
thermogram); when correctly reach thennal eq11ifibriwn or steady
processed and corrected, a graphic
state. 1
representation of surface temperature
distribution (quantitative transmissivity: Proportion 't of infrared
thermogram).3 radiant energy impinging on an
object's surface, for any given spectral
thermograph: Another ·word used to interval, that is transmitted through
describe an infrared thermal imager.3 the object.

thermography: Imaging or viewing of an t 1-£-p

object or process through sensing of where t is transmissivity, e is

infrared radiation emitted by it. The emissivity and r is reflectivity. For a
temperature patterns on the material
blackbody, transmissivity = 0.
surface produce corresponding Transmissivity is the internal
radiation patterns. Thus, heat flow by transmittance per unit thickness of a
both conduction and radiation may be nondiffusing material.3 See also
tmll51nittmJCe, spectral.
observed and used to locate material transmittance, spectral: Hadiant flux
discontinuities. I Most often1 passing through a medium divided by
thermography is based on sensing of the wavelength of the incident radiant
infrared radiation. flux. 1
two-color pyrometer: See ratio pyrometer:
thermmncchanical coupling: interaction
u
between mechanical and thermal
behaviors of materials. unity: One (1.0)3

thermmncter: Any device used for v
measuring temperature.3
valley hold: Feature of an instrument
thermopile: Device constructed by the whereby an output signal is
arrangement of thermocouples in maintained at the lowest
instantaneou~ measurement for a
series to add the thermoelectric specified duration; opposite of petlk
voltage. A radiation thermopile is a hold.-1
thermopile with junctions so arranged

as to collect infrared radiant energy
from a target, a type of thermal
infrared detector.3
threshold: See adaptive t!Jreshvldiug,
resolution threshold and threshold let'el.
thresholding: Digital data processing

technique that reduces a gray level
image into a binary image by
application of a threshold. I
threshold level: Setting of an instrument

that causes it to register only those
changes in response greater or less
than a specified magnitude. 1.4

698 Infrared and Thermal Testing

visual testing: Method of nondestructive
testing using electromagnetic radiation
at visible frequencies. 1

voids: Hollow spots, depressions or
cavities. See also discontilmity and

disloratiou. 1

w

wavelength: Distance in the propagation
direction that a wave travels in
completing a full cycle.

white light: Light combining all
frequencies in the visible spectrum. 1

\V'ien's displacement law: For practical
infrared imaging, lYien;s displacement
law gives the wavelength of maximum
emittance. 1

working distance: Distance from the
target to the instrument, usually to
the primary optic.3

working standard: Vlork piece or energy
source calibrated and used in place of
expensive reference standards. In the
calibrating of photometers, the
standard would be a light source. 1

z

zone: In line scanners, a scanned area
created by the transverse linear
motion of the product or process
under a measurement sector of the
scanner.J

Infrared and Thermal Testing Glossary 699

PART 2. Nomenclature

This volume of the Nondeslntcth'e Testi11g c c contrast f2, 3, 12], specified
Handbook introduces many symbols (both
D constant f3J; number of
variables and constants) througlwut its
specified constant f6];
discussion of the technology.
The following list is incomplete. In radiation constant f8J;

some instances symbols have meanings prefactor from linear
specific to contexts and may not be. fit fll]; volumetric heat
included. Chapter numbers appear m capacity fll]; specific
square brackets after each identific_ation - heat [3, 13]; concentration,
the same symbol may also appear m density {17, 181; specific
other, uncited chapters.
heat 12, Ill
Among others, the following types of
symbols in most cases were deliberately c velocity of electromagnetic
excluded: {1) abbreviations that are not wave in vacuum = 3 x lOR
m-s-' J4, 8]; specific heat
also variables, (2) labels identified in 18, llj; contrast f11]; heat
figure legends and (3) most identifiers of capacity 1181

the sort found in subscripts attached to D thermal diffusivity {3, 12];
detectivity f6, 8); distance,
variables. \·Vith few exceptions, the diameter, size !IO, 15];
symbols in this list can be quantified. continuous variable related
to scalar density of
Roman Characters discontinuity parameter
(11]; elastlc stiffness tensor
A fllj; density {17]; diffusion
coefficient jl8]
A amplitude f2, 3, 11]; image
1' internal enert,ry dissipation
IS]; area 16, 14]; lwrdening rate Ill]

temperature [14]; absorbed d distance, diameter,
thickness, ·width 13, 8, 10,
energy [19] 131; total derivative f12j

" absorptivity coefficient f2J; div divergence operator l111
filter length IS]; coefficient
in least squares regression E irradiance, radiation energy
or flux 14, 6, 19]; applied
curve f6J; separation electric field 18];
reflectivity f19]
between infrared sensor and
E == strain tensor [111
lens [6]; radiosity coefficient E Eo amplitude f4]
16, 8]; diffusivity 113] Erfc error function (3, llj

B e root of natural logarithms;
effusivity {:1, 12];
ll specified constant [3]; F voltage (9j; specific
internal energy !11J
image fSJ; bias limit;
F distortion in camera [8];
objective distance f6] specified function [81; force
Bi biot number 13] or load 114, 17]
b coefficient for location in
F fourier transform lZ, 5, 6j;
image IZJ; coefficient in tran~formation gradient l111

least squares regression Fo fourier number [:~, 13J
Fo adiabatic tempera lure 131
curve f6J; distance between

target surface and
observation ·window f6l;
heat source width [8);
summation of pseudo

graybody
approximation !8);
characteristic value for

vmious metal surfaces f8J;

body force per unit

mass fllj

700 Infrared and Thermal Testing

Fe ~ F number of lens system !61 k thermal conductivity [2, S,
FoTr = fourier transform Ill] 8, 11-13, 16, 18]; decision
reliability coefficient [3];
f ~ distortion [2}; specified optical extinction index [4];

function [2, 4]; frequency Boltzmann's constant IS];
[3, 5-8, 12]; lens focal frame index !SJ
length [6]

G L

G gray level value (linear best L dbtanre, thickness
fit) [2, 8]; geometric factor [3, 11, 12, 171; radiance,
g [3}; grashof number, ratio of luminance, luminosity
grad buoyancy relative to viscous [4, 6j; number of rotating
force acting on fluid ]3] direction; radiance l6];
thermal value [8]; number of reconstruction
geometric factor wire depths j12j
accumulation [14] distance, thermal diffusion
gradient operator [11] length ]3]

H lo distance, depth
]3, 4, 12, 13]
H ratio of heat transfer
coefficient h to thermal In natural logarithm 11 1]
conductivity [3]; hue [9];
total horizontal image M maximum row !2); emissive
size [10] power !4]; distance, slit
M width [6]
II interfacial thermal
conductance [5]; Planck's MDS minimum detectable size I6J
constant [51 8]; heat transfer MRTD minimum resolvable
coefficient at front surface temperature difference [10}
[3, 13] MTF modulation transfer
MxN function (ratio) [10]
il(t) mother wavelet [11 j image format [2]; grid
size [51

I radiant intensity {41 17]; N maximum column {2];
emittance [5]; image [5, 12];
IFOV parameter number (61; N number of something
IV pyrometer signal [8]; counted 13, 61 12]; quantity
i,j intensity of light or ND of measurements [SJ
color [9]; spatial frequency NEP having no measured
[10]; stress [11]; electric NETD
current [16] discontinity !3]
instantaneous field of NPP
view [10] II noise equivalent power
internal variable [11] [6, 7]
coordinate, index in ni
specified direction [21 5, 8]; noise equivalent
current [7-9] temperature difference 16]
pixel, point in image
[2, 5, 8] peak-to-peak value of noise
voltage [6]
J junction [9]
optical reflection or
/; radiosity heat flux; radiant refraction index (31 4, 6, 17,
thermal energy [4, 8, 16] 19]; characteristic power
index for infrared
j coordinate, index in thermographic systl~m !61
specified direction [2, 5, 8]; temperature index f8]
imaginary unit [12]
0
K
OTF optical transfer function !7]
K absorption coefficient
[4, 17]; specified constant p
[8]; energy reflected in
mirror angle [19] p parameter j6];
polarization 181; point [121;
K' relative wear rate [14] pressure [14]
Kn Boltzmann's constant [1, 2]
l'u intensity of light Ill]

Infrared and Thermal Testing Glossary 701

Pr prandtl number, ratio of T
(molecular) momentum
T = temperature [2-14, 16-19];
diffusivity to thermal transmitted energy 119]

diffusivity [3] 7 scalar function [3]

p phase function 14]; TrF translation factor [11}
pyroelectric coefficient !81 I lime [2, 3, 5-9, 11-14, 18];

p(x) probability density transmission coefficient I3J;

function 15] transmittance [7J; student
value [6]
Q
u uncertainty level [6}; mass
Q thermal energy; heat u rate [17]
II function [5]
transfer; heat flux
v voltage 17, 9, 10];
13, 6, 8, 12, 13, 18];
gas velocity 1171
thermal conductance \' velocity [4, 8, 14]; root

power density 15] mean square voltage [7]

q heat flux vector per unit v H' net gain or loss of radiation
area [8); heat input per unit intensity [2]; radiometric
signal [4J; radiated
volume 1111 energy [8]; width 1101

R I·V1• spectral radiosity [6]
w heat energy [3]; weight [12]
R thermal resistance [3, 9, 12, w
13]; reflection, reflected X factor depending on
9\ energy, reflectivity 13, 11, X wavelength [6]; dimension,
Re 19]; response of detection
device [4]; distance axis direction f8l; reference
Rro measured from origin [S];
electrical resistance [Sj; position vector [11]
R(ro) quantity of discontinuities X index in thermogram
r in slab [12]; iron atom
radius (0-124 nm) [14] sequence [2J; continuous
responsivity [7] random variable [5];
real part [3] horizontal scanning
wavelength ·where filter angle 110]; motion [11 j
attenuation has fallen by
half [5] y dimension, axis
real component of discrete direction [8]
fourier transform F(w) [2]
radius [3]; reflection y measured field vector [12}
coefficient [3]; distance )' vertical scanning angle [1 OJ
from origin [3]; raw image
values [8]; heat supply pi]; z dimension, axis direction,
radius [14]
direction normal to
y interrogated surface (8}
z square of depth [2]; depth
s in vertical dimension l3];
distance, depth 14, ll, 12]
s beam width [3] z
s scene radiance [S]
s
s precision index {6]
s surface area [8, 17]
s
s saturation of light or
s
s color 19]
spatial frequency [10]
SEE
scaling factor [11]
SNR second Piola-Kirchhoff
S(),)
stress tensor lll J
s
signal [12]
standard error of

estimate [6]
signal-to-noise ratio [3, 7j
relative spectral sensitivity;

spectral response of

radiometer 141

specific entropy II 1]; hankel

domain spatial

frequency [12]

702 Infrared and Thermal Testing

Nonroman Characters n conjugate of internal
variable [II]
Greek Characters
p density (2, 3, 7, 8, 11, 13,
a. = thermal diffusivity [21 3, 5, 18]; reflectivity (ratio) ]4, 8,
11, 14]; absorbed energy, 16, 17, 19]; reflectance,
absorption value, reflected energy [5, 14]
absorptivity [4, 14, 17];
temperature, thermoelectric 0 Stefan*Boltzmann constant
coefficient [9]; linear [3}; standard deviation
expansion coefficient {11 ]; [3, 5]; wave number [41;
angle of observation scattering spectral
[10, 19]; set of variables [11] coefficient [4]; wavelength
wave number [3]; [16]; nominal uniaxial
eigenvalue [S}; coefficient of compression [18]
thermal expansion
matrix [II]; function [12]; t transmissivity [4, 17, 19,
flux [19]; angle [19] 20]; detector integration
wave vector [3, 12] time [5]; propagation
wave vector [3] coefficient [6]; time
extinction coefficient [4] constant of detector (7];
thermal mismatch factor recovery time [14];
[3, 11]; thermal reflection transmitted energy (14]
coefficient [11]; thermal
reflectivity (dimensionless) Q> angle [3, 12, 19]; radiant
[12]; domain [12] flux [4, 7, 18]

y = dissipation coefficient [11] $ phase [2, 5, 11]; lens
"' = change, deviation, diameter [6]

increment interval [3-6, 19] <jl(X) phase image [II]
t.{ = frequency bandwidth [5, 6] X dislocation energy [11]
6 = distance, depth [12, 14]; ljl helmholtz free energy [II]
Q = amplitude ratio [3];
ratio of flux reflected [19]; angle [6]; detection
parameter defining wavelength band [6]
reflectivity frequency [2, 3, 5, 6, II];
characteristics [19] imaginary part [12]

a partial derivative [3, 11, 12] Other Characters

E emissivity [2-6, 8, 16, 17, V = gradient [3]
19]; noise distribution [5]; fi = Planck's constant [5, 8]
random noise [5]; emittance
[8]; thermal effusivity [II] superscript denoting
noise vector [12] average [6]
variable vertical to superscript denoting grand
interface [3] average [6}
derivative [12]
true field [12]
angle [2-4, 12, 17];
dimensionless
temperature [14]

K work hardening [11]
A stored energy ratio in

material microstructure
[11]; number of
eigenvalues [12]
)_ wavelength [2, 4, S, 8,
17, 19]; spectral quantity
[4, 8]
thermal diffusion length
[2, 3, 11]; mean [5];

duration of time zones P2J;

friction coefficient [14]
v frequency [4]; degrees of

freedom [6]
experimental constant {11 ];
spectral optical
thickness [17]

Infrared and Thermal Testing Glossary 703

References

1. Nunclcstructive Testing Ha11dJwok,
second edition: Vol. 10, Noudestructi!'e
Testing Overview. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (1996).

2./nfmred Glossmy !from I~LIH web sitej.
North Bil1erica, ~JA: FUR Systems
(1999).

3. Kaplan, H. ASNT Levellll Study Guide:
Infrared Thermal Testing A·fetlwd.
Columbus, Ohio: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (manuscript,
2001).

4. Cmnpilali011 ofASTM Stm1dard
Definitions, eighth edition. \Vest
Conshohocken, PA: American Society
for Testing and Materials (1994).

5. IEEE Standard Dicli01wry of Electrical
and Electronic Terms. New York, NY:
Jnstitute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (distributed by
\'\'iley¥lnterscience, a division of John
Wiley and Sons) (1984).

6. JES Lighting Handbook: Reference
Volume. New York, NY: Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America
(1984).

704 Infrared and Thermal Testing

Index

Page referenc!'s in italic type indicate illustrations. alternating current generator, patent for early nondestructive testing
Page references followed by table indicate material in tables. invention, 221abfe
Readers are encouraged to consult this volume's glossary; glossary entries are
aluminum
not entered in the index. coating effect on emissivity, 121, 122
die casting, 451-453,455-457
A discontinuity lateral size and ease of detection, 69, 70
foam laminate discontinuity detection threshold, 367
A 04-420 (NF standard), 16tab!e radiative properties measured by three sensors, 214toble
A 09-0400 (NF standard), 16tab/e reflectivity and emissivity in electronic materials, 673, 673, 674
A 09-400 (NF standard), 16tabfe spectral emissivity curve, 197
Abbot, Charles Greely, 21 thermal properties of 2024-T6 alloy, 57table
aboveground chemical pipeline, 579,579-580 thermal testing parameters in detection of material loss, 72, 73, 75tab!e
aboveground steel storage tanks, 587-590 ultrasonic lockin thermography of riveted stringers, 327
absolute accuracy, 277-278
absolute zero, 27, 229 aluminum oxide, thermal properties, 57table
absorption (of radiation), 96, 97 aluminum-to-aluminum epoxy bonded laminate, pulsed thNmographic
absorption coelflcient, 88
inspection, 310
absorptivity contrasted, 95 American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASN l ), 15
ab~orptivity, 39
ANS!/ASNT CP-189, 17
absorption coefficient contrasted, 95 ASNT Central Certification Program (ACCP), 17, 18
defined, 92-93 ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT- TC-IA, 15, 16tob/e, 17-18, 24
and noise, 65 ASNT standards, 16toble
AC. See alternating curr!'nt Central Certification Program (ACCP), 17, 18
ACCP. See American Society for Nondestructive Testing Thermal and Infra fed Testing Committee, vii, 24
acoustic emission testing, 10-11, 11 standards and practices, 16table
acrylic plate, thermal tomography, 390, 391 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 15
active infrared thermography, 34, 308, 412 standards and practices, 16table
advantage> and limitations, 46tob!e American Society of lviechanica! Engineers (ASME), standards and practict>s,
applications, 44tab!e
basic techniques, 42-44 16toble
line scan technique, 209 amplifier frequency response, 139
pulse technique, 310
radlom!'ter setup for, 37 calculation and evaluation, 143-145
thermomechanical coupling, 344-336 amplitude, of electromagnetic waves, 88
vibrothermography, 334-338 analog filters, 240-241
adiabatic heat transfer, 55 angular modulation frequency, 60
aerospace applications annealing
aging aircraft inspection, 508-510
convective heat transfer radiometry, 519-521 of steel wire, 481
impact damage in graphite epoxy composites, 511-518 of thermocouples in use, 243
metal aerospace structures, 322, 502-507 ANSt/ASNT CP-189, 17
space shull!e and related structures, 490-501 apparent lateral size, of discontinuity, 423, 423
wind tunnel studies, 519 argon ion lasers, 204
aging, 482 art conservation, thermographic applications, 647-652
aging aircraft inspection, 508-510 artificial intelligence, 372
air, thermal properties, 57 table A-scan scanning radiometers, 36
ak conditioning systems, 530, 620 ashlars, of masonry walls in historic buildings, 637, 637
airuaft ASME PTC 19-1-1985, 151,152, 153, 155, 157
inspection of aging, 508-510 ASNT. See American Society for Nondestructive lcsting
helicopter inspection of power lines, 556-568 ASTM standards, 15, 16toble
for inspection of power transmission lines, 553, 554 atmospheric band selection, 98, 182
scanning radiometric evaluation of corrosion, 209 for scanning radiometers, 196-197
air leakage, through walls, 610-611 atmospheric effects, 180-182, 188
airport runway buried drain pipeline>, 606, 606 atmospheric transrni>sivity, 96, 100, 104, 180, 181
alpha ferrite, 442, 442, 443-444 ATS-1999 (NETA standard), 16/ab!e
alpha iron, 444 austenite, 396, 444
austenilation, 395-396,445
automatic discontinuity detection, 366-372
average fitter, 464

B capstan, in steel wire drawing, 419, 483
carbon, diffusion in steels, 443-445
background noise limited detection, 165-166 carbon black, use by artists, 647-649
background noise limited photodetector (BLIP), 165 carbon dioxide, atmospheric al>~orplion due to, 180
backscattering, of thermal waves, 392-402, 398 carbon dioxide lasers, 204
bainite, 444 carbon fiber reinforced composites

band limited white noise random target, 174 !ockin thermography, 320, 321,321-322
base meta! thermocouples, 231 table, 240 pulsed thermography, 45, 45,312
base 51 units, 25tabfe scanning radiometric evaluation, 201, 207-209, 208
batteries ultrasonic !ockin thermography, 326, 326
carbonitriding, 446
for field measurement, 294 carbon-tO-carbon composites, 539-540
patent for early nondestructive testing invention, 22/ab/e carburizing, 446
safety aspects of using, 299 car tires, friction and wear behavior, 475-476
Beck's future times technique, 374 case hardening, 446
best experimental observation time, in transient thermal testlng, 65 cast iron, 443
bias limit, 152 (avity effect, 122, 123
bicolor pyrometers, 199-200, 210, 210-217, 211, 283
bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), 94 C curve (isothermal tronsformation curve), 444, 441
bidirectional transmittance distribution function (BTDF), 94 Celsius, Anders, 229
biot criterion, 60 celsius temperature scale, 27, 229
blackbody radiation, 38, 40, 54 cementite (iron carbide), 443, 444, 445, 446
emissive power versw wavelength, 92 Central Certification Program (ASNT), 17, 18
equations of, 89-90 ceramics
blackbody furnaces, 139
blackbody simulators, 293 coated steel ring adhesion discontinuities, 206-207
body centered cubic structure, 442, 442 insulation process control, 264
body centered tetragonal structure, 444 ultrasonic fockin thermography, 325-326
boilers, 545, 545-547 certification, 15-18
bolometers, 21 CFR. See Code of Federal Regulations
borescopy, infrared, 301-305 CGSB standards, 16tabfe
Bouguer's law, 97 cgs units, 25
box filter, 114, 114-116, 115, 118 charge coupled devices
Boy with Still Ute (Baum), infrared thermogrilphy, 648, 649 for laser welding imaging, 463, 464
brass, radiative properties measured by three sensors, 214table for liquid crystal color interpretation, 259
brazed tiles, nuclear fusion reactors, 541-544 charge injection devices, 190-191
braze fine testing, metal aerospace structures, 503, 503-504 chemical-analytical testing methods, 4table
brick, thermal properties, 57table chemical and petroleum industry applications:
brightness pyrometers, 273 leakage detection from pipelines and storage vessels, 577-586
brinefl hardness, 447 petroleum pipeline, buried, 578, 578-579
British Defense Standards (MOD UK), 16tab!e polymerfilm radiometry, 591-598
British Standards Institute (BSl), standards and practices, 16toble process furnace inspection, 572-576
British units, conversion to 51, 26toble steel aboveground storage tanks, 587-590
bronze, thermal properties, 57toble chemical leakage detection, from pipelines and storage vessels, 577-586
851041 (BSI standard), J6table chemical pipeline, aboveground, 579, 579-580
B51 standards, 16tob!e chemical spot testing, 11
B type thermocouples, 231 table, 239-240 chiral nematic liquid crystals, 256
buildings cholesteric liquid crystals, 256
inspection of thermal envelopes of new, 620-623 choppers, 285
thermal testing for conservation of historic, 624-646 CIE 53 standard, 16toble
thermographic leak testing of leakage through walls, 609-612 CIE 65 standard, 16tobfe
vibrothermography of earthquake resistant structures, 613-619 C!E 114 standard, 16tabfe
buried drain pipeline, 606, 606 circuit boards. See printed circuit boards
buried gasoline tank, 518, 579, 519 circular cylinder, convective heat transfer in, 521
buried hot water pipeline, 607, 601 circular flat bottom hole (simulation of corrosion), 424-427
buried natural gas pipeline, 578, 578 closed cooling heat exchangers, 547, 547-549
buried oil cooled electric cable, 607-608, 608 closed openings, in historic buildings, 634-635
buried petroleum pipeline, 518, 578-579 cloud cover, and infrared thermographic leak testing, 603
buried steam pipeline, 607, 607 coatings
buried storage tank, 579, 579 heat conduction in, 62-63
buried water pipeline, 605, 606 high emissivity, 341
butterworth filter, 116-117, 111 historic buildings, 625
to increase emissivity, 119-122
c for infrared thermography, 36
!ockin thermography, 320-321
C 1060 (ASTM standard), 16table for noise reduction in transient thermal testing, 65
C 1153 (A5TM standard), 16toble pipeline temperature indicating, 265
calibration plastic injection molds, 455
thermosensitive indicators, 37
accessories for, 288 thickness inspection, 384-385, 385
infrared cameras, 47-50, 103 cobalt disilicide focal plane arrays, 191
infrared radiometers, 103-104 Code of Federal Regulations (CfR), 29 GR 1910, 16tab!e
infrared thermography, 47-50, 156, 293-294 cold deformation, 481
liquid crystals, 258-260, 261 cold waH, aerospace nozzles, 492, 493, 493
thermocouples, 153table, 154, 155tob!e, 243-244 color, 228
Ca!tendar-Van Omen equation, 250-251
CAMUS Ill and IV (Conception et Analyse deMurs sous 5€ismes), 616-618, bicolor ortwo-color, 197, 283, 199-200, 215-217, 573. See also color,
mu!ticofor
617, 618
Canadian General Standards Board (CGSB), standards and practices, 16tab!e permanent color change coatings, 37
capillarity, and water uptake by walls of historic buildings, 638 color interpretation, liquid crystal thermography, 258-260
false color coding, 364, 366-367
media with calibrated melting points, 262
rnu!tico!or radiometer, 210-218
in image, 364

706 Infrared and Thermal Testing

single-color, 197-199. See also color, multicolor crystallography, 442-450
tricolor, 217-218. See also color, multicolor C-scan scanning radiometers, 36
common path interferometers, 175 CT. See tomography
complex refractive index, 88, 94-95 curie temperature, 186
compos'ite aerospace structures, 490, 495-501 cutoff frequency, 169
aging aircraft, 508-510 cutting tools, infrared thermography, 476-477
glass fiber graphite, vibrothermography of, 334-338
impact damage in graphite epoxy, 511-518 D
See also composites
composite laminates D* (dee star), 164, 164, 166
heat transfer in, 55 D.. (dee double star), 166
fockin thermography, 321-322 D 4788-88 (ASTM standard), 16tab/e
median and box filtering contrasted, 118 data acquisition system~. 360, 360-362
postforming heat control, 264, 264-265 data processing, 362-365
pulsed thermographic inspection of aluminum-to-aluminum epoxy data storage, 360, 362
Davy, Humphrey, 248
bonded, 310 decalibration, of thermocouples, 243-244
ultrasonic lockin thermography, 326 dee double star (D'*), 166
See also composites dee star (D•), 164, 164, 166
composites defocus, 139
box filtering application, 115
discontinuities in, 373 calculation and evaluation, 145
gaussian filtering application, 116 deformation, In wire drawing, 481-482
See also carbon fiber reinforced composites; composite aerospace delam·~nations, 413

structures; composite laminates; honeycomb structures; plastics ceramic coated steel rings, 207
computers, 288, 360, 362 disk delamination, 430-433
concrete materials, 613-614 metal aerospace structures, 504-505, 505
ribbonlike delamination, 433-434
discontinuity detection by transient thermal testing, 12 space shuttle and related structures, 496
radiative properties measured by three sensors, 214tab!e ultrasonic lockin thermography, 326, 326
spectral emissivity curve, 197 delta ferrite, 442, 443.444
thermal properties, 57table delta T, 42
tilt-up precast panels in building envelopes, 622-623 densitometry, 466
vibrothermography, 614-619 density
condensation, in historic buildings, 638 common materials, 57tab!e
conduction heat transfer, 33, 54, 54-55 and heat conduction, 56
building thermal envelopes, 620-621 derived Sl units, 25tab/e
differential equation of, 56 detectivity, 164
in solids with buried discontinuities, 62-75 detector arrays, 35-36
in sound solids, 59-61 Dewar, jameS, 194
confined spaces, 19 dewars, 41,194-195, 195
conservation diamond, thermal properties, 57table
of art, 647-652 dielectrics, radiative properties, 95, 95, 96
of historic buildings, 624-646 dies, heat transfer in aluminum and plastic, 451-457
contact sensors, 32, 40, 228-266, 272-273 difference thermogram, 287-288
media with calibrated melting points, 262-266 differential thermography, 346
temperature measurement, 228-230 diffraction limited system, 171
See also thermistors; thermocouples; other specific sensors diffuse surfaces, 91-92
contrast transfer function, 173-174 emissivity evaluation, 669
control applications. See process control and monitoring digital tHters, 464
convection devices, 32 dirac pulse heating, 59, 59, 61
convection heat transfer, 33, 54, 54-55 directional absorptivity, 93
radiometry of aerospace structures, 519-521 directional emissivity, 91, 95, 96
cooling, of infrared radiometers, 194-196 directional reflectivity, 93, 96
cooling channels, in aluminum casting dies, 452, 452, 456, 456-457 directional transmissivity, 94
cooling towers, 530 director axis, liquid crystals, 256
continuous monitoring, 535·536 disbands, 413
cool pulses, 43 metal aerospace structures, 504
copper space shuttle and related structures, 496
spectral emissivity curve, 197 step heating thermography of epoxy coated steel, 332-333, 333
thermal properties, 57tobfe discharge lamps, 89
copper constantan thermocouple, 232, 232-233, 240 discontinuities, 2
copper resistance temperature detectors, 249 aging aircraft, 508
correlated noise. See fixed pattern noise automatic detection, 366-372
corrosion, 413 in ceramic coated steel rings, 206-207
circular flat bottom hole simulation, 424-427 characterization, 373, 375-385
flat bottom groove, 427-430 circular flat bottom hole, 424-427
scanning radiometric evaluation in aircraft, 209 detection criteria, 64-65, 310, 412-413
ultrasonic lockin thermography, 326-327 disk delamination, 430-433
cosmic rays, 33 flat bottom groove, 427-430
coupling flat discontinuity inspection, 375-380
thermoelastic, 339 graphite epoxy composite impact damage, 516-518
themlomechanical, 342-347 heat conduction in solids with buried, 62-75
cracks, 2, 413 historic buildings, 624, 632, 632, 635
carbon fiber reinforced composites, 207, 207-209, 208 infrared thermography applications, 44toble
earthquake resistant structures, 613-614, 615,615-616 metal aerospace structures, 502, 504-506
historic buildings, 630-631, 631, 637 nondestructive testing, 6toble
inspection, 380-384 one-dimensional model of laterally extended, 416-421
from steel hardening, 445 photothermal depth profiling, 392-402
thermomechanical coupling, 342 in plate of finite thickness, 418-421
ultrasonic !ockln thermography, 325, 325-326
creosote, 37 Index 707
crown glass, spectral emissivity curve, 197

pulsed infrared thermography, 310, 412-436 semitramparent media, 96-98
pulsed phase thermography, 3/S, 316-317 specular surfaces, 669
ribbonlike delamination, 433-434 steel wire, 483
in semiinfinitE' wall, 416·418 techniques to increase, 119-123
in solid mammy, 632, 632 techniques to overcome low, 125-128
space shuttle and related structures, 490, 495 true temperatures on objects with different, 661-662
as thermal resistance site, 58 endogen, 98
and thermogram development, 37-38 endoscopes. See borescopy
two-dimensional model with limited Ia lNaI extension, 422-436 energy dissipation, 345-346, 347
types, 373, 374/ob/e in earthquake resistant structures, 616-619, 617, 618
ultrasonic lockin thermography, 32S, 325-326 English units, conversion to Sl, 26toble
See also specific types of discontinuities entropy, Sl units, 27table
discontinuity depth, 68, 69 environmental applications, 24
discontinuity lateral size, 69-70, 70, 422-423 £>nvironrnental effect~, on infrared thermographic leak te~ting, 603
discontinuity thickness, 69, 69,-422-423 epoxy resin, thermal properties, 57tob!e
disk delamination (discontinuity model), 430-433 equalization (different emlssi\~ty object~), 661, 663
dissipatlon of energy. 5ee enC>rgy dissipation equalization boxes, 662, 662-663
drain pipeline, buried, 606, 606 errors {infrared thermography), 132-137, 296-299
dry reciprocating interface, friction and wear behavior, 471 476 apparatus for estimating, 138, 138-139, 149, 149-152
DSTAN 59-61 {MOD UK standard}, 16/ob/e calculation and evaluation, 138-148
DSTAN 59-99 (MOD UK standard), 16tob!e helicopter basi'd thermography, 565-568
dual band thermography, 124 statistical proces~ing, 149-159
dynamic photothermal technique, 382 E type thermocouples, 231tob!e, 240
eutectoid composition, 444
E eutectoid point, 444
evaporograph, 21
E 344 (ASTM standard), l6tobfe event temperature, liquid crystals, 257
E 1213 (ASTM standard), 16toble exci'ss noise, 108
E 1256 (ASTM standard), l6tab!e t:'xogen, 98
E 1311 (ASTM standard}, 16tabfe expert systems, 372
E 1316 (ASTM standard), 16tobfe extinction coefficient
E 1543 (ASTM standard), 16toble defined, 97
E 1862 (ASTM standard), 16tabfe dielectrics, 96
E 1897 (ASTM standard), 16table metals, 95
E 1933 (ASTM standard), 16tobfe extinction index
E 1934 (ASTM standard), 16tobfe dielectric~, 96
earthquake resistant structures, 613-619 metals, 95
eddy current testing, 9, 9
edge detection, 367 F
edge spread response, 173
effective conductivity, of thermal detectors, 186 fabric seam temperature monitoring, 264
effective emissivity, 92, 101 face centered cubic structure, 442,442-443
effective radiance, 99 facing materials, in historic buildings, 625-631
effective stress, 343 Fahrenheit, Gabriel, 229
effective transmissivity, 101 fahrenheit temperature scale, 27, 229
elastic deformation, 481 failure, rising cmt of, 4
electrical maintenance applications, 531-533 false color coding, 364, 366-367
electrical safety, 299-300 fatigue damage, in concrete, 613, 615-616
electric cable, buried, 607-608, 608 ferrite, 442, 443-444, 442, 445
electric machinery, hot spots in, 12, 12 ferroelectric materials, 189-190
electric power applications fiber breakage, 496
fiber optic coupled pyrometers, 283, 284
electrical maintenance, 531-533 field of view, 275, 279
nuclear fusion reactors, 538-544 field rate, 282
nuclear reactor component predictive maintenance, 534-537 filters, 275
power distribution systems, 528, 530, 551-555 fine art conservation, thermal testing applications, 647-652
power generation systems, 528-530, 545-550 fixed pattern noise, 109
power line helicopter based thermography, 554, 556-568
electromagnetic-electronic testing methods, 4table reduction through image processing, 111 113
electromagnetic radiation, 21,88 flame hardening, 446
electromagnetic spectrum, 21, 33, 88-89 flashing temperatures, 470
electronically scanned thermal viewers, 285 flat bottom groove (simulation of corrosion), 427-430
electronic components flat discontinuity inspection, 375-380
emissivity evaluation, 667-677 Flemish Renaissance art, infrared thermography, 648-651
temperature meastlfement, 660-666 floors, in historic buildings, 636
electronic ice point, 236 florentine thermometer, 229
electronic scanning, 276 fluoride windows, 102
emerging contrast technique, 418 fluorocarbon resin insert, thermal tomography, 388, 389
emissive power, 89 flying spot system, 382, 413
emissivity, 89 f-1 noise, 108
with ani~otropy of reflection, 669-671 local plane array radiometers, 286
defined, 38.40, 54-55 focal plane arrays, 41,276,217
dielectrics, 96
diffuse surfaces, 669 noise, 49/ob!f!, 50
error estimation, 156-157, 158 staring, 285-286
and infrared thermography, 36-37 types of, 190-192
and interpretation of results, 289 uniformity correction, 192
metals, 36/oble, 95-96, 122table vignetting effect, 47, 47·48, 48, 198
and noise, 65 foliage, spectral emissivity curve, 197
nonmetals, 36labfe forbidden band, 187
forward problem, 373, 392
708 Infrared and Thermal Testing

fourier equation, 56 H
fourier number, 59
Fourier's law, 54 halogen tamp heating test, for brazed tile impection, 541-542
fourier transform, 44, 365 hardening, 445-446

in pulsed phase thermography, 313,316 and crystal structure, 443
triangular waveform, 144 and eutectoid point, 444
four-wire resistor, 250, 250 hardening depth, 396
frame grabber, 49tob!e, 174 hardness
frame repetition rate, 281-282 measurement, 447-448
frequency, of electromagnetic waves, 88 and thermal properties, 446·447
Fresnel's formulae, 95 hardware compensation, 236, 236-237
friction, 470-471 harmonic filter, 118
dry reciprocating interface~, 471-476 harmonic (periodic function) heating, 59, 59, 60
friction coefficient, 470 heat, 21
frozen frame ther.mogram, 287 units, 27
full field detector arrays, 35-36 heat cilpacity, 51 unHs, 27toble
fundamental equation of radiometry, 101 heat conduction. See conduction heat transfer
heat convection. See convection heat transfer
furnace~ heat density, S! units, 27tab/e
heated thin foil sensors, 520
blackbody, 139 heat exchange coefficient. See heat transfer coefficient
thermographic inspection, 572-576 heat exchangers, 530, 547, 547-549
fusion reactor applications, 538-544 heat flow rate, 51 units, 27table
future usefulness, 2 heat flux sensors, 273, 519-520
heat irradiance. See irradiance
G heat pulses, 59, 59-60
time evolution of temperature signals, 65, 66-67, 68-69
GalileO, 21, 228 heat radiation. See radiation heat transfer
gallium arsenide-gallium aluminum arsenide superlattices, 191 heat sensor, film, 520
gallium silicide focal plane arrays, 190 heat stimUlation frequency, 57
galvanic action, thermocouples, 244 heat transfer
gamma ferrite, 442, 442 aluminum and plastic molds and dies, 451-457
gamma iron, 444 heat transfer coefficient, 54-55, 55tabfe, 60
gamma rays, 33 gas filled voids, 55-56
gases mechanisms of, 33, 54, 54-55
periodic regime, 76-84
infrared absorption of detectable, 584-585toble 51 units, 27table
infrared absorption of leaking, 580-586 heavy current generator, patent for early nondestructive testing invention,
leakage from aerospace nozzles, 491-495, 492,492tobfe
peak absorption, 580toble 22tabfe
radiative properties, 96 helicopter based thermography, of power lines, 554, 556-568
safety, 299 hemispherical emissivity, 91
gas filled voids, heat transfer in, 55-56 hemispherical reflectivity, 93
gasol'lne tank, buried, 578, 579, 579 hemispherical transmissivity, 94
gas tungsten arc welding, online monitoring of arc misalignment, 458-462 Herschel, john F.W., 21
gate rotor pump, vibrothermography, 334-338 Herschel, \Nilliam, 20, 20-21
gaussian filter, 116, 116 heterogeneous thermal waves, 83, 83-84
generation recombination noise, 108 hidden structures, in historic buildings, 631 636
germanium high emissivity coatings, 341
reflectivity and emissivity in electronic m<1terials, 673, 674, 675, 676toble, history

677toble historic buildings, conservation of, 624-646
windows, 102, 189 of infrared and thermal testing, v-vii, 20-24, 228-230
germanium mercwy detectors, atmospheric effects on, 188 of temperature measurement, 228-230
girders, in historic buildings, 636 See olso Renaissance Netherlandish art
Gladstone's law, 181 holograph}~ 11
glass, thermal properties, 57 table honeycomb structures
glass fiber plastic, thermal properties, 57tobfe liquid crystal testing, 37, 37
gold, thermal properties, 57table metal honeycomb core-skin assemblies, 502-503
gold cup pyrometers, 575 scanning radiometric evaluation, 209
gold germanium detectors, atmospheric effects on, 188 space shuttle and related structures, 490
149-GP-2MP (CGSB standard), 16tob/e horizontal structures, in historic buildings, 636-637
gradient heat sensors, 520 hot air jet heating, 204, 205
grains, 443 hot gas heating test, for brazed tile inspection, 542-543
graphite, thermal properties, 57 table hot spots, 12, 12
graphite epoxy in casting molds, 452, 452-453
discontinuity detection by transient thermal testing, 64-75, 71 table, 72, defined, 42
frictional, 470
73table plastic extrusions, 591
heat conduction in, 60, 61 hot wall, aerospace nozzles, 492, 493, 493
impact damage in composite aerospace structures, 511-518 hot water heating test, for brazed tile inspection, 543-544
properties of air filled discontinuities in, 64tab!e hot water pipeline, buried, 607, 607
pulsed thermographic inspection, 310 hot wire pyrometery. See optical pyrometers
step heating th'ermography, 330, 330-332, 331 hue saturation intensity color model, 259, 259-260
thermal properties, 57tobfe
grashof number, 55 image generat'1on testing methods, 4labfe
graybody approximation, 213-215 image intensifier tubes, 309
graybody radiation, 20, 54-55 image interpretation, 290-292

emissive power versus wavelength, 92
and emissivity, 39
gray level image densitometry, 466
gray surfaces, 91
ground cover effects, on infrared thermographic leak testing, 603

Index 709

image processing, 287-288, 362-365 discovery of, 20-21
of laser welding, 464-466 unHs, 27
of leaking gases, 581, 581-582 infrared radiometers, 194, 194
for noise reduction, 111-118 atmospheric band selection, 196-197
postprocessing, 364 calibration, 103-104
segmentation, 367 cooling, 194-196
spatial resolution, 281, 295 infrared radiometry, 88-90
of convective heat transfer, 519-521
imaging radiometers, 286 equations of, 99-102
impact damage multico!or, near ambient temperatures, 210-218
polymer films, 591-598
carbon fiber reinforced plastic, 207, 207-209, 208 radiative properties of materials, 91-98
graphite epoxy composites, 511-518 semitransparent media, 96-98
space shuttle composites, 497-498 standard conditions of, 100
Imperial units, conversion to Sl, 26/ob/e temperature measurement, 99-104, 197-200
impinging jets, convective heat transfer with plates, 520-521 through windows, 102-103
incandescent lamps, 291 infrared reflectography, line art applications, 648-6S1
incident radiance, 100 infrared thermal imaging, 274
inclusions, 496 infrared thermographic equipment, 32
carbon fiber reinforced plastics, 207-209, 209 infrared thermographic leak testing, 309, 577
incoming scattering, 97 buried pipelines, 602-608
indicators. See temperature indicators chemical leakage from pipennes and storage vessels, 577-586
indium antimonide sensors, 36, 137, 191, 193, 286-287 space shuttle and related structures, 490-495
atmospheric effects on, 182, 187, 188, 196 through wall leakage, 609-612
for infrared borescopy, 302, 303 infrared thermography, 32, 40
in multico!or radiometers, 211 advantages and limitations, 46table
indium arsenic antimonide-indium antimonide supedattices, 191 aluminum and p!<1stic molds and dies, 451-457
indium arsenide sensors, 187 appncations, 44table
atmospheric effects on, 188 atmospheric effects, 180-182
indium gallium arsenide intrinsic detectors, 191 building thermal envelopes, 620·623
indium gallium arsenide superlauices, 191 calibration, 47-50, 156, 288, 293-294
indium phoshorus wafers, thermal wave refraction, 82 common mistakes, 296-299
induction current heating, 204, 205 differential, 346
patent for early nondestructive testing invention, 22toble dual band, 124
induction hardening, 445-446 electrical maintenance, 531-533
industrial applications, 24, 44/ab/e electronic components, 660-677
inferior critical rate, 444 and emissivity, 36-37
infrared and thermal testing, 4toble error calculation and evaluation, 138-148
aerospace applications, 490-S21 error sources, 132-137
basic principles of, 32-39 error statistical processing, 149-159
basic techniques of, 42-45 fine art, 647-652
chemical and petroleum applications, 572-598 future developments, 45
electric power applications, 528-568 historic buildings, 624-646
electronic component applications, 660-677 leakage through waiJs, 609-612
equipment for, 272-304 noise,48-SO, 108-128
history, v-vii, 20-24, 228-230 nuclear fusion reactors, 538-544
infrastructure and conservation applications, 602-6S2 nuclear reactor component predictive maintenance, 534-S37
instrumentation, 34-39,41-42, 272-284 optical detector performance parameters, 162-167
interpretation, 15, 289-292 power distribution systems, 528-530, 551-555
management, 12-14 power generation systems, 528-530, 545-S50
metals, 442-484 power llnes, helicopter based, 554, 556-568
patents, 21-24, 22tables process furnaces, 572-576
personnel qualification and certification, 15-18 qualitative versU5 quantitative, 277
physical basis, 40 space shuttle and related structures, 490
reliability, 19 steel aboveground storage vessels, 587-590
safety, 18-19,299-300 system performance parameters, 168-179, 277-282
standards and specifications for, 14-15, 16lable See also active infrared thermography; passive infrared thermography;
test procedures for, 14
thermal versus infrared testing, 32 specific types of infrared thermography
transient, 64-74 infrared thermometers, 32
See also active infrared thermography; infrared thermography; passive infrared tribology, 470-477
infrared video cameras, 35
infrared thermography infrared vidicon tubes, 35, 35, 188, 189
infrared borescopy, 301-305 infrared zoom projector, 175
infrared cameras, 34, 361 infrastructure applications, 602-608

calibration, 47-50, 103 See also buildings
development of commercial, 24 injection molding, of plastics, heat transfer in, 451-455
gain aberration, 112 instantaneous (Dirac) pulse heating, 59, 59, 61
See also infrared thermography instantaneous f1eld of view, 173, 275, 281, 295
infrared detectors, 275
infrared images. See thermal images filling to maximize effectiveness, 297-298
infrared imaging devices, 187-190 instrumentation, 34-39,41-42,272-284
infrared tine scanners, 32, 36, 284 integrated circuit sensors, 228, 228, 254-255
for continuous process monitor_ing, 292
scanning schemes, 201-209, 275-276 advantages and disadvantages, 229table
infrared microscopes, 36, 283, 284 integration, thermocouple noise reduction technique, 241
electronic component temperature measurement, 664-666 International Commission on Illumination (CIE), standards and practices,
infrared optics, 275
infrared pyrometry, 273 16table
multicolor radiometry, 199-200, 211-218 International Electrical Testing Association (NETA), standards and practices,
process furnace application, 575-576
reflective cavity, 123, 123 16table
special purpose devices, 283-284 International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 18
infrared radiation, 32, 33
standards and practices, 16tab/e
International Space Station, 499
International System of Units (SI), 25

710 Infrared and Thermal Testing

International Temperature Scale, 230, 254 tie spread function, 173
interstices, 442, 443 tight, 21
interstitial leak detection, of aerospace nozzles, 492-495 linear detector arrays, 35
intrinsic dissipation, 345-346, 347 linear filters, 117
line excitation, 201-203
of energy in earthquake resistant structures, 619 tine heating methods, 203-205, 204
intrinsic photon detectors, 191-192, 192, 193 line pulsed thermographic inspection, 310, 311
inverse problem, 373, 392 line scanners. See infrared line scanners
inversion temperature, 491 liquid crystals, 37, 37, 256-261, 272, 334
iridium silicide focal plane arrays, 191
iron calibration, 258-260, 261
liquid penetrant testing, 8, 8
crystallography, 442-444 load break elbows, 551
spectral emissivity curve, I 97 local thermodynamic equilibrium, 88-89, 94
See ol5o steel lockin thermography, 43-44, 318, 318-320
iron carbide (cementite), 443, 444, 445, 446
iron constantan thermocouple, 2_33, 233-235, 240 advantages and limitations, 46table
iron nitrides, 446 applications, 44table
iron-to-iron carbide metastable phase diagram, 443, 443 applications of ultrasonic, 325-327
irradiance, 40, 89 applications with internal excitation, J23-32S
Sf units, 27tab!e applications with optical excitation, 320-323
ISO 6781, 16tabfe for buried discontinuity detection, 68
IS09712, 16table, 18 and thermoelastic stress analysis, 339
isolation, thermocouple noise reduction technique, 241-242 long pulse thermography. See step heating thermography
ISO member bod"1es, 18 loss angle !ockin thermography, 44
isop!anatism, 168 lo>vtran's formula, 96
isothermal dosed cavity, 89 luminance. See radiance
isothermal enclosures, 1DO
isothermal slabs, 594-595, 596-597 M
isothermal transformation (C) curve, 444, 444
machines, increased demands on, 3
J magnetic particle testing, 8
maintenance
japanese Industrial Standards Q!S), l6tab!e
JIS standards, 16toble electrical power systems, 531-533
johnson noise, 108 nuclear reactor component predictive maintenance, 534-537
preventive maintenance applications, 308-309
performance effects, 166-167 martensite, 395-396, 444, 445, 445
joule effect, 88-89 distortions introduced by, 446
joule-thompson effect, 491 masonry block walls, 623
joule-thompson gas expansion cooling, 195, 196 discontinuities in, 631-632, 632
) type thermocouples, 231 table, 240 material characlerization
infrared thermographic applications, 44table
K nondestructive testing applications, 6table
material thermal properties. See thermal_properties
Kelvin, William Thomson {lord Kelvin), 229 maxigram, 372
kelvin temperature scale, 27, 229 Maxwell, Robert Clerk, 88
kinematics chain, 483 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, 88
Kirchoff's law, 39, 94 Maxwell's equations, 88
K type thermocouples, 231table, 240 McMaster, Robert, 21
mean filter, 464
L measurement spatial resolution, 281
procedure for determining, 295-296
laboratory blackbodies, 89, 103-104 mechanically scanned imagers, 286
lacquer temperature indicators, 262, 262 mechanically scanned thermal viewers, 285
laminates. See composite laminates mechanical-optical testing methods, 4tab!e
lampblack, 39 median filter, 117-118, 118, 464
langley, Samuel Pierpont, 21 medical applications, 24, 309
laplace equation, 56 MeHoni, Macedonia, 21, 21
laser heating, 203-205, 204 melting point media, 262-266
laser pyrometry, process furnace application, 576 applications, 263-266
laser rer!ection pyrometers, 283, 284 coatings, 37,262,262,264,265
laser transformation hardening, 446 pellets, 262-264, 262, 264
laser welding, thermal imaging, 463-469 sticks, 262, 262
latex, to increase emissivity, 120 mercury cadmium telluride sensors, 36, 187, 191, 193
laths, in historic buildings, 636 atmospheric effects on, 182, 188, 196
lead scandium tantalate pyroelectric arrays, 189 common performance values, 151 table
lead selenide detectors, atmospheric effects on, 188 for infrared borescopy, 302
lead silicon detectors, atmospheric effects on, 188 infrared tribology application, 471
lead sulfide detectors, 274 minimum detectable size, 134, 134
lead tin telluride intrinsic detectors, 191 in multicolor radiometers, 211
teak testing, 10 optical designs using, 139table
relative specific detectivity, 136, 137
See also infrared thermographic leak testing response curve, 274
leg branched thermocouples, 247, 247 thermal index, 146tob!e
!em aberration, 139 mercury manganese telluride intrinsic detectors, 191
mercury thermometers, 229
calculation and evaluation, 141-143 mercury zinc telluride intrinsic detectors, 191
lenses, 275
le Systeme International d'Units (51), 25 Index 711

metals nickd supera!loy, thermal properties, 57toble
aerospace structures, 322, 502~507 night vision devices, 309
brazefine, 503-504 NJST IT5-90 polynomial coefficients, 238toble
crystallography, 442-450 nitrocarburizing, 446
emissivity, 36toble, 95-96, 122toble Nobiti, leopold, 21
emissivity evaluation in electronic cirwits, 667-669, 673 noble metal thermocouples, 231toble, 239-240
honeycomb core-skin assemblies, 502-503 noise
lockin thermography, 322
radiative properties, 95, 95-96 in discontinuity detection, 64-65
resistance temperature detectors, metal film, 249 in infrared thermography, 48-50, 108-128
resistivity of common, 249tob/e measurement, 109-110
spectral emissivity curve, 197 reduction through image processing, 11 1-118
thermal and infrared testing, 442-484 signal·to-noise ratio, 110,163, 166
thermoelectric effect, 231,231 techniques to increase em'issivity, 119-123
ultrasonic lockin thermography, 325-326 techniques to overcome low emissivity, 125-128
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, 651 thermocouples, 240-242, 244-245
See also steel; steel wire; welding types of, 108-109
noise equivalent power, 163-167, 301
methane, infrared imaging of leaking, 581, 583,585 noise equivalent temperature difference, 110, 132, 278
metrology problem, 373 calculation and evaluation, 145-148, 147
Meyers, C.H., 248 estimation apparatus, 138, 138-139
microencapsulated liquid crystals, 257 and modulation transfer function, 175-177, 176
micromechanics, 343 procedure for checking, 294-296
microscopy, of steels, 448, 448, 449 theory, 135-137
microwave heating, 332 and thermographic performance, 133
microwaves, 33 nonadiabatic heat transfer, 55
military applications, v, 24, 309 nonadiabatic step function heating, 60
minimum detectable size, 132 noncontact sensors, 32, 40, 186-218, 272
for steel wire drawing thermography, 482
calculation and evaluation, 139-141 pyrometers, 35, 273
estimation apparatus, 138, 138 See also scanning radiometers; other specific sensors
theory, 132-135 nondestructive testing
and thermographic performance, 133 applications, 4
minimum resolvable temperature difference, 177-179, 282 deflned,2
procedure for checking, 294, 294 method classification, 4-5, Stable
mirage technique, for thermal wave detection, 79,81-82 method objectives, 6/obfe
mirrors, 275 methods overview (other lhan infrared and thermal testing), 7-11
MOD UK standards, 16table purposes, 2-4
modulation transfer function, 168-170 units, 25-27
calculation, 170-172 value of, 5-7
measurement, 172-175 nonisothermal slabs, 594-596, 597
procedure for determining, 295, 295 nonlinear filters, 117
moire imaging, 11 normalized contrast, 414-415, 415
moisture diffusion, in historic buildings, 637-638 normalized detectivity, 164
infrared thermography, 638-644 normalized discontinuity diameter, 423
molds normalized discontinuity resistance, 416
coatings, 455 normalized temperature, 330
heat transfer in aluminum ,md plastic, 451-457 Norme Fran~aise (NF), standards and practices, 16toble
moment technique, 369 nozzles, leaking testing of aerospace, 491-495,493
monitoring applkations. See process control and monitoring; product N type lhermocoup!es, 231 table, 240
nuclear power applications
monitoring fusion reactors, 538-544
monochromatic plane waves, 88 reactor component predictive maintenance, 534-537
monolithic linear temperature transducers, 254 numerical modeling
morlet wavelet, 317 heat conduction with buried discontinuities, 63
mother wavelet, 317 thermal conlrast in pulsed thermography, 423-424
motor crank bar, thermoelastic stress analysis, 339 nyquisl noise, 108
MTS-199X (NETA standard), 16toble
multicolor radiometry, 210-218 0
Murio's mollification technique, 374
Occupational Safety and Health Adm.lnistration {OSHA), standards and
N practices, 16toble

narcissus effect, 664 Ocwpolionol Safety and Heollh Standards, 19
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), standards and practices, 16tobfe off-seam welding, 460
National Materials Advisory Board (NMAB) Ad Hoc Committee on offset compensated ohm measurement

Nondestructive Evaluation, 4-5 with resistance temperature detectors, 251
natural gas pipeline, buried, 578, 578 with thermocouples, 247
neighborhood averag'111g (box filter), 114, 114-116, 115, 118 oil. See chemical and petroleum industry applications
nematic liquid crystals, 256 oil cooled electric cable, buried, 607-608, 608
neodymium-yttrium aluminum garnet lasers, 204 online printers, 288
NETA standards, 16table online process monitoring
Netherlandish Renaissance art, infrared thermography, 648-651 of arc misalignment in gas tungsten arc welding, 458-462
network connection, 360, 362 devices for, 283
neural networks, 372 on-seam welding, 460
Newton's law of cooling, 54 optical constants, 94
NFPA 70-B standard, 16toble optical detectors, performance parameters, 162-167
NFPA 70-E standard, 16toble optical invariant, infrared borescopes, 304
NF standards, 16toble optical pyrometers, 32, 273
nickel alloy resistance temperature detectors, 249 process furnace application, 575
nickel iron alloys, thermal wave refraction, 82, 82, 83 optical thickness, 97
nickel silicide focal plane arrays, 191

712 Infrared and Thermal Testing

optical transfer function, 169 See also composites
optomechanical scanning, 276, 276 plates
OSHA standards, 16tab!e
ovens convective heat transfer of impinging jets, 520·521
extended discontinuHy in finite thickness, 418-421
patent for early nondestructive testing invention, 22tabfe heat conduction in, 60-61
temperature verification using temperature indicators, 263-264, 264 online monitoring of steel arc weld'1ng, 459
oxyacetylene flame, patent for early nondestructive testing invention, 22tab!e thermal tomography of acrylic, 390, 391
ozone, atmospheric absorption due to, 180 platinum resistance temperature detectors, 248, 249
platinum silicide detector arrays, 36, 190,285,286
p as mature technology, 191,192-193
quantum efficiency relative indium antimonide sensors, 302
paint coatings point pulsed thermographic inspection, 310, 311
high emissivity, 341 point sensors, 282
to increase emissivity, 119, 122 point spread function, 172·173
lockin thermography, 320-321 polyaramid, thermal properties, 57table
semitransparency, 98 polyester, temperature measurement, 292, 292
polyethylene, temperature measurement, 291, 292
palladium, depth profiling by thermal wave backscattering, 397 polyethylene terephthalate
passive infrared thermography, 34, 308-309 injection molding, 454, 454
radiometry of films, 590-591, 592
advantages and limitations, 46tab!e polyisoprene, thermal properties, 57table
applications, 44tab!e polymer film radiometry, 591-598
basic techniques, 42 polymer windows, 102
leaking gas imaging, 582-583 Jyoxymethyl!'ne
line scan technique, 209 reciprocating interface with polyoxymethylene, 474, 414
moisture detection in historic buildings, 642, 643 reciprocating interface with polyphenylene, 470-471, 471, 474, 474-475
of storage tanks, 587 po!yphenylene, reciprocating interface \vith polyoxymelhylene, 470-471, 471,
patenting (steel wire), 481
patents, in thermal and infrared testing, 21-24, 22tabfe 474, 474-475
paving, in historic buildings, 636 polypropylene
pearlite, 444
pellet temperature indicators, 262, 262 radiometry of films, 590-591, 591
Peltier, j.C.A., 195 temperature measurement, 291
pettier effect, 195 polyvinyl chloride, thermal properties, 57toble
penetrating radiation testing methods, 4tabfe porosity, 413
periodic function (harmonic) heating, 59, 59, 60 metal aerospace structures, 505
periodic heat transfer, 76-84 space shuttle composites, 495-496, 498-501
peripherals, 360, 362 portable hand held devices, 282-283, 283
personnel qualification and certification, 15-18,24 postforming heat control, 264, 264-265
petroleum industry applications. See chemical and petroleum industry pouncing, 648
powders, to increase emissivity, 119-120
applications power distribution system applications, 528, 530, 551-555
phase diagrams (metals), 443, 443-445 helicopter based thermography, 554, 556-568
phase function, 97 See also electric power applications
phase locked thermography, 114 prandtl number, 55
phase sensitive modulation thermography, 319 precision index, 152
phase transfer function, 169 pressure vessels
phosphor coatings, 37 boilers, 545, 545·547
photoemissive photonic detectors, 186-187, 187 See ofso heat exchangers
photomultiplier tubes, 187 preventive maintenance applications, 308-309
photonic detectors, 186·187, 187, 196-197, 274 Prev05t's law of exchanges, 39
photonic infrared detectors, 41 primitive celt 442
photon noise limited systems, 164 printed circuit boards
photothermal deflection technique, 392, 449, 449-450 temperature measurement with infrared camera, 660-661, 661
temperature measurement with infrared microscope, 665-666, 666
for depth profiting, 400-402 printers, 288, 360, 362
photothermal depth profiling, 392-402 process control and monitoring, 308
photothermal radiometry, 450 of arc misalignment in gas tungsten arc welding, 458-462
devices for, 283
for buried discontinuity detection, 68 infrared thermographic applications, 44tob!e
spatially multiplexed, 319 plastic extrusions, 591-593
See also lockin thermography spectra! considerations in, 291-292
pigments, 647 process furnaces, thermographic inspection, 572-576
pine, thermal properties, 57table product monitoring, 308
pipeline infrared thermographic leak testing, 602-608 spectra! considerations in, 291-292
chemical leakage detection, 577-586 profile space, 395
temperature indicating coatings, 265 pseudo graybody approximation, 213-215
pixels, 187 PTC 19-1 (ASME standard), 16toble
pixels on target, 368 pulsed phase thermography, 44, 45, 313-317
Planck's Jaw, 20, 40, 89, 90 discontinuity measurement, 316-317
visualize in terms of photons, not watts, 301 for overcoming low emissivity, 126-127, 128
plane thermal waves, 77, 77 pulsed thermography, 42-43, 44, 310-312, 311
plaster advantages and limitations, 46tobfe
detachment in historic buildings, 629-630 aging aircraft inspection, 508-510
thermal properties, 57tabfe applications, 44toble
plastic deformation, 481,482 impact damage in graphite epoxy composites, 511-518
plasticity formalism, 343 one-dimensional discontinuity model, 416-421
plastics thermal contrasts, 412·415, 423-424
extrusion radiometric process control, 591-593 two-dimensional discontinuity model, 422-436
injection molding, 451-455 pyroelectric detectors, 186, 188·190, 189, 276
polym!'r film radiom!'try, 591-598 pyroelectric vidicon thermal imagers, 276, 285
pulsed thermographic inspection, 310 pyrometry, pyrometers, 35, 273
reciprocating interfaces, 471-476 See also infrared pyrometry
thermal properties, 57table

Index 71~

Q resistivity
common metals, 249table
qualification, 15-18 temperature dependence, 248
qualitative thermographk viewers, 285-286
Quantitative Infrared Thermography Conference, v response time, 278, 278
quantitative invenion, 373-375 response time constant, 162
quantitative thermographic viewers, 285-286 responsivity, 162-163
quantization noise, 109 f{'t,cular point, 442
quantum detectors, 187 reticular structures, 442
quantum well infrared photodetectors {QW!Ps), 302 ribbonlike delamination (discontinuity model), 433-434
road asphalt, spectral emissivity curve, 197
R robotic welding systems, 458
rockwell hardness, 447
radiance (luminance), 40, 89 roofs, in historic buildings, 636-637, 631
semitransparent media, 97-98 R type thermocouples, 231toble, 239
rubber
radiant flux (power), 88-89
radiant intensity, 89 discontinuity detection by transient thermal testing, 72
spectral emissivity curve, 197
51 units, 27toble thermal properties, 57toble
radiation detectors running contrast, 415

band selection, 127 s
invention, 23
radiation difference pyrometers, 210 safety
radiation (electromagnetic), 21,88 in airborne inspection of transmission lines, 559
See also infrared radiation infrared and thermal testing, 18-19,299-300
radiation heat transfer, 33, 54, 54-55 electrical maintenance, 532
radiative properties of materiah, 91-98 public demands for greater, 3
radiographic testing, 8, 8-9 \'lith process furnaces, 573, 576
radiometers and radiometry, 34, 34-36
See also infrared radiometry; scanning radiometers sapphire windows, 102
radiosity, 89 scanning radiometers, 34, 35, 36, 41, 194, 194-200
error estimation, 156-157, 158
steel wire, 482-483 applications, 206-209
radio waves, 33 for concrete vibrothermography, 614
railway bearings, temperature indicators for evaluating, 263 for convective heat transfer evaluation, 519-521
raman spectroscopy, art conseNation application, 651 imaging methods, 205, 205-206
Ronda/1'5 Mill (Higgens), 6SO, 650-651 line heating methods, 203-205, 204
random noise, 108-109, 109 line scanning schemes, 201-209,275-276
reduction through image processing, 113-118 scanned line excitation, 201-203
Rankine, W.j.M., 229 scanning radiometry, 35
rankine temperature scale, 27, 229 scattering, of radiation, 96-97
rate of energy generation, 56 school building roof thermogram, 1
ratio pyrometers, 283, 284 schottky barrier detectors, 190-191
real time data processing, 363-364 Schuster-Schwarzschi!d approximation, 97
rt;a! time radiometry, 35 scientific applications, 24
reciprocating interface, friction and \\'ear behavior, 471-476 Seebeck, Thomas, 21,231, 272
record keeping, 301 seebeck effect, 21, 231, 272
recovering, in hardening, 445 seeds, 367
red green blue (RGB) color cube, 259, 259 semiinfinite bodies
reference circuits, 232, 234-235 extended discontinuity in wall, 416-418
reference emitter technique, 297, 297 heat conduction in, 59-60, 61
reference image subtraction, 125, 125-126, 126, 121 semitransparent media, 96-98
reference junctions, 232, 232-213 polymer slabs, 595, 596-597
reference temperatures, 229-230 sensitivity coefficient, 373
reflection, 667-668 sensors. See contact sensors; noncontact sensors; specific sensors
computation of, 127 seNice water piping wall thinning, 549-550
emissivity of surfaces with anisotropic, 669-671 shaker, 44
pulsed thermography, 311, 311 shaking table loading, 616-617,617
specular, 95 shearography, 11
of thermal waves, 77-78, 18, 19, 79-80, 80 shingles, in historic buildings, 636
reflective cavity pyrometry, 123, 123 shot noise, 364
reflectivity, 39 shunt impedance, thermocouples, 244
defined, 93 Siemens, William, 248
and interpretation of results, 289 signal acquisition and processing, 360-365
reflectograms, 648 signal dependent limited detection, 165
refraction, of thermal waves, 77-78, 80-83, 81, 82 signal image analysis testing methods, 4table
refractive index, 96 signal space, 395
atmosphere, 180 signal-to-noise ratio, 110, 163, 166
complex, 88, 94-95 silicon
reinforced concrete. See concrete materials
relative contrast, 415 reflectivity and emissivity in electronic materials, 673-674, 675, 676table,
reliability, 19 677table
Renaissance Netherlandish art, infrared thermography, 648-650
See also history, historic buidlings thermal properties, 57table
repeatability, 278 windows, 102
silicon carbide, thermal properties, 57table
res!stance heater, patent for early nondestructive testing invention, 22tobfe silicon nitride, thermal properties, 571able
remtance temperature detectors, 228, 228, 248, 248-251, 272-273 silicon sensors, 187
Sl multipliers, 25-26, 26tab!e
advantages and disadvantages, 229tabfe single-point compensation, focal plane arrays, 192
invention, 23 single-screw gate rotor pump, vibrothermography, 334-338
singular value decomposition, 393, 399-400
SIS (Sweden) standards, 16table

714 Infrared and Thermal Testing

St units, 25-27 advantages and limitations, 461oble
skillet effect, 455-456 applications, 44table, 330-333
slit response function, 173,281,295-296 sterling engine cooling, 195, 196
smectic liquid crystals, 256 stick temperature indicators, 262, 262-263
software compens<~tion, 235, 236 stochastic noise. See random noise
storage vessels
integrated circuit sensors for, 254 chemical leakage detection, 577-586
solid interstiti<~l solution, 443 steel aboveground infrared t11ermography, 587-590
thermographic level detection, 290
solids strain aging, 482
strain gaging, 11
heat conduction in sound, S9-61 strehl ratio, 171
heat conduction with buried discontinuities, 62-75 stress pattern analysis by thermal emission (SPATE), 325, 345
thermomech<~nic<~l coupling, 342-347 S type thermocouples, 231 table, 239
sonic-ultrasonic testing methods, 4toble subsurface effects, on infrared thermographic leak testing, 603
sp<~ce shuttle, infrMed thermography, 490-501 sulfur pipeline thermogram, 7, 519
sp<~rk testing, 11 superior critical rate, 444
SPATE (stress p<~ttern <~nalysis by thermal emission}, 325, 345 supperlat!ice detector arrays, 191, 193
spatial filtering, 114-118 surface coatings. See coatings
spatially multiplexed photothermal radiometry, 319 surface modification, to increase emissivity, 122
spatial processing, 364-365 surface pulsed thermographic inspection, 310, 311
spatial propagation coefficient, 137 surface treatment, of metals, 445-446
specifications, 15, 16toble
specific detectivity, 164 T
specific heat, 56
common materials, 57toble T 1141 (liS standard), 16/ob/e
specimen holder, 360, 360-361 tagged image format (TIFf), 286, 288
spectral absorptivity, 93 tanks. 5ee storage vessels
spectral detectivity curves, 187, 188 tapp·1ng, 11
spectral emissivity, 91 TAPPI standards, l6toble
and atmospheric band, 182, 197 target geometry, 289
microelectronic materials, 673-677 target spot size, 279
spectral range, 280, 280 Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI), standards and
spectral reflectivity, 93
spectral transmissivity, 94, 96 practices, 16toble
spectroscopy, 11 temperature, 26, 32
art conservation application, 651 temperature indicators, 37-38
specular reflection, 95
specular surface emissivity, 669 applications, 263-266
spherical thermal waves, 76-77 invention, 22-23
spraying, of aluminum casting dies, 455-456 types of, 262, 262-263
SPRITE (Signal Processing In The Element) detector, 191-192, 192, 194 temperature measurement, 228·230
square pulse heating, 59, 59-60 temperature probes, 282
SS024210 (SIS standard), l6toble temperature range, 277
stainless steel temperature scales, 27, 228-229, 229/oble
radiative properties measured by three sensors, 214toble temperature sensitivity. See noise equivalent temperature difference
temperature indicators for, 263 temperature sensors, 228, 228
thermal wave refraction, 82, 82, 83 types compared, 229/ob/e
standard deviation, 152 temperature signal, 362
standard error of estimate, 153 temporal averaging, 113-114
Standardization Committee of Sweden (SIS), 16toble temporal processing, 365
standards, 15, 16tobfe thermal conductance, Sl units, 27toble
standard wire error, 239 thNmal conductivity, 54, 56, 60
staring infrared focal plane array thermal viewers, 285-286 common materials, 57table
static strain aging embritt!ement, 482 and hardness, 447
steam pipeline, buried, 607, 607 moisture effect on, 641
steel Sl units, 271obfe
adhesion discontinuities in ceramic coated rings, 206-207 thermal contour map, 287
air leakage through sliding door, 612 thermal contrast, 365
for aluminum die casting molds, 451-452 thermal detectors, 186-193, 196·197, 274
crystallography, 442-450 thermal diffusion length, 57
depth profiling by thermal wave backscattering, 395·397 thermal diffusivity, 56
discontinuity lateral size, 70, 70 and hardness, 447
hardening of 20MnCr5, 447-450, 448, 449 by photothermal deflection technique, 449,449-450
infrared thermography of aboveground storage vessels, 587-590 by photothermal radiometric technique, 450
Nichol's 1935 patent for scanning sheets, 22, 23 thermal echo, of discontinuity, 419
online monitoring of arc welding plates, 459 thermal effusivity (inertia), 56-57
for plastic injection molds, 451 common materials, 57 table
properties of air filled discontinuities in, 64tobfe moisture effect on, 641
radiative properties measured by three sensors, 214lobfp thermal envelopes, inspection of new building's, 620-623
in reinforced concrete, 617,618 thermal expansion, Sl units, 27table
step heating thermography of epoxy coated, 332-333, 333 thermal imager, 276, 360, 361
thermal imaging of laser welding, 463, 464, 468, 469 basic configuration, 273, 273-274
thermal properties of AISI 316 and 1010, 57toble thermal images {thermograms), 7, 32, 41
thermal properties of low alloy, 447tobfe difference, 287-288
thermal testing parametNs in detection of material loss, 72, 74toble frozen frame, 287
See also stainless steel reflectograms, 648
steel win~, 478, 478-479, 481-482 summary of variables associated with, 37-38
infrared thermography, 479-484 thermal image subtraction, 346
Stefan-Boltzmann law, 36, 38, 38, 54, 89 thermal impedance, 589
Stefan's law, 20
Steinhart-Hart equation, 252 Index 715
step function heating, 59, 59, 60, 61
step heating thermography, 43, 328-330

thermal index, 132, 146 thin film heal sensors, 520
mercury-cadmium-telluride sensors, 146 thin skin heat sensors, 520
standard deviation, 148 thompson_ technique, 151
three-color pyrometers, l.IU-215, 111, 217~218
thermal inertia. See thermal effusivity thresholding, 529
thermal infrared detectors, 41 Tikhonov's technique, 374
thermally thick spedmens, heat conduction in, 59-60, 61 tile, spectral emissivity curve, 197
thermal mismatch factor, 57 timegram, 365, 372, 387
time resolved infrared thermography with step heating. See step heating
coatings, 62
thermal noise, 108 l11ermography
thermal properties, 56-58 tip branched thermocouples, 247,247
tires, friction and wear behavior, 475-476
common materials, 57table TIS 0810·01 (TAPPI standard), 16tobli>
and hardness, 446-447 titanium
moisture effect on, 641
radiative properties, 91-98 discontinuity detection by transient thermal testing, 72
thermal radiation, 88-89 thermal properties, 57toble
units, 26 Tokamak reactors, 538
thermal reshtance, 54, 57-58 total absorptivity, 93, 94
buried discontinuities, 69 total emissivity, 91, 94
Sl units, 27tob!e total field of view, 281, 281
thermal resistivity, Sl units, 27tob/e total reflectivity, 93
thermal resolution. See noise equivalent temperature difference total transmissivity, 94
thermal shunting transfer equation, 97
resistance temperature detectors, 251 transmission, pulsed thermography, 311, 311
thermocouples, 244 transmission windows, 180
thermal stimulation source, 360, 361 transmi~sivity, 39, 94
thermal tomogram, 387, 387 gases, 96
thermal tomography, 386-391 and interpretation of results, 289
thermal transfer imaging, 125, 125 tree switching, 240
thermal transit time, 62-63 trend removal elimination procedures, 368
thermal transmittance, Sl units, 27table triangular waveform, 144, 144
thermal wave backscattering, 392-402, 398 tribofogicaf interfaces, 470-471
thermal wave mirror, 78-79 dry reclprocating interfaces, 471-476
thermal waves, 43, 57, 76-77, 77 tricolor pyrometers, 210-215, 211, 217-218
and conduction with buried discontinuities, 62, 68-69 T type thermocouples, 231tab/e, 240
heterogeneous, 83, 83-84 tung~ten resistance temperature detectors, 249
reflection, 77-78, 78, 79, 79-80, 80 tungsten thermocouples, 231tabfe, 240
refraction, 77-78,80-83,81,82 two-color pyrometers, 199-200, 210, 210-217, 211, 283
thermistors, 228, 228, 252 t\vo·dimensional scanning, 276
advantages and disadvantages, 229toble, 235, 252-253 two-humps function, 378, 379
in thermocouple reference clrcu·11, 234-235 two-point technique, focal plane arrays, 192
thermochromatic coatings, 32 types of thermocouples, 231toble, 239-240
to increase emissivity, 122
thermochromic liquid crystals, 272 u
thermocouples, 32, 228, 228, 231~232, 272
advantages and disadvantages, 229tob!e, 235-236 ultrasonic C-scan enhanced X-rodiography, for single-screw gate rotor purnp
calibration, 153tob!e, 154, 155tab!e, 243-244 evaluation, 335-337, 337
characteristics, 239-240
decalibration, 243-244 ultrasonic lockin thermography, 325-327
invention, 21, 23 ultrasonic testing, 9-10, 10
practical considerations, 240-247 uncorrelated noise. See random noise
process furnace application, 574 units, 25-27
properties of typical, 231 table
res'1stance, 246, 246-241 v
special purpose, 247, 247
types, 231 tob!e, 239-240 van Cleve, joos, infrared thermography of drawings by, 648
voltage measurement, 232-239 vaults, in historic bu'ddings, 636, 637, 637
thermodynamic equilibrium, 88-89, 94 Vermeer, Jan, infrared reflectography of paintings by, 649-650
thermoelastic coupling, 339 vertical structures, in historic buildings, 625-631
thermoetasticity, 345 vessels. See storage vessels
thermoelastic stress analysis, 339-341 vibration analysis, 11
lhermoelectrical cooling, 195-196 vibrothermography, 44-45, 334-338
thermoelectric coefficient, 231
variation with temperature, 238 advantages and limitations, 46toble
thermoelectric effecl, 231, 231, 272 applications, 44toble
thermograms. See thermal images earthquake resistant structures, 613-619
thermographic imagers, 285-288 vickers hardness, 447, 468
thermographic software, 551-553 video mon"itor, 360, 361
thermography, 32, 40 video radiometry, 35
dual band, 124 video tape recorder, 360, 361
See also infrared thermography View of Delft (Vermeer), infrared thermography, 649-650
thermomechanica! coupling, 342-347 vignetting effect, 41, 47-48, 48, 198
thermometers, 32, 228-229 visual testing, 7, 7-8
thermometric scales, 228-229 voids, in historic buildings, 632-633
thermoopticaf images, laser welding, 463, 467-469 volume units, 26
thermopiles, 32, 272
invention, 21
response curve, 274
Thermosense conference, v
thermosensitive indicators. See temperature indicators
thermotropic liquid crystals, 256
thick film he<1t sensors, 520

716 Infrared and Thermal Testing

w

wall calorimeters, 520
walls

bonds in historic buildings, 635, 635-636
infrared thermographic leak testing, 609-612
thickness variations in historic buildings, 632-633, 633
wall shine, 575
water
atmospheric absorption due to, 180
effect on thermal properties, 641
infrared thermographic detection in historic buildings, 637-644
leakage through walls, 609-610
spectral emissivity curve, 191
thermal properties, 57table
water pipelines, buried, 605, 606, 607, 607
wavelength, of electromagnetic waves, 88
emissive power variation with, 92
wave number, 88
wear, dry reciprocating interface, 471-476
welding
online monitoring of arc misalignment in gas tungsten arc, 458-462
temperature indicators for preheating, 263, 265-266
thermal imaging of laser, 463·469
wheatstone bridge, 250, 250
white bodies, 96
Wien's law, 90
windows, 102-103, 180,189
window transmissivity, 103
wire drawing. See steel wire
wire grids, for leak location in walls, 612
w6hler curves, 613
working distance, 279

X

X 07-001 (NF standard), 16tab!e
X 10-023-82 (NF standard), 16tab/e
X-radiography

fine art, 647
single-screw gate rotor pump evaluation, 335-337, 337
X-ray computed tomography, 386
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, 651
X-rays, 33

z

zinc selenide windows, 102, 189
zirconia, thermal properties, 57table
zirconium, thermal properties, 57 table
zone box test, 245-246
Z plane technology, for focal plane arrays, 192, 193

Index 717

Figure Sources

The following list indicates owners of figures at time of submittal. Chapter 11

Chapter 1 Figures 1, 11 -FUR Systems, Danderyd, Sweden.
Figure 10- Elsevier Science (Revue Gtnc!role de Thermique), Oxford, United
Figure 1 -EnTech Engineering, St. louis, MO.
Figure 2 - lnfraspection Institute, Shelburne, VT. Kingdom.
Figures 3-9- Westinghouse Savannah River Company, Aiken, SC.
Figure lOa- National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO. Chapter 12
Figure lOb- Royal Astronomical Society, London, United Kingdom.
Figure 11 a - California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA. Figures 16, 19-20, 23, 26- Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York, NY.
Figures 11 b, llc- The Science Museum, london, United Kingdom. Figures 10-15, 17-18, 22 --National Research Council Canada (Abde!hakim
Figure 12- National Institute of Nuclear Physics, Naples, Italy.
Bendada), Bouchervilte, Quebec, Canada.
Chapter 2 Figures 21 -American Institute of Physics, Melville, NY.
Figures 25 - ASM International, Materials Park, OH.
Figures 9-11 -Adapted from Elsevier Science Publishers, Oxford, United Figures 27- Optical Society of America, Washington, DC
Kingdom. Figures 4-8,24, 28-31- Springer-Verlag, london, United Kingdom.
Figures 32-43- University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
Chapter 3
Chapter 13
Figures 1-15- Vladimir P. Vavilov, Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk,
Russia. French National Aerospace Research Establishment [ONERA] (lean-Claude
Krapez), Chiitillon, France.
Figures 16-24 -University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
Chapter 14
Chapter 4
Figures 1-12 - University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
Universite de Reims, Champagne-Ardennes, Reims~ France. Figures 13-20- National Research Council Canada, Bouchervilfe, Quebec,

Chapter 5 Canada.
Figures 25-31- Otto-von-Guericke Universitat, Milgdeburg, Germany.
Aeronautical and Maritime Research laboratory, Melbourne, Australia. Figures 32-40- East As·ta Un·lversity (Yoshlzo Okamoto), Shemonoseki, japan.
Figmes 41-43- Andres E. Rozlosnik, 51 Termogratia lntrarroja, Buenos, Aires,
Chapter 6
Argentina.
lbaraki University (Terumi lnagaki}, lbaraki, Japan.
Chapter 15
Chapter 7
Figures 1-22- National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Marshall
Figures 11, 12, 15- Optics 1, Incorporated, Westlake Village, CA. Space Flight Center, Alabama.
Figures 16, 17- Cl Systems, lnt.orporated, \'•iestlake Village, CA.
Chapter 16
Chapter 8
Figures 3-6- East Asia University (Yoshizo Okamoto), Shemonoseki, japan.
Figures 1-4- Adapted from Infrared Methodology and Technology (1994}. Figures 7-15- japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, lbaraki, japan.
Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Oxford, United Kingdom. Figures 23-36- Vattenfall Utveckling AB, Atvkarleby, Sweden.

Figure 5 - Adapted from Nondestructive Evaluation of Materials by Infrared Chapter 17
Thermography, Springer.Ver!ag, London, United Kingdom.
Figures la, 1b, 2 - lnfraspection Institute, Burlington, Nj.
Figure-6- Adapted from Mefcor, Trenton, NJ. Figures 3-5- EnTech Engineering, Saint louis, MO.
Figure 9 - Adapted from G. Gassourgues, La Thermagraphie lnfrarouge Figures 7-11 -East Asia University (Yoshizo Okamoto), Shemonoseki, japan.
Figures 12 -laser Imaging Systems, Incorporated, Punta Gorda, Fl.
(1984), Editions Lavoisier, Paris, France. Figures 14-15- Bales Scientific Incorporated, Walnut Creek, California.
Figures 16-22- University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy.
Chapter 9
Chapter 18
Figures 1-42 -Agitent Technologies, Everett, WA.
Figures 43-44-- Adapted from R.C. Gonzalez and R.E. Woods, Digital Image Figures 1-7- EnTech Engineering, Saint Louis, MO.
Figures 8-13- East Asia University (Yoshizo Okamoto), Shemonoseki, Japan.
Processing (1992). Addison-Wesley Longman, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Figures 14-19-- Ecole Polytechnique, Pa!aiseau, France.
Figures 45-46- j.W. Wolf and University of California, Davis, CA. Figures 20-43- Consiglio Nazionale del!e Rid1€rche, lstltuto per Ia Tecnlca
Figure 47-49- Tempil, Incorporated, South Plainfield, N).
del Freddo (Ermanno Grinzato), Padua, Italy; Politecnico di Milano
Chapter 10 (Eiisabetta Rosina), Milan, Italy.
Figure 23- From john Warren, Comrrvation of Brick (1999). Butterworth
Figures 5, 11 b-12a- FUR Systems [formerly lnframetrics], North Billerica, MA. H£'lnemann, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Figure 6 - Hone)I\'J€11, Incorporated, Minneapolis, MN.
Figure lla- Mikron Instrument Company, Oilkland, NJ. Chapter 19
Figures 12c-12d- FUR Systems, Portland, OR.
Figures 13-15- FUR Systems, Danderyd, Sweden. Figures 1-9- FUR Systems, Danderyd, Sweden.
Figures 16-17- Goodrich Aerospace, Barne~ Division [formerly EDO Figures 10-24- Technical Uniwrsfty of l6dz (Boguslaw W1ecek), L6dz,

Corporation], Shelton, CT. Poland.

718 Infrared and Thermal Testing