Ultimate Visual Dictionary (DK)

BODYWORK
Left-
hand Antenna
door Left-hand Rear Side
mirror hatch marker
assembly lamp


Door hinge

Electric
window
motor

SIDE VIEW OF A RENAULT CLIO




Spoiler Hood-release Hood
bumper cable















Hood catch


Hood hinge







Windshield
Window glass Front
winder bumper
cable
Headrest
Hood

Window Headlight
winder
handle


Door
hinge Spoiler
bumper
Right- Right-
hand hand Fog-lamp
door mirror
assembly FRONT VIEW OF A RENAULT CLIO

349

RAIL AND ROAD
Mechanical Alloy wheel



components Hub cap Exhaust downpipe
Hub nut
Hub seal
A TYPICAL MODERN CAR has several thousand
individual mechanical components. These are
assembled to form the car’s various mechanical
systems: engine and exhaust, transmission,
steering, suspension, and brakes. To ensure that
each system functions properly, components are
manufactured to extremely fine tolerances—to within
Muffler Catalytic
about one ten -thousandth of an inch (one five-hundredth
converter Suspension
of a millimeter) in some cases. spring


Torsion bar Handbrake

Left
rear Anti-roll
suspension bar
Rear muffler arm
Gear lever
Steering
Fuel tank wheel Steering
rack



Right rear
suspension
arm
Steering
column
Vent pipe
Shock absorber
Clutch pedal
Hub and
Brake cylinder brake drum
Electric fuel pump

Brake shoe
Brake pedal
Hub seal
Brake backplate Throttle pedal
Hub nut
Fuel tank filler neck
Clutch cable
Hub
cap Throttle cable


Wheel trim Steel wheel


350

MECHANICAL COMPONENTS


Brake shield MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
OF A RENAULT CLIO, 1991
Alloy wheel
Clutch release
Brake bearing
disc Hub


Left side Clutch pressure
Track-rod drive shaft plate
end Upper Brake hose
suspension Top hose
Track arm Power
rod Brake steering Clutch
pad pump center
plate

Bottom
Gearbox hose
Gear- (transmission)
change rod
Lower Anti-roll
suspension bar Starter
arm motor Flywheel
Fan
motor
Power steering
belt Exhaust
Electronic Manifold
ignition unit Intake
Subframe manifold
Brake
cylinder Water
pump
Brake
servo
Fan motor support
Alternator
Alternator belt Engine
Brake caliper Distributor
fixing bolt
Suspension
strut Brake caliper
locking plate
Air cleaner
Brake
caliper
Right side
Hub drive shaft
Brake
carrier
hose Radiator
Lock nut and washer




Front hub
Brake disc bearing


Steel wheel Wheel trim
Brake shield

351

RAIL AND ROAD

Car trim TRIM OF A RENAULT
CLIO, 1991

Rear quarter
A MODERN CAR HAS TWO TYPES OF TRIM, according trim panel Inner roof trim
to the materials used: hard (chrome and plastics)
and soft (upholstery materials). Safety and comfort Roof seal Quarter
are priorities in the trim’s design: seats help the trim panel
occupants to maintain a comfortable posture, rubber
seals keep out dirt and moisture, and headlights light
the way. Older cars had interior or leather
paneling cut and fitted by craftsmen;
modern cars use precisely molded Quarter panel
plastics and seat fabrics cut by robot- molding
controlled lasers to reduce
costs and production time.
Doors are now trimmed off Rear seat belt
Rear
the production line so that
tire Split,
complex wiring can be folding Center
built in. Rear shelf rear seat seat
Tailgate trim assembly belt
Rear
seat
Rear belt
Rear wiper shelf stalk
Tail- blade radio (catch)
gate speaker
seal
Gear
Rear lever
shelf radio surround
Rear wiper speaker
arm



Wheel cover
License plate (rear wheel Untrimmed headrest
light embellisher)
Rear turn signal Rear seat belt
HALOGEN and stop lamp
HEADLIGHT assembly
BULB Quarter panel
molding
Rear tire
SPOTLIGHT BULB
Filament
MARKER
LIGHT BULB Quarter
trim panel
Filament Rear quarter
trim panel Roof seal
FESTOON BULB
Inner roof trim

Contact Bayonet fixing Contact Contact Roof molding

352

CAR TRIM
Window winder handle
Wheel cover
Door seal Front tire (front wheel
Door lock embellisher)
handle
Door pull
handle

Turn signal lamp

Fog light


Door molding
Inner sill trim (rubbing strip) Inner
windshield
molding
Front seat belt Front door radio speaker
Dash radio
Front speaker
seat Sun Headlight
assembly visor Dash panel
(instrument Windshield wiper
panel) bracket and
spindles
Heater Windshield wiper blade
Interior unit
light Radio Washer jet Fan
blade
Rearview
mirror
Center Steering
console
wheel
Fascia Windshield seal
(dash)
Sun
visor Headlight
Front Windshield
seat wiper arm
frame Dash radio
speaker
Front seat belt Control stalk
Front door radio speaker
Inner
Door trim panel Inner sill trim Door molding windshield
(rubbing strip) molding
Door Fog light
seal


Signal lamp

Door pull Window
handle winder
handle Front wheel
Door lock Front tire embellisher
handle
(wheel trim)

353

RAIL AND ROAD
Hybrid car HONDA INSIGHT


Aerodynamic
THERE HAVE BEEN SEVERAL proposed alternatives Antenna roof
Windshield
to conventional gas- or diesel-powered cars, including
Side
cars that use solar or battery power. The object is to mirror
lower harmful emissions and conserve natural
resources. One of the alternatives already
in production is the hybrid car. A hybrid vehicle uses
Plastic
two or more fuels. Examples include diesel-electric
front
trains and mopeds. The latter combine the power wings
of a gasoline engine with pedal power. In a hybrid
car, gas consumption is reduced by the provision of Front
air
additional power by an electric motor during dam
acceleration. The motor is driven by power from
on-board batteries that are recharged by an engine-
driven generator when the car is decelerating or
cruising. Some hybrid cars transfer energy from the Plastic Aluminum
bumper Aerodynamic Cooling hood
wheels to a flywheel during braking. The flywheel underside intake
drives the generator, which recharges the batteries. components


SIDE VIEW OF 1-LITER VTEC ENGINE FRONT VIEW OF 1-LITER VTEC ENGINE
Motor
power Air-intake duct Rocker Ignition coils
cables Ignition Dipstick cover
coils

Water
pump
















Coolant
pipe
Electric
motor
housing Belt
tensioner

Lightweight
plastic intake Engine drive belt
manifold Crankshaft
Lightweight Oil filter Air-conditioning pulley
magnesium compressor Air-
alloy oil sump conditioning
pan compressor Drive belt

354

HYBRID CAR
HOW HYBRID Gasoline engine provides power for
POWER WORKS acceleration and to generator

Motor
Inverter
electronic
control
Battery
module
(ECM)
Inverter
controls Battery
direction of electronic
electrical control
current module
Electric Power from Power from (ECM)
motor generator recharges battery to Inverter
battery during motor during cooling Battery
deceleration acceleration fan cooling
fan
High-voltage REAR VIEW
INVERTER AND BATTERY cables
High-
voltage
DC converter Motor electronic Battery electronic
connector
Inverter control module control module
housing (ECM) (ECM)

























INVERTER
ASSEMBLY
Junction BATTERY ASSEMBLY
board
Magnesium
housing for air
Inverter Cover Battery
cooling fan intake DC converter mounting cooling fan
connector connection bracket
Manifold
connector
O sensor Catalyst
2
Rear
exhaust
section
connector
EXHAUST WITH
CATALYTIC CONVERTER
355

RAIL AND ROAD
Race cars 72° V10 ENGINE


Fuel injection Cam Gearbox
trumpet guard cover fixing stud
SINCE THE ADVENT OF DRIVING, race cars have been a major
focus of innovation in car design. Features that are now
commonplace, such as disc brakes, turbochargers, and even
safety belts, were used first on competition cars. Research into
race cars has contributed to a new understanding of engine
performance, aerodynamics, and tire adhesion, and has led
to the development of ultralight materials such as carbon Water
and oil
fiber for car bodies. A modern McLaren Formula One car has pump
a low, streamlined body and an open cockpit but, unlike its assembly
forerunner, it also has front and rear wings that push the
wheels firmly on to the track, huge tires for extra grip, and
electronic sensors that continually relay information to the
pits about the car’s performance.

BACK VIEW OF MCLAREN MERCEDES MP4-13 Harmonically tuned Cylinder
exhaust system head
Stressed cylinder
Rear wing
Upper flap block
endplate
Grooved racing tire One-piece side pod
and engine cover
Warning light Side pod air outlet

Half-shaft Engine
air intake
On-board
TV mini-
camera
Exhaust
Diffuser pipe
SIDE VIEW OF MCLAREN MERCEDES MP4-13 Differential Head rest
Engine cover

Winglet
Rear wing
endplate








Alloy
wheel



Wheel
nut
Side pod


356

RACE CARS
OVERHEAD VIEW OF MCLAREN MERCEDES MP4-13 Radius arm
One-piece side pod
Driver’s Rearview and engine cover
Front wing radio mirror Rear wing
endplate antenna endplate
Front wing
Slot


Upper
Nose cover
flap
Lower
wishbone
Upper
wishbone
Rear wing
Turning upper
Front vane Safety harness mainplane
brake duct
Driver protection Grooved
Grooved racing tire
racing tire
FRONT VIEW OF MCLAREN MERCEDES MP4-13
Rear wing upper
mainplane Engine air intake
Rearview mirror Driver’s radio antenna
Radiator air intake
Front
brake duct
Upper wishbone
Grooved racing tire
Lower wishbone



Endplate

Rearview Forward rollover Steering Wing supports Front wing
mirror structure link
Driver’s radio antenna

Alloy wheel
High nose













Turning vane Wheel nut Front wing endplate


357

RAIL AND ROAD

Bicycle anatomy Saddle



THE BICYCLE IS A TWO-WHEELED, light-weight machine,
which is propelled by human power. It is efficient, cheap, easily
Seat post
manufactured, and one of the world’s most popular forms of
transportation. The first pedal-driven bicycle was built
in Scotland in 1839. Since then the basic design—of a frame, Seat post Cable
quick-release guide
wheels, brakes, handlebars, and saddle—has been gradually bolt
improved, with the addition of a chain, gear system, and
Straddle
pneumatic tires (tires inflated with air). The recent invention
wire
of the mountain bike (all-terrain bike) has been an important
development. With its strong, rugged frame, wide tires, and Seat
tube
21 gears, a mountain bike enables riders to reach rough and
hilly areas that were previously inaccessible to cyclists.
REAR WHEEL Rear cantilever Seat
Tire
brake stay
Spoke
Rim
Hub
Front
derailleur
Rear
dropouts
Rear hub
quick-release Bottom
spindle
bracket shell
Bottom bracket
Crank bolt Washer axle
13-tooth
17-tooth sprocket
sprocket Adjustable cup
Fixed cup
Bottom bracket Caged
sleeve ball bearings
Lock
washer Freewheel Lock ring
locknut

Jockey Chain Lock
wheel washer

Rear
derailleur
23-tooth
sprocket
Derailleur 46-tooth
chain ring
cage plate
Jockey
Sprocket wheel Toe clip
spacer GEAR SYSTEM
30-tooth
sprocket
Spoke guard
Spider
FREEWHEEL SPROCKETS Toe strap Pedal


358

BICYCLE ANATOMY


Gear cable
Gearshift

Handlebar Gearshift
stem
Handlebar Handlebar
Expander grip
bolt Lock
nut Rear brake
Top tube cable
Top race Brake
Lock Brake lever
lever
washer
Cable guide Head Top cup Caged ball Front brake
tube bearings cable Hub
BICYCLE
FRAME
Bottom Spoke
Down cup Rubber
tube bearing
Steerer seal Straddle wire
tube

Bottom
race


Toe clip Front
cantilever
brake


Cantilever
Toe brake boss
strap Pedal


Fork blade
Left crank
arm
Rim
Front hub Inner tube
24-tooth quick-release
chain ring spindle

36-tooth Handlebar
chain ring


Frame Brake lever Dust cap
Saddle and gearshift
Valve




Tire
FRONT WHEEL
Pedal
Chain

359

RAIL AND ROAD
Bicycles REAR LIGHTS Hard outer HELMET
FRONT AND

shell
ALTHOUGH ALL BICYCLES are made up of the same Red
basic components, they can vary greatly in design. A rear
racing bike, such as the Eddy Merckx model, with its light
light frame and steep head- and seat-angles, is built for
speed. Its design forces the rider to adopt the “aerotuck,” Air vent
a crouched, aerodynamic position. While a touring bike
White Polystyrene
resembles the racing bike in many respects, it is designed front light padding
for comfort and stability on long-distance journeys.
Quick-
Touring bikes are characterized by more relaxed frame
release strap
angles, heavy chain stays that support the rear panniers,
and a long wheelbase (the distance between the wheel
axles) for reliable handling. All-round bicycles, known EDDY MERCKX RACING BICYCLE
as “hybrids,” combine the light weight and speed of sports
bikes with the rugged durability of mountain bikes (see Saddle
pp. 358-359). Bicycles that are not designed for conventional
road use include time-trial bikes, which have a short Seat post
head tube, sloping top tube, “aero” handlebars, and Saddle clamp
Cable guide
aerodynamic tubing. Most Human Powered Vehicles Seat-post bolt
(HPVs) are recumbents—the rider has a recumbent
Rear brake cable
position—which maximize power output and minimize
drag (resistance). Essential to the safety of all Brake-block bolt Top tube Steel
riders are helmets, and both front and rear (crossbar) frame
Brake block
lights; locks protect against theft.
Seat Seat tube
Tire stay Down tube
Tire tread Water-bottle
cage
Tire wall
Front
Wheel rim derailleur
Freewheel sprocket
STEEL LOCK












Key
Hardened
steel Chain Crank
ring
Spider
Rear Crank bolt
Pick-proof lock derailleur Pedal
Chain stay
Pulley bolt Toe clip
Tension Chain
pulley

360

BICYCLES

CANNONDALE SH600 HYBRID BICYCLE CANNONDALE ST1000 TOURING BICYCLE
Gel-filled Light-weight Straight Rear Water Drop
saddle frame handlebar mudguard bottle handlebar
Brake bridge Cantilever Front
brake mudguard








Rear Front
All-surface tire pannier pannier
Large diameter
Long chain stay aluminum tubing
Headset
Binder Handlebar
Stem bolt
Front brake cable
ROSSIN ITALIAN TIME-TRIAL BICYCLE
Aero handlebar
Brake lever
Sloping top
Steep tube
Hollow disc seat tube
wheel
Short
Head head tube
tube Brake
pivot bolt Brake pad
Fork
Hub quick-
release
lever

Clipless
pedal
Narrow tire Tri-spoke wheel




WINDCHEETAH SL MARK VI
“SPEEDY” RACING HPV BICYCLE
Fleecy Fiberglass Joystick
headrest bucket
seat Brake lever
53-tooth
chain ring




Clipless
pedal
Spoke Aluminum Extended
tubing racing
Spoke Hub 7-speed Drum chain
nipple Presta freewheel brake
valve
361

RAIL AND ROAD
The motorcycle Vacuum-operated
1901 WERNER MOTORCYCLE

inlet valve Fuel tank
Electric ignition
THE MOTORCYCLE HAS EVOLVED from a motorized cycle—a basic
Bicycle-type control
bicycle with an engine—into a sophisticated, high-performance saddle
machine. In 1901, the Werner brothers established the most viable Inlet-over-
Pulley rim exhaust (IOE)
location for the engine by positioning it low in the center of the rear brake engine
chassis (see pp. 364-365): the new Werner became the basis for the
modern motorcycle. Motorcycles are used for many purposes—for
commuting, delivering messages, touring, and racing—and different
machines have been developed according to the demands of
different types of rider. The Vespa scooter, for instance, which is
small-wheeled, economical, and easy-to-ride, was designed to meet
the needs of the commuter. Sidecars provided transportation for the Alloy
family until the arrival of cheap cars caused their popularity to crankcase
Twisted Cast iron
decline. Enthusiast riders generally favor larger capacity machines rawhide drive belt cylinder barrel
that are capable of greater performance and offer more comfort.
1988 HARLEY-DAVIDSON FLHS
Four-cylinder machines have been common since the Honda CB750
ELECTRA GLIDE
appeared in 1969. Despite advances in motorcycle technology, many
riders are attracted to the traditional looks of motorcycles like the
twin-cylinder Harley-Davidson. The Harley-Davidson Glides
exploit the style of the classic American V-twin engine, where the Passenger
cylinders are placed in a V-formation. Backrest seat
Passenger
grab rail
1965 BMW R/60 WITH 1952 STEIB CHAIR Pannier
Headlight
Handlebar Luggage rack
Mirror
Adjustable
Windshield
link
Sidecar License
Fuel tank plate
Sidelight
Horizontally
Fender opposed Taillight
engine
Sidecar
chassis
rail Signal
Sidecar Sidecar Exhaust Square-
wheel lower link pipe section
tire Side
FRONT VIEW
reflector
Fender Canvas shroud Speedometer Ignition
lock
Tool
Taillight Grab tray
handle
Fender
Lockable clamp
luggage
trunk
Muffler
Muffler
bracket
Drum Disc
Suspension Bullet-shaped brake brake
linkage sidecar body
Long leading-link Crash bar Exhaust
Knock-off wheel nut SIDE VIEW fork (Earles fork) clamp

362

THE MOTORCYCLE
1969 HONDA CB750 1963 VESPA GRAND SPORT 160 MARK 1
Twist grip gear change
Seat Mirror Front brake lever Monocoque Front brake Clutch
Taillight chassis Seat Throttle lever lever
Seat strap Signal strap
Shock Engine cover Seat Headlight
absorber Oil tank Telescopic fork
Cooling grille Horn
Fender stay
Taillight Choke Shock
absorber
Gas
Disc
brake tap

Clutch Single Foot
cover overhead Center brake
Heat camshaft Mirror Kick- stand
shield Passenger engine starter Rubber Drum
footrest Brake master Muffler foot mat brake
Exhaust cylinder
pipe Windshield Single-
Handgrip sided trailing-
Clutch cable link fork
Front brake lever
Throttle cable
Light switch
Padded seat Manufacturer’s Windshield adjustor
logo
Oil tank Headlight
filler cap Fuel tank
Fog lamp
Oil tank
Signal
Telescopic fork
Side reflector

Fender





















Air filter
Gearbox Crash bar
45° V-twin engine
Passenger Duplex tubular
footrest Exhaust pipe cradle frame Cast alloy
Footrest Brake wheel
Brake pedal calliper Disc brake

363

RAIL AND ROAD

The motorcycle 1985 HONDA VF750 WITH BODYWORK


chassis Racing Frame-mounted
fairing
number Fuel tank Telescopic
plate fork
THE MOTORCYCLE CHASSIS is the main “body” of the Dual seat
motorcycle, to which the engine is attached. Consisting
of the frame, wheels, suspension, and brakes, the chassis
performs various functions. The frame, which is built Fender
from steel or alloy, keeps the wheels in line to maintain
the handling of the motorcycle, and serves as a structure
for mounting other components. The engine and gearbox
unit is bolted into place, while items such as the seat,
the fenders, and the fairing are more easily removable.
Suspension cushions the rider from irregularities in the Box-section V4 engine unit
Disc swingarm Floating
road surface. In most suspension systems, coil springs
brake Box-section disc brake
controlled by an oil damper separate the main mass of tubular cradle frame
the motorcycle from the wheels. At the front, the spring
and damper are usually incorporated in a telescopic fork; Brake master
the rear employs a pivoted swingarm. The suspension cylinder
also helps to retain maximum contact between the tires
1985 HONDA VF750 WITH
and the road, necessary for effective braking and steering. BODYWORK REMOVED
Drum brakes were common until the 1970s, but modern Headstock
motorcycles use disc brakes, which are more powerful. Bracing tube
Bodywork Shock absorber Engine
Square-section Rear mounting top mounting mounting
steel tubing sub-frame point plate

Exhaust
mounting strap
Shock
absorber
Exhaust
pipe


Light
alloy
wheel







Axle
adjustor Footrest
hanger Radiator
Multiplate Engine
Disc brake Brake Brake clutch cover Oil
master pedal cooler
cylinder Oil level Engine
Disc brake Swingarm window mounting Radiator
calliper Brake pivot bolt pipe
Box-section torque Oil sump
swingarm arm V4 engine
unit

364

OPERATING PARTS OF
DRUM BRAKE DISC BRAKE SYSTEM

EXTERIOR OF DRUM BRAKE INTERIOR OF DRUM BRAKE Brake fluid Master
reservoir cylinder
Bolt hole Torque
arm Bolt hole Push-rod
Torque
arm Air cooling
scoop Brake Pivot Piston
shoe
Axle hole Hydraulic
brake fluid
Brake shoe
return spring
Cooling Calliper
fin Wheel disc assembly

Piston
Speedometer Operating Axle
drive cam hole
Brake pad
Cable stop Brake shoe High-friction
Operating return spring material
Brake plate arm

SPRING/DAMPER UNIT HOW A SPRING/DAMPER UNIT WORKS
Clutch cable
Rubber
Hydraulic mounting Rubber
brake hose Twin rate bush mounting
spring bush
Spring
Telescopic fork leg Damper rod
Damper
rod
Compressible gas
Fork slide Damper Non-return
body valve
Light alloy
wheel
Pre-load Hydraulic Hydraulic fluid
adjustor fluid chamber

Rubber
mounting Rubber
mounting
bush
bush
TYPES OF TIRE
RACING SLICK TIRE TUBELESS SPORTS TRIALS TIRE GENERAL-USE TIRE
TIRE Hard-wearing
No tread pattern Radial groove Knobby tread rubber compound
pattern




Axle
Floating
disc brake
Brake calliper


365

RAIL AND ROAD

Motorcycle EXTERIOR OF STANDARD TWO-STROKE ENGINE

Spark Fuel tap
plug cap
engines Carburetor
mounting
Kick-starter
MOTORCYCLE ENGINES must be lightweight and
compact and have a good power output. They
have between one and six cylinders, can be Carburetor
Cylinder
cooled by air or water, and the capacity of the
head
combustion chamber varies from 49cc (cubic
centimeters) to 1500cc. Two types of internal
combustion engine are common: the four-stroke, Cooling
which is used in cars (see pp. 342-343), and the fin
two-stroke. A basic two-stroke engine has only
three moving parts—the crankshaft, the connecting
rod, and the piston—but the power output is high. The Exhaust
port
engine fires every two strokes (rather than every four),
giving a “power stroke” every revolution (see p. 343).
Power is conveyed from the engine to the rear wheel by
the transmission system. This usually consists of a clutch,
a gearbox, and a final drive system. Clutches are multiplate Case
devices, which run in oil. Gearboxes have five or six speeds and screw Gear lever
Clutch Engine
are operated by foot pedal. Shaft and belt drive systems are used activating cover
in some cases, but chain drive to the rear wheel is most common. arm

TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
GEARBOX 1st gear MULTIPLATE CLUTCH
6th gear
4th gear
Gear lever 5th gear
selector shaft 3rd gear Input shaft Fiber plate Key locks
2nd gear fiber plate to
Outer clutch outer drum
drum, connected
to engine
Splines for
mounting Bearing Pressure plate,
gear lever connected to inner
clutch drum
Copper oil
Output feed pipe Springs force
shaft plates together Straight-cut
primary-drive
Splines for gear
mounting final Aluminum Metal plate
drive sprocket Gear tooth Selector fork outer casing

MODERN “O RING” DRIVE CHAIN
Small front
sprocket Large rear
Roller with sprocket
sealed-in lubricant
Mounting hole
Plate Sprocket tooth
Hole for
retaining
bolt

366

MOTORCYCLE ENGINES

VELOCETTE OVERHEAD
VALVE (OHV) ENGINE
Screw and lock nut Rocker arm
tappet adjustor
Rocker cover
retaining bolt
Cylinder head
Oil feed pipe



Inlet port Exhaust port




Spark plug lead
Cylinder head

Cam follower Combustion chamber
Cooling fin
Piston
Push rod
Magneto drive
Valve lifter




Camshaft gear Timing gear


Engine
mounting
bolt hole
Engine
mounting
bolt hole
Oil passageway

Crankcase Crankshaft



Oil pump


Mounting lug








Nonreturn valve Oil sump

367

RAIL AND ROAD
1992 HUSQVARNA MOTOCROSS TC610
Competition Throttle cable Handlebar Long
brace seat Racing
Hand protector Radiator number
motorcycles Flexible plastic air vent

fender
Light-
THERE ARE MANY TYPES of motorcycle sport weight
exhaust
and in each, a specialized machine has evolved Telescopic system
fork
to perform to specific requirements. Races take
place on roads or tracks or “off-road,” in fields, Plastic
dirt tracks, and even the desert. “Grand Prix” guard
Overhead Gear
world championships in road-racing are Axle camshaft lever
contested by three classes: 125cc, 250cc two- engine
strokes; the top class of 500cc two-strokes; and Shock Disc
Knobby absorber brake
900cc four-stroke machines. The latest racing tire Disc Brake Shock
sidecars have more in common with racing brake calliper Alloy swingarm absorber
linkage
cars than motorcycles. The rider and
passenger operate within an all-enclosing, 1992 SUZUKI RGV500
aerodynamic fairing. The Suzuki RGV500 SIDE VIEW
shown here, like other Grand Prix machines, Racing Air vent
carries advertising, which helps to cover the Exhaust pipe number
One-piece seat Shock
cost of developing motorcycle technology.
and tail unit absorber
In Speedway, which originated in the US in
1902, motorcycles operate without brakes or Minimal
seat padding
a gearbox. Off-road competition motorcycles
have less emphasis on high power output.
In Motocross, for example, which is held on
rough terrain, they must have high ground
clearance, flexible long-travel suspension, and
Arched alloy
tires with a chunky tread pattern. swingarm

Exhaust
pipe
Exhaust
pipe
Vent
Muffler
Handlebar
Shock
absorber
mounting
Footrest

Three-spoke
alloy wheel
Rear brake
pedal
Exhaust pipe
Drive chain Brake
pedal
Axle
Wide, slick tire adjustor Disc brake
Footrest master cylinder
REAR VIEW Disc brake
Drive chain
Rear brake Slick Lightweight
calliper racing tire alloy frame

368

COMPETITION MOTORCYCLES
1981 WESLAKE SPEEDWAY 1968 KIRBY BSA RACING SIDECAR

Throttle FRONT VIEW
Throttle cable
Carburetor Fuel tank
cover filler cap Oil filler cap Rev
counter Windshield
Fender Seat Fuel tank Fender
Wheel All-enclosing Fuel tank
cover fairing Wheel
guard
Battery
Telescopic
fork
Narrow
tire
Wide tire
Brakeless
wheel hub Square- Passenger Passenger
Muffler Footrest Oil Overhead Tubular open section tire windshield grab rail
pump valve engine cradle frame
SIDE VIEW
Throttle cable
Exhaust pipe
Fairing stay Rev
counter
Fuel tank Throttle cable
breather
All-enclosing
Fuel tank fairing
Throttle
Sidecar chassis Engine
Fiberglass
Fuel cap wheel guard
Front brake
lever

Telescopic fork Windshield Racing
number
Fender
Clutch
lever
Fairing



Radiator
Front
brake
lever
Hydraulic
brake hose
Fender
Axle

Slick tire
Slick tire
Sponsor’s Air vent
logo
Braided steel
hydraulic hose Three-spoke
Carbon-fiber alloy wheel FRONT VIEW
Quickly detachable Brake disc brake
(QD) fairing calliper
369



SEA AND AIR




SHIPS OF GREECE AND ROME ............................ 372
VIKING SHIPS ..................................................... 374
MEDIEVAL WARSHIPS AND TRADERS ................. 376
THE EXPANSION OF SAIL .................................... 378
A SHIP OF THE LINE ........................................... 380
RIGGING ............................................................. 382
SAILS .................................................................. 384
MOORING AND ANCHORING ............................... 386
ROPES AND KNOTS ............................................. 388
PADDLE WHEELS AND PROPELLERS .................... 390
ANATOMY OF AN IRON SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
THE BATTLESHIP ............................................... 394
FRIGATES AND SUBMARINES ............................... 396
PIONEERS OF FLIGHT ......................................... 398
EARLY MONOPLANES ......................................... 400
BIPLANES AND TRIPLANES .................................. 402
WORLD WAR I AIRCRAFT ................................. 404
EARLY PASSENGER AIRCRAFT ............................. 406
WORLD WAR II AIRCRAFT ............................... 408
MODERN PISTON AERO-ENGINES ....................... 410
MODERN JETLINERS 1 ........................................ 412
MODERN JETLINERS 2 ........................................ 414
SUPERSONIC JETLINERS ...................................... 416
JET ENGINES ...................................................... 418
MODERN MILITARY AIRCRAFT .......................... 420
HELICOPTERS ..................................................... 422
LIGHT AIRCRAFT ............................................... 424
GLIDERS, HANG-GLIDERS, AND ULTRALIGHTS 426
...

SEA AND AIR

Ships of Greece and Rome



ROMAN ANCHOR IN THE EXPANSIVE EMPIRES OF GREECE AND ROME, powerful fleets were needed for battle,
trade, and communication. Greek galleys were powered by a sail and many oars. A new
armament, the embolos (ram), was fitted on to the galley bow. Since ramming duels
Stock
required fast and maneuverable boats, extra rows of oarsmen were added,
culminating in the trireme. During the fifth and fourth centuries BC, the trireme
dominated the Mediterranean. It was powered by 170 oarsmen, rowing with
Shank one oar each. The oarsmen were ranged on three levels, as the model opposite
Palm
shows. The trireme also carried archers and soldiers for boarding.
Acutely Galleys were pulled out of the water when not in use, and were
angled kept in dockyard ship-sheds. The merchant ships of the Greeks Roband
arm (rope band)
Ring and Romans were mighty vessels, too. The full-bodied Roman
Crown corbita, for example, could hold up Ceruchi
to 400 tons (440 metric tons) and Double halyard ROMAN CORBITA (lift)
carried a cargo of spices, gems, silk, and animals. The
Bullseye Heraldic device
construction of these boats was based on a Fore mast
stout hull with planking secured by mortice Antenna Ring
(yard) Buntline
and tenon. Some of these ships embarked Ruden
on long voyages, sailing even as far as Brace (brail line)
India. To make them easier to steer,
Artemon Fore stay
corbitas set a fore sail called an (fore sail)
“artemon.” It flew from a forward-
Oculus
leaning mast that was a forerunner
(eye)
of the long bowsprits carried Anchor
by the great clipper ships
of the 19th century. Tabling Sheet

Bolt rope
ATTIC VASE SHOWING A GALLEY
Prow
Bronze mast
truck Windlass

Scala
(ladder)
Keraia (yard)
Kalos
(brailing Catena
rope)
(riding bitt)
Ancorale
(anchor rope;
Kubernetes anchor rode)
Mast (helmsman)
Sternpost
Embolos Hatch board
(ram; Pedalia
beak) (twin rudder) Deck beam

Ophthalmos Oar port sleeve Zosteres (rubbing strake)
(eye)
Kope (oar) Cargo hold



372

SHIPS OF GREECE AND ROME


Masthead ROWING POSITIONS ON A GREEK
TRIREME (TRIERE) Thranite (upper
Single clump block The katastroma (deck) has been level oarsman) Zygian
removed from this model to (middle level
Malus (mast) show the positions taken oarsman)
by oarsmen on a trireme. Deck rail
Tropeter
Rope parrel (leather grommet)
Bullet block
Paraxeiresia
Antenna (yard) (outrigger)
Kope (oar)
Brace block
Timber fairlead


Stanchion
Shroud
Main double halyard Zugon (thwart; seat)
Leather
reinforcing Main brace
strip
Thalamian
Scala (lower level oarsman)
(ladder) Main sheet
Hyperesion
Velum Hole and peg joint (oarsman’s cushion)
(main sail)
Poop deck house
Sheer pole Pine hull
Clavus (tiller)
Deadeye
Swan neck
ornament
Lanyard
Stern
balustrade MORTICE-AND-TENON
Poop break
FASTENINGS FOR HULL
Poop deck PLANKS
Ring bolt
Sternpost Mortice


Gomphoi
(dowel)
Tenon


Gubernator
(helmsman)
Wale
Planking
Hull plank
Shaft

Clew Oar lanyard Blade Gubernacula (rudders)
Constratum
Midships fence (deck) Bitt

373

SEA AND AIR
BOATBUILDERS’
Viking ships Shave Broad ax Breast auger TOOLS

Sheer
IN THE DARK AGES and early medieval times, the
longships of Scandinavia were one of the most Master
shipwright
feared sights for people of northern Europe. The
Vikings launched raids from Scandinavia every Stempost
summer in longships equipped with a single
Hood
steering oar on the right, or “steerboard,” side end
(hence “starboard”). A longship had one row of
oars on each side and a single sail. The hull had clinker
(overlapping) planks. Prowheads adorned fighting ships
during campaigns of war. The sailing longship was also used
for local coastal travel. The karv below
Keel T-handle Ax
Zoomorphic head was probably built as transport for an auger Tree cut for
important family, while the smaller faering Strake planking
Eye
(top right) was a rowing boat only. The fleet
of William of Normandy that invaded England Roband
in 1066 owed much to the Viking boatbuilding
tradition, and has been depicted in the Bayeux
Tapestry (above). Seals used by port towns and
royal courts through the ages provide an excellent
Tooth Leather
record of contemporary ship design. The seal diagonal
opposite shows how ships changed from the reinforcement
Viking period to the end of the Middle Ages. The
introduction of the fighting platform—the castle—
and the addition of extra masts and sails changed Square sail
of homespun
the character of the medieval ship. Note also that the
yarn
steering oar has been replaced by a centered rudder.
Leech
(leach)
Braiding
Snake-tail
ornament
Serpentine neck
VIKING KARV (COASTER)
Lozenge-shaped
recess
Rectangular
cross-band Tye
Tiller halyard
Sternpost
Foot
Boss (rudder
pivot)
DRAGON
PROWHEAD
Steering oar
(side rudder)

Oar Starboard (steerboard) side Keel

374

VIKING SHIPS


Grommet Tiller FAERING (VIKING ROWING BOAT) Plank scarf
Grommet
Clench Knee Prow
nail Kabe (oar pivot)

Stepped Stepped
sternpost stempost
Pivot
Sheer strake
Side rudder Double-ended
Keel Thwart (seat) hull
Oar
Masthead
COURT SEAL SHOWING A THREE-MASTED,
Masthead pulley Head Head SQUARE-RIGGED SHIP
for tye halyard Yard earing
Weaponry Banner/
Parrel windvane
Topcastle
Main mast
Furled forecourse
sail Furled lateen
mizzen sail
Jack staff
Mizzen mast
Fore mast
Aftercastle
Forecastle Centered rudder
Stempost Gudgeon

Main sail
Leechline Anchor


Mast
Snake-head
ornament
Sail foot
control line
used as a Open, double-
sheet or ended hull
tack
Stempost

Main sheet Oar port






Scroll work

Clinker-built oak planking
(overlapping planking)


Stowage crutch for oars Clench nail

375

SEA AND AIR

Medieval warships and traders



FROM THE 16TH CENTURY, SHIPS WERE BUILT WITH A NEW FORM OF HULL, constructed from carvel (edge-to-edge)
planking. Warships of the time, like King Henry VIII of England’s Mary Rose, boasted awesome fire power. This
ship carried both long-range cannon in bronze, and short-range, anti personnel guns in iron. Elsewhere,
ships took on a multiformity of shapes. Dhows transported slaves from East Africa to Arabia,
their fore-and-aft rigged lateen sails allowing them to sail close to the wind around the
lands of the Indian Ocean. The Chinese sailed to East Africa SAILING WARSHIP
and Arabia in junks, trading goods that were carried in
Main watertight compartments. New astronomical tools helped Fore
yard top yard
medieval sailors to find their way. Cross-staves and
DHOW astrolabes were used to measure the altitude of the Sun
Furled
lateen or stars. One of a choice of four cross-pieces was slid
main sail
up or down the staff of the cross-stave—which was Fore
Mizzen graduated in degrees of altitude—until its top topmast
yard
aligned with the celestial body and its base with Fore
the horizon. The sighting rule of the astrolabe topcastle
Parrel was simply lined up with a known body,
Furled
lateen and its altitude read from marks on
mizzen sail Main the metal disk. With sundials, the Lift
mast
Shroud sailor could use the shadow
of the Sun to show
Mizzen Parrel the time of day.
mast tackle Fore yard

Tiller Stem
head

Fore mast

Eye Ratline
Rudder Raking stempost Fore stay Shroud
Fore
Topsail Chung-ta-wei topmast Woolding
JUNK Su-wei (main mast) stay Bowsprit
(fourth mast) Forecastle
Wei-wei
(mizzen mast)
Forecastle castle-deck
gunport
Erh-wei
Halyard
(second mast)
Sprit yard
Sail
batten T’on-wei
(port fore -
mast) Beakhead
Rigging rail
Lug sail
Chain wale (channel)
Rudder
head Hawse hole
Transom Grapnel-type Anchor cable
Quarterdeck Oar anchor
Rudder house Cargo hatch Stempost

376

MEDIEVAL WARSHIPS AND TRADERS
90 degree
Main topgallant Main topgallant yard CROSS-STAVE cross-piece
mast (CROSS-STAFF) (transversary)
Main top yard
Main topmast
topcastle Mizzen topmast
Mizzen top yard
Main topmast Clamp
stay Mizzen topcastle Boxwood
staff
Main topmast 60 degree
Lift cross-piece
Main
topcastle Bonaventure Altitude scale
top yard in degrees
Lift and minutes
Bonaventure
Main yard Parrel topmast

30 degree
cross-piece
Tye
Bonaventure Ocular end
Jeer topcastle
Brace 10 degree cross-piece
Bonaventure (Dutch shoe)
Main stay yard
Style of the
Bonaventure SUNDIAL gnomon
Mizzen mast mast (edge)
Needle
Mizzen yard Aftercastle Gnomon
Main mast
Swifting tackle

Aftercastle castle-
deck gunport
Upper deck Outrigger Pivot Hour Dial
gunport line
Chain wale
Lid (channel) Swivel
Gangway suspension ring
Deadeye
Gun Graduated
carriage ASTROLABE ring
Scale of
degrees


Transom
Pivot
Rudder
Sternpost
Keel
Blindage (removable
Wale archery screen)
Main deck gunport
Scribed arc
Carvel planking Alidade decoration
Port bower anchor (sighting rule) Bottom ballast
377

SEA AND AIR

The expansion of sail Gilded

truck
BY THE 18TH CENTURY, SAILING SHIPS had become fast and effective floating
fortresses. The navies of the north European powers competed with each Main topgallant
mast
other by building heavily-armed fighting ships called “men-of-war.”
The distinctive round stern of the ship below, with its open gallery, Main topgallant shroud
balcony, and elaborate wood carving is typical of the period. Hulls
WOODEN SAILING
around this time were semicircular in cross-section, although many SHIP Bolster
boat designers were soon to return to the V-shaped hulls used by the
Vikings. Ships of the period carried more sail than ever before. Trestle trees
A labyrinth of rigging supported the masts and yards from which Main topmast
the profusion of square sails were set. Ships grew higher,
Main
as extra masts were fitted above the lower mast, and
topmast
the bowsprit became longer to allow the ship Mizzen topmast backstay
to carry staysails, spritsails, and jibsails. Ships
Main topmast
went into battle in single file, so that broadsides Mizzen topmast shroud
stay
from the multiple decks of guns would have
Cap
maximum effect. Ships were classified by rates, Lift Mizzen
the rating of a vessel depending on how many Mizzen top Main top
topmast
guns it had. A first rate ship had more than
shroud Main top
100 guns. The guns fired solid round rail Mast-
shot, usually made of iron.
Hounds head
Mizzen yard
Futtock
BOW Mizzen backstay shroud
Vang


Fiddle Mizzen Mizzen
block shroud stay
Brace
Mizzen
Lift Taffrail mast
Foot rope Poop Main
rail
shroud
Studding Main top Main
sail rail mast
boom



Studding
sail Jacob’s
yard ladder
(stuns’l
yard) Rope preventer
Rudder chain
Rudder
Sternpost
Wash cant
Pintle strap
Knee of Hawse hole Gudgeon strap
the head
Ship’s wheel Binnacle box Keel Channel Chain Step Boat slide
378

THE EXP ANSION OF SAIL


SAIL PATTERN OF A 74-GUN SHIP Main Fore mast
topgallant topgallant
Mizzen sail sail
Gilded topgallant Fore mast
truck sail topsail
Main topgallant stay
Fore
Fore topgallant Fore Mizzen topsail
mast topgallant topsail
stay Jibsail
Fore topgallant
backstay
Mouse Mizzen
and course
collar
Main topmast
stay
Fore topmast
shroud
Sprit
Main topmast topsail
preventer
stay Main course Fore mast Spritsail
Ratline course course
Main
Fore
Fore topmast topsail Fore
topmast staysail
backstay Fore Fore topmast
stay
top
Fore Fore topmast
shroud preventer stay Jib boom
STERN
Truck
Main
stay
Jack staff Main topgallant
Mainstay
yard
tackle Fore
mast Fore topgallant
Fore hatch yard
tackle Cap
Rope
woolding Bee Outer Main
spritsail topsail
Fish Fore stay yard yard
davit
Spritsail Yardarm
Mainrail yard
head Fore topsail
Foot rope yard
Anchor
buoy Main
Bowsprit
yard
Bobstay Fore yard
Mizzen
Figurehead Stern topmast
lantern yard
Rail
Captain’s
Trailboard cabin
(great Balcony
Draft mark cabin)
Bower anchor Upper
gallery
Tallow coating Stern quarter
Port gallery
Capstan Clewline Gunport Gun Gripe
379

SEA AND AIR

A ship of the line Truck Flag halyard
Mast
Backstay
Jib halyard Topping lift
THE 74-GUN WOODEN SHIP WAS A MAINSTAY of British and LONGBOAT
French battlefleets in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Fore stay halyard Peak halyard
This “ship of the line” was heavy enough to fight with the most Shroud Main
potent of rivals, yet nimble, too. The length of such a ship was sheet
Fore sail
determined by the number of guns required for each deck, halyard
Gaff Boom
allowing enough room for crews to man them. The gun deck Parrel
was about 170 ft (52 m) long. The decks had to be very
strong to carry the weight of the guns. The deck planks Bowsprit
have been removed on the vessel pictured below, to
Traveler
show just how close together the beams had to be to make
the hull strong enough. Only timber with a perfect grain was Stempost
used. The upper deck was open at the waist, but afore and Waterline
Deadeye Oar Side bench
abaft were officers’ cabins. The forecastle and quarterdeck
carried light guns and acted as platforms for working rigging
Thole pin Windlass bar Transom Tiller
and for reconnaissance. The ship’s longboats (launches)
were carried on booms between the gangways. Planking
Rabbit line
UPPER DECK OF A 74-GUN SHIP
Steam Sheerplank Frame Keel Rudder
Stock grating
Floor Thwart (seat)
Hoop
Timber head Galley Belfry Waterway
Cathead Ring stove Deadeye Gangway Capstan
Fore bitt chimney
Knighthead
Heads (privy)
Figurehead
Head
beam









Head
rail


Roundhouse

Boomkin
Anchor cable Arm
Sheave for Deck
cat tackle beam Breastwork
Foremast Forked beam Pawl Skid
Fluke Hoop hole Carling (carline) Bulwark Main beam
Stock companion way

Head Forecastle (fo’c’sle) Waist

380

A SHIP OF THE LINE

BOW STERN
Figurehead Cove Taffrail
Main rail
Headboard Middle Lower rail Screen
Head rail rail bulkhead
Supporter
Cat block Balcony
Ekeing
Side Upper
counter counter
timber rail
Counter Drop
Cheek timber
Lower
Tuck counter
rail
Catted Main wale
anchor Gunport lid
Tuck rail
Riband Frame Filling transom
After fashion
Hawse piece Hawse hole piece Wing transom
Side step Stempost Deadwood Cant frame Timber under
transom
Eye bolt
Ledge Companion
Main bitt
ladder
Hatch coaming/ Spirketting Backstay Mizzen Great cabin Pilaster Screen
shot garland stool Master’s mast hole (captain’s cabin) bulkhead
sea cabin Ledge
Channel Coaming (batten) Standard
knee






















Stern
Poop carving
rail Necking
Gunport drip Taffrail
(eyebrow; rigol) Wardroom Upper
Gunport Rail at finishing
Grating lid break of Mizzen bitt
Main mast poop deck
hole Mast partner Lodging knee Clerk’s cabin Quarter gallery

Quarterdeck Poop deck

381

SEA AND AIR
Rigging BOWSPRIT AND JIB BOOM
Outer jib stay

Inner jib stay
MOST SAILING SHIPS HAVE TWO TYPES OF RIGGING. Standing rigging—kept taut by rigging
screws or old-fashioned lanyards and deadeyes—refers to the ropes, wires, and chains
Inner jib tack
that support the masts and yards (horizontal spars). Running rigging, which
includes types of block and tackle, halyards, and sheets, is Bowsprit
cap
used to hoist, lower, or trim sails. Fore topmast
staysail tack
Fore stay Jib boom
Whisker boom
Upper deadeye
Lower deadeye Butterfly plate
Chain plate Bowsprit
Foot
rope
Boom guy
block Spear
Martingale Martingale
backrope (dolphin striker) Lizard
Chain bobstay
Eye
plate
lug
Handle


Parallel
shaft
OTHER RIGGING
FITTINGS MAST BAND
BELAYING PIN

Arse (breech) Running part
STANDING BLOCK
Lug Shoulder
SHACKLE
Crown Eye
Crown
Clear Jaw


Screw thread Swivel
becket Lug Soft eye Served eye
Shank Shell splice Standing part
Hauling part (fall)
Shoulder
Eye RIGGING TOOLS

SHACKLE PIN
Sailmaker’s
whipping
BLOCK AND TACKLE
(PURCHASE)
RIGGER’S GAUGE FOR MEASURING THE
DIAMETER OF ROPE OR WIRE
Flemish coil

382

Fore royal stay LANYARD AND RIGGING SCREW
Double rope DEADEYES (TURNBUCKLE)
Flying jib tack becket
Leather pointing
Outer jib tack
Shroud
Outer martingale stay
Middle martingale stay
DUTCH TRIPLE Spun yarn
Inner FIDDLE BLOCK serving
martingale
stay Flat seizing
Turk’s head
Eye Swallow

Strop Flat wire seizing
Hitched
hauling end
Solid heart
UPPER thimble
DEADEYE
Cotter pin
SCORED BULLSEYE Swallow
FAIRLEAD
Eye
Strap
Sheave
Fork end
SHEET LEAD
Base Tail
RUNNING BLOCK
Shoulder Back Shank Standing part
HOOK Right hand
screw
Crown
LANYARD
Clear SPLICING FID Open body
Jaw
Fixed Bill
lug ROPE SERVING MALLET Left hand
Cheek screw
HEAVER FOR
Pin cover WIRE SERVING Safe working
LOWER load mark
DEADEYE
Seizing

Swallow
Grooving
Shoulder
Binding
Face
Bolt Eye
HOLLOW SPIKE
PRICKERS FOR WIRE MARLINSPIKE Nut Crown

383

Sails
PARREL
BEADS

THERE ARE TWO MAIN TYPES OF SAIL, often used in combination. Square sails are driving sails.
They are usually attached by parrels to yards, square to the mast to catch the following wind. On
fore-and-aft sails, such as lateen and lug sails, the luff (leading edge) usually abuts a mast or a
stay. The head of the sail may abut a gaff, and the foot a boom. Around the world, a great range of rigs
(sail patterns), such as the ketch, lugger, and schooner, have evolved to suit local needs. Sails are made from
strips of cloth, cut to give the sail a belly and strong enough to resist the most violent of winds. Cotton and flax
are the traditional sail materials, but synthetic fabrics are now commonly used.
Head SECTION OF A SAIL
Seizing LUFF (LEADING EDGE) Luff slide Bolt rope



Round thimble
Rope strand
Grommet

Head cringle
LEECH Sharp
(LEACH) point
SERVING MALLET
Groove for
Flat seam spunyarn rope
Synthetic flax Flatboard
(duradon)
NEEDLES AND SEAMING TWINE
Tabling
Handle
Seaming
Luff cloth twine

Rat’s tail Grip
Needle packet
SAILCLOTHS
KEVLAR HEAVYWEIGHT Needle SAILMAKER’S FID
ON FLEX NYLON CLOTH
FILM SAILMAKER’S PALM
SAIL HOOK
Strap Thumbhole
Crown
Cowhide
face
MYLAR NYLON Bill Shank Metal
AND needle pad
SILICON BEESWAX
CLOTH Handle SAILMAKER’S MALLET Cheek


SYNTHETIC WOVEN
FLAX DACRON
(DURADON)
Hide grip
Whipping Seizing
Groove made
by thread SAILMAKING TOOLS Copper
face

384

SAILS

Mizzen yard topsail
Mizzen Main sail
gaff
topsail Main gaff SAILS AND RUNNING RIGGING OF A
topsail DOUBLE TOPSAIL SCHOONER
Dipping lug
Fore staysail foresail Upper Main topsail
topsail Lower halyard
Jib lift topsail
brace
Triatic
Flying jib Fore stay
halyard upper
Standing lug topsail
Mizzen KETCH mizzen LUGGER Foot rope
sail
Fore topmast SAILING Upper topsail brace
staysail RIGS
Main gaff Outer jib halyard
topsail
Fore sail
Fore peak halyard
Main sail Fore staysail
Lower topsail
Jib clewline
Fore yard lift

Fore lower topsail
FISHERMAN’S SCHOONER
(FORE-AND-AFT SCHOONER) Inner jib halyard
Fore throat halyard Yard
Gaff
Fore staysail halyard Head
Fore sail

Mast hoop
Inner jib downhaul
Outer jib downhaul
Outer jib sheet
Flying jib sheet
Inner jib sheet
Flying jib
downhaul









Luff Boom
Flying
Foot
jib
Outer jib
Reef point Fore
staysail
Inner jib
Fore staysail sheet

385

SEA AND AIR
Mooring and anchoring



FOR LARGE VESSELS IN OPEN WATER, ANCHORAGE IS ESSENTIAL. By holding a ship securely STONE ANCHOR
to the seabed, an anchor prevents the vessel from being at the mercy of wave, tide, (KILLICK)
and current. The earliest anchors were nothing more than stones. In later years,
many anchors had a standard design, much like the Admiralty pattern anchor Rope
shown on this page. The Danforth anchor is somewhat different. hole
TYPES It has particularly deep flukes to give it great holding power. On
OF ANCHOR large sailing ships, anchors were worked by teams of sailors.
They turned the drum of a capstan by pushing on bars
slotted into the revolving cylinder. This, in turn, lifted or
lowered the anchor chain. In calm harbors and estuaries,
ships can moor (make fast) without using anchors. Berthing
CLOSE- ropes can be attached to bollards both inboard and on the quayside.
STOWING Berthing ropes are joined to each other by bends, like those opposite.
ANCHOR



End link Common Patent
ANCHOR CHAIN link link
SHACKLE, SWIVELS, AND LINK
CQR ANCHOR DANFORTH Crown
(SECURE ANCHOR; ANCHOR
PLOW ANCHOR) Screw
thread
Shank
Bolt Lug




Pea (bill)
ADMIRALTY ANCHOR GALVANIZED MOORING CHAIN MAILLOT
TYPE ACII “D” SHACKLE SWIVEL SWIVEL (SCREW LINK)


TWIN BOLLARDS WITH
RAKED PILLARS AND A
Fluke HAWSER (HEAVY ROPE)
ADMIRALTY PATTERN
ANCHOR
Flat
Throat




STOCKLESS Blade
ANCHOR Rim
Stock



Tripping palm Crown Base
MUSHROOM ANCHOR
(PERMANENT MOORING ANCHOR)

386

MOORING AND ANCHORING

BERTHING ROPES (HAWSERS) Bar hole
(pigeon Cap
Ship Twin bollards Upper head hole)
(drumhead)
Stern
rope Head rope


Quayside
After spring Fore spring Fore breast
After breast rope rope rope
rope
Bollard
Strengthening
chock
MOORING ROPE BENDS
HAWSER BEND
(TWO DOUBLE ROUND TURNS
Standing
AND DOUBLE HALF HITCHES)
part Barrel
Trenail
(treenail)
Seizing
CARRICK BEND
Seizing Strengthening
chock
Pawl slot
Whelp
Lignum vitae
SINGLE SHEET BEND Standing bearing
(SWAB HITCH) Bare end part
(fag end) Thin rope



Thick rope Outboard end
Three-strand hawser
belayed with
figure-eight
turns
Pillar
Foundry plug WOOD
CAPSTAN Tapered
WITH A spindle
VERTICAL
SPINDLE
Horn







Bolt hole Spigot


Pin
Cross piece Bitter end
(inboard end)


387

SEA AND AIR

Ropes and knots FRENCH BOWLINE
(PORTUGUESE BOWLINE)

ALL KINDS OF ROPES ARE USED AT SEA, from thin twines and yarns to
thick hawsers. Synthetic fibers have been developed specifically for use Armpit
bight
at sea. Nylon ropes stretch, and so are ideal
for anchoring; polyester (frequently called SYNTHETIC ROPES
by the trade name Dacron) has little Multibraid Three-strand Goose
neck
stretch, so is ideal for halyards and sheets. nylon polypropylene
Different knots have different uses. Kevlar
Knots that join two ropes are called Three-strand
polypropylene Three-strand
bends; hitches join a rope to another prestretched
object; and bowlines produce an polyester
Seizing
eye (loop) in the end of a rope.
Sixteen-braid Sixteen-braid
Ropes can be joined by splicing polyester polyester
(unraveling the ends and weaving
them together) or seizing (lashing Braided Three-strand
the ropes together side by side). polyester polypropylene HALF HITCH WITH SEIZING
Polyester
ROPEWORK
Whipping Twist

Bight Eye

REEF KNOT
(SQUARE KNOT)
Bare end OVERHAND KNOT (HALF HITCH)
(fag end)
HUNTER’S BEND
Serving mallet
End Standing part
Spunyarn (marlin)
Cheese (cheesing)
Handle
ROLLING HITCH
Diagonal
turn
MARLINSPIKE
HITCH
End Standing part




Bight
CLOVE HITCH Head
Score BOWLINE
Serving Parceling Worming






WORMING, PARCELING, AND SERVING

388

ROPES AND KNOTS



SPANISH BOWLINE





THUMB KNOT
FLAT SEIZING
(ROUND SEIZING)








DOUBLE CARRICK BEND


End
LIGHTERMAN’S HITCH
Frapped
turn

Heaving
line knot
HEAVING LINE BEND







Standing
part

JURY MAST KNOT
(MAST HEAD BEND)
SHEET BEND (SWAB HITCH) MANHARNESS KNOT
Flemish coil (cheesing) (BUTTERFLY KNOT;
ARTILLERY LOOP)
Marlinspike







HEAVING LINE PINNED SHEEPSHANK
Rat tail Jaw






Hawser laid three-strand manilla
rope with right-handed lay

389

SEA AND AIR
Paddle wheels and propellers




THE INVENTION OF THE STEAM ENGINE IN THE 18TH CENTURY made mechanically driven ships fitted with
paddle wheels or propellers a viable alternative to sails. Paddle wheels have fixed or feathered floats, and the
model shown below features both types. Feathered floats give more propulsive power than fixed floats because
they are almost upright at all times in the water. Paddle wheels were superseded by the propeller on oceangoing
vessels in the mid-19th century. Propellers are more efficient, work better in rough water, 
SHIP’S WHEEL and are less vulnerable in collisions. The first propellers were two-bladed but later three-
and four-bladed versions are more powerful; the shape and pitch of blades have also been 
King spoke
handle refined over the years. At the beginning of the 18th century, tillers were superseded on
many larger ships by the ship’s wheel as a means of steering.
Handle PADDLE WHEEL
WITH FIXED FLOATS
Spoke Slip eccentric
for slide valve
Rim plate OSCILLATING
Wrist pin STEAM ENGINE Ahead/astern
controls
Felloe
(rim section) Limb Slide valve
Main crank
Maker’s name
Fixed float
Nave plate
Hub
Nave
Deck
beam


THREE-BLADED PROPELLER

Blade

Tapered
shaft
hole
Hub

Strut
Frame
Piston rod (tail rod)
Stuffing box

Keyway Oscillating cylinder
Pitch
Propeller blade Bottom plate
tip trace (bedplate)
Propeller
Blade diameter
Slide valve rod
PROPELLER
ACTION Control
Propeller hub trace platform
Hub

390

P ADDLE WHEELS AND PROPELLERS
Rim
DESIGN FOR A STEAMBOAT Connecting rod Truss
WITH PADDLE WHEELS Paddle float
Safety Funnel
valve
Tiller Boiler Drive to air pump






Air pump
Flat bottom
with no keel Shallow, Paddle shaft
carvel-built hull Bell crank (triangle) Flywheel Hub
PADDLE WHEEL WITH TYPES OF PROPELLER
FEATHERED FLOATS
Crank for
air pipe
Outer rim
Cylinder
Disengaging cover Drag link
catch FROUDE’S EARLY TEST
Gland Crankshaft Spoke PROPELLER
Inner rim



Paddle shaft




TUG PROPELLER
Hub


Paddle wheel box




Main steam Feathered float
supply pipe

Eccentric rod THREE-BLADED
(drive for pump) PROPELLER
Pump piston

Feed bilge pump
Guardrail Shroud ring
Exhaust
Air pump PROPULSION SYSTEM OF A
19TH CENTURY SHROUD RING
Kelson PADDLESTEAMER PROPELLER
(keelson)

391

SEA AND AIR

Anatomy of an iron ship



IRON PARTS WERE USED IN THE HULLS OF WOODEN SHIPS AS EARLY AS 1675, often in the same form as the
wooden parts that they replaced. Eventually, as on the tea clipper Cutty Sark (below), iron rigging was
found to be stronger than the traditional rope. The first “ironclads” were warships whose wooden hulls
were protected by iron armor plates. Later ironclads actually had iron hulls.
The model opposite is based on the British warship HMS Warrior, launched Steel yard Iron wire stay
in 1860, the first battleship built entirely of iron. The plan of the Steel lower
iron paddlesteamer (bottom), built somewhat later, shows that this mast
vessel was a sailing ship; but it also boasted a steam propulsion Steel
plant amidships that turned two side paddlewheels. bowsprit
Early iron hulls were made from plates that were
painstakingly riveted together (as below), but by the TEA
20th century vessels began to be welded together, CLIPPER
whole sections at a time. The Second World War
“liberty ship” was one of the first of these
“production-line vessels.” Wooden Forged
planking with iron
copper sheathing anchor
RIVETTED PLATES
Pan head rivet
Accommodation section Cargo derrick
Plate LIBERTY Weld line
SHIP
Gun
section

Button head Seam
rivet (snap
head)




PLAN OF AN IRON Stern section Midships section Cargo hold Bow section
PADDLESTEAMER
Crankshaft Paddle
Steam whistle wheel
Mizzen Main mast Guardrail
mast Poop Lounge Deck lantern After funnel Eccentric Connecting
Steering deck State room rod
position Guardrail Binnacle Skylight
Steering
gear
Stern
Vertical
frame
ladder
Mast step
Rudder
Rudder post
Tank Reversing Side
Heel of Bar keel Afterpeak Main mast step Box boiler wheel lever
rudder post Cabin
Stern framing Donkey boiler Foundation Bottom plate Cylinder

392

ANATOMY OF AN IRON SHIP

CUTAWAY SECTION Bulwark Waterway Deck
OF AN IRONCLAD cap planking Upper deck stringer
Scupper (tie) plate
Bulwark
Upper deck beam
Upper sheer strake
Upper deck pillar
Teak backing (stanchion)
Topside strake
Main deck beam
Wrought iron
armor plate
Main sheer strake Main deck pillar (stanchion)
Main deck tie plate
Lower deck beam
Lower deck tie plate


Lighting hole
Angle bar Box Hold pillar (stanchion)
(I bar) sister
Frame keelson
Center line keelson




Bilge stringer
Bilge strake
Bilge keelson
Limber hole
Side keelson
Floor
Bottom plating
Garboard strake
Keel

Forward Ventilator cowl
funnel Fore mast Capstan Bowsprit
Skylight Chimney Hatch
Main deck

Hawse pipe
Stem
Beam
Chain locker
Bulkhead stiffener

Deep floor

Smoke box Forefoot
'Tween decks Lower deck Forepeak
Combustion ladder Deck beam
chamber Cabin Center girder
393

SEA AND AIR
The battleship 20TH CENTURY WEAPONRY



Torpedo tube Warhead
IN THE EARLY YEARS OF THE 20TH CENTURY, sea warfare—
Sight
attacking enemy vessels or defending a ship—was
revolutionized by the introduction of Dreadnought-type
battleships like the Brazilian vessel below. These new
ships combined the latest advances in steam
TORPEDOES
propulsion, gunnery, and armor plating. The gun
turret was designed to fire shells over huge distances. Side-thrown
canister
It was protected by armor 12 in (30 cm) thick. The
DEPTH
measurements given for the guns of this ship refer CHARGES Stern-rolled
to the bore diameter. Where “weight” is quoted, this canister
is the weight of the shell that the gun fires. Torpedoes—
as portrayed on the upper cigarette card (right)—were Torpedo-fired Boat handling
self-propelled underwater missiles, often steered by gyro- canister derrick
control. Depth charges were designed in the First World
War for use against submerged U-boats. They are BRAZILIAN BATTLESHIP
canisters filled with explosives that are detonated Gunnery
spotting top
by depth-sensitive pistols. The lower cigarette Rangefinder Forward
card shows depth charges being fired by funnel Purchase wire
Light screen
a “thrower,” fired from a torpedo tube,
Lifeboat Searchlight
and rolled from the stern. Ship’s shields Compass
were fitted to warships from the late Searchlight
Compass and rangefinder platform
19th century onward. The shield
platform
shown opposite depicts a Ship’s wheel Leading block
traditional ship’s cannon.
Tripod mast
Navigating bridge
Boat
Conning tower winch
Captain’s shelter/
chart house
Arms of
Brazil Weather shutter
for gun “F” turret
Jack staff
12 in (30 cm)
gun
Skylight















Porthole Forward Sighting “A” turret Open gun mounting Steam launch
Stem Belt accommodation hood
(false ram bow) armor ladder Turret barbette 4¾ in (12 cm) gun Guest boat boom

394

THE BATTLESHIP


SHIP’S SHIELD Upper wireless and telegraphy
Muzzle moulding yard (Upper W/T yard)
Rope
moulding Swell of muzzle
Topgallant mast
Chase
Wireless and telegraphy
yard (W/T yard)
Reinforce
Lower
Ogee yard
Astragal
Trunnion Signal gear


Radio
antenna Ladder way
Lion crest
Brake slip Lifeboat davit
Davit
Exhaust pipe Clump cathead Breakwater
Searchlight Guardrail Cable holder
Hawser fairlead Anchor chain
Sheet anchor Bollard

Vedette boat Starboard Hawse pipe
Searchlight bower
Gig platform anchor Boat boom
After funnel After compass platform Towing fairlead
Funnel After bridge Port bower anchor
stay
3 pound (1.3 kg) gun
(“three pounder”) “X” turret
“Y” turret
Officer’s
accommodation Davit for
ladder whaler
Whaler Flagmast










Stern
walk
Scarph
Propeller
Torpedo net Propeller Aft anchor
“P” turret Bilge keel boom shaft boss Propeller
shaft
Ash chute Hen coop Gun battery Turret roof rail Torpedo net Rudder Life buoy

395

SEA AND AIR

Frigates and submarines



FROM THE MID-19TH CENTURY, ARMORED SHIPS provided a new challenge to enemy
Stabilizer fin
craft. In response, huge revolving gun turrets were developed. These could fire in any
direction, could be loaded from the breech very rapidly, and, instead of cannonballs, Aft hydroplane
they discharged exploding shells. Modern fighting ships, like the frigate, combine heavy
Propeller
ship-borne armament with light helicopter weaponry. Submarines function below the
surface of the sea. Their speed and ability to fire missiles from under water are their major
assets. The nuclear submarine can stay under water for several years without refueling.
Rangefinder Breech wheel Loading arm
Slide Sighting hood
Look out periscope Breech block Slide locking
lever Recoil cylinder Lower rudder
Local control cabinet
Elevating wheel


Guide for gun
loading cage
Blast bag (breeches)
Rammer lever
Floor of gun house
Gun loading cage
Turret roller
Training rack gearing Roller path
Working chamber
GUN TURRET
In this turret for two 15 in Training gear
(37 cm) guns, shells are carried
in a hoisting cage. The shell Rammer
is rammed into the gun,
followed by the propellant Waiting position
(charge). Once the breech is
closed, the gun is ready for Roller path support
firing. The whole operation
requires around 70 sailors. Floor
Barbette (armor) Turret “Walking pipe”
trunk (water supply)
Main hoisting cage
Cordite handling
room Cordite supply shuttle
Ensign FRIGATE
staff
Lynx helicopter
SONAR
Cordite case torpedo
decoy




Rudder

Shell-handling gear Variable pitch
Practice projectile High-explosive propeller
projectile Shell bogie Shell room Hydraulic grab
Ladder way

396

FRIGATES AND SUBMARINES
Steam pipework Snort mast Electronic warfare mast
Machinery raft Conning tower Periscope NUCLEAR “HUNTER-
KILLER” SUBMARINE
Main turbine Machinery control Control room
room Galley
Switchboard room Sonar room Officers’ mess





SONAR
transducer
array
Torpedo tube
Main engine Distiller Diesel motor Wireless office
steam condenser compartment Forward hydroplane
Junior ratings’ mess
Reactor space Torpedo Junior ratings’ bunk space
Carbon dioxide compartment
Muzzle scrubber compartment Senior ratings’ mess
Barrel 6 in (15 cm) SHELL Bursting charge Flash tube Body Wooden packing
This shell is designed to burst (explosive)
in the air above its target.






Transit plug
Expelling plate
Driving SHELL CASE CROSS-SECTION OF THE SHELL Bullet
band
Surveillance
RADAR Navigation/helicopter
control RADAR antenna
RADAR for gunnery and
Motor whaler Mast missile control
Seacat missile Signalling lamp Jack
launcher Vent Aerial rig staff
Oerlikon gun position
Stern gallery Funnel
Enclosed bridge
Aerial
Exocet missile launcher
Gun turret 4½ in (11 cm)
gun









Anchor
Stabilizer Liferaft Signal flag Reel Fairlead
RADAR for gunnery cylinder compartment
and missile control SONAR bulge Breakwater Draft
Triple “chaff” Bilge keel Pennant mark
Anti-submarine torpedo tube rocket launcher number Porthole Bollard

397

SEA AND AIR

Pioneers of flight FRONT VIEW OF WRIGHT FLYER, 1903
Pusher propeller (rear-
Biplane elevator mounted propeller)
FLIGHT HAS FASCINATED MANKIND for centuries, Chain drive to Fuel tank
and countless unsuccessful flying machines have starboard propeller
been designed. The first successful flight was made
by the French Montgolfier brothers in 1783, when
they flew a balloon over Paris. The next major
advance was the development of gliders, notably
by the Englishman Sir George Cayley, who in 1845
designed the first glider to make a sustained flight,
and by the German Otto Lil ienthal, who became known
as the world’s first pilot because he managed to achieve Propeller-shaft
bracing strut Offset pilot’s
controlled flights. However, powered flight did not become a
cradle
practical possibility until the invention of lightweight, gas-driven Takeoff and
internal combustion engines at the end of the 19th century. Then, landing skid Side-mounted
engine to balance
in 1903, the American brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright made the
pilot’s weight
first powered flight in their Wright Flyer biplane, which used a
SIDE VIEW OF CURTISS Nine-cylinder
four-cylinder, gas-driven engine. Aircraft design MODEL-D PUSHER, 1911 Salmson radial
advanced rapidly, and in 1909 the Frenchman engine
Louis Blériot made his pioneering flight across Pusher propeller
(rear-mounted
the English Channel (see pp. 400-401). The
propeller)
American Glenn Curtiss also achieved
Aileron
several “firsts” in his Model-D Pusher operating
and its variants, most notably winning arm
the world’s first competition for
airspeed at Reims in 1909. Wing strut
Fuel Oil filler
Body cradle that filler cap
pivots to control cap
ailerons
Fuel and
Rudder Elevator oil tank
control wire for
wheel diving
Lap
strap


Control
column

Throttle
Nose-wheel Aileron
brake
Turnbuckle
Fuel pipe
Footrest

Pneumatic
Elevator wire Thin, tire
Seat support strut for climbing cambered
lower wing
Rubber-tired Wing-protecting Starboard main
nose-wheel Pilot’s seat skid landing gear
Engine and propeller
thrust frame

398