Ultimate Visual Dictionary (DK)

SUCCULENT FRUITS
BERRY AGGREGATE FRUIT Pedicel
Cape gooseberry Calyx Raspberry (flower
(Physalis peruviana) Calyx (whorl of sepals) (Rubus idaeus) stalk) Pit (seed
(whorl surrounding berry Remains Mesocarp
of sepals) of stamen and surrounded
exocarp by endocarp)
Drupelet

Remains
of style

Exocarp
of berry
Pedicel Pedicel Receptacle Drupelet
(flower (flower
stalk) stalk)

EXTERNAL VIEW INTERNAL VIEW EXTERNAL VIEW LONGITUDINAL SECTION
OF FRUIT OF FRUIT OF FRUIT THROUGH FRUIT

Hard
Seed endocarp
Testa Cotyledon
(seed coat) Hard Pit (seed leaf)
Placenta endocarp
Seed
Pericarp Testa
(seed
coat)
CROSS-SECTION EXTERNAL EXTERNAL VIEW AND
THROUGH FRUIT VIEW OF SEED SECTION THROUGH PIT

POME (A TYPE OF FALSE FRUIT) PEPO (A TYPE OF BERRY)
Apple Charentais melon
(Malus sylvestris) (Cucumis melo) Rind
Pedicel (flower (fused receptacle
stalk)
Seed Mesocarp Pedicel and exocarp)
and exocarp (flower stalk)
Swollen
receptacle Seed



Waxy skin Endocarp Vascular
strand
EXTERNAL CROSS-SECTION Rind
VIEW OF FRUIT THROUGH FRUIT (fused receptacle Mesocarp
and exocarp) and
Hilum (point endocarp
of attachment EXTERNAL VIEW CROSS-SECTION
to ovary) Embryo OF FRUIT THROUGH FRUIT
Embryo
Testa
(seed coat) Testa
Cotyledon (seed coat) Testa
(seed leaf) (seed coat)
Cotyledon
Testa (seed leaf)
(seed coat)
EXTERNAL VIEW AND EXTERNAL VIEW AND
SECTION THROUGH SEED SECTION THROUGH SEED
149

PLANTS
LEGUME Pedicel
Dry fruits Pea (flower stalk) Pedicel
(Pisum sativum)
(flower
stalk)
Receptacle
Receptacle
DRY FRUITS HAVE A HARD, DRY PERICARP (fruit wall) Remains
around their seeds unlike succulent fruits, which have fleshy of sepal
Remains Remains
pericarps (see pp. 148-149). Dry fruits are divided into three types: of stamen of sepal
dehiscent, in which the pericarp splits open to
Funicle
release the seeds; indehiscent, which do not split
Placenta (stalk
open; and schizocarpic, in which the fruit splits attaching
but the seeds are not exposed. Dehiscent dry seed to
placenta)
fruits include capsules (e.g., love-in-a-mist),
follicles (e.g., delphinium), legumes (e.g., pea), Pericarp Pericarp
and siliquas (e.g., honesty). Typically, the (fruit (fruit
wall) wall)
seeds of dehiscent fruits are dispersed by
the wind. Indehiscent dry fruits include nuts
NUTLET Seed
Goosegrass (e.g., sweet chestnut), nutlets (e.g., goosegrass),
(Galium aparine) achenes (e.g., strawberry), caryopses
(e.g., wheat), samaras (e.g., elm), and cypselas (e.g., dandelion).
Some indehiscent dry fruits are dispersed by the wind, assisted
Remains of Remains of
by “wings” (e.g., elm) or “parachutes” (e.g., dandelion); others style and style and
(e.g., goosegrass) have hooked pericarps to aid dispersal on stigma stigma
animals’ fur. Schizocarpic dry fruits include cremocarps
EXTERNAL VIEW INTERNAL VIEW
(e.g., hogweed), and double samaras (e.g., sycamore Funicle OF FRUIT OF FRUIT
maple); these are dispersed by the wind. (stalk attaching
seed to placenta) Cotyledon
NUT Line of splitting (seed leaf) Radicle
Sweet chestnut between valves (embryonic
(Castanea sativa) of cupule Micropyle root)
(pore for water Testa
Peduncle absorption) (seed Plumule
(inflorescence coat) (embryonic
stalk) Testa shoot)
(seed coat) EXTERIOR VIEW AND
Remains SECTION THROUGH SEED
of male
inflorescence ACHENE
Strawberry
Nut (Fragaria x ananassa) Pedicel
(indehiscent Pedicel Sepal (flower
fruit) Sepal (flower stalk) stalk)
Spiked cupule
(husk around Swollen
fruit formed receptacle
from bracts) EXTERNAL VIEW OF FRUIT WITH
SURROUNDING CUPULE Remains
of stigma
Remains
Remains and style Swollen
of stigma of stigma Remains fleshy tissues
Remains of style Achene of receptacle
of style (one-seeded
dry fruit) EXTERNAL VIEW LONGITUDINAL SECTION
OF FRUIT THROUGH FRUIT
Embryo Pericarp
Nut (fruit
(indehiscent wall) Cotyledon
fruit) Cotyledon Pericarp (seed leaf)
(seed leaf) (fruit wall)
Testa Testa
(seed coat) (seed coat)
Woody pericarp Woody pericarp
(fruit wall) EXTERNAL VIEW AND (fruit wall) EXTERNAL VIEW AND
SECTION THROUGH FRUIT SECTION THROUGH SEED
150

DR Y FRUITS
DOUBLE SAMARA Remains Pedicel
Sycamore of sepal (flower stalk)
(Acer pseudoplatanus) Pericarp (fruit wall)
enclosing single seed


Pericarp
(fruit
Seed Remains wall)
of stigma extended and
Testa and style flattened to
(seed coat) Mericarp form wing that
(half-fruit) assists in wind dispersal
CAPSULE CREMOCARP
Love-in-a-mist Remains Hogweed
(Nigella damascena) of style (Heracleum sp.)
Branching Line of
bracteole dehiscence Flattened
(leaflike (splitting) Vitta pericarp
structure) Carpel (oil duct) (fruit
Placenta wall wall)
Testa
Fused (seed coat)
edge of Seed
carpels
EXTERNAL
VIEW OF SEED
Pericarp Pedicel
(fruit (flower stalk)
Receptacle wall) Pericarp
Abortive EXTERNAL VIEW OF FRUIT (fruit wall)
ovule Pericarp
Pedicel Carpophore covering
(central
(flower Pedicel seed
stalk) (flower stalk) supporting
strand)
EXTERNAL VIEW OF FRUIT LONGITUDINAL SECTION
THROUGH FRUIT One-seeded
Carpel Placenta Cotyledon
wall (seed leaf) mericarp
Sculptured (half-fruit)
Seed testa Vitta
(seed coat) (oil duct)
Pericarp Testa
(fruit Carpel (seed coat) Pedicel
wall) VIEW OF SEPARATED CARPELS (flower stalk)
CROSS-SECTION EXTERIOR VIEW AND FOLLICLE
THROUGH FRUIT SECTION THROUGH SEED
Remains of Larkspur
style and (Delphinium sp.) Carpel split open
SILIQUA Remains of stigma along one side
Honesty stigma and style Testa
(Lunaria annua) (seed coat)
False Pericarp
Placenta (fruit wall)
Seed septum Flattened Seed
edge of testa
aids dispersal
of seed Pericarp
(fruit
Valve of wall)
pericarp Hilum (point
of attachment Carpel split
to ovary) open,
exposing
Embryo
seeds
Cotyledon Pericarp
Testa
Replum Pedicel (seed leaf) Receptacle (fruit
(seed coat)
(ridge surrounding (flower stalk) wall)
false septum) EXTERNAL VIEW AND SECTION Pedicel
PARTS OF SPLIT-OPEN FRUIT THROUGH SEED (flower stalk)
151

PLANTS

Germination HYPOGEAL GERMINATION Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Fava bean
(Vicia faba)
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
GERMINATION IS THE GROWTH OF SEEDS INTO SEEDLINGS. It starts when
seeds become active below ground, and ends when the first foliage Plumule
Testa (embryonic
leaves appear above ground. A seed consists of an embryo and (seed shoot)
its food supply, surrounded by a testa (seed coat). The embryo is coat)
Epicotyl
made up of one or two cotyledons (seed leaves) attached to a central
(upper part
axis. The upper part of the axis consists of an epicotyl, which has a of axis)
plumule (embryonic shoot) at its tip. The lower part of the axis consists
Hypocotyl
of a hypocotyl and a radicle (embryonic root). After dispersal from the
(region
parent plant, the seeds dehydrate and enter a period of dormancy. between
Following this dormant period, germination begins, provided that the epicotyl and
radicle)
seeds have enough water, oxygen, warmth, and, in some cases, light.
In the first stages of germination, the seed takes in water; the Radicle
embryo starts to use its food supply; and the SEED AT START OF (embryonic
GERMINATION root)
radicle swells, breaks through the testa, Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
and grows downward. Germination
Foliage leaf
then proceeds in one of two ways,
depending on the type of seed.
In epigeal germination, the Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
hypocotyl lengthens, pulling
the plumule and its protective Stipule
cotyledons out of the soil. (structure at
base of leaf)
In hypogeal germination,
the cotyledons remain below Epicotyl
ground and the epicotyl increases in
length and
lengthens, pushing turns green
the plumule upward.
Cataphyll
Split in testa (scale leaf
(seed coat) due of plumule)
to expanding Epicotyl
cotyledons
(upper part
Young of axis)
shoot
Hypocotyl
(region between
Cataphyll Testa epicotyl and radicle)
(scale leaf of (seed coat)
plumule) FOLIAGE
Epicotyl LEAVES APPEAR
(upper part Plumule
of axis) (embryonic Cotyledons (seed
Cotyledons lengthens shoot) leaves) remain Primary
(seed leaves) food source for root
remain within Hilum (point of the seedling
testa (seed Primary attachment to ovary)
coat) below root Cortex
soil’s surface Radicle
Vascular tissue (embryonic
(xylem and root)
Lateral root phloem)
Epidermis
Root tip Lateral
SHOOT APPEARS RADICLE BREAKS (region of root system
ABOVE SOIL THROUGH TESTA cell division)
152

GERMINATION
EPIGEAL GERMINATION Epicotyl Epicotyl
Black bean (upper part Hypocotyl (upper part
(Phaseolus sp.) of axis) (region between of axis)
epicotyl and
Plumule radicle) Testa
(embryonic (seed coat)
shoot)
Radicle Plumule
(embryonic (embryonic
Testa root) shoot)
(seed coat)
Hilum
(point of
Raphe attachment
(ridge) to ovary)
Testa
(seed coat) Cotyledon
(seed leaf) Cotyledon
Hilum (point (seed leaf)
of attachment
to ovary) LONGITUDINAL SECTION Hypocotyl
THROUGH SEED AT START OF (region between
Micropyle GERMINATION epicotyl and radicle)
(pore for
water
absorption) First foliage Lateral root
leaf fully
grown
Petiole Growing
(leaf stalk) point

Cotyledon (seed
leaf) withers

EXTERNAL VIEW OF SEED AT
START OF GERMINATION
Primary root
First foliage leaf Cotyledon (elongated
protected by cotyledons (seed leaf) radicle)
(seed leaves)

Hypocotyl
“hook” pushes
out of soil Hypocotyl (region
Testa between epicotyl
(seed and radicle)
coal) Hypocotyl (region straightens RADICLE BREAKS THROUGH
splits between epicotyl and and lengthens TESTA AND LENGTHENS
radicle) elongates
Testa (seed Testa (seed
coal) shed coat) begins to
disintegrate
Lateral
root
Root
Root


Primary
root
HYPOCOTYL
STRAIGHTENS, Root cap
HYPOCOTYL PULLING LEAVES FIRST FOLIAGE (protective
“HOOK” APPEARS AND COTYLEDONS LEAVES FULLY covering for
ABOVE SOIL OUT OF SOIL DEVELOPED root tip)
153

PLANTS

Vegetative ADVENTITIOUS BUD
Mexican hat plant
(Kalanchoe
daigremontiana) Apex of
leaf
reproduction


MANY PLANTS CAN PROPAGATE THEMSELVES by vegetative
reproduction. In this process, part of a plant separates
off, takes root, and grows into a new plant. Vegetative
reproduction is a type of asexual reproduction; that
is, it involves only one parent, and there is no Lamina
(blade)
fusion of gametes (sex cells). Plants use various of leaf
structures to reproduce vegetatively. Some plants
use underground storage organs. Such organs include
CORM
Gladiolus rhizomes (horizontal, underground stems), the
(Gladiolus sp.) branches of which produce new plants;
Leaf
bulbs (swollen leaf bases) and corms (swollen stems),
margin
which produce daughter bulbs or corms that separate
off from the parent; and stem tubers (thickened
Notch in leaf
underground stems) and root tubers (swollen margin containing
adventitious roots), which also separate off from meristematic
(actively dividing)
the parent. Other propagative structures include cells
runners and stolons, creeping horizontal stems that
take root and produce new plants; bulbils, small bulbs that
develop on the stem or in the place of flowers, and then
drop off and grow into new plants; and adventitious buds,
miniature plants that form on leaf margins before dropping
to the ground and growing into mature plants.



BULBIL IN PLACE OF FLOWER Adventitious bud
Orange lily (detachable bud Petiole
(Lilium bulbiferum) with adventitious (leaf stalk)
Scar left roots) drops
by flower from leaf
Leaf

Pedicel
(flower stalk) STOLON
Ground ivy
(Glechoma hederacea)
Internode Parent
Terminal plant
bud
Stolon
(creeping stem)
Detachable Node
bulbil formed
in place of
flower Node
Peduncle
(inflorescence
stalk) Adventitious root Daughter plant
of daughter plant developed from
lateral bud

154

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
ROOT TUBER STEM BULBIL GROWING BULB
Sweet potato Lily Grape hyacinth
(Ipomoea batatas) (Lilium sp.) (Muscari sp.)
Leaf Apex
Foliage of leaf
leaf Foliage
Petiole leaf
(leaf
stalk)
Stem
Flower bud
Stem bulbil Immature
developing spike (type of
Terminal from lateral Stem bulbil Peduncle
bud bud at base of (inflorescence inflorescence)
Aerial stem stalk)
stem Lateral Fleshy scale
branch leaf containing
Lateral stored food
bud
Fleshy scale
leaf containing
Stem
Root stored food
Root tuber
(swollen
adventitious Adventitious
root) Adventitious root
root
ROOT TUBER CORM BULB WITH SHOOT
Begonia Gladiolus Amaryllis
(Begonia x tuberhybrida) (Gladiolus sp.) (Hippeastrum sp.)
Remains of Shoot
flowering shoot New
New corm forming foliage Shoot
Food Shoot Protective at base of shoot leaf
store scale leaf
Apical bud Protective
(flower bud) scale leaf



Swollen stem
containing
Last year’s stored food Vascular
root tissue
Adventitious
Developing root
adventitious Aerial shoot developing Fleshy scale
root leaf containing
from terminal bud
stored food
RHIZOME
Ginger Stem Adventitious
Scale leaf (Zingiber officinale) Foliage root
scar leaf Scale Epidermis
Node leaf
Scale Cortex
Internode leaf
Scale leaf Developing
Node adventitious
root
Epidermis
Vascular
Food store Vascular tissue
Lateral bud
tissue
EXTERNAL VIEW LONGITUDINAL SECTION CROSS-SECTION
THROUGH AERIAL SHOOT THROUGH RHIZOME
155

PLANTS

Dryland plants STEM SUCCULENT
Golden barrel cactus
(Echinocactus grusonii)
DRYLAND PLANTS (XEROPHYTES) are able to Areole Trichome
survive in unfavorable habitats. All are found (modified (hair) Spine
lateral shoot) (modified
in places where little water is available; some
leaf)
live in high temperatures that cause excessive
loss of water from the leaves. Xerophytes
show a number of adaptations to dry
conditions; these include reduced leaf area,
LEAF
SUCCULENT rolled leaves, sunken stomata, hairs,
Lithops sp.
spines, and thick cuticles. One group,
succulent plants, stores water in specially
enlarged spongy tissues found in leaves, roots,
or stems. Leaf succulents have enlarged, fleshy,
water-storing leaves. Root succulents have a
large, underground water-storage organ with
short-lived stems and leaves above ground. Stem
succulents are represented by the cacti (family
Cactaceae). Cacti stems are fleshy, green, and
photosynthetic; they are typically ribbed or
covered by tubercles in rows, with leaves
being reduced to spines or entirely absent.
Waxy cuticle
(waterproof
Spine covering) Water-storing
(modified
parenchyma Tubercle
leaf)
(packing tissue) (projection
from stem
Sinuous surface)
(wavy)
Tubercle
cell wall Vascular
(projection cylinder
from stem (transport
surface)
tissue)
Stoma (pore)
Root
controlling
exchange of
gases
EXTERNAL VIEW MICROGRAPH OF STEM SURFACE
Spine
(modified
leaf)
Root
Areole
(modified
Tubercle
lateral shoot)
(projection from
stem surface)

Waxy cuticle
(waterproof
covering)
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
DETAIL OF STEM SURFACE THROUGH STEM
156

DR YLAND PLANTS
LEAF SUCCULENT Translucent LEAF SUCCULENT
Haworthia truncata “window” Lithops bromfieldii
allows light Leaf Dead,
to reach withered
base of leaf Fissure leaf
Translucent Succulent
“window” leaf Mottled
allows light Waxy cuticle surface
to reach base (waterproof of leaf
of leaf covering)
Water-storing
Root tuber parenchyma
(packing tissue)
Photosynthetic
region Dead
flower in Unified
Translucent old fissure leaf pair
“window”
allows light to Fissure
reach center
LONGITUDINAL SECTION of leaf
THROUGH LEAF
Raised cell
surface Waxy cuticle
(waterproof
covering)
Root
Stoma
(pore) Photosynthetic Water-storing
region parenchyma
(packing
Cup surrounding tissue)
sunken stoma LONGITUDINAL SECTION
(pore) THROUGH LEAF PAIR
MICROGRAPH OF LEAF SURFACE
ROOT SUCCULENT
Oxalis sp.
Petiole
(leaf stalk)
Stem
Flower
bud
STEM AND ROOT SUCCULENT Root tuber
String of hearts Pedicel
(Ceropegia woodii) (flower stalk)
EXTERNAL VIEW
Root
Petiole Succulent
(leaf stalk) trailing stem Trifoliate
Stem leaf




Succulent Root
leaf tuber
Water-storing
Root tuber
parenchyma
Root
Root
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
THROUGH ROOT TUBER
157

PLANTS

Wetland plants



WETLAND PLANTS GROW SUBMERGED IN WATER, either partially (e.g., water hyacinth) or completely (e.g.,
pond weeds), and show various adaptations to this habitat. Typically, there are numerous air spaces inside the
stems, leaves, and roots; these aid gas exchange and buoyancy. Submerged parts generally have no cuticle
(waterproof covering), enabling the plants to absorb minerals and gases directly from the water; in addition,
being supported by the water, they need little of the supportive tissue found in land plants. Stomata, the gas
exchange pores, are absent from plants WATER HYACINTH
Abaxial (lower) Adaxial (upper) surface
that are completely submerged; in surface of of lamina (blade) (Eichhornia crassipes)
partially submerged plants with lamina (blade)
floating leaves (e.g., water lilies),
Inflated petiole
stomata are found on the upper (leaf stalk)
leaf surfaces, where they cannot provides buoyancy
be flooded. Isthmus (narrow
Leaf connecting
region)
WATER FERN Dorsal lobe
(Azolla sp.) of leaf Orbicular
lamina
(blade)


Leaf with tiny
Stem hairs to prevent Rhizome
waterlogging
Adventitious
root


Dense, fibrous
root system
Adventitious
root
Lateral branch of
adventitious root
Orbicular
lamina
(blade)
Vein
Endodermis
Isthmus (inner layer
(narrow of cortex) CANADIAN POND WEED
connecting (Elodea canadensis)
region) Lacuna Phloem Vascular Internode
(air space) Xylem tissue
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells) Node
Inflated
petiole Node
Lacuna
(leaf stalk)
(air space)
Cortex Stem
(layer between
Epidermis
Leaf base (outer layer epidermis and
of cells) vascular tissue)
Adventitious
LAMINA AND SECTION THROUGH INFLATED MICROGRAPH OF CROSS-SECTION root
PETIOLE OF WATER HYACINTH THROUGH ROOT OF WATER HYACINTH
158

WETLAND PLANTS
WATER LILY
(Nymphaea sp.) Star-shaped sclereid Upper epidermis Palisade mesophyll
(short strengthening cell) (outer layer of cells) Vein
(tightly packed
photosynthetic tissue)
Lacuna
(air space) Parenchyma
(packing tissue)
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS-SECTION Lower epidermis Phloem
THROUGH LEAF OF WATER LILY (outer layer of cells) Vascular
tissue
Xylem
Flower
Midrib
Adaxial (upper)
Petal Lateral Abaxial (lower) surface of Margin
vein Midrib Waxy, water-repellent surface of lamina (blade) of lamina
lamina (blade) lamina (blade) (blade)











Petiole
Pedicel (leaf stalk)
(flower stalk)
Developing Cortex
leaf (layer between
Cortex Star-shaped sclereid
(layer between epidermis and
epidermis and (short strengthening cell) vascular tissue)
vascular tissue)

Vascular Lacuna Epidermis
bundle (air space) (outer layer
of cells)
Epidermis Endodermis
(inner layer
(outer layer
of cells) of cortex) Lacuna
(air space) Vascular
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS-SECTION
bundle
THROUGH STEM OF
Flower
ELODEA SP.
bud MICROGRAPH OF CROSS-SECTION THROUGH
PETIOLE OF WATER LILY
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
Rhizome
Plant fully
submerged
Leaf
Adventitious
root








159

PLANTS

Carnivorous Areola PITCHER PLANT
Cobra lily (Darlingtonia californica)
(“window” of
transparent tissue)
Hood Pitcher
Fishtail nectary
plants Wing Tubular
petiole
(leaf stalk)
CARNIVOROUS (INSECTIVOROUS) PLANTS FEED ON INSECTS and other small
animals, in addition to producing food in their leaves by photosynthesis. Areola
(“window” of
The nutrients absorbed from trapped insects enable carnivorous plants to transparent
thrive in acid, boggy soils that lack essential minerals, especially nitrates, tissue)
where most other plants could not survive.
Smooth surface
All carnivorous plants have some leaves
Dome-shaped
modified as traps; many use bright colors hood develops Nectar roll
and scented nectar to attract prey; and
Fishtail
most use enzymes to digest the prey. There nectary
are three types of traps. Pitcher plants, such appears Mouth
as the monkey cup and cobra lily, have leaves Immature Wing
modified as pitcher-shaped pitfall traps, pitcher
half-filled with water; once lured inside the
Downward
mouth of the trap, insects lose their footing on
pointing hair
the slippery surface, fall into the liquid, and
DEVELOPMENT OF MODIFIED
either decompose or are digested. Venus fly LEAF IN COBRA LILY
traps use a spring-trap mechanism; when an Immature
insect touches trigger hairs on the inner trap
surfaces of the leaves, the two lobes of the trap
Closed
snap shut. Butterworts and sundews entangle Interlocked trap
prey by sticky droplets on the leaf surface, teeth
while the edges of the leaves
slowly curl over to envelop
and digest the prey.


VENUS FLY TRAP
(Dionaea muscipula) Red color of trap
attracts insects
Phyllode
(flattened
petiole)
Trigger
Sensory hair
Summer petiole hinge
(leaf stalk)

Nectary zone
(glands secrete Inner
nectar) surface
of trap
Digestive zone
(glands Lobe Trap
secrete of trap (twin-lobed
digestive leaf blade)
enzymes) Midrib Spring petiole
(hinge of (leaf stalk) Digestive
trap) gland
MICROGRAPH OF LOBE OF
Tooth Trigger hair VENUS FLY TRAP
160

CARNIVOROUS PLANTS
PITCHER PLANT
Monkey cup
Lamina (Nepenthes mirabalis) Inner surface
(blade) of pitcher



Digestive
gland Outer surface
of pitcher


Lamina
(blade)
Tendril Nectar-
Immature MICROGRAPH OF WALL OF PITCHER secreting
pitcher gland
Lid (attracts insects; Midrib
stops rainwater from
Lid flooding pitcher)
Rim of pitcher
Rim of Mouth (containing
pitcher Spur nectar
of pitcher
glands)
Lid
Pitcher opens Tendril
Waxy zone
Lid remains (no foothold
firmly closed as for insects)
pitcher develops Mouth of
pitcher
Tendril Digestive
Recently elongates zone
formed leaf (normally
containing
Frontal digestive Partly
rib fluid) digested
insects
Tendril at tip of
recently formed leaf Digestive
gland

DEVELOPMENT OF MODIFIED LEAF Swelling forms Immature pitcher Mature SECTION THROUGH
IN PITCHER PLANT at tip of tendril fills with air pitcher PITCHER
BUTTERWORT Insect
(Pinguicula caudata)
Stalked secretory trapped
gland (produces on sticky
sticky, mucuslike surface
substance) Flattened of lamina
Digestive gland lamina (blade)
(produces enzymes) (blade)
Adaxial
(upper) surface
of leaf



Margin of
lamina (blade)
rolled inwards
Abaxial
(lower) surface MICROGRAPH OF Immature
of leaf BUTTERWORT LEAF leaf
161

PLANTS

Epiphytic and parasitic plants



EPIPHYTIC AND PARASITIC PLANTS GROW ON OTHER LIVING PLANTS. Typically, epiphytic plants are
not rooted in the soil; instead, they live above ground level on the stems and branches of other
plants. Epiphytes obtain water from trapped rainwater and from moisture in the air, and
minerals from organic matter that has accumulated on the surface of the plant on which
they are growing. Like other green plants, epiphytes produce their food by photosynthesis. Epiphytes
include tropical orchids and bromeliads (air plants), and some mosses that live in temperate regions.
Parasitic plants obtain all their nutrient requirements from the host plants on which they grow. The parasites
produce haustoria, rootlike organs that penetrate the stem or roots of the host and grow inward to merge
with the host’s vascular tissue, from which the parasite extracts water, minerals, and manufactured nutrients.
As they have no need to produce their own food, parasitic plants
lack chlorophyll, the green photosynthetic pigment, and they
have no foliage leaves. Partial parasitic plants (e.g., mistletoe)
Inflorescence
obtain water and minerals from the host plant but have (spike) Peduncle
green leaves and stems and are therefore able to (inflorescence
produce their own food by photosynthesis. Flower stalk)
bud
EPIPHYTIC ORCHID
Strap-shaped
Brassavola nodosa
arching leaf
(part of rosette
Peduncle of leaves)
(inflorescence Leaf margin
stalk) with spines
Flower
Pedicel Overlapping leaf
(flower bases in which
stalk) rainwater is trapped Mass of
adventitious roots
EPIPHYTIC BROMELIAD Stem
Aechmea miniata
Bark of tree to
Scale which epiphyte
leaf Leaf is attached


Velamen Exodermis
(multi-layered epidermis (outer layer
capable of absorbing of cortex)
water from rain or
condensation)


Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Aerial
root Cortex cell
Node containing
chloroplasts
Pith
Stem
Vascular Xylem
tissue Endodermis
Phloem (inner layer
of cortex)
Bark of tree to
which epiphyte MICROGRAPH OF CROSS-SECTION THROUGH
is attached AERIAL ROOT OF EPIPHYTIC ORCHID
162

EPIPHYTIC AND P ARASITIC PLANTS
LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH EPIPHYTIC BROMELIAD ROOT PARASITE
Scarlet star Broomrape
(Guzmania (Orobanche sp.)
lingulata) Stem of host plant
Bract
(leaflike Leaf (part of
structure) rosette of leaves)
Immature
bracts



Flower bud
of broomrape
Overlapping leaf bases
in which rainwater is Flower of
trapped broomrape
Leaf of
host plant
Stem of
Stem
broomrape
Tuber of broomrape attached to
Immature host plant’s roots through
flowers haustoria (penetrating organs Shoot of
that absorb nutrients from host’s broomrape
Swollen stem base vascular tissue)

STEM PARASITE
Dodder
(Cuscuta europaea)
Tip of dodder
stem showing Inflorescence
circular Main root
movement (spike) of dodder of host plant
flowers
around
host plant
Point of
attachment Lateral root of
of dodder stem host plant
to host stem
Haustorium
(penetrating organ that
absorbs nutrients from Vascular tissue
Leaf of host’s vascular tissue) of dodder
host plant
Union of host and dodder
vascular systems
Thread-like
stem of dodder Stem of
twined around dodder
stem of host
plant
Stem of
host plant
Vascular
tissue of Phloem
host plant
Xylem

Stem of
host plant
EXTERNAL VIEW OF PLANT MICROGRAPH OF CROSS-SECTION THROUGH STEM
PARASITIZED BY DODDER OF PLANT PARASITIZED BY DODDER

163



ANIMALS




SPONGES, JELLYFISH, AND SEA ANEMONES .......... 166
INSECTS ............................................................. 168
ARACHNIDS ........................................................ 170
CRUSTACEANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
STARFISH AND SEA URCHINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
MOLLUSKS ......................................................... 176
SHARKS AND JAWLESS FISH ................................ 178
BONY FISH ......................................................... 180
AMPHIBIANS ....................................................... 182
LIZARDS AND SNAKES ......................................... 184
CROCODILIANS AND TURTLES ............................. 186
BIRDS 1 .............................................................. 188
BIRDS 2 .............................................................. 190
EGGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
CARNIVORES ....................................................... 194
RABBITS AND RODENTS ...................................... 196
UNGULATES ........................................................ 198
ELEPHANTS ........................................................ 200
PRIMATES ........................................................... 202
DOPHINS, WHALES, AND SEALS .......................... 204
MARSUPIALS AND MONOTREMES ....................... 206

ANIMALS

Sponges, jellyfish, INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A SPONGE

Amoebocyte Osculum
and sea anemones (excurrent pore)

Choanocyte
(collar cell)
SPONGES ARE MAINLY MARINE animals that make
Ostium
up the phylum Porifera. They are among (incurrent pore)
the simplest of all animals, having no
Porocyte (pore cell)
tissues or organs. Their bodies consist
of two layers of cells separated by a Mesohyal
jellylike layer (mesohyal) that is strengthened
Spongocoel
by mineral spicules or protein fibers. The body
(atrium; paragaster)
is perforated by a system of pores and water
channels called the aquiferous system. Special Spicule
cells (choanocytes) with whiplike structures Pinacocyte
(flagella) draw water through the aquiferous (epidermal cell)
system, thereby bringing tiny food particles
Ostium (incurrent pore)
to the sponge’s cells. Jellyfish (class Scyphozoa),
sea anemones (class Anthozoa), and corals
(also class Anthozoa) belong to the EXTERNAL FEATURES
SKELETON OF A SPONGE OF A SEA ANEMONE
phylum Cnidaria, also known as
Coelenterata. More complex than
Protein matrix
sponges, coelenterates have simple
tissues, such as nervous tissue;
a radially symmetrical body;
and a mouth surrounded by
tentacles with unique stinging
cells (cnidocytes).



EXAMPLES OF SEA ANEMONES Pore
Tentacle
PARASITIC ANEMONE
(Calliactis parasitica)
JEWEL ANEMONE
(Corynactis viridis)
PLUMOSE ANEMONE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANEMONE
(Metridium senile) (Condylactis sp.)

GREEN SNAKELOCK
ANEMONE
(Anemonia viridis)


BEADLET ANEMONE
(Actinia equina)
GHOST ANEMONE
(Actinothoe
sphyrodeta)

Sagartia elegans



166

SPONGES, JELLYFISH, AND SEA ANEMONES

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A JELLYFISH EXAMPLES OF
CORALS
Stomach
Filament Gonad
Ectoderm
Endoderm Mesoglea
Radial canal
HONEYCOMB CORAL
Hood (Goniastrea aspera)
Tentacle
Subgenital pit
Rhopalium
Oral arm
Mouth


EXTERNAL APPEARANCE
OF A JELLYFISH STRUCTURE OF A CNIDOCYTE Thread
Spine
Operculum MUSHROOM CORAL
Cnidocil (Fungia fungites)
Cnidocil (trigger) (trigger) Barb (stylet)
Operculum
Barb (stylet)
Thread
Nucleus Nucleus


BEFORE DISCHARGE AFTER DISCHARGE STAR CORAL
(Balanophyllia regia)

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A
SEA ANEMONE
Oral disk Mouth Ostium (mesenteric
perforation)



Tentacle

Sphincter Collar
muscle
Siphonoglyph
Mesenteric
filament Complete
mesentery
Incomplete Retractor
mesentery muscle

Gonad


Oral disk
Gastrovascular
Basal disk Pharynx cavity
Mouth (pedal disk)

167

ANIMALS

Insects EXAMPLES OF INSECTS


Compound eye Antenna
THE WORD INSECT REFERS to small invertebrate creatures,
especially those with bodies divided into sections. Insects, Front Head
leg
including beetles, ants, bees, butterflies, and moths, belong to
various orders in the class Insecta, which is a division of the
phylum Arthropoda. Features common to all insects are an Middle
exoskeleton (external skeleton); three pairs of jointed legs; leg Thorax
three body sections (head, thorax, and abdomen); and one
PUPA pair of sensory antennae. Beetles (order Coleoptera) are the Hind
(CHRYSALIS) leg
biggest group of insect, with about 300,000 species (about 30
percent of all known insects). They have a pair of hard elytra (wing cases),
which are modified front wings. The principal function of the elytra is to
Wing
protect the hind wings, which are used for flying. Ants, together with bees
Claw
and wasps, form the order Hymenoptera, which contains about 200,000
species. This group is characterized by a marked narrowing between the
thorax and abdomen. Butterflies and moths form the order Lepidoptera, BUMBLEBEE
which has about 150,000 species. They have wings covered with tiny
scales, hence the name of their order (Lepidoptera means “scale wings”).
Compound
The separation of lepidopterans into butterflies and moths is largely
eye
artificial, since there are no features that categorically distinguish one
group from the other. In general, however, most butterflies fly by day,
whereas most moths are night-flyers. Some insects, including butterflies Stigma
(spot)
and moths, undergo complete metamorphosis (transformation) during their
life-cycle. A butterfly metamorphoses from an egg to a larva (caterpillar),
then to a pupa (chrysalis), and finally to an imago (adult). Vein


Elytron Abdomen
EXTERNAL FEATURES
OF A BEETLE DAMSELFLY
Tarsus
Claw Tibia Costal margin

Pedicel Apex
Femur Vein
Flagellum
Wing
Trochanter
Mandible
Scape
Coxa
Labrum
CRICKET ANT
Labial palp
Abdomen
Compound
eye
Head
Prothorax
Mesothorax
Front leg Scutellum Hind leg FLY EARWIG
Metathorax Middle leg

168

INSECTS

EXTERNAL FEATURES
OF A CATERPILLAR Vein Apex
Head Thorax Abdomen Postabdominal
spine
Forewing
Spiracle

Antenna
Anal clasper
Thoracic Segment Prolegs
legs
EXTERNAL FEATURES Costal
OF A BUTTERFLY margin



Compound
eye

Antenna
Head
Outer
Proboscis margin
Front leg





Thorax
Spur
Middle
leg Femur

Tibia
Abdominal Abdomen Hind wing
Hind leg segment

Tarsus
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A FEMALE BUTTERFLY
Abdomen Thorax Head

Copulatory bursa
Dorsal blood
Intestine Ovary Esophagus Antenna
Crop vessel
Colon Heart
Cerebral
Rectum
ganglion
Anus (brain)
Opening of oviduct
Proboscis
Opening of Oviduct
copulatory bursa Midgut
Salivary gland
Seminal Malpighian
receptacle tubule Ventral nerve cord


169

ANIMALS

Arachnids


THE CLASS ARACHNIDA INCLUDES SPIDERS (order Araneae) and
scorpions (order Scorpiones). The class is part of the phylum
Arthropoda, which also includes insects and crustaceans.
Spiders and scorpions are characterized by having four pairs of
walking legs; a pair of pincerlike mouthparts called chelicerae; another
pair of frontal appendages called pedipalps, which are sensory in spiders
but used for grasping in scorpions; and a body divided into two
sections (a combined head and thorax called a cephalothorax MEXICAN TRUE RED-
LEGGED TARANTULA
or prosoma, and an abdomen or opisthosoma). (Euathlus emilia)
Unlike other arthropods, spiders and
scorpions lack antennae. Spiders
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A FEMALE SPIDER
and scorpions are carnivorous.
Spiders poison prey by biting Anterior Ostium
aorta Heart
with the fanged chelicerae, Sucking
scorpions by stinging stomach Digestive gland
with the end of the Posterior aorta
metasoma (tail). Brain Malpighian
tubule
Intestine
Simple eye
Cloaca
Ovary
Poison gland
Anus
Poison duct Spinneret

Oviduct Silk gland
Chelicera
Vagina Trachea
Fang Book lung Spermatheca
(seminal receptacle)
Mouth Gut caecum
Esophagus Spiracle
EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A SCORPION Metasoma
(tail)
Sting
Chela (claw of pedipalp) Pedipalp
Prosoma
(cephalothorax) Opisthosoma (abdomen)




Chelicera
Median eye Patella
Tibia
Tarsus
Femur
Coxa 3rd walking leg 4th walking leg
1st walking leg Claw Metatarsus
Trochanter 2nd walking leg

170

EXAMPLES OF SPIDERS








RAFT SPIDER ORB SPIDER HUNTSMAN SPIDER BLACK WIDOW SPIDER HOUSE SPIDER
(Dolomedes fimbriatus) (Nuctenea (Heteropoda (Latrodectus mactans) (Tegenaria gigantea)
umbratica) venatoria)
4th walking leg
Spinneret
EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A SPIDER Opisthosoma
(abdomen)


3rd walking leg





Simple eye

Prosoma
(cephalothorax)

Trochanter







2nd walking leg





Pedipalp
Chelicera Femur
1st walking leg Patella
Tibia





Metatarsus

MOLT OF A TARANTULA
Spiders must shed their
Tarsus exoskeleton (external skeleton)
to grow. During molting, the
exoskeleton splits and the spider
Claw pulls itself out, leaving behind
the old exoskeleton, shown above.

171

ANIMALS
Crustaceans


1st swimmeret
THE SUBPHYLUM CRUSTACEA is one of the largest groups (1st pleopod)
in the phylum Arthropoda. The subphylum is divided
into several classes, the most important of which
are Malacostraca and Cirripedia. The class
Malacostraca includes crayfish, crabs,
lobsters, and shrimps. Typical features of
malacostracans include a body divided
2nd swimmeret
into two sections (a combined head (2nd pleopod)
and thorax called a cephalothorax, 3rd swimmeret (3rd pleopod)
and an abdomen); an exoskeleton 4th swimmeret (4th pleopod)
(external skeleton) with a large 5th swimmeret (5th pleopod)
plate (carapace) covering the
Telson Abdomen
cephalothorax; stalked,
compound eyes; and two
pairs of antennae. The class
Cirripedia includes barnacles,
which, unlike other
crustaceans, spend their
adult lives attached to a Endopod
Uropod
surface, such as a rock. Other Exopod
Abdominal
characteristics of cirripedes segment
include an exoskeleton of
3rd leg
overlapping calcareous plates;
(3rd pereopod)
a body consisting almost entirely
of thorax (the abdomen and head
are minute); and six pairs of thoracic
appendages (cirri) used for filter feeding.
5th leg (5th 2nd leg (2nd
EXTERNAL FEATURES Propodus pereopod) pereopod)
OF A CRAB
Dactylus 4th leg (4th
Carpus
pereopod)
Compound eye
Antenna
EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A SHRIMP
Cheliped (chela;
claw; 1st leg; Cephalothorax
1st pereopod) Compound eye
Abdomen
Carapace (shell)

Merus Antenna
Leg Swimmeret
Abdomen 2nd leg (pereopod) (pleopod)
(2nd pereopod)
Exopod
Uropod
Endopod
5th leg (5th pereopod) 3rd leg (3rd pereopod)
Telson
4th leg (4th pereopod)
172

CRUSTACEANS


EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A STALKED BARNACLE
Carina plate
Dactylus Tergum plate
Propodus Cirrus
Scutum plate
Carpus
Merus
EXTERNAL FEATURES
Ischium OF A CRAYFISH
Antenna
Basis
Coxa Mandible 2nd maxilliped INTERNAL ANATOMY OF
A STALKED BARNACLE
Cephalothorax Cirrus
Tergum plate
Scutum plate
3rd maxilliped
Female
Penis
Rostrum gonopore
Testis
Mouth
Antennule Anus
Adductor muscle
Carina plate
Supraoesophageal
Compound
ganglion
eye Midgut
Carapace Cephalic groove Esophagus
Mantle cavity
Digestive caecum
Stomach Ovary
Oviduct Stalk (peduncle)
Cement gland

Antennule
Cheliped (chela; claw;
1st leg; 1st pereopod)


INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A FEMALE CRAYFISH
Dorsal abdominal artery Heart Ostium Ovary Proventriculus (stomach)
Intestine (hindgut) Brain





Opening of
Ganglion
green gland
Green gland
Mouth
Ventral nerve Digestive
Anus cord caecum
Ventral abdominal artery Sternal artery
Oviduct




173

ANIMALS

Starfish and


sea urchins EXTERNAL FEATURES OF
A STARFISH (UPPER, OR
ABORAL, SURFACE)
STARFISH, SEA URCHINS, AND THEIR relatives (including
feather stars, brittle stars, basket stars, sea daisies,
Disk
sea lilies, and sea cucumbers) make up the phylum
Echinodermata. A unique feature of echinoderms is the water
vascular system, which consists of a series of water-filled canals
from which protrude thousands of tiny tube feet. The tube feet
may be used for movement, feeding, or respiration. Other features
include pentaradiate symmetry (that is, the body can be divided into
five parts radiating from the center); no head; a diffuse, decentralized
nervous system that lacks a brain; and no excretory organs. Typically,
echinoderms also have an endoskeleton (internal skeleton)
consisting of hard calcite ossicles embedded in the
body wall and often bearing protruding spines or
tubercles. The ossicles may fit together to
form a test (as in sea urchins) or
remain separate (as in
sea cucumbers).





Madreporite Spine



Arm
INTERNAL ANATOMY
OF A STARFISH
Rectum
Pyloric stomach
Tube foot
Madreporite
Anus
Stone canal
Rectal caecum



Ring canal
Cardiac stomach
Lateral canal
Pyloric duct
Radial canal
Ampulla Pyloric caecum
Mouth
Esophagus
Gonad
Conopore




174

STARFISH AND SEA URCHINS


EXAMPLES OF SEA URCHINS
Tube foot









EDIBLE SEA URCHIN CALIFORNIAN PURPLE PENCIL SLATE SEA
INTERNAL ANATOMY (Echinus escelentus) SEA URCHIN URCHIN
OF A SEA URCHIN (Strongylocentrotus (Heterocentrotus
Gonopore Anus Madreporite purpuratus) mammillatus)

Genital plate
EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A
Intestine SEA URCHIN (UPPER, OR
Gonad ABORAL, SURFACE)
Stone canal
Axial gland Anus
Ring canal
Siphon
Polian vesicle
Test Spine
Pharynx Spine
Nerve ring
Radial nerve Mouth
Tube foot
Radial canal

Ampulla

Tube foot



CUSHION STAR
(Asterina gibbosa)
COMMON BRITTLE STAR
(Ophiothix fragilis)
Tube foot






EXAMPLES OF
STARFISH
Mouth




Ambulacral groove



COMMON STARFISH EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A STARFISH
(Asterias rubens) (LOWER, OR ORAL, SURFACE)

ANIMALS

Mollusks Upper valve (shell) Mantle Ocellus (eye)
EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A SCALLOP

THE PHYLUM MOLLUSCA (MOLLUSKS) is a large group of animals that
includes octopuses, snails, and scallops. Octopuses and their relatives—
including squid and cuttlefish—form the class Cephalopoda.
Cephalopods typically have a head with a radula (a filelike feeding
organ) and beak; a well-developed nervous system; sucker-bearing
Lower valve Shell rib Sensory
tentacles; a muscular mantle (part of the body wall) that can expel
(shell) tentacle
water through the siphon, enabling movement by jet propulsion; and
a small shell or no shell. Snails and their relatives—including slugs, Ventral margin
Sensory of shell Shell rib
limpets, and abalones—make up the class Gastropoda. Gastropods
tentacle
typically have a coiled external shell, although some, such as slugs,
have a small internal shell or no shell; a flat foot; and a head with
tentacles and a radula. Scallops and their relatives—including clams,
mussels, and oysters—make up the class Bivalvia (also
called Pelecypoda). Features of bivalves include a shell
with two halves (valves); large gills that are used for
breathing and filter feeding; and no radula.


Anterior wing
INTERNAL ANATOMY of shell
Cephalic
OF AN OCTOPUS
vein Poison gland
Skull Digestive caecum Umbo Posterior
Crop wing of shell
Brain Dorsal mantle
cavity Dorsal margin of shell
Siphon (funnel)
Mantle muscles Tentacle
Buccal mass
Shell rudiment
Beak
Stomach
Caecum
Gonad
Systemic heart
Kidney
Branchial heart
Ctenidium
Anus
Ink sac
Muscular
septum






Sucker







176

MOLLUSKS


EXTERNAL FEATURES Shell Growth line
OF A SNAIL
Eye Apex of shell
Posterior
tentacle
Collar




INTERNAL ANATOMY
Digestive gland OF A SNAIL
Shell
Heart
Head Foot Ovotestis
Lung
Anterior Hermaphrodite duct Salivary gland
tentacle
Albumen gland Crop
Mucous gland
Copulatory bursa
Dart sac
Spermatheca
Cerebral
ganglion
Kidney
EXTERNAL FEATURES Stomach
OF AN OCTOPUS
Ureter
Spermoviduct
Eye with horizontal iris
Siphon (funnel)
Flagellum
Excretory Anus Penis Radula
pore
Vagina Gonopore Mouth
Esophagus Pedal gland




Visceral hump























177

ANIMALS

Sharks and


jawless fish SHARKS’ JAWS



SHARKS, DOGFISH (WHICH ARE actually small
sharks), skates, and rays belong to a class
of fishes called Chondrichthyes, which is a
division of the superclass Gnathostomata (meaning “jawed
mouths”). Also sometimes known as elasmobranchs,
sharks and their relatives have a skeleton made of
cartilage (hence their common name, cartilaginous
Jaws of an adult
fish), a characteristic that distinguishes them from
tiger shark
bony fish (see pp. 180-181). Other important features
of cartilaginous fish are extremely tough, toothlike Jaws of a young
tiger shark
scales, and lack of a swim bladder. Jawless fish—
lampreys and hagfish—are primitive, eellike fish EXTERNAL FEATURES
that make up the order Cyclostomata (meaning OF A DOGFISH
“round mouths”), a division of the superclass
Agnatha (meaning “without jaws”). In
addition to their characteristic round,
suckerlike mouths and lack of jaws,
cyclostomes also have smooth,
slimy skin without scales, and
unpaired fins.
Snout

FEATURES OF A Outer lip
LAMPREY’S HEAD
Mouth Eye
Tongue

Sucker Gill slit

Eye
Pectoral fin

Tooth
Anterior dorsal fin
Fringed inner lip
Posterior dorsal fin
EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A LAMPREY

Eye





Gill opening
Anal fin
Caudal fin
Sucker
178

SHARKS AND JAWLESS FISH
EXAMPLES OF CARTILAGINOUS FISH









TIGER SHARK
BASKING SHARK (Galeocerdo cuvier)
(Cetorhinus maximus)



SCALLOPED
THORNBACK RAY HAMMERHEAD SHARK
(Raja clavata) (Sphyrna lewini)


Anterior dorsal fin


Posterior dorsal fin






Pelvic fin





Right lobe Epibranchial
Wolffian duct Dorsal aorta of liver artery
Oviduct Kidney Ovary Spinal cord Lateral dorsal
aorta
Esophagus
Rectal gland
Brain Orbital
artery





Mouth
Spiral Pharynx
Cloaca valve Heart
Gill slit
Rectum Intestine Pyloric region
of stomach Ventral aorta
Pancreas
Cardiac region
of stomach

INTERNAL ANATOMY
OF A FEMALE DOGFISH
Caudal fin


179

ANIMALS

Bony fish HOW FISH BREATHE
Fish “breathe” by extracting oxygen from water
through their gills. Water is sucked in through the
mouth; simultaneously, the opercula close to prevent
BONY FISH, SUCH AS CARP, TROUT, SALMON, perch, and the water from escaping. The mouth is then closed,
cod, are by far the best known and largest group of fish, and muscles in the walls of the mouth, pharynx, and
opercular cavity contract to pump the water inside
with more than 20,000 species (over 95 percent of all
over the gills and out through the opercula. Some fish
known fish). As their name suggests, bony fish have rely on swimming with their mouths open to keep
skeletons made of bone, in contrast to the cartilaginous water flowing over the gills.
skeletons of sharks, jawless fish, and their relatives (see Pharynx
pp. 178-179). Other typical features of bony fish include
a swim bladder, which functions as a variable-buoyancy
organ, enabling a fish to remain effortlessly at whatever Gill raker
depth it is swimming; relatively thin, bonelike scales; Water
a flap (called an operculum) covering the gills; and out
paired pelvic and pectoral fins. Scientifically, bony
Gill slit
fish belong to the class Osteichthyes, which is a
division of the superclass Gnathostomata Mouth
(meaning “jawed mouths”).
Water in
Operculum
Gill filament
EXAMPLES OF BONY FISH
Vertebra
Neural spine

MANDARINFISH
(Synchiropus splendidus)




OCEANIC SEAHORSE
(Hippocampus kuda)



ANGLERFISH
(Caulophryne jordani)



Hypural

Hemal spine
Caudal fin ray Radial
cartilage
Anal fin ray
LIONFISH
(Pterois volitans)







STURGEON SNOWFLAKE MORAY EEL
(Acipenser sturio) (Echidna nebulosa)
180

BONY FISH

Kidney
Dorsal aorta Spinal cord
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A Stomach
FEMALE BONY FISH Ureter Pyloric caecum
Brain

Olfactory
bulb

Mouth

Pharynx
Heart Gill
Urinary bladder
Ovary Liver
Urinogenital Anus Intestine Spleen
SKELETON OF A opening
BONY FISH Swim bladder Pancreas

Dorsal fin ray
Supraoccipital bone
Radial cartilage
Parietal
bone Frontal bone
Orbit
Lacrimal bone



Premaxilla


Maxilla
Dentary

Quadrate bone
Preopercular bone
Interopercular bone
Opercular
bone Branchiostegal ray
Rib
Subopercular bone
Scapula
Pectoral Clavicle
fin ray EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A BONY FISH
Anterior dorsal fin
Eye Posterior dorsal fin
Pelvis
Maxilla
Pelvic fin ray
Mouth
Mandible

Operculum Pectoral fin Anal fin Caudal
fin
Pelvic fin Lateral line


181

ANIMALS

Amphibians



THE CLASS AMPHIBIA INCLUDES FROGS and toads (which make INTERNAL ANATOMY
OF A FEMALE FROG
up the order Anura), and newts and salamanders (which make
up the order Urodela). Amphibians typically have moist,
scaleless, hairless skin; lungs; and are cold-blooded. Larynx
They also undergo complete metamorphosis, from
Right bronchus Stomach
eggs laid in water through various water-living
larval stages (such as tadpoles) to land-living
adults. Typical features of adult frogs and
toads include a squat body with no tail; long,
powerful hind legs; and large, often bulging,
eyes. Adult newts and salamanders typically
have a long body with a well-developed
tail; and relatively short, equal-sized legs.
Pulmonary
However, newts and salamanders show artery
considerable variation; for example, in Right lung
some species the adults have minute Left lung
Heart
legs, external gills rather than lungs, Pancreas
and spend their entire lives in water. Liver
Duodenum
Posterior vena cava
Spleen
EXTERNAL FEATURES Right kidney
OF A FROG Left kidney
Trunk Dorsal aorta
Hind limb Mesentery

Head Cloaca Small intestine
(ileum)
Rectum
Left ureter
Forelimb






External
nostril
5 digits Mouth

Tympanum Eye
(eardrum)
Web
4 digits

EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A
SALAMANDER Eye



Tail Forelimb
Hind limb Digit


182

AMPHIBIANS














EGGS (SPAWN) YOUNG TADPOLES MATURE TADPOLE YOUNG FROG
METAMORPHOSIS OF FROGS
Frogs undergo complete metamorphosis. Eggs
(spawn) are laid in water and hatch into young
tadpoles, which have a tail and external gills Premaxilla SKELETON OF A FROG
but no legs. As the tadpoles grow, the gills
disappear, back legs develop, then front Sphenethmoid Nasal bone
legs, and the tail shrinks. Eventually bone
the tail disappears, resulting in a Maxilla Frontoparietal bone
young adult frog.

Pterygoid bone Prootic bone
Quadratojugal bone
Phalanges
Squamosal bone
Exoccipital bone
Suprascapula
Carpals
Vertebra
Metacarpals
Radio-ulna



Phalanges



Humerus Sacral
vertebra
Metatarsal
Ilium
Distal
tarsals





Femur
Astragalus Urostyle
(tibiale)
Proximal
tarsals Tibiofibula
Calcaneum
(fibulare)

Ischium

183

ANIMALS

Lizards and snakes



LIZARDS AND SNAKES BELONG to the order Squamata, a division of the class EXAMPLES OF
Reptilia. Characteristic reptilian features include scaly skin, lungs, and SNAKES
cold-bloodedness. Most reptiles lay leathery-shelled eggs, although some MEXICAN
MOUNTAIN
hatch the eggs inside their bodies and give birth to live young. Lizards
KING SNAKE
belong to the suborder Lacertilia. Typically, they have long tails, and (Lampropeltis
shed their skin in several pieces. Many lizards can regenerate a tail triangulum
annulata)
if it is lost; some can change color; and some are limbless.
Snakes make up the suborder Ophidia (also called EXTERNAL FEATURES
Serpentes). All snakes have long, limbless bodies; OF A LIZARD
can dislocate their lower jaw to swallow large
prey; and have eyelids that are joined together
to form a single transparent covering over BANDED MILK
Eye
the front of the eye. Most snakes shed SNAKE
(Lampropeltis
their skin in a single piece. Constrictor Mouth
ruthveni)
snakes kill their prey by squeezing;
venomous snakes poison their prey. External Crest
nostril
Eardrum
Skull Orbit
Scapula
Masseteric scale
Cervical vertebrae
Phalanges Dorsal scale
Metacarpal
Carpals
Humerus
Ulna
Rib Thoracolumbar
Radius
vertebrae
Pelvis
Sacrum
Femur
Tibia
Fibula Tarsals
Dewlap
Metatarsal


Foreleg
Caudal Phalanges
vertebrae
SKELETON
OF A LIZARD



Belly
Ventral scale

Toe
Claw



184

LIZARDS AND SNAKES

Orbit Skull
Mandible
EXTERNAL FEATURES Scale
OF A RATTLESNAKE




Vertebra Rattle



Abdomen Tail
SKELETON OF
A SNAKE Head

Rib





Eye
Nostril
Forked tongue
Caudal vertebrae

Spinal cord
Brain
Lung
Stomach INTERNAL ANATOMY OF
A FEMALE LIZARD
Funnel
Ovary
Oesophagus Oviduct
Trachea Kidney
Ureter
Anterior chamber of cloaca
Heart
Liver
Small intestine Bladder
Cloacal opening
Rectum
Posterior chamber of cloaca
Hind leg


Tail











185

ANIMALS

Crocodilians SKULLS OF CROCODILIANS


and turtles


GHARIAL
CROCODILIANS AND TURTLES BELONG to different orders in the class Reptilia. (Gavialis gangeticus)
The order Crocodilia includes crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gharials.
Typically, crocodilians are carnivores (flesh-eaters), and have a long
snout, sharp teeth for gripping prey, and hard, square scales. All
crocodilians are adapted to living on land and in water: they have four
strong legs for moving on land; a powerful tail for swimming; and their
NILE CROCODILE
eyes and nostrils are high on the head so that they stay above water while (Crocodylus niloticus)
the rest of the body is submerged. The order Chelonia includes marine
turtles, terrapins (freshwater turtles), and tortoises (land turtles).
Characteristically, chelonians have a short, broad body encased in a
bony shell with an outer horny covering, into which the head and limbs
can be withdrawn; and a horny beak instead of teeth. AMERICAN ALLIGATOR
(Alligator mississippiensis)
SKELETON OF A CROCODILE Thoracic Lumbar
Cervical vertebrae vertebrae Sacrum
vertebrae Caudal
Skull vertebrae




Rib Tarsals
Mandible
Scapula
Femur
Humerus Tibia
Fibula
Radius
Upper eyelid
Ulna Phalanges Metatarsals
Snout Eye with vertical pupil
Lower eyelid Dorsal scale












Tooth
Tongue


EXTERNAL FEATURES
OF A CAIMAN
Belly Ventral scale
Foreleg
Forefoot with 5 toes Toe

186

CROCODILIANS AND TUR TLES


EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A TERRAPIN SKELETON OF A TURTLE
Mandible
Eyelid
Vertebra
Eye Skull
Nuchal shield
Scapula
Claw Phalanges Nuchal plate
Ulna
Foreleg
Radius
Carapace
(upper shell)
Humerus
Marginal Proscapular
shield
process
Coracoid Centrum


Femur
Hind leg

Fibula
Lateral shield
(costal shield) Tibia
Central shield
(vertebral shield) Pelvis
Pygal shield

Tail crest Tail INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A
FEMALE TORTOISE
Buccal cavity
Scute
Lung
Trachea
Esophagus
Heart

Stomach
Liver
Pancreas
Gallbladder
Duodenum
Small intestine
Ovary Kidney
Hind leg Bladder

Hind foot with 4 toes
Rectum
Oviduct Cloaca
Claw
Anus


187

ANIMALS

Birds 1



BIRDS MAKE UP THE CLASS AVES. There are more than 9,000 species, almost all of which can fly
(the only flightless birds are penguins, ostriches, rheas, cassowaries, and kiwis). The ability to
fly is reflected in the typical bird features: forelimbs modified as wings; a streamlined body;
and hollow bones to reduce weight. All birds lay hard-shelled eggs, which the
parents incubate. Birds’ beaks and feet vary according to diet and way
of life. Beaks range from general-purpose types suitable for a EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A BIRD
mixed diet (those of thrushes, for example), to types
Forehead Eye
specialized for particular foods (such as the large,
Crown
curved, sieving beaks of flamingos). Feet range Nostril
from the webbed “paddles” of ducks, to the
Upper
talons of birds of prey. Plumage also varies mandible
widely, and in many species the male is Nape
Beak
brightly colored for courtship display
whereas the female is drab.
Lower
mandible
EXAMPLES OF BIRDS Chin
Throat

Minor Lesser wing coverts
coverts
Median wing coverts

MALE TUFTED DUCK
(Aythya fuligula)
Greater wing coverts
(major coverts)


Secondary flight feathers
(secondary remiges)
Breast

Primary flight feathers
(primaryremiges) Belly
Flank
WHITE STORK
(Ciconia ciconia)
Thigh






Under tail Claw
coverts

Tarsus
Toe
Tail feathers (retrices)
MALE OSTRICH
(Struthio camelus)


188

BIRDS 1



Orbit 1st digit
Skull
Upper
mandible Carpal
SKELETON OF A BIRD Carpal


Radius
Cervical vertebrae
3rd digit
Humerus
Metacarpals 2nd digit
Lower mandible
Ulna



Scapula
Furcula (clavicle; wishbone)
Coracoid
Synsacrum
Femur

Sternum
Keel
Tibiotarsus
Pygostyle
Buccal
cavity Ilium
Brain
Pelvis
Ischium
Beak
Pubis
Trachea Spinal cord Rib
Tarsometatarsus
Esophagus
Digit
Lung
Heart Kidney INTERNAL ANATOMY
OF A BIRD
Crop Gizzard
Stomach Ureter
(proventriculus)
Duodenum
Liver
MALE KESTREL
(Falco tinnunculus)
Bile duct
Pancreas
Ileum
Rectum
Cloaca
Caecum
COMMON BLACKHEADED GULL
(Larus ridibundus)

189

ANIMALS

Birds 2





EXAMPLES OF BIRDS’ FEET

KITTIWAKE
(Rissa tridactyla)
The webbed feet are
adapted for paddling
through water.










LITTLE GREBE
(Tachybaptus ruficollis)
The lobed, flattened feet
are adapted for swimming
underwater.
TAWNY OWL
(Strix aluco)
The clawed feet are adapted
for gripping prey.



EXAMPLES OF BIRDS’ BEAKS








KING VULTURE
(Sarcorhamphus papa)
The hooked beak is adapted
for pulling apart flesh.



GREATER FLAMINGO
(Phoenicopterus ruber)
In the living bird, the large,
curved beak contains a
cartilaginous “strainer” for
filtering food particles
from water.




MISTLE THRUSH BLUE-AND-YELLOW MACAW
(Turdus viscivorus) (Ara ararauna)
The general-purpose beak is The broad, powerful, hooked beak
suitable for a wide range of is adapted for crushing seeds and
animal and plant foods. eating fruit.

190

BIRDS 2

BONES OF A BIRD’S WING 1st digit
Carpal
3rd digit
Radius
Humerus Metacarpals 2nd digit
Carpal
Ulna
Alula (spurious wing)
FEATHERS OF A BIRD’S WING

Minor
coverts




Major
coverts

























Secondary flight feathers
(secondary remiges)


Primary flight feathers
Downcurved
STRUCTURE OF A FEATHER (primary remiges)
edge
Rachis (shaft)
Outer vane

Tip


Calamus (quill)


Upcurved edge
Inner vane


191

ANIMALS

Eggs Yolk SECTION THROUGH
A CHICKEN’S EGG
Albumen (egg white)
AN EGG IS A SINGLE CELL, produced by the female, Yolk sac
with the capacity to develop into a new individual. Amnion
Shell
Development may take place inside the mother’s body Amniotic fluid
(as in most mammals) or outside, in which case the Allantoic
egg has a protective covering such as a shell. Egg yolk fluid Developing chick
nourishes the growing young. Eggs developing inside
the mother generally have little yolk, because the young
are nourished from her body. Eggs developing outside Developing wing
may also have little yolk if they are produced by animals Allantois
whose young go through a larval stage (such as a Shell membrane
caterpillar) that feeds itself while developing into
Chorioallantoic
the adult form. The shelled eggs of birds and reptiles
membrane
contain enough yolk to sustain the young until it
hatches into a juvenile version of the adult. Air sac
DOGFISH EGGS
(MERMAID’S PURSES)
VARIETY OF EGGS GIANT STICK INSECT EGGS
Developing
Egg case dogfish
Operculum
LEAF INSECT EGGS
Egg capsule
Operculum
Egg capsule

INDIAN STICK INSECT EGGS
Egg capsule
Jelly

Operculum Developing tadpole Tendril

FROG EGGS (FROG SPAWN)

HATCHING OF A QUAIL’S EGG
EGG AT THE POINT OF HATCHING CUTTING THROUGH THE EGG BREAKING OUT OF THE EGG
Shell
Chick pushes off membrane Shell
Rounded end Shell Chick the top of the shell
of egg
Pointed end
of egg
Shell


Shell
membrane
Eye
Camouflage
coloration Beak
Crack caused
by chick pecking Egg-tooth
through the shell
Crack extended by more Crack runs completely
pecking by the chick around the shell

192

EGGS

EXAMPLES OF BIRDS’ EGGS











BEE HUMMINGBIRD
(Calypte helenae)






GREATER BLACKBACKED GULL
(Larus marinus)








BALTIMORE ORIOLE WILLOW GROUSE
(Icterus galbula) (Lagopus lagopus)








OSTRICH
(Struthio camelus)
COMMON TERN CARRION CROW CHAFFINCH
(Sterna hirundo) (Corvus corone) (Fringilla coelebs)

Eye
EMERGING FROM THE EGG THE NEWLY HATCHED CHICK
Beak
Chick heaves itself Tympanum
Eye out of the egg Egg-tooth (eardrum)
Chick is dry
Beak Tympanum (eardrum) about an hour
after hatching
Egg-tooth Nostril


Dry down
Shell

Toe
Claw
Wet down Remains of egg membranes
(amnion and allantois) Leg Eggshell

193

ANIMALS

Carnivores EXTERNAL FEATURES

OF A MALE LION
Nose
THE MAMMALIAN ORDER CARNIVORA includes cats, dogs, Eye
bears, raccoons, pandas, weasels, badgers, skunks, otters,
civets, mongooses, and hyenas. The order’s name is derived
from the fact that most of its members are carnivores
(flesh -eaters). Typical carnivore features therefore
Mane
reflect a hunting life-style: speed and agility; sharp
claws and well-developed canine teeth for holding
and killing prey; carnassial teeth (cheek teeth) for
cutting flesh; and forward-facing eyes for good
distance judgment. However, some members of the
Nostril
order—bears, badgers, and foxes, for example—
have a more mixed diet, and a few are entirely Vibrissa
herbivorous (plant-eating), notably pandas. (whisker)
Such animals have no carnassial teeth and tend
to be slower moving than pure flesh-eaters. Tongue

SKULL OF A LION Canine
tooth
Zygomatic arch Nasal bone
Incisor
Coronoid process Maxilla
tooth
Orbit
Sagittal crest Upper premolars
Upper canine




Lower canine

Mandible
Occipital Lower premolars
condyle Condyle
Tympanic Upper carnassial tooth
bulla Angular process (4th upper premolar)
SKULL OF A BEAR Chest
Sagittal crest Zygomatic arch Upper molars
Orbit Elbow
Occipital Nasal bone
condyle
Upper premolars
Maxilla
Upper canine
Upper incisor
Lower incisor
Lower canine
Lower arm
Mandible
Tympanic
bulla Lower premolars
Angular Condyle Lower molars
process Toe


194

CARNIVORES

EXAMPLES OF CARNIVORES










ALSATIAN DOG MANED WOLF RACCOON AMERICAN BLACK BEAR
(Canis familiaris) (Chrysocyon brachyurus) (Procyon lotor) (Ursus americanus)

SKELETON OF A DOMESTIC CAT
Cervical Skull
Lumbar vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae
Back Sacrum vertebrae
Rump
Caudal
Hip vertebrae
Pelvis
Rib cage Scapula
Femur
Sternum
Humerus
Patella Rib
Fibula Ulna
Tibia Radius
Carpals
Metatarsals Metacarpals
Tarsals
Belly
Thigh Phalanges
Knee INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A MALE DOMESTIC CAT

Brain Spinal cord Stomach Kidney
Diaphragm Liver Ureter Large intestine
Nasal cavity Small intestine

Buccal cavity Anus
Nostril Testis

Tongue
Trachea
Oesophagus
Lung
Hock Tail Vas
deferens
Urethra (sperm
duct)
Paw Gallbladder Bladder
Heart
Pancreas Spleen


195

ANIMALS

Rabbits and Nose Eye Ear EXTERNAL FEATURES
Snout
OF A RAT
Pinna (ear flap)
Nostril
rodents Vibrissa
(whisker)
Neck
ALTHOUGH RABBITS AND RODENTS belong
Mouth
to different orders of mammals, they have some
Tail
features in common. These features include
chisel-shaped incisor teeth that grow
continually, and eating their feces to
extract more nutrients from their plant diet. Rabbits and Forelimb
Hind limb
hares belong to the order Lagomorpha. Characteristically, 5 digits 5 digits
they have four incisors in the upper jaw and two in the
lower jaw; powerful hind legs for jumping; forelimbs
adapted for burrowing; long ears; and a small tail. Rodents
Pinna
make up the order Rodentia. This is the largest order of (ear flap)
mammals, with more than 1,700 species, including
squirrels, beavers, chipmunks, gophers, rats,
mice, lemmings, gerbils, porcupines, cavies, Ear
and the capybara. Typical rodent features
include two incisors in each jaw; EXTERNAL FEATURES Shoulder
short forelimbs for manipulating OF A RABBIT
food; and cheek pouches
for storing food.
Eye




Nose
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF
A MALE RABBIT
Nostril
Gallbladder
Brain
Liver Stomach Kidney
Spinal cord
Nasal Colon
cavity
Ileum Vibrissa
(whisker)
Ureter
Rectum
Bladder
Mouth
Anus Forelimb
Buccal
Urethra
cavity
Testis
Tongue
Vas deferens
Esophagus Lung
Pancreas Appendix
Diaphragm 5 digits
Trachea
Heart Duodenum Cecum
196

RABBITS AND RODENTS

Skull SKELETON OF A HARE EXAMPLES OF RODENTS
Cervical vertebrae
Thoracic vertebrae
Mandible
Scapula
Lumbar
Sternum vertebrae
GRAY SQUIRREL
Rib (Sciuris carolinensis)
Humerus Femur

Pelvis
Radius
Ulna Sacrum
Patella
Fibula
Carpals
Tibia
PLAINS VISCACHA
Metacarpals
Caudal (Lagostomus maximus)
vertebrae
Phalanges Phalanges Tarsals
Metatarsals








CRESTED PORCUPINE
(Hystrix africaeaustralis)











AMERICAN BEAVER
(Castor canadensis)
Tail





Knee
Hind limb



4 digits
CAPYBARA
(Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris)

197

ANIMALS

Ungulates Chambers of stomach


Rumen Omasum Abomasum Reticulum
UNGULATES IS A GENERAL TERM FOR a large, varied
group of mammals that includes horses, cattle, and
their relatives. The ungulates are divided into two Colon
orders on the basis of the number of toes. Members
Anus
of the order Perissodactyla (odd-toed ungulates)
have one or three toes. Perissodactyls include horses, Rectum Mouth
onagers, and zebras (all of which are one-toed), and
Cecum Tongue
rhinoceroses and tapirs (which are three-toed).
Small Esophagus
Members of the order Artiodactyla (even-toed intestine
ungulates) have two or four toes. Most artiodactyls
Duodenum
have two toes, which are typically encased in hooves to
give the so-called cloven hoof. Two-toed, cloven-hoofed
artiodactyls include cows and other cattle, sheep, goats, DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF A COW
Back
antelopes, deer, and giraffes. The other main two-toed
Croup
artiodactyls are camels and llamas. Most two-toed
Loin
artiodactyls are ruminants; that is, they have a four-
chambered stomach and chew the cud. The principal
four-toed artiodactyls are pigs, peccaries,
and hippopotamuses. Root of tail

Buttock
COMPARISON OF THE FRONT FEET
OF A HORSE AND A COW Tail

SKELETON OF THE LEFT Thigh
FRONT FOOT OF A HORSE
SKELETON OF THE RIGHT
FRONT FOOT OF A COW 2nd metacarpal
(splint bone)



3rd metacarpal
Fused 3rd and (cannon bone)
4th metacarpals Flank
Stifle
Sesamoid Belly
bone
Gaskin
Sesamoid
bone Phalanges of Hock
3rd digit
Chestnut
Phalanges of
3rd digit
Shannon bone
(cannon bone)
Hoof bone
Phalanges
of 4th digit
Hoof bone of 3rd digit
Coronet
Hoof bone of Pastern Heel
4th digit Hoof


198