Ultimate Visual Dictionary (DK)

PIONEERS OF FLIGHT


SIDE VIEW OF WRIGHT FLYER, 1903
Wing warping Pusher propeller
wire
Water-filled radiator (rear-mounted
Plain Chain drive propeller)
cotton fabric
Front diagonal strut
Rigid
leading
Elevator drive edge
wheel
Steel hub
Steel
Water propeller
Interplane pipe shaft
strut

Rudder
Front-mounted Bracing
biplane elevator wire

Braced
rudder strut
Magneto
Landing skid Elevator Pilot’s Rudder
control cable cradle control cable
Four-cylinder
Warping 12-HP engine
connection Propeller-shaft
bracing strut
strut
Softwood
strut Tailplane Elevator control wire
Laminated
wooden boom Rudder
bracing wire Rudder

Elevator
operating arm


Elevator




FRONT VIEW OF CURTISS MODEL-D PUSHER, 1911
Rudder control wheel Nine-cylinder
Fuel and Salmson radial Elevator
Anti-lift wire oil tank operating arm
engine
Aileron
Starboard operating arm
aileron
Port
aileron
Carved
interplane strut
Wing-protecting
skid
Tubular
Wing-protecting Control steel leg Interplane strut pin-jointed
skid Lift wire column
Seat beam to front spar
Main landing gear
lateral brace
Footrest Axle
399

SEA AND AIR

Early monoplanes


MONOPLANES HAVE ONE WING on each side of the fuselage. The principal
disadvantage of this arrangement in early, wooden-framed aircraft was
that single wings were weak and required strong wires to brace them to king
posts above and below the fuselage. However, single wings also had advantages:
they experienced less drag than multiple wings, allowing greater speed; they
also made aircraft more manoeuvrable because single wings were easier to
warp (twist) than double wings, and warping the wings was how pilots
RUMPLER MONOPLANE, 1908 controlled the roll of early aircraft. By 1912, the French pilot Louis Blériot had
used a monoplane to make the first flight across the English Channel, and the Briton Robert Blackburn and the
Frenchman Armand Deperdussin had proved the greater speed of monoplanes. However, a spate of crashes
caused by broken wings discouraged monoplane production, except in Germany, where all-metal monoplanes
were developed in 1917. The wings of all-metal monoplanes did not need strengthening by struts or bracing
wires, but despite this, such planes were not widely adopted until the 1930s.
FRONT VIEW OF BLACKBURN MONOPLANE, 1912
Carved wooden King post
Taut propeller
fabric



Nose-ring
Hub bolted
to propeller









Pilot’s viewing
aperture Gnome seven-
cylinder rotary
Exhaust valve engine
push-rod
Elevator
hinge


Elevator


Landing gear
rear cross-member

Wheel fairing

Tailskid
Rubber-sprung wheel
Landing gear front strut Axle
Landing skid
Landing gear rear strut


400

EARLY MONOPLANES




Main wing Anti-lift Upper king post strut
bracing-strut bracing wire
Turnbuckle to tighten bracing wire
Fabric covering
Shock-absorbing spring
Wooden propeller
Wooden Rudder control wire
fuselage
Three-cylinder Fuselage Rudder hinge
Anzani engine bracing strut
Fabric skin
Vertical sprung
shock-strut
Rudder
Landing gear Step
drag strut Lift Bracing
bracing wire wire
Main landing Lower king post Elevator Hinged elevator
gear radius arm Tailwheel bracket control wire
strut
Tail plane
Solid rubber tire Main tailwheel leg
Main landing gear leg Solid rubber tire
SIDE VIEW OF BLÉRIOT XI, 1909

Anti-lift bracing wire
Leading edge


Rib

Bracing wire
anchor bolt


Turnbuckle to
Concave tighten bracing wire
undersurface Lift bracing
wire
Warped wing Carved
wooden
King post propeller
Aluminum
Anti-lift bracing wire cowl
Tail plane
Rudder post Domed Lateral
Large fin topdeck control wheel
Hub
Rudder
Engine
mount

Lift bracing wire
Forward
Triangular-
Elevator Diagonal section rear Landing gear fuselage
structure
bracing fuselage rear strut
Elevator- Tailskid Landing skid
Braced landing gear structure
operating
bracket Rubber-sprung wheel
SIDE VIEW OF BLACKBURN MONOPLANE, 1912
401

SEA AND AIR

Biplanes and triplanes



BIPLANES DOMINATED AIRCRAFT DESIGN until the 1930s, largely because
some early monoplanes (see pp. 400-401) were too fragile to withstand
the stresses of flight. The struts between biplanes’ wings made the Rudder hinge RAF Central
wings strong compared with those of early monoplanes, although Flying School
the greater surface area of biplanes’ wings increased drag and reduced badge
speed. Many aircraft designers also developed triplanes, which Rudder Fin
had a particular advantage over biplanes: more wings meant
Navigation
a shorter wingspan to achieve the same lifting power, and a
light
shorter wingspan gave greater manoeuvrability. Triplanes
were most successful as fighters during World War I, the German
Fokker triplane being a notable example. However, the greater
maneuverability of triplanes was no advantage for normal
flying and so most manufacturers continued to Elevator
make biplanes. Many other aircraft designs were
Rudder
LAMINATED attempted. Some were quadruplanes, with four cable Tail plane
PROPELLER
pairs of wings. Some had tandem wings (two pairs Tailwheel
of monoplane wings, one behind the other). One of the most Bracing
bizarre designs was by the Englishman Horatio Phillips: strut
it had 20 sets of narrow wings and
looked rather like a Valve rocker
Venetian blind.
Air cooling
baffle Wing strut
SIDE VIEW OF AVRO
TRIPLANE IV, 1910 Magneto Fuel tank
Crankcase Throttle
breather pipe
Harness
Pilot’s
Directly seat
driven
propeller


Main front strut
to engine mount




Skid upper
bracing strut

Limit of
fuselage
skin
Rubber cord
suspension
Turnbuckle
Ash skid Axle
Skid rear strut
Rubber tire
Lateral bracing strut Wheel rim
Wire wheel

402

BIPLANES AND TRIPLANES
Pin joint Navigation light
AVRO TUTOR Aileron hinge strut
BIPLANE, 1931 Slat-arm fairing
Aileron
control wire Lift bracing
wire
Instructor’s cockpit Engine cowling
Wooden-domed
deck Padded coaming
Nose ring
Pupil’s cockpit
RAF Propeller hub
roundel
Laminated-wood,
fixed-pitch propeller

Metal leading edge
Exhaust Exhaust
pipe collector ring
Main landing gear leg
Inspection
Aircraft Radius
cover
registration rod Inflation
code Manufacturer’s valve
Fabric-covered
logo
Fabric-covered aluminum and
steel-tube fuselage steel wing Recessed nose
of aileron FRONT VIEW OF AVRO TRIPLANE IV, 1910
Anti-lift
Unpainted, varnished fabric Leading Fuel filler Fixed-pitch wooden bracing wire
edge and vent propeller
Top wing
Wing strut


Middle wing
Rib
Bottom wing
Lift
Landing skid bracing
Triangular- wire
section fuselage Elevator Tail plane
Axle
Fuselage Triangular-section fuselage
bracing wire Rudder
control cable Lateral bracing strut
Rudder
Tail plane




Metal plate
anchorage
Elevator control cable
Longeron
Rubber cord suspension
Tailskid pivot
Tailskid Elevator



403

SEA AND AIR

World War I PORT WINGS FROM A BE 2B

Interplane-strut attachment
aircraft Airspeed-indicator tube Leading edge
Intermediate leading-edge rib


WHEN WORLD WAR I STARTED in 1914, the
main purpose of military aircraft was Wingtip
reconnaissance. The British-built BE 2,
of which the BE 2B was a variant, was well-
suited to this duty; it was very stable in flight,
allowing the occupants to study the terrain,
Airspeed-
take photographs, and make notes. The BE 2 Main rib Root
indicator
FLYING was also one of the first aircraft to drop bombs. tube
HELMET Interplane Trailing
One of the biggest problems for aircraft strut edge
designers during the war was mounting machine-guns. Airspeed
pilot tube Interplane-strut
On aircraft that had front-mounted propellers, the field
attachment
of fire was restricted by the propeller and other parts of
the aircraft. The problem was solved in 1915 by the
Dutchman Anthony Fokker, who designed an interrupter
gear that prevented a machine-gun from firing when a
propeller blade passed in front of the barrel. The German
LVG CVI had a forward-firing gun to the right of the engine,
as well as a rear-cockpit gun, and a
Upper side of Attachment lug
bombing capability. It was one of
lower wing
the most versatile
aircraft of the war. Observer’s windshield
Cabane strut BE 2B, 1914
fairing
Engine air Top-wing centre section
intake (ram
scoop)
Cabane strut
Wooden propeller
Lift bracing wire
Pilot’s windshield
Air-cooled V8 engine
Plywood skin
Control column
Crankcase
Padded
coaming
Buffed metal cowling

Silencing heat
exchanger
Exhaust pipe
Landing gear Elevator
front strut rocking arm
Step
Ash skid Step
Lateral
Bomb control Reconnaissance
rack wire camera bracket
Pneumatic rubber tire
Lower-wing 112 lb (51 kg)
Wheel cover V-strut attachment bomb

404

WORLD WAR I AIRCRAFT


SIDE VIEW OF LVG CVI, 1917
Pilot’s cockpit Cold-water pipe
Observer’s cockpit Exhaust pipe
Starboard aileron
230-HP Benz
7.92-mm Parabellum machine-gun six-cylinder
water-cooled
engine
Fin Rudder
Rudder control wire Laminated
wooden
propeller
Elevator
Air ventilator inlet
Steel drive bracket Interplane Pitot head
Aircraft strut
Pivoted, sprung tailskid registration code Pneumatic rubber tire
Aileron Axle
control cable
Elevator control wire Aircraft type
Bracing wire Tire inflation aperture
FRONT VIEW OF LVG CVI, 1917
230-HP Benz six-cylinder water-cooled engine
Lozenge-patterned fabric Forward-firing
machine-gun Exhaust stack Wooden propeller




Pitot head






Interplane strut Main Turnbuckle
Anti-lift Lift fuel tank
bracing bracing Gravity-feed
wire wire Pneumatic rubber tire Axle fuel tank
Tailskid Landing gear strut
Multiple rubber-cord suspension

Fixed tail plane

Rib Rudder Fabric Elevator
covering

Elevator
Fabric hinge
lacing Steel lug
Tail plane Rudder
attachment post
Aircraft Spar
registration
code
Shock- Trailing
absorbing edge
spring Leading edge
Steel
V-strut National
Pivoted tailskid marking
Rib
HORIZONTAL TAIL OF A BE 2B
405

SEA AND AIR

Early passenger FRONT VIEW OF LOCKHEED ELECTRA, 1934


aircraft Flush-riveted

Green starboard metal-skinned
navigation light wing Fuel-jettison
UNTIL THE 1930s, most passenger Leading edge valve
aircraft were biplanes, with two
pairs of wings and a wooden or
metal framework covered with fabric
or, sometimes, plywood. Such aircraft were Static discharge wick
restricted to low speeds and low altitudes because of the drag on their wings.
Many had an open cockpit, situated behind or in front of an enclosed—but
unpressurized—cabin that carried a maximum of 10 people. The passengers
usually sat in wicker chairs that were not bolted to the floor, and the journey could be
bumpy when flying through turbulence. Warm clothing, and ear plugs to reduce the Split flap in
landing position
effects of prolonged noise, were often required. During the 1930s, powerful,
streamlined, all-metal monoplanes, such as the Lockheed Electra shown here,
became widespread. By 1939, the advent of pressurized cabins allowed fast flights
at high altitudes, where there is less turbulence.
PASSENGER CABIN TRIM PANELS
Flying boats were still necessary on many Roof trim panel
Passenger
routes until 1945 because of inadequate
service-panel
runways and the frequency of emergency sea Forward bulkhead aperture
landings. World War II, however, upper panel Ashtray
resulted in enough good Starboard wall
runways being built for land- forward panel
planes to become standard
Cockpit
on all major airline routes.
door
panel


Cockpit
Forward bulkhead lower panel Starboard wall
windshield Sliding Emergency mid-forward panel
window escape hatch
Oil Steel firewall Air intake
SIDE VIEW OF LOCKHEED tank Passenger
ELECTRA, 1934 window
Ventilator
exit
Nose
Propeller pitch-change
cylinder
Blade counterweight

Spinner mounting disc
Exhaust
Variable-pitch collector
propeller ring Landing Electrically
gear door driven split flap
Pratt & Whitney Red port Exhaust Passenger door
nine-cylinder radial navigation pipe Static
engine light discharge Aileron
Brake pipe
Main landing gear wick
Aluminum wheel Fender Metal-skinned wing

406

EARLY P ASSENGER AIRCRAFT
Cockpit
Variable-pitch windshield High-visibility tip
Cylinder-cooling propeller
gills
Valve push-
Pratt & Whitney rod tube
nine-cylinder Inner wing
radial engine containing
Streamlined fuel tank
spinner
Fixed Red filter
landing light signal light










Tank
Exhaust Pilot drain tap
pipe mast Landing
Single- Single-leg gear
leg main Battery Electrical service main door
Landing landing compartment compartment landing
gear fork gear gear
Inspection Tailwheel Brake pipe
Brake pipe cover
Pneumatic Roof trim Axle
rubber tire Axle PASSENGER SEAT
Disc brake
Backrest Landing
gear fork
Bulkhead Document
Starboard wall aft panel starboard panel Seat button Pneumatic
trim rubber tire
Lap strap
Armrest
Bulkhead
port trim
Wall
anchor Floor
anchor
Starboard wall Seat anchor Interior cabin trim for Seat
mid-aft panel bolthole aft bulkhead between cushion
cabin and luggage hold PORT ENGINE COWLINGS
Starboard
rudder Inspection door
Rotating beacon
Starboard trimtab
Fixed tail Tail plane Port fin
plane Aluminum 120° nose-
flush riveted skin ring segment
Propeller-hub
Port spinner
trimtab




Ventilator exit Tail plane tip
Aircraft registration code
Swivelling rubber-tired tailwheel 120° cowling Joining
panel latch

407

SEA AND AIR

World War II Radiator- STARBOARD ENGINE
COWLINGS
access
cowling
aircraft Lower side-
cowling
Cowling
fastener
WHEN WORLD WAR II began in 1939, Upper side-
air forces had already replaced most PROPELLER cowling
of their fabric-skinned biplanes High-visibility 2,400-HP Napier Sabre Cartridge
with all-metal, stressed-skin yellow tip 24-cylinder engine starter
Propeller
monoplanes. Aircraft played a far
Light-alloy governor
greater role in military operations propeller
during World War II than ever before. spinner Radiator
header
The wide range of aircraft duties, and the
tank
introduction of radar tracking and guidance
systems, put pressure on designers to improve
Propeller
aircraft performance. The main areas of drive shaft
improvement were speed, range, and
engine power. Bombers became larger Distributor
and more powerful—converting from Variable-pitch
Ejector exhaust Magneto Starter motor
two to four engines—in order to aluminum-alloy
blade
carry a heavier bomb load; the
US B-17 Flying Fortress could COMPONENTS OF A
HAWKER TEMPEST Engine top
carry up to 6.8 tons (6.2 metric tons) of
MARK V, C.1943 cowling
bombs over a distance of about 2,000 miles Cowling
(3,200 km). Some aircraft increased their range by using fastener
drop tanks (fuel tanks that were jettisoned when empty to Upper side-
cowling
reduce drag). Fighters needed speed and manoeuvrability:
the Hawker Tempest shown here had a maximum speed
of 435 mph (700 km/h), and was one of the few Allied Lower side-
cowling
aircraft capable of catching the German jet-powered V1 “flying
bomb.” By 1944, Britain had introduced its first turbojet- PORT
Radiator-access ENGINE
powered aircraft, the Gloster Meteor fighter, and Germany had
cowling COWLINGS
introduced the fastest fighter in the world, the turbojet-powered
Me 262, which had a maximum speed of 540 mph (868 km/h).
VHF
SECTIONED B-17G FLYING FORTRESS BOMBER, C.1943 antenna
Fin
Astronavigation Oxygen Upper gun Radio Ammunition Dorsal Rudder
dome bottle turret operator’s belt fin
First “Cheyenne-
Handheld pilot’s 1,000 lb seat Ammunition type” tail-
gun seat (454 kg) box
bomb Waist gun gun turret
Plastic
nose


Tail gunner’s
Retracted
Ammunition Entrance tailwheel compartment
Bomb HF radio Navigator’s feed door
aimer’s antenna seat Ammunition
viewing Bomb door Sperry ball Oxygen bottle feed
panel Chin gun gun turret
turret Direction-finding-
antenna fairing
408

WORLD WAR II AIRCRAFT

PORT WING UNDERSIDE
Starboard tail plane
Flap Cockpit starboard access panel
Landing Elevator
gear door hinge
Wing front Wing rear
fillet panel fillet panel Starboard
elevator
Elevator
Leading control
Canopy Wing fillet edge rod
rail Seat Harness panel
pan strap FUSELAGE
Canopy rail
VHF radio whip antenna Trimtab
Fin Tail fairing operating
rod



Rudder
Dorsal fin Tail plane root
Cockpit front Cockpit center Tail band Tail plane front Tail plane rear
Armored attachment attachment bracket
Flat, bulletproof belly panel belly panel
windshield seat back RAF bracket
C1-type
Gyroscopic Plastic roundel
gunsight cockpit canopy Port
elevator
trimtab
Rear
spar Cockpit rear belly panel Trailing
trunnion edge
Camouflage
Wing fillet panel
Port tail plane
Wing Wing rear TAIL
front fillet panel fillet panel

Outboard
ammunition-
feed blister
Cockpit port access panel
Trailing edge
HAWKER TEMPEST MARK V FIGHTER, C.1943
Wing upper surface
Hispano Mark V Rudder
20-mm cannon Armor-plated
seat back Dorsal fin
Aileron Exhaust Headrest Squadron code
pipe
Gyroscopic
gunsight RAF C1-type
Propeller roundel
spinner
RAF Engine
air intake
B-type
roundel Rudder
Retracted
Yellow- Radiator trimtab
painted PORT WING Radiator Pitot Instant-identification tailwheel
leading outlet head “invasion” stripes
edge Wingtip
409

SEA AND AIR

Modern piston MID WEST 75-HP TWO-STROKE,
THREE-CYLINDER ENGINE
Spark plug
aero-engines Coolant outlet



PISTON ENGINES today Cylinder head
are used mainly to power the
Exhaust
vast numbers of light aircraft Piston Cylinder barrel manifold
and microlights, as well as
crop-sprayers and crop-dusters,
small helicopters, and fire-
bombers (which dump water
MID WEST TWO-STROKE,
THREE-CYLNDER ENGINE on large fires). Virtually all
heavier aircraft are now powered by jet engines. Exhaust port Cylinder liner
Modern piston aero-engines work on the
Upper
same basic principles as the engine
crankcase
used by the Wright brothers in the Coolant
first powered flight in 1903. Reduction Pump drive belt pump
gearbox Driven gear Gearbox drive
However, today’s engines splines Connecting rod
are more sophisticated (con-rod)
Small
than earlier engines. end
Propeller
For example, modern drive Generator rotor
aero-engines may use a flange
two-stroke or a four-stroke
combustion cycle; they may
Big end
have from one to nine air- or Counterweight
Torsional Crankshaft
water-cooled cylinders, which vibration
Sprag
may be arranged horizontally, damper clutch Ignition Stator
in-line, in V formation, or radially; and they trigger
housing
may drive the aircraft’s propeller either directly
or through a reduction gearbox. One of the more Gearbox mounting plate
unconventional types of modern aero-engine is Engine mounting plate
Lower
the rotary engine shown here, which has a trilobate crankcase
(three-sided) rotor spinning in a chamber
shaped like a fat figure-eight.
ROTOR AND HOUSINGS OF A MID WEST SINGLE-ROTOR ENGINE
Dowel
Propeller Coolant Inlet
bolt hole jacket tract
Stud
Propeller
drive
flange
Stud hole
Roller
Eccentric- Stud hole
shaft
bearing
Propeller Dowel hole
shaft
rear Coolant
bearing jacket Dowel Rotor chamber Exhaust
tract
GEARBOX CASE FRONT HOUSING (FRONT END-PLATE) TROCHOID HOUSING

410

MODERN PISTON AERO-ENGINES

MID WEST 90-HP TWIN-ROTOR ENGINE
Propeller-bolt Rotor-cooling Pipe clamp joint
collar Lubricating oil feed
air duct Rotor-cooling
Engine front air pump
Propeller drive flange Upper rubber anti-
mounting plate
vibration engine mount
Upper rotor-
Reduction Blanking plate cooling air
gearbox over air inlet
Carburettor duct
Generator
housing
Electric
cable





Front
bearing
mount Starter
motor
Oil pump drive Flywheel
shaft cover
Torsional Fuel drip
vibration damper
tray
Fuel pipe inlet Blanking plate Exhaust pipe flange Engine rear mounting plate
connection over exhaust port
Lower rubber anti-vibration engine mount
Starter ring
teeth
OUTPUT SHAFT OF A MID WEST ROTARY ENGINE
Balance weight Drive gear Oil seal
Front bearing spline spacer ring
Drive gear
Flywheel
Rear bearing
retaining
thread Rotor
bearing Flywheel
Corner bolt Eccentric shaft
Fixed gear (stationary gear) Engine Outlet Water pump
mounting manifold cover and
Rotor tip seal oil pump
Rotor tip spring housing
Tip seal groove
Balancing drilling
Pump
Rotor gear drive
teeth shaft
Rotor side
Fixing stud
seal
Side seal
Rotor spring Bolt hole
bearing Thermostat
Stud hole
Side seal Dowel hole Coolant jacket
Cooling Inlet manifold
fins groove Oil pump
ROTOR AND SEALS REAR HOUSING (REAR END-PLATE) WATER PUMP HOUSING
411

SEA AND AIR

Modern jetliners 1



MODERN JETLINERS HAVE ENABLED ordinary people to travel to places where
once only the wealthy could afford to go. Compared with the first jetliners
(which were introduced in the 1940s), modern ones are much quieter, burn fuel
BAE-146 JETLINER more efficiently, and produce less air pollution. These advances are largely due
to the replacement of turbojet engines with turbofan engines (see pp. 418-419). The greater power of turbofan
engines at low speeds enables modern jetliners to carry more fuel and passengers than turbojet aircraft; a modern
Boeing 747-400 (popularly known as a “jumbo jet”) can fly 400 people for 8,500 miles (13,700 km) without
needing to refuel. Jetliners fly at high altitudes, typically cruising at 26,000-36,000 ft (8000-11,000 m),
where they can use fuel efficiently and usually avoid bad weather. The pilot always controls the
aircraft during takeoff and landing, but at other
times the aircraft is usually controlled
Shoulder cowling
by an autopilot. Autopilots are Engine pylon
complex on-board mechanisms that Hinged cowling panel
detect deviations from an aircraft’s
route and make appropriate Nose cowling
adjustments to the flight controls.
Flight decks are also equipped
with radars that warn pilots Fan duct nozzle
Fire-extinguisher
of approaching hazards, such
discharge indicator Core-engine
as mountain ranges, bad jet pipe
weather, and other aircraft.
Oil-filler door
Push-in door for hand- TURBOFAN ENGINE
held fire-extinguisher COWLING
Drain mast
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
OF A BAE-146 JETLINER Oil-filler door for
integrated-drive
generator

FUSELAGE NOSE-SECTION
Electrically heated, FUSELAGE MID-SECTION
birdproof Side Anchor for
windshield window open door Rain Hinge
gutter Peephole
Static air- Finger
pressure plate Forward recess
main door
VHF omni-range aperture
and instrument- Passenger
landing-system Light- window
antennas alloy aperture
door Main
frame
external
operating
Multiple-
handle
pinned
lock
Floor
level
Toilet
Radome service FORWARD MAIN Anchor for open
connector door
Air temperature Stall DOOR
probe warning vane Pitot head for dynamic air pressure

412

MODERN JETLINERS 1
Systems Overwing fuel-
Overwing connector filler cap
fuel-filler cap


Fuel contents
indicator
STARBOARD
WING
ASSEMBLY Center-line (spine)
of aircraft

Single-piece skin
over inboard wing

Rubber sealing strip
Rubber sealing strip
Trailing edge

Trailing edge Spoiler anchorage Hydraulic actuator
of fixed wing attachment



Pivot point Flap-track fairing
Screw Aft section
joint
MOVABLE FLAP TRACK AND FAIRING Stainless-steel
Upper carriage Hinge INBOARD LIFT
Track roller SPOILERS flap seal
Anchor attached to flap
bearing Track Tab-hinge line FOWLER FLAP Leading edge
Root


Gearbox
mount Bellcrank
lever
Flap drive
Gearbox unit
Carriage screw Lower carriage
drive nut
Main spar Wing-root mount
Leading bridge containing central Inboard Attachment structure for
Skin lap- edge Root rib fuel tank tab wing-to-fuselage fairing
joint



















Cabin air-pressure Floor Fairing of Fairing of landing Yellow anti-
discharge valve level landing gear bay gear pivot corrosion paint

413

SEA AND AIR

Modern jetliners 2


Landing and taxiing light
Heated de-icing STARBOARD WING
leading edge
Roll-spoiler hinge
Roll-spoiler hydraulic actuator attachment
Fixed trailing edge Aileron hinge
Starboard
navigation
light








Hinge Hydraulic actuator attachment Spoiler arm Hinge
bracket
Aerodynamic
balance Horn
balance
Recessed hinge

INTERMEDIATE Flap AILERON
LIFT SPOILER seal OUTBOARD ROLL SPOILER
MAIN FOWLER FLAP Leading edge Trimtab
Servo-tab

Flap tip Static discharge wick attachment




Tab-hinge line FUSELAGE SPINE FAIRING
Outboard tab

Finger
Landing gear Hydraulic brake pipe recess Hot-air de-icing duct
Main pivot Peephole
door
Skin lap-joint
Electrical harness
Oleo Passenger
lock-jack window
aperture
Direction
Light- bar Main
alloy beam external
Brake operating
Hinge pipe handle
Shock-strut bearing
Pneumatic Side brace
tire Outer and retraction Hinge
wheel jack trunnions
axle
Lower pivot
Pivoted
trailing- Hydraulic
Wheel hub link arm brake pipe Anchor for open door
Cabin air-
STARBOARD TWIN-WHEEL MAIN LANDING GEAR AFT MAIN DOOR discharge aperture

414

MODERN JETLINERS 2


Tail plane
BAE-146 MODERN JETLINER
Logo Starboard inboard
Landing light
engine VHF radio antenna
Rudder
Forward door for STARBOARD
Fin crew and service ELEVATOR
Starboard aft Radome
service door Horn
Flap-track Core-engine Main landing VHF Water-drain balance
fairing jet pipe gear fairing antenna mast

Intermediate Tab
fairing (fin tip)
Aft fairing hinge
TAIL PLANE
FAIRINGS
Fin trailing edge
Aerodynamic
Tail plane attachment balance
Forward Side Elevator bracket
fairing fairing chassis
box


Heated de-icing Recessed
leading edge
hinge
FIN

Forward Centre-line Root
spar (spine)
Trimtab
Fairing panel Aft spar
Servo-tab

Fin-attachment
skin Access to yaw dampers
and rudder trim jack
Rain gutter TAIL PLANE
Fin leading-edge Auxiliary power
attachment Heated de-icing
unit (APU) leading edge
inlet
Operating arm
Elevator
hinge





Hinge Trailing
Skin lap- edge
joint
Oil-
Auxiliary power unit cooler STARBOARD AIR-BRAKE Tail
(APU) vent duct plane tip
Aft main door aperture
Heated drain mast FUSELAGE TAIL-SECTION



415

SEA AND AIR

Supersonic jetliners

Strake Fin
SUPERSONIC AIRCRAFT FLY FASTER than the speed of sound
(Mach 1). There are many supersonic military aircraft, but only
Standby
two supersonic passenger-carrying aircraft (also called SSTs, or
pitot head
supersonic transports) have been produced: the Russian Tu-144,
and the Concorde, produced jointly by Britain and
France. The Tu-144 was withdrawn in 1978,
COMPUTER-
DESIGNED SST after only seven months in service. The
Nose-
Concorde remained in service from 1976 until 2003, with a Inboard
Starboard gear
break for modifications from July 2000 until October 2001. Its outboard elevon- leg
jack
features included a droop nose, which lowered during takeoff engine air-intake fairing
and landing to aid visibility from the cockpit; the pumping of fuel between forward
FRONT OF THE CONCORDE
and aft trim tanks helped stabilize the aircraft. The Concorde had a narrow fuselage
Toilets
and short span wings to reduce drag during supersonic flight. Its noisy turbojet engines
Electrothermal
with afterburners enabled it to carry 100 passengers at a cruising speed of Mach 2 deicing panel
at 50,000-60,000 ft (15,000-18,000 m). Once an aircraft is flying faster than Mach 1, Starboard
it produces a continuous air-pressure wave, which is heard as a “sonic boom.” forward trim tank
Overhead luggage bin
OVERHEAD VIEW OF Passenger
THE CONCORDE Underfloor air- accommodation
conditioning duct
Seat
attachment
Life raft rail
VHF
Wardrobe antenna
Variable Leading edge
nozzle
Forward galley
Additional crew’s seat
Aluminium-alloy layers
Third pilot’s
and insulation
Erosion- Cockpit seat
resistant windshield
radome Lateral bracing strut
Retractable Telescopic strut Port
visor Nose- forward
gear Steering trim tank
“A” frame Plug-type leg actuator
passenger
Standby door Nose-gear Machined
flight-control door Multi-ply skin panel
hydraulic jack high-pressure
tire
Captain’s
seat Upper Fin
Weather rudder
radar Dorsal fin
Droop- Cockpit air- Emergency exit
Visor jack nose hinge conditioning
duct
Pivoted
retractable frame Tail cone
Aft door
Elevon (combined elevator and aileron)
Hot-section steel and titanium skin
Landing gear door
Engine cowling
Bogie main landing gear
416

SUPERSONIC JETLINERS

SECTIONED VIEW OF THE CONCORDE Upper rudder
Auxiliary power unit
Fire-suppression Cold-air unit Static discharge wick HF radio
bottle access panel antennas Tail cone
Elevon (combined fairing VHF omni-range antenna
Pressurized keel box
elevator and aileron)
Fuel tank Emergency Lower-rudder power
Cabin air duct oxygen control unit
Main air duct
cylinders
Emergency Inspection panel Servo control-
exit unit fairing
Flight-control
mixing unit
Fuel -
jettison pipe
Twin-wheel
tail bumper
Air-conditioning duct
Rear bulkhead
Aft galley unit
Rear emergency door
Tank inspection access
Inboard elevon (combined
elevator and aileron)
Landing gear hydraulics
Port main landing-
gear leg well
Variable nozzle
Nozzle actuator
Heat-exchanger
exhaust
Elevon
power
control
unit
Spar Fuel
pipe Forward
Rib ramp drive
VHF Four-
Leading antenna wheel Main landing Honeycomb
edge bogie gear cross-beam Fuel tank elevon structure
Port engine
Middle fuel pumps Port main Upper lip of port Heat exchanger
passenger landing gear leg engine air intakes Rolls-Royce Olympus Mark 610 turbojet
door
Retraction jack Engine front support link
VHF antenna SIDE VIEW OF THE CONCORDE
Emergency
exit Passenger window Flight deck windshield
Retracted visor

Nose in drooped position
Standby pitot head
Nose-gear Aerodynamic strake
leg
Nose-leg
telescopic strut Starboard forward door Radome
Steerable twin-wheel nose-gear

417

SEA AND AIR
NPT 301 MODERN TURBOJET
Jet engines Fuel sprayer Reverse-flow Radial diffuser

Turbine rotor combustion
chamber Centrifugal
JET ENGINES ARE USED BY MOST MILITARY and heavy Exhaust diffuser compressor
aircraft, and by many helicopters. The simplest type Inducer
Tail cone Air
of jet engine, or gas turbine, is the turbojet. It works by Jet pipe intake
continuously burning a mixture of fuel and air in
a combustion chamber to produce a jet of Exhaust
hot exhaust gas that is expelled through a nozzle
nozzle to produce thrust. The hot gas also spins
Nose
turbine blades, which, in turn, spin the blades of Alternator cone
an air compressor; the compressor forces air into the Igniter
combustion chamber. Many of the fastest aircraft use turbojets, Nozzle guide vane Air impingement
with additional booster units called afterburners, but their use is starter
Combustion chamber casing
restricted by their high noise emission. Most jetliners use turbofan
jet engines, which are quieter. An enormous fan, driven by a low-
Combustion
pressure turbine, feeds some air into the compressor but High-pressure chamber
Gearbox
feeds most of it through bypass ducts to Plenum ring for bevel drive compressor High-
join the exhaust jetstream in the tail hot anti-icing air Integral Fuel pressure
oil manifold turbine
cone. The bypass stream produces Flow splitter tank
most of the thrust. Many Fuel nozzle
smaller, propeller- Centrifugal
compressor
driven aircraft use
turboprop jet engines,
in which the engine
powers a propeller.
Temperature
and pressure
sensor
Low-pressure fan


Inlet cone
(rotating
spinner)

Pressure line

Fan case with
special structure
to contain
broken fan
Electronic engine
control and
airframe interface
connector Fan
duct

Electronic engine
control (EEC) unit
Compressor air-
Compressor front bearing Engine front Electrical Fuel and oil Oil filter bleed connection
mount wiring harness heat exchanger

418

JET ENGINES

Alternator mount pad PRATT & WHITNEY CANADA PW120 SERIES MODERN TURBOPROP
Accessory Fuel Intercompressor
Propeller speed probe drive pad filter Fuel heater bleed valve
Throttle High-pressure
lever
Fuel bleed venturi
Reduction Fuel- manifold connector
gearbox cooled oil
cooler
Propeller Turbine
hub flange support case
Jet pipe
Propeller connection
brake pad
Oil pipe
Engine front Thermocouple
mount bus-bar
Torquemeter mount Air
Autofeather
intake Intercompressor Fuel nozzle
unit
Gearbox oil Oil diffuser pipe Igniter plug
scavenge line Electronic engine filter Oil Engine rear mount
control (EEC) unit tank Oil-pressure
regulating valve
HOW JET ENGINES WORK
Low-pressure turbine TURBOFAN Outer drive shaft
Fan sucks
Heat shield air in Exhaust gases
provide extra thrust
Blade tip
sealing shroud
Fan Bypass air provides
blade main thrust
Exhaust
cone High-pressure turbine
Rotating blades Fuel spins outer drive shaft
compress air inlet to drive compressor
Inner drive shaft
Fuel/air mixture ignites
TURBOPROP
Combustion
chamber
Fuel inlet Three-stage turbine
Compressor driven by hot gas
sucks air in
Core jet pipe Propeller spins
(exhaust to provide Exhaust gases
fairing) main thrust add a little thrust
Rotating blades Turbine shaft drives
Reduction gearbox
compress air propeller and
Scavenge oil line compressor

TURBOJET Combustion
Inter-module chamber
bolted joint Fuel inlet Turbine blades
Compressor driven by hot gas
Fuel shut-off valve cable sucks air in
SECTIONED PRATT & WHITNEY Exhaust gases
CANADA PW305 MODERN TURBOFAN provide all
the thrust
Rotating blades Fuel/air Turbine drives
compress air mixture compressor via drive
ignites shaft

419

SEA AND AIR
Modern military aircraft



FRONT VIEW OF A
MODERN MILITARY AIRCRAFT ARE AMONG THE MOST SOPHISTICATED and expensive PANAVIA TORNADO
products of the 21st century. Fighters need computer-operated controls for
maneuverability, powerful engines, and effective air-to-air weapons. Most modern Instrument
fighters also have guided missiles, radar, and passive, infrared sensors. These landing system
antenna
developments enable today’s fighters to engage in combat with adversaries
that are outside visual range. Bombers carry a large weapon load and enough
Birdproof
fuel for long-range flights. A few military aircraft, such as the Tornado and windshield Port variable-
incidence
the F-14 Tomcat, have variable-sweep (“swing”) wings. During takeoff
Air data air intake
and landing their wings are fully extended, but for high-speed probe
Wing-root
flight and low-level attacks the wings are pivoted fully back. A glove fairing
recent development is the “stealth” bomber, which
is designed to absorb or deflect enemy radar in
order to remain undetected. Earlier
bombers, such as the Tornado, use
terrain-following radars to fly so close to
Starboard
the ground that they avoid enemy radar detection.
inboard Taileron
stores pylon
Starboard main
landing gear door
Wing extended Wing pivoted Main landing gear leg
for takeoff and back for high- Radome
landing speed flight containing
Laser ranger and ground-mapping,
marked-target seeker
attack, and terrain-
following radars
Starboard nose gear door
Steerable twin-wheel nose gear Taxiing light

SWING-WING F-14 TOMCAT FIGHTER Navigator’s Single canopy over both
Pilot’s cockpit cockpits
SIDE VIEW OF A PANAVIA TORNADO GR1A cockpit Navigator’s Engine air intake
(RECONNAISSANCE VERSION), 1986 instrument console Navigation light
Flat, birdproof
windshield
High-velocity air
duct to disperse rain
Upper “request
identification” antenna

Air data
probe





Radome containing
ground-mapping, Pitot Hinged auxiliary
attack, and terrain- UHF antenna head air intake
following radars Nose gear
Angle-of-attack probe door Cold air intake (ram scoop)
Tacan (tactical air navigation) antenna Steerable Heat exchanger exhaust duct
nose gear leg Twin
Emergency canopy release handle nose Window covering
wheel infrared reconnaissance camera

420

MODERN MILITAR Y AIRCRAFT
NORTHROP B-2 (“STEALTH” BOMBER), 1989
Starboard Wing leading edge coated with
split rudder Inboard elevons Refractory (heat- radar-absorbent material
resistant) skin
(combined elevators Variable-incidence
and ailerons) behind exhaust gust alleviator Port wingtip
outlet
rudder
Outboard
elevon
(combined
elevator
and aileron)
Leading edge
antenna
Engine aft bulkhead
Weapon-bay
rear bulkhead
Wing containing fuel tank
Flight
refueling
receptacle Auxiliary air intake
Air intake coated with
Weapon-
radar-absorbent material
bay front
bulkhead
Ejector-seat roof hatches
Port Space for extra
navigation crew member Two-seater cockpit
Port outboard light Fin-tip antenna fairing
stores pylon
Radar warning receiver
looking forward
Instrument landing
system antenna Radar
Heat exchanger warning
air intake receiver
(ram scoop) Fin looking
Wing-root Extended rearward
glove fairing port air-brake
Rudder
Wing-root
pneumatic seal
Heat exchanger
hot-air exhaust
Fin-root antenna fairing
Air-brake jack

Spine end fairing
Thrust-reverser (closed)
Port fully variable
afterburner nozzle




Port flap Port taileron
(combined
Wingtip antenna fairing tailplane and
Port aileron)
inboard stores Port navigation light
pylon
Lower “request identification” antenna
Hydraulic
hand pump Powered leading-edge slat
Main-gear Port main Port outboard stores pylon
door landing gear

421

SEA AND AIR

Helicopters



HELICOPTERS USE ROTATING BLADES for lift, propulsion, and steering.
The first machine to achieve sustained, controlled flight using rotating
blades was the autogiro built in the 1920s by the Spaniard Juan de la Cierva. His machine
had unpowered blades above the fuselage that relied on the flow of air to rotate them and
provide lift as the autogiro was driven forward by a conventional propeller. Then, in 1939,
the Russian-born American Igor Sikorsky produced his VS-300, the forerunner of modern
helicopters. Its engine-driven blades provided lift, propulsion, and steering. It could take
off vertically, hover, and fly in any direction, and had a tail rotor to prevent the helicopter
body from spinning. The introduction of gas turbine jet engines to helicopters in 1955
BELL 47G-3B1
produced quieter, safer, and more powerful machines. Because of their versatility in flight,
helicopters are today used for many purposes, including crop spraying, traffic surveillance, and transporting
crews to deep-sea oil rigs, as well as acting as gunships, air ambulances, and air taxis.

Droop stop
Main rotor hub
Blade counterweight
Blade-root attachment


BELL 47G-3B1 Main rotor mast Stabilizer-bar weight
Direct-vision panel
Fuel vent pipe Protective gaiter
Frameless Fuel tank Fuel tank cradle Tail-rotor
plastic canopy drive shaft
Exhaust pipe
Radio
Air intake pipe
Instrument
panel Electric fuel pump
Cyclic-
pitch lever
Battery
Battery
overspill
Electrical
inverter
Pitot head
Breather
pipe
Anti-collision
beacon Oil tank
Landing light Carburetor hot-air
intake pipe
Landing skid Air filter
Navigation Ground
VHF omni-range antenna light handling Valve-rocker cover
wheel
Ventilator Electric power
socket Lycoming six-cylinder engine
Collective-pitch
lever Riveted light-alloy forward
fuselage section

422

HELICOPTERS

Blade-root attachment
Three-blade main rotor
Ventilator
Outside air- Flight-control
temperature gauge rod
Anti-collision Anti-torque
Magnetic Main rotor mast beacon tail rotor
compass
Navigation
Plastic Automatic direction-
canopy antenna finding antenna
Fuel tank
Cyclic-
pitch
lever Tail boom
Tubular
Engine bracing strut
air intake
Tail-rotor drive shaft Vertical tail
Pitot head Tail rotor
guard
Tail-boom support strut
Anti-collision beacon
Exhaust silencer
SCHWEIZER 300C
Transmission
drive-pulley cover
Landing Landing
skid gear damper Landing light
Transponder Lycoming four-cylinder engine
antenna
High-visibility tip
Anti-torque
Twin-blade main rotor tail rotor
Tail rotor hub

Triangular-section, Tail rotor
Anti-collision unskinned rear Elevator upper Synchronized gearbox
beacon fuselage control wire elevator




Tubular
tail rotor
guard
Elevator lower
control wire
Tail-rotor pitch
control wire Small fixed fin
Main rotor hub
Main rotor blade Droop stop
Allison 250-C20J Anti-collision beacon
Blade-root attachment
Jet pipe turboshaft engine
Main rotor mast
Horizontal Upper fin
VHF antenna stabilizer
Anti-torque tail rotor
Air temperature
probe
Forward- Lower fin
hinged door Flush-riveted Tail
aluminum boom
Transponder fuselage
antenna
Baggage
Boarding step
compartment BELL 206 JETRANGER
Landing skid Rear cross-tube door
423

SEA AND AIR

Light aircraft Port
wingtip
Aileron
LIGHT AIRCRAFT, SUCH AS THE ARV SUPER 2 shown here, mass
are small, lightweight, and of simple construction. balance
More than a million have been built since World Aileron torque tube
War I, mainly for recreational use by private owners.
Virtually all light aircraft have piston engines, most of
which are air-cooled, although some are liquid-cooled. Open Port aileron
cockpits, almost universal in the 1920s, have today been replaced PORT MAIN LANDING GEAR
by enclosed cabins. The cabins of high-wing aircraft have one Inner tube
or two doors, whereas those of low-wing aircraft usually have Hub
a sliding or hinged canopy. Most modern light aircraft are made Tire
Brake disc
of aluminum alloy, although some are made of wood or of fiber-
reinforced materials. Light aircraft today also usually have Stub axle
navigational instruments, an electrical system, cabin heating, Landing gear leg
wheel brakes, and a two-way radio. Dorsal fin Brake mount Brake pipe

TAILPLANE AND RUDDER Hydraulic
Elevator
brake
Rudder tip Rudder mass calliper
fairing balance
Rear attachment-
Fin tip bracket
fairing Rear fuselage for wing
Rudder top skin
REAR FUSELAGE
Fin
Longeron
Diaphragm
Battery
Elevator Frame box
trimtab
Side skin
Drive
pillar Attachment
Coolant plate Rear fuselage “Skin-grip” pin
outlet bottom skin

Aluminum CONTROL RODS AND CABLES
radiator Flap torque
tube
Air scoop Elevator Aileron
Tailplane push-rod rod
Elevator push-rod
Coolant inlet
Rocking elevator arm

SIDE VIEW OF ARV SUPER 2 Navigational antenna Aileron Flap
torque drive-rod
Canopy Communications Fin tube
Spinner Wing antenna Rudder Flap
Engine Dorsal fin Rudder cable drive-rod
cowling STARBOARD MAIN LANDING GEAR
Brake calliper
Elevator
Brake pipe
Landing gear leg
Tailplane
Radiator
Nose-gear Wing strut Tailskid Brake disc
Step
Venturi Main Aircraft registration code Inner tube Stub axle
for instruments landing gear Tire Hub
424

LIGHT AIRCRAFT


PORT WING SEAT ASSEMBLY CANOPY Direct-vision
Port top- panel
Seat
wing fairing
cushion
Pressurized
strut
Hinge
Port
underwing
fairing
Wing strut Port flap
Headrest
Backrest
Pitot head Quick-release
Airspeed-indicator mechanism Leading-edge Canopy latch
tube COCKPIT
Lap Lap-strap fairing
strap length adjuster Outside air-
Molded plastic temperature 
Fiberglass gauge
canopy Bolted anchor
frame
THREE-CYLINDER ENGINE
Fuel tank Rudder Cockpit
top skin pedal coaming PROPELLER
Port engine
Forward cowling
attachment Control-column aperture
bracket
for wing Semi-bulkhead
Air intake box Carburetor
Engine Water outlet Backplate
mount Spinner
Fuel
hose
Nose-leg Cylinder Propeller Flanged
upper head Gearbox drive plate
mount flange
Exhaust manifold
Fiberglass Firewall
fuel tank
Lap-strap “Skin-grip” pin
Bulkhead attachment bracket
INSTRUMENT PANEL
CONTROL COLUMN AND FLAP LEVER
Torque tube assembly Throttle lever Starboard engine cowling
Elevator Control column Brake lever Flight
arm instruments
NOSE-GEAR
Flap lever
Elevator Engine Steering stop
push-rod Elevator instruments Nose-leg
trimtab lever down tube Rubber bungee
Flap lever Release
Glove (elasticated cord)
detent box button
Carburetor box Damper unit shock absorber
hot air lever
Bearing
STARBOARD WING Radio plugs
assembly Hoop
Pilot’s handgrip Pivoted fork
Starboard Axle bolt
underwing fairing
Nose-wheel
Wing
strut
Starboard
top-wing fairing
425

SEA AND AIR

Gliders, hang-gliders, NOSE SHELL


and ultralights Grommet for front Instrument
panel
pylon strut

MODERN GLIDERS ARE AMONG the most graceful and
aerodynamically efficient of all aircraft. Unpowered but with
a large wingspan (up to about 82 ft, or 25 m), gliders use
currents of hot, rising air (thermals) to stay aloft, and
a rudder, elevators, and ailerons for control.
Modern gliders have achieved flights of more King post
HANG-GLIDER
than 900 miles (1,450 km)
and altitudes above 49,000 ft (15,000 m). Apex
Hang-gliders consist of a simple frame across
which rigid or flexible material is stretched to form PEGASUS XL SE
Stiffening rib ULTRALIGHT
the wings. The pilot is suspended below the wings
in a harness or body bag and, gripping a triangular Center-line Apex wire
A-frame, steers by shifting weight from side to side. beam
Like gliders, hang-gliders rely on thermals for lift. Main
suspension
Ultralights are basically powered hang-gliders. Nose shell
A small engine and an open fiberglass car (trike), Rear-mounted
propeller
which can hold a crew of two, are suspended
(pusher propeller)
beneath a stronger version of a hang-glider frame; Nose-gear
the frame may have rigid or flexible wings. Ultralight Fuel mount
tank Main wheel
pilots, like hang-glider pilots, steer by shifting their weight
Spat Fixed nose wheel
against an A-frame. Ultralights can reach speeds of up to Trike nacelle
(wheel
100 mph (160 kph). fairing)
Trailing edge
End of rib
HANG-GLIDER BODY BAG
Clip-in latch
for pilot
Shoulder Layers of insulating
strap fabric
Dacron skin



SCHLEICHER K23 GLIDER

Body bag Down-turned wingtip acts as skid
Camera pouch
Armhole Tailplane
Aileron
Shoulder pad Single pilot Hinged
Radio elevator
cockpit
Aluminum antenna
air brake
Forward-opening canopy T-type
cantilevered
fin
Towing hook
Rudder
Nose wheel Fuselage of
Nonretractable fiberglass and Tailwheel
main wheel foam layers
426

SOLAR WINGS PEGASUS QUASAR ULTRALIGHT
Spat
Passenger’s steering Lap Fuel tank filler (wheel
Foot throttle bar and footrest strap nozzle fairing)
Pilot’s Pylon Aircraft
Engine
steering mount fairing name
bar
Air outlet
Rear engine
cowling
Pylon
strut
Footbrake Main wing-
Pilot’s seat Pylon-strut strut Leading edge
strap Trailing edge
Hand throttle
Passenger’s seat
TWIN-CYLINDER ENGINE Propeller
Sealed lid
TRIKE UNIT drive
Twin Air gearbox
carburetors
filter
Dual ignition plug
Air cooling fan
Exhaust
connection Engine
rear Metal
mount hub
EXHAUST PIPE
TRIKE NACELLE
Waterproof
stowage box
PROPELLER
WINGFRAME
Eyelet tensioning Center-line beam
trailing edge to rib
Bracing cable
After muffler Main exhaust
Single spar muffler
Rib
King post



















Leading edge

Semirigid
fiberglass skin Lift bracing wire


427



THE



VISUAL ARTS




DRAWING ........................................................... 430
TEMPERA ........................................................... 432
FRESCO ............................................................... 434
OILS ................................................................... 436
WATERCOLOR .................................................... 438
PASTELS ............................................................. 440
ACRYLICS ............................................................ 442
CALLIGRAPHY .................................................... 444
PRINTMAKING 1 ................................................. 446
PRINTMAKING 2 ................................................. 448

MOSAIC .............................................................. 450
SCULPTURE 1 ...................................................... 452
SCULPTURE 2 ...................................................... 454

THE VISUAL AR TS

Drawing FIXATIVE AND MOUTH DIFFUSER


DRAWINGS CAN BE FINISHED WORKS OF ART, or preparatory studies for
paintings and other visual arts. They can be made using a wide variety Hinge
of drawing instruments such as pencils, graphite sticks, chalks, charcoal,
pens and inks, and silver wires. The most common drawing instrument
is the graphite pencil. A graphite pencil consists of a thin rod of graphite
mixed with clay, encased in wood. Charcoal is one of the oldest drawing
instruments. It is produced by firing twigs of willow, vine, or other Liquid
woods at high temperatures in airtight containers. Erasers can be fixative
consisting
used to rub out marks made by drawing materials such as graphite of dissolved
pencils or charcoal, or to achieve a particular effect—such as resin
smudging. Fixative is often applied—using a mouth diffuser
or aerosol spray fixative—to prevent smudging once a Fixative is sucked
drawing is finished. Silver lines can be produced by into tube and
sprayed on to
drawing silver wire across specially prepared drawing CHALK, CRAYON, AND CHARCOAL
paper—a technique known as silverpoint. The
Calcite (calcium
lines are permanent and cannot
carbonate) mixed
be erased. In time, the silver Hard with pigment
texture
lines oxidize and turn brown. ERASERS
BLUE
Medium-soft, CHALK
PLASTIC
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS light line
ERASER Iron oxide mixed
with chalk
Soft SANGUINE
2B GRAPHITE texture CRAYON
PENCIL Carbonized
Very soft,
dark line wood
PUTTY
ERASER
WILLOW
CHARCOAL
DRAWING MATERIALS
8B GRAPHITE
PENCIL Graphite stick Bulldog
clip
Colored
pencil
SILVER WIRE IN A
METAL HOLDER
DRAWING BOARD
Drawing Dip pen
board


Paper






Pencil Sketch
sharpener book Ink
Drawing bottle
clip
430

DRA WING







Silver lines
oxidize to a Vanishing
light brown point located
color on head of
man riding
rearing horse

Figures drawn
in ink on top
of lines
Lines of
squared
pavement slabs
Line drawn recede toward
in silverpoint a single
using a rule vanishing
point



Complex perspective EXAMPLE OF A SILVERPOINT DRAWING Paper prepared
drawing done as a The Adoration of the Magi, Leonardo da Vinci, 1481 with size (glue)
preparatory study Pen and ink over silverpoint on paper and pigment
for a painting 6½ × 11½ in (16.5 × 29.2 cm)







One of a series
of drawings
recording Handmade, tinted
London during paper
1944 –1945

Charcoal lines
softened by
rubbing and
smudging
Broad charcoal
mark




Charcoal Lines rapidly
gives strong, drawn on site
expressive lines





EXAMPLE OF A CHARCOAL DRAWING
St. Paul’s and the River, David Bomberg, 1945
Charcoal on paper
20 × 25⅛ in (50.8 × 65.8 cm)

431

THE VISUAL AR TS

Tempera MATERIALS FOR GILDING

Parchment for Brush
THE TERM TEMPERA is applied to any paint protecting gold
leaf from drafts Bowl
in which pigment is tempered (mixed) with
containing
a water-based binding medium—usually diluted bole
egg yolk. Egg tempera is applied to a
smooth surface such as vellum (for
illuminated manuscripts) or more
ILLUMINATED commonly to hardwood panels prepared
MANUSCRIPT
with gesso—a mixture of chalk and size Gold leaf
(glue). Hog hair brushes are used to apply the gesso.
A layer of gesso grosso (coarse gesso) is followed by
Gilder’s knife
successive layers of gesso sotile (fine gesso) that are
sanded between coats to provide a smooth, yet absorbent Gilder’s tip
for picking
ground. The paint is applied with fine sable brushes
up gold leaf
in thin layers, using light brushstrokes. Tempera
dries quickly to form a tough skin with a satin
Gilder’s cushion
sheen. The luminous white surface of the gesso
Surface
combined with the overlaid paint produces the Gold leaf smoothed and prepared
brilliant crispness and rich colors particular to polished with a burnisher with gesso
this medium. Egg tempera paintings are
frequently gilded with gold. Leaves of finely
Gold leaf applied in
beaten gold are applied to a bole (reddish- overlapping layers
brown clay) base and polished by burnishing.

Bole brushed
on to gesso
Burnisher
MATERIALS FOR TEMPERA PANEL PAINTING
Agate tip


Yolk EXAMPLES OF BRUSHES
SABLE SABLE
FLAT HOG BRUSH BRUSH
MORTAR AND HAIR BRUSH SIZE 6 SIZE 1
GESSO PESTLE
EGG
Mortar
White
SIZE (GLUE)
Pestle for
crushing
Lip
and
grinding
pigments







EGG YOLK BINDING MEDIUM

432

TEMPERA
EXAMPLE OF A TEMPERA PAINTING
Presentation in the Temple, Ambrogio Lorenzetti, 1342 PIGMENTS FOR
Tempera on wood, 8 ft 5⅛ in × 5 ft 6 ⅛in (257 × 168 cm) FLESH-COLOR
PAINTING
Altarpiece Textured gold ornament made
commissioned for by punching motifs into the
Siena Cathedral, Italy gilded surface

The red tinge of
the bole is just
visible beneath Edge of a sheet
the gold of gold leaf VERDACCIO



Crisp edge
characteristic of
tempera painting


Vine black used
to create the Highlights on VERMILION AND
dim cathedral the beard made LEAD WHITE
interior by applying thin
layers of white
over dried paint
Raised right hand
Red drapery
painted in and pointing finger
vermilion is the gesture of
prophecy
VERMILION
Receding floor
tiles create the
impression of
depth Patch of discolored
varnish, left from
last cleaning


EXAMPLES OF PIGMENTS
Warm flesh RED EARTH
tones achieved (IRON OXIDE)
by layering
vermilion and
white over an Patterned gold
undercoat of halo glitters in
verdaccio candlelight



MALACHITE ULTRAMARINE
LAPIS LAZULI Ultramarine
lapis lazuli, as
costly as gold,
was reserved for Craquelure
significant (pattern of
figures such as cracks in
the Virgin Mary the paint)
DETAIL FROM “PRESENTATION
VINE BLACK LEAD TIN YELLOW IN THE TEMPLE”

433

THE VISUAL AR TS

Fresco CROSS-SECTION SHOWING FRESCO LAYERS

Wall Arricio (layer of Intonaco
FRESCO IS A METHOD OF WALL PAINTING. In buon fresco (true fresco), coarse plaster)
pigments are mixed with water and applied to an intonaco (layer
of fresh, damp lime-plaster). The intonaco absorbs and binds the
pigments as it dries making the picture a permanent part of the wall
surface. The intonaco is applied in sections called giornate (daily
sections). The size of each giornata depends on the artist’s estimate
of how much can be painted before the plaster sets. The junctions Pigment
applied to
between giornate are sometimes visible on a finished fresco. The
intonaco
range of colors used in buon fresco are limited to lime-resistant
pigments such as earth colors (below). Slaked lime (burnt lime mixed
with water), bianco di San Giovanni (slaked lime that has been partly
exposed to air), and chalk can be used to produce fresco whites. In
fresco secco (dry fresco), pigments are mixed with a binding medium
and applied to dry plaster. The pigments are not completely absorbed
Mortar
into the plaster and may flake off over time.
Sinopia (design) drawn
on surface of arricio
EXAMPLES OF EARTH COLOR
PIGMENTS
EXAMPLES OF FRESCO BRUSHES


Round hog Dome-shaped
hair brush hog hair brush
Pointed
hog hair
Rust- brush
resistant
twine
RAW UMBER RED EARTH
binding
(IRON OXIDE)








GREEN EARTH RAW SIENNA


INGREDIENTS FOR FRESCO WHITES
Bianco di San Giovanni
Marble slab for
mixing ingredients
Slaked lime
Chalk





TONDO MUCCINI RIGA


434

FRESCO

EXAMPLE OF A FRESCO
The Expulsion of the Merchants from the Temple, Giotto, c.1306
Fresco, 78 × 72 in (200 × 185 cm)
One of a series
of frescoes in the
Arena Chapel,
Padua, Italy
Temple acts as
a backdrop for Patches of azurite
the action blue have turned
green due to
Bianco di San reaction with
Giovanni often carbon dioxide
used for fresco
whites

Gold leaf applied
Hairline junction
to apostle’s halo
between giornate
is visible


Green earth
pigment applied
to robe
Red earth
pigment applied
in buon fresco
Child painted has retained
on top of
rich hue
apostle’s robe






Azurite blue applied in fresco secco has Dry, matte surface characteristic
flaked off to reveal the plaster beneath of buon fresco
Artist has to finish giornata
before plaster dries Junction between giornate
Paint applied
in buon fresco Area with little
to child’s face A fresco was detail can be
generally painted quickly,
worked in allowing a
zones from larger giornata
the top down to be completed
White dove
represents
the Holy Ghost
Highly detailed
area takes a
longer time to
Paint applied paint, restricting
in fresco secco the size of the
to child’s body giornata
has flaked off Sinopia (design)
sketched in
red earth

DETAIL FROM “THE GIORNATE (DAILY SECTIONS) IN “THE EXPULSION”
EXPULSION”


435

THE VISUAL AR TS
Oils DAMMAR RESIN
VARNISH


OIL PAINTS ARE MADE BY MIXING and grinding
pigment with a drying vegetable oil such as Crystals are
dissolved and
linseed oil. The paint can be applied to many applied to
different surfaces and textures—the most painting to
protect its
common being canvas. Before painting, the
surface
canvas is stretched on a wooden frame and
its surface is prepared with layers of size (glue)
and primer. The two main types of brushes used
KIDNEY- in oil painting are stiff hog hair bristle brushes— COMMERCIAL
SHAPED generally used for covering large areas; and soft hair OIL PAINTS CADMIUM
PALETTE RED
brushes made from sable or synthetic material—generally
used for fine detail. Other tools, including painting knives, can also
be used to achieve different effects. Oil paint can be applied thickly
(a technique known as impasto), or can be thinned down using
a solvent—such as turpentine. Varnishes are sometimes applied Lightfast
to finished paintings to protect their surface and to give them a opaque
color ULTRAMARINE
matte or gloss finish.

DOUBLE DIPPER Transparent
LINSEED OIL EXAMPLES (PALETTE ATTACHMENT) color
OF PIGMENTS
HOG HAIR
CADMIUM BRISTLE BRUSHES
Screw-top
RED
lid Flat hog
hair brush
Container for Filbert hog
storing solvent hair brush Flat hog
or drying oil hair brush
Oil derived from
seeds of flax plant SYNTHETIC
BRUSH Filbert
EQUIPMENT FOR CERULEAN EXAMPLES
MAKING OIL PAINT BLUE OF BRUSHES Round hog hair
hog brush
hair
Airtight jar for
storing paint brush
SABLE
PAINTING KNIVES
BRUSH
Palette knife
for mixing TROWEL- DIAMOND-
drying SHAPED SHAPED
oil and PAINTING PAINTING
pigment KNIFE KNIFE
Long,
wooden
Blade Blade handle
Glass
muller
for grinding
drying oil Protective,
and pigment plastic
case
Glass slab Cranked, Cranked,
with abrasive steel steel
surface shank shank

436

OILS
EXAMPLE OF AN OIL PAINTING
Fritillarias, Vincent van Gogh, 1886 Oil on
canvas, 29 × 24 in (73.5 × 60.5 cm)
Artist’s signature
scratched in wet Background
paint with the enlivened by
end of the brush dabs of white
and green



Each leaf
painted
in a single,
rapid stroke
Orange and blue
(complementary
colors) placed together
to give maximum
contrast and enhance
one another to
appear brighter
Impasto
(deep ridges
of paint applied
in thick strokes)



RADIAL
STUDIO
Strong EASEL
directional
brushstrokes Top sliding-
on table draw block adjusts
attention to to canvas
the vase height



Features of vase highlighted
by generous touches of yellow
CANVAS STRETCHED Canvas
ON WOODEN FRAME support
(VIEWED FROM EXAMPLES OF CANVASES
THE BACK) Staple
Canvas prepared
with glue (size)
and primer Height
adjustment
Wooden key
COTTON DUCK FINE LINEN
frame
Angle
adjustment
key
Unprimed
canvas

COARSE LINEN
Tripod


437

THE VISUAL AR TS
Watercolor GUM ARABIC




WATERCOLOR PAINT IS MADE OF GROUND PIGMENT mixed with a water soluble
binding medium, usually gum arabic. It is usually applied to paper using soft
hair brushes such as sable, goat hair, squirrel, and synthetic brushes.
Watercolors are often diluted and applied as overlaying washes (thin,
transparent layers) to build up depth of color. Washes can be laid in a
variety of ways to create a range of different effects. For example, a
wet-in-wet wash can be achieved by laying a wash on top of another wet
wash. The two washes blend together to give a fused effect. Sponges are used Natural sap from
to modify washes by soaking up paint so that areas of pigment are lightened acacia tree
or removed from the paper. Watercolors can also be applied undiluted—a
technique known as dry brush—to create a broken-color effect. Watercolors are
generally transparent and allow light to reflect from the surface of the paper through
the layers of paint to give a luminous effect. They can be thickened and made opaque NATURAL SPONGE
by adding body color (Chinese white).

Soft red
ANATOMY OF A SABLE BRUSH sable hair Toe (tip)


Wooden handle
Hair trimmed
SOFT HAIR BRUSHES and cemented
into ferrule
Hair tied with
ROUND SABLE BRUSH (NO. 6)
Round clove hitch knot
ferrule

ROUND SABLE BRUSH (NO. 1) TUBES OF
WATERCOLOR PAINT


WINSOR GREEN
SYNTHETIC WASH BRUSH




PORTABLE BOX OF
WATERCOLOR PAINTS CADMIUM YELLOW
SQUIRREL MOP
WASH BRUSH
Painted color swatch
Pan of watercolor
Chinese white
paint
Lid can be used for
mixing colors



LARGE GOAT HAKE
WASH BRUSH




438

WATERCOLOR

EXAMPLE OF A WATERCOLOR
Burning of the Houses of Parliament, Turner, 1834
Watercolor on paper, 11½ × 17½ in (29.2 × 44.5 cm)
Transparent
washes laid
on top of Transparent
each other washes allow
to create light to reflect
tonal depth off the surface
of the paper
to give a
luminous
effect


Highlight
scratched Paper shows
out with
through thin
a scalpel
wash to
give flames
added
highlight
Crowd
painted with
thin strokes
laid over a
pale wash

Undiluted paint applied, then partly
washed out, to create the impression of water EXAMPLES OF
WATERCOLOR PAPERS

EXAMPLES OF WASHES SMOOTH-
TEXTURED
PAPER


MEDIUM-
TEXTURED
PAPER
WASH OVER DRY BRUSH GRADED WASH DRY BRUSH
Wash laid over paint Strong wash applied Undiluted paint dragged
applied with dry brush to tilted paper gives across surface of paper
gives two-tone effect graded effect gives broken effect
ROUGH-
TEXTURED
COLOR WHEEL OF WATERCOLOR PAINTS PAPER
Yellow (primary color)
Secondary colours
made by mixing
yellow and blue
WET-IN-WET Secondary colors
Two diluted washes made by mixing
left to run together red and yellow
to give fused effect Blue (primary color)


Red (primary color) Secondary colors made by
mixing blue and red

THE VISUAL AR TS

Pastels EQUIPMENT FOR MAKING PASTELS



PASTELS ARE STICKS OF PIGMENT made by mixing ground pigment Glass muller
with chalk and a binding medium, such as gum arabic. They
vary in hardness depending on the proportion of the binding Chalk
medium to the chalk. Soft pastel—the most common form
of pastel—contains just enough binding medium to hold the
pigment in stick form. Pastels can be applied directly to
any support (surface) with sufficient tooth (texture). When a
pastel is drawn over a textured surface, the pigment crumbles
and lodges in the fibers of the support. Pastel marks have a
particular soft, matte quality and are suitable for techniques Glass slab with Gum Ivory-black Cobalt-blue
abrasive surface arabic pigment pigment
such as blending, scumbling, and feathering. Blending is a
technique of rubbing and fusing two or more colors on the
support using fingers or various tools such as tortillons
EXAMPLES OF SOFT PASTELS
(paper stumps), soft hair brushes, putty erasers, and soft
bread. Scumbling is a technique of building up layers of
pastel colors. The side or blunted tip of a soft pastel is
lightly drawn over an underpainted area so that patches COBALT-BLUE
of the color beneath show through. Feathering is a HALF PASTEL
technique of applying parallel strokes of color with the
point of a pastel, usually over an existing layer of
pastel color. A thin spray of fixative can be applied—
using a mouth diffuser (see pp. 430-431) or
aerosol spray fixative—to a finished pastel
painting, or in between layers of color, to
prevent smudging.
VERMILION
HALF PASTEL

OLIVE-GREEN MAUVE
FULL PASTEL FULL PASTEL
EQUIPMENT USED WITH PASTELS
BOXED PASTEL SET Boxed set containing
a mixture of portrait
and landscape colors


Soft bread
Foam suitable for
compartments PUTTY ERASER BREAD erasing and
protect the blending
pastels AEROSOL SOFT
SPRAY FIXATIVE HAIR BRUSH
TORTILLONS
Soft pastel (PAPER STUMPS)

Soft point
used for
blending
Wooden
tray
Tight roll
of paper

P ASTELS
EXAMPLE OF A PASTEL PAINTING
Woman Drying her Neck, Edgar Degas, c.1898
Pastel on cardboard, 24½ x 25½ in (62.5 x 65.5 cm)








Pastels
applied
directly to
support
Rich color of
fabric created
by overlaying
yellows and
oranges

Broken colors,
characteristic
of scumbling
Colors are technique
blended together
using fingers or
tools such as
tortillons

Built up
layers of
pastel Toned color
of paper visible
beneath thinly
applied pastels


Pure bright colors laid side by side DETAIL FROM “WOMAN
produce strong contrasts
DRYING HER NECK”


EXAMPLES OF TEXTURED PAPERS AND PASTEL BOARDS
Feathering
technique
used to produce
skin tones




WATERCOLOR GLASS PAPER WATERCOLOR EXAMPLES OF
COLORED AND
PAPER (ROUGH PAPER (MEDIUM
TEXTURE) TEXTURE) TINTED
PAPERS







INGRES PAPER FLOCKED PASTEL CANSON PAPER
BOARD

THE VISUAL AR TS

Acrylics EXAMPLES OF BRUSHES
Hog hair
Synthetic hog
Sable
sash hair brush
brush
brush Synthetic
ACRYLIC PAINT IS MADE BY MIXING PIGMENT with a synthetic sable
resin. It can be thinned with water but dries to become water Hog Goat hair brush
insoluble. Acrylics are applied to many surfaces, such as hair brush
brush
paper and acrylic-primed board and canvas. A variety of
brushes, painting knives, rollers, air-brushes, plastic
scrapers, and other tools are used in acrylic painting.
The versatility of acrylics makes them suitable for a wide
range of techniques. They can be used opaquely or—by
Synthetic
adding water—in a transparent, watercolor style. Acrylic wash
mediums can be added to the paint to adjust its consistency brush
for special effects such as glazing and impasto (ridges of paint
applied in thick strokes) or to make it more matt or glossy.
Acrylics are quick-drying, which allows layers of paint to
Ox hair
be applied on top of each other almost immediately. brush
EXAMPLES OF PAINTS USED IN ACRYLICS
Azo Phthalo green Cerulean blue
yellow


Phthalo
blue

Quinacridone
red Titanium
white
Pad of disposable
paper palettes
Paint
Credit card spread evenly
Yellow Burnt umber
ocher
Burnt sienna
Flexible, PAINTING TOOLS
plastic blade
Stippled effect
achieved using
thick paint
PLASTIC Striated
PAINTING
effect
KNIFE
Glue spreader
PLASTIC SCRAPERS
Paint cup Main lever
Blended
tones
Nozzle

AIR-BRUSH
Plastic
handle
SPONGE Uniform tone Air hose
ROLLER

ACR YLICS
EXAMPLE OF AN ACRYLIC PAINTING
A Bigger Splash, David Hockney, 1967
Acrylic on canvas, 95½ x 96 in (242.5 x 243.8 cm)
Paint applied
evenly using Cotton duck
a roller canvas support
(surface)



Flatness of
rollered areas
enhanced by
adding gel
medium to
Masking tape the paint
stuck on to
canvas to define
main shapes, and
paint applied
within these areas
using a roller
Thin strip of
pool edge left
unpainted





Splash painted Imprecise edge on
using thicker end of spring board
paint and where paint has
small brush seeped under
masking tape






EXAMPLES OF ACRYLIC PAINTS AND TECHNIQUES
Paint applied using
Opaque Extruded painting knife
effect (squeezed) effect







PURPLE ACRYLIC YELLOW ACRYLIC ORANGE ACRYLIC
PAINT PAINT PAINT Thick impasto with
Transparent, Translucent,
watercolor impasto glaze coarse texture
effect







BLUE ACRYLIC PAINT GREEN ACRYLIC PAINT RED ACRYLIC PAINT MIXED
DILUTED WITH WATER MIXED WITH GEL MEDIUM WITH TEXTURE PASTE

443

THE VISUAL AR TS

Calligraphy EQUIPMENT USED IN
BRUSH LETTERING
Brush
CALLIGRAPHY IS BEAUTIFULLY FORMED LETTERING. The term applies rest
to written text and illumination (the decoration of manuscripts using
gold leaf and color). The essential materials needed to practice
calligraphy are a writing tool, ink, and a writing surface. Quills
Wolf hair
are among the oldest writing tools. They are usually made from brush
goose or turkey feathers, and are noted for their flexibility and
ability to produce fine lines. A quill point, however, is not very
durable and constant recutting and trimming is required. Goat hair
brush
The most commonly used writing instrument in Western
calligraphy is a detachable, metal nib held in a penholder.
BRUSHES AND BRUSH REST
The metal nib is very durable, and there are a wide range
of different types. Particular types of nibs—such as
Liquid ink
copperplate, speedball, and round-hand nibs—are used
made by
for specific styles of lettering. Some nibs have integral ink grinding
reservoirs and others have reservoirs that are detachable. down ink
stick in
Brushes are also used for writing, and for filling in outlined distilled
letters and painting decoration. Other writing tools used in water
calligraphy are fountain pens, felt-tip pens, rotring pens,
and reed pens. Calligraphy inks may come in liquid form,
or as a solid ink stick. Ink sticks are ground down in
distilled water to form a liquid ink. The most common
writing surfaces for calligraphy are good quality, smooth Solid carbon
-surfaced papers. To achieve the best writing position, ink stick
the calligrapher places the paper on a drawing
Ink stone
board set at an angle.
INK STICK AND STONE
Feather
PENS, NIBS, AND BRUSHES USED IN CALLIGRAPHY



COPPERPLATE SPEEDBALL GOAT HAIR BRUSH
PENHOLDER
NIB NIB

ROUND-HAND NIB AND
WOLF HAIR BRUSH
FELT-TIP PEN DETACHABLE INK RESERVOIR
Feather FOUNTAIN PEN AND INK
stripped
AUTOMATIC PEN
for better Barrel
Bottle of
handling
permanent
black ink
REED PEN
Barrel Clip
SQUARE SABLE BRUSH
Nib
Hand-cut GOOSE-FEATHER Cuter cap
POINTED SABLE BRUSH
point QUILL
444

CALLIGRAPHY


EXAMPLES OF LETTERING STYLES CHINESE LETTERING
Apex Bowl Curved
stroke Stem Rice
paper
Inner
counter Stem Stem
Arm
Counter
Broad
brush
Crossbar Inner Counter Inner stroke
counter counter
Chinese
ROMAN CAPITALS character
meaning
Curved long life
Ascender stroke Ear Arch
Cap line
X line
Crossbar
Base
line
Descender
Artist’s stamped
line
Serif Neck Descender signature
Height of letter ITALIC ROMAN ARTIST’S STAMP
determined by Stamp
ladder of nib
widths Stamped
Slightly pinched Letter filled in signature
(curved) vertical using brush of the artist
stroke
Ink pad
Inner
counter

DRAWING BOARD

Tail Spine Pointed
apex
VERSAL
AN ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPT
Style of lettering
called Gothic
book script




Large decorative Adjustable set Blade with
letter used to square parallel motion
mark the
opening of EXAMPLES OF
a chapter Standard CALLIGRAPHY PAPERS
European paper
Words written Indian
carefully by handmade paper
hand
Flecked,
tinted paper
Gold leaf Grid lines provide
guide to position of Imitation
words and pictures parchment paper

THE VISUAL AR TS

Printmaking 1 THE FOUR MAIN PRINTING PROCESSES

Paper Printed
PRINTS ARE MADE BY FOUR BASIC printing processes—intaglio, image
lithographic, relief, and screen. In intaglio printing, lines are Engraved
or etched
engraved or etched into the surface of a metal plate. Lines image
are engraved by hand using sharp metal tools. They are Metal
etched by corroding the metal plate with acid, using acid- plate Inked
area
resistant ground to protect the areas not to be etched. The
plate is then inked and wiped, leaving the grooves filled
INTAGLIO
with ink and the surface clean. Dampened paper is laid
Printed
over the plate, and both paper and plate are passed through image
the rollers of an etching press. The pressure of the rollers Paper
forces the paper into the grooves, so that it takes up the ink,
Damp
leaving an impression on the paper. Lithographic printing is surface
based on the antipathy between grease and water. An image rejects ink
Image
is drawn on a surface—usually a stone or metal plate—with
Ink adheres drawn on
a greasy medium, such as tusche (lihographic ink). The to greasy stone
greasy drawing is fixed on to the plate by applying an acidic image with greasy
medium
solution, such as gum arabic. The surface is then dampened LITHOGRAPHIC
and rolled with ink. The ink adheres only to the greasy areas
and is repelled by the water. Paper is laid on the plate and
Paper Printed
pressure is applied by means of a press. In relief printing, the image
nonprinting areas of a wood or linoleum block are cut away
using gouges, knives, and other tools. The printing areas are
Raised
left raised in relief and are rolled with ink. Paper is laid on figure Inked
the inked block and pressure is applied by means of a press surface
Wood
or by burnishing (rubbing) the back of the paper. The
block
most common forms of relief printing are woodcut, wood
RELIEF
engraving, and linocut. In screen printing, the printing
surface is a mesh stretched across a wooden Wooden
frame
frame. A stencil is applied to the mesh
to seal the non printing areas and ink Ink forced Stencil
through
is scraped through the mesh to mesh
produce an image. Printed
image
Paper
EQUIPMENT USED IN SCREEN
LEATHER INTAGLIO PRINTING
INK DABBER












ROCKER SCRIBER ROULETTE SCRAPER BURNISHER CLAMP


446

PRINTMAKING 1

ETCHING PRESS USED FOR
INTAGLIO PRINTMAKING Felt blanket cushions and
Flywheel Paper distributes pressure
exerted by rollers




Screw
Spoke pressure
adjustor











Handle

Top
roller



Position
guide

Printed image


Sliding bed (plank) Inked-up
is wound between copper plate
steel rollers
GROUND


EXAMPLES OF
Acid-resistant PRINTING
ground rolled PAPERS
onto metal
plate before
etching


GROUND ROLLER
Gelatine
roller






EXAMPLE OF AN INTAGLIO PRINT
Annie with a Sun Hat, Jock McFadyen, 1993
Etched copper plate, 16 × 15¾ in (41 × 40 cm)
Wooden
handle

THE VISUAL AR TS
Printmaking 2 LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING
EQUIPMENT USED IN


EXAMPLE OF A LITHOGRAPHIC CRAYON AND HOLDER
STONE AND PRINT
Crown Gateway 2, Mandy Bonnell, 1987
Lithograph, 19½ × 15¾ in (50 × 40 cm)
LITHOGRAPHIC PENCIL



TUSCHE (LITHOGRAPHIC INK) PEN



ERASING STICK






EXPANDABLE SPONGE

IMAGE DRAWN ON STONE LITHOGRAPIC PRINT

EXAMPLE OF A SCREEN PRINT TUSCHE (LITHOGRAPHIC
Sea Change, Patrick Hughes, 1992 INK) STICK
Screen print, 30 × 37 in (77 × 94.5 cm)
INK ROLLER


RUBBING INK














SCREEN AND SQUEEGEE
MILD ACIDIC GUM ARABIC
SOLUTION SOLUTION
Squeegee
Rubber blade
WATER-BASED SCREEN PRINTING INKS
Mesh






Wooden BLUE RED BROWN
frame ACRYLIC INK ACRYLIC INK TEXTILE INK