Ultimate Visual Dictionary (DK)

THE OCEAN FLOOR

KEY DEEP-OCEAN FLOOR SEDIMENTS

Calcareous
ooze
Pelagic clay
Glacial
sediments
Siliceous
ooze
Terrigenous
sediments
Continental
margin
sediments
Metalliferous
muds
Major nodule
fields



DEVELOPMENT OF AN ATOLL
ECHO-SOUND PROFILE
OF OCEAN FLOOR Event mark indicates
synchronization of Volcanic
Sand wave survey equipment island Coral
grows on
Sea shoreline
level

Sand
wave
Minor oscillations
caused by ship’s Seabed
movement profile Lagoon FRINGING REEF Eroded
volcanic
Coral continues island
to grow, forming subsides
barrier reef
Mid-ocean
ridge Velocity of sound in Reference code
water (4,898 ft∕sec;
1,493 m∕sec)
BARRIER REEF
Coral continues Lagoon
Ocean to grow where
trench waves bring food
Dead
coral


Volcanic island ATOLL
becomes submerged Coral
submerged
too deeply
to grow



Magma Sediment Volcanic island SUBMERGED ATOLL
(molten rock) is submerged
farther

299

GEOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY, AND METEOROLOGY

The atmosphere Exosphere
(altitude above
300 miles/500 km)

THE EARTH IS SURROUNDED BY ITS ATMOSPHERE, a blanket of gases
that enables life to exist on the planet. This layer has no definite
outer edge, gradually becoming thinner until it merges into space,
but over 80 percent of atmospheric gases are held by gravity
within about 12 miles (20 km) of the Earth’s surface. The
atmosphere blocks out much harmful ultraviolet solar
radiation, and insulates the Earth against extremes
Corona
of temperature by limiting both incoming solar
JET STREAM radiation and the escape of reradiated heat into space.
This natural balance may be distorted by the greenhouse effect, as gases such as
carbon dioxide have built up in the atmosphere, trapping more heat. Close to the
Earth’s surface, differences in air temperature and pressure cause air to circulate
between the equator and poles. This circulation, together with the Coriolis force,
gives rise to the prevailing surface winds and the high-level jet streams.

ATMOSPHERIC North Pole Rotation of Earth
CIRCULATION (high pressure)
AND WINDS Polar easterlies
Polar cell
Low-pressure
Ferrel cell
zone Thermosphere
Polar jet (altitude 60–
Westerlies 300 miles/
stream
100–500 km)
Subtropical High-pressure
jet stream zone
Hadley Northeast
cell
trade winds
Equator Intertropical
convergence zone
(low pressure)
Warm
equatorial Southeast trade
air rises winds
and flows
toward High-pressure
pole zone

Air cools Westerlies
and sinks Ozone layer absorbs
Low-pressure ultraviolet radiation
zone from Sun
South Pole
(high pressure) Polar easterlies
FORMATION OF ROSSBY WAVES IN THE JET STREAM
Long Rossby Rossby wave Fully developed
wave develops in Cold becomes more Rossby wave Mesosphere
polar jet stream air pronounced (altitude 30–60
miles/50–100 km)
Stratosphere
Warm (6–30 miles/
air 10–50 km)
INITIAL DEEPENING DEVELOPED Troposphere (altitude
UNDULATION WAVE WAVE to 6 miles/10 km)
300

THE ATMOSPHERE

STRUCTURE OF THE GLOBAL WARMING
ATMOSPHERE
Solar radiation Some reradiated
reradiated as heat heat escapes
into space
Sun
Some reradiated
heat reflected back
to Earth
Incoming solar
radiation
Earth
Atmosphere


NATURALLY MODERATED
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Meteor (shooting star)
burns up as it passes Less reradiated
through atmosphere heat escapes
Solar radiation More reradiated
reradiated as heat heat reflected
back to Earth
Surface
Aurora
temperature
rises
“Greenhouse
gases” accumulate
in atmosphere


Incoming solar
radiation
UNBALANCED GREENHOUSE
14% of incoming solar EFFECT
radiation absorbed
by atmosphere
7% of incoming solar COMPOSITION OF THE
radiation reflected LOWER ATMOSPHERE
by atmosphere
Other elements less
than 0.1%
24% of incoming
solar radiation Argon 0.93%
reflected by clouds
Cosmic rays (high-energy Oxygen 21%
particles from space)
penetrate to stratosphere
Some absorbed
heat reradiated
by atmosphere Nitrogen 78%
4% of incoming solar
radiation reflected by
oceans and land
51% of incoming solar
radiation absorbed by
Earth’s surface
Some absorbed heat
re-radiated by clouds

301

GEOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY, AND METEOROLOGY

Weather Advancing cold Warm air
TYPES OF OCCLUDED FRONT
front rises up
over warm Warm
WEATHER IS DEFINED AS THE ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS at a particular front front
time and place; climate is the average weather conditions for a given
region over time. Weather is assessed in terms of temperature, wind, Cold air
cloud cover, and precipitation, such as rain or snow. Good weather Cool air
is associated with high-pressure areas, where air is sinking. Cloudy,
wet, changeable weather is common in low-pressure zones with WARM OCCLUSION
rising, unstable air. Such conditions occur at temperate latitudes, Warm air
Cold air Warm
where warm air meets cool air along the polar fronts. Here, spiraling front
low-pressure cells known as depressions (mid-latitude cyclones) often Cold front
form. A depression usually contains a sector of warmer air, beginning undercuts
warm Cool air
at a warm front and ending at a cold front. If the two fronts merge, front
forming an occluded front, the warm air is pushed upward. An
extreme form of low-pressure cell is a hurricane (also called a COLD OCCLUSION
typhoon or tropical cyclone), which brings torrential rain
FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
and exceptionally strong winds.
Water droplets less Water droplets
than 0.5 mm in coalesce to
TYPES OF CLOUD
diameter fall form raindrops
Cirrus Cirrostratus as drizzle 0.5–5.0 mm in
diameter
13
Rising air
Cirrocumulus 12

11
Freezing level, RAIN FROM CLOUDS NOT
above which REACHING FREEZING LEVEL
clouds consist 10
of ice crystals Ice crystal Snowflakes
Coalesced grown from
9 water droplets ice crystals
Cumulonimbus
fall as rain fall as snow
8
Snowflakes
Altocumulus 7 melt to fall
Rising air as rain
6
Altostratus
5 RAIN AND SNOW FROM CLOUDS
REACHING FREEZING LEVEL
Nimbus
Vertical air Alternate
4
currents toss freezing
Stratocumulus frozen water and melting
droplets up builds up
3
and down layers of ice
Cumulus
2
Nimbostratus Rising air Ice falls as
1 hailstones
Stratus
0
Altitude in
temperate HAIL
Condensation level
regions (km)
302

WEATHER

STRUCTURE OF A HURRICANE

Outward-spiraling Outward-
high-level winds
spiraling
cirrus clouds
Descending
dry air











6–9 miles
(10–15 km)







Storm moving at Warm,
9–25 mph (15–40 km/h) moist air
toward prevailing wind drawn in
Greatest windspeeds
(185 mph/300 km/h) Water vapor picked up
12 miles (20 km) from eye Eye (calm, very Precipitation Spiraling bands from sea feeds walls of
low-pressure greatest in of wind and cumulus clouds
center) eye wall rain

WEATHER MAP Center of high- Center of low- Very strong south- Cold Continuous
pressure area pressure area easterly wind front rain
Cloudy Light
sky northwesterly
wind
Very
Obscured cloudy sky
sky
Air pressure
1026 millibars
Occluded
front Occluded
front


Strong north- Slightly
easterly wind cloudy sky

Temperature
70°F (21°C)
Overcast
sky
Light
southerly
wind
Sea temp 46°F (8°C) Cold front Warm front Calm Very cloudy sky

303



PHYSICS AND


CHEMISTRY




THE VARIETY OF MATTER .................................. 306
ATOMS AND MOLECULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
THE PERIODIC TABLE ......................................... 310
CHEMICAL REACTIONS ........................................ 312
ENERGY ............................................................... 314
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM ........................... 316
LIGHT ................................................................. 318
FORCE AND MOTION ............................................ 320

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTR Y

The variety of matter

TYPES OF COLLOID
MATTER IS ANYTHING THAT HAS A MASS. It includes everything
from natural substances, such as minerals or living organisms,
to synthetic materials. Matter can exist in three distinct states—
solid, liquid, and gas. A solid is rigid and retains its shape. A
liquid is fluid, has a definite volume, and will take the shape
of its container. A gas (also fluid) fills a space, so its volume
will be the same as the volume of its container. Most
PLANT AND INSECT
(LIVING MATTER) substances can exist as a solid, a liquid, or a gas: the state
is determined by temperature. At very high temperatures, matter becomes
plasma, often considered to be a fourth state of matter. All matter is composed
of microscopic particles, such as atoms and molecules (see pp. 308-309).
HAIR GEL (SOLID IN LIQUID)
The arrangement and interactions of these particles give a substance
its physical and chemical properties, by which matter can be
identified. There is a huge variety of matter because particles
can arrange themselves in countless ways, in one substance or
by mixing with others. Natural glass, for example, seems to be
a solid but is, in fact, a supercool liquid: the atoms are not
locked into a pattern and can flow. Pure substances known as
elements (see p. 310) combine to form compounds or mixtures.
Mixtures called colloids are made up of larger particles of
matter suspended in a solid, liquid, or gas, while a solution is SHAVING CREAM MIST
one substance dissolved in another. (AIR IN LIQUID) (LIQUID IN GAS)
EXAMPLES OF MATTER
The element Low Streaks of plasma
silicon in pure pressure (mixture of electrons
crystalline gases and charged atoms)
form
Voltage tears electrons
Poly- from atoms of low
ethylene pressure gases inside
combines
natural
materials
in new Central
ways electrode

POLYETHYLENE PURE SILICON BALL CONTAINING
(SYNTHETIC POLYMER ) (SEMICONDUCTOR) HIGH-TEMPERATURE GAS
(PLASMA)
Obsidian is molten volcanic Solid crystals
rock that cools quickly, dissolve in
so atoms cannot form liquid water
a regular pattern
Water
Potassium
permanganate
crystals

Azurite is found
naturally with
deposits of copper ore
OBSIDIAN AZURITE POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE AND WATER
(NATURAL GLASS) (CRYSTALLINE MINERAL) (SOLUTION)

306

THE VARIETY OF MATTER


GAS
STATES OF MATTER There are relatively few bonds
between the particles in a gas,
allowing for expansion in every
direction. The particles move
GAS randomly, colliding with the
walls of any container and
occasionally with each other.
Sublimation (solid to
gas or gas to solid) Evaporation
(liquid to gas)
GLASS
A supercooled liquid (glass) Condensation
is rigid, but its particles are (gas to liquid)
arranged randomly.
Supercooling
Crystallization (liquid to glass)
(glass to solid)
SUPERCOOLED
LIQUID (GLASS)
SOLID
Held together by strong LIQUID
forces, the particles of a Although the attraction
solid maintain a constant between the particles of
position in relation to a liquid is weak, it allows
each other. Most solids them to hold together to give
are crystals, in which the liquid a definite volume.
particles arrange in The particles are not held
repeating patterns. SOLID LIQUID rigidly, so a liquid flows.
Freezing Melting (solid or
(liquid to solid) glass to liquid)
CHANGING STATES OF WATER



Round- A gas will leave Steam turns
bottomed its container back into
glass flask liquid water
Liquid takes where it meets
the shape of cooler glass
its container
Eventually,
Ice cubes all the liquid
have a Water remains Bubbles of will become
definite liquid up to steam form in a gas
shape 212 °F (100 °C) boiling water
Liquid
water














SOLID STATE: ICE LIQUID STATE: WATER GASEOUS STATE: STEAM
The solid state of water, ice, forms when When the temperature of a substance Above its boiling point, a substance will
liquid water is cooled sufficiently. Ice cubes rises above its freezing point, it melts to become a gas. When heated sufficiently,
are rigid, with a definite shape and volume. become a liquid. Ice changes to water. liquid water turns to steam, a colorless gas.

307

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTR Y
ATOMIC ORBITALS
Atoms and Nucleus


molecules

P-ORBITAL
S-ORBITAL
ATOMS ARE THE smallest individual
parts of an element (see pp. 310-311). Nucleus
They are tiny, with diameters in the
order of one ten-thousand-millionth Nucleus
of a meter (10 m). Two or more
-10
atoms join together (bond) to form a
molecule of a substance known as a
compound. For example, when atoms
of the elements hydrogen and fluorine
join together, they form a molecule
FALSE-COLOR
IMAGE OF ACTUAL of the compound hydrogen fluoride.
GOLD ATOMS So molecules are the smallest D-ORBITALS
individual parts of a compound. Atoms themselves are not
indivisible—they possess an internal structure. At their
center is a dense nucleus, consisting of protons, which MOLECULAR ORBITALS
have a positive electric charge (see p. 316), and neutrons,
Nucleus Nucleus
which are uncharged. Around the nucleus are the negatively
charged electrons. It is the electrons that give a substance
most of its physical and chemical properties. They do not Nucleus
follow definite paths around the nucleus. Instead, electrons Σ- (SIGMA) ORBITAL
are said to be found within certain regions, called orbitals. Nucleus
These are arranged around the nucleus in “shells,” each
π- (PI) ORBITAL
containing electrons of a particular energy. For example,
the first shell (1) can hold up to two electrons, in a so-called
s-orbital (1s). The second shell (2) can hold up to eight Nucleus
electrons, in s-orbitals (2s) and p-orbitals (2p). If an atom
loses an electron, it becomes a positive ion (cation). If an
electron is gained, an atom becomes a negative ion (anion).
Ions of opposite charges will attract and join together, in SP -HYBRID ORBITAL
3
a type of bonding known as ionic bonding. In covalent
bonding, the atoms bond by sharing their electrons in what
become molecular orbitals.
Second shell now Charged atoms (ions)
holds eight electrons, held together by
EXAMPLE OF IONIC BONDING 1s-orbital 1s-orbital Electron and is “filled” electrostatic forces
transfer
Second shell
1s-orbital
holds seven
electrons
Li ion
+
F - ion
2p-orbital 2p-orbital Lithium atom
2s-orbital loses 2s electron and Fluorine atom gains
2s-orbital 2p-orbital becomes positively electron and becomes
+
charged (Li ion) negatively charged (F - ion)
1. NEUTRAL LITHIUM NEUTRAL FLUORINE 2. ELECTRON TRANSFER 3. IONIC BONDING:
ATOM (Li) ATOM (F) LITHIUM FLUORIDE MOLECULE (LiF)
308

ATOMS AND MOLECULES
ANATOMY OF A FLUORINE-19 ATOM
Different versions (isotopes)
of each element exist, with 2p-orbital Nine negatively
the same number of protons, charged electrons
but with different numbers arranged in orbitals
of neutrons. Every atom of 1s-orbital
the element fluorine has
nine protons in its nucleus,
but the number of neutrons
can vary (from eight to
11). Fluorine-19 has
10 neutrons.
2p-orbital

2p-orbital
Atomic
Nucleus diameter
2s-orbital (about 1.2
-10
× 10 m)
Each orbital holds
up to two electrons



ANATOMY OF NUCLEUS
OF A FLUORINE-19 ATOM

First Second
electron electron
shell shell



NUCLEUS


TEN NEUTRONS NINE PROTONS
Mass of nucleus
about 19 atomic
mass units Up quark
Up quark Down quark
Gluon
Nuclear diameter
-15
Gluon Down quark (about 10 m) Down quark Up quark
NEUTRON PROTON
(NO CHARGE) (POSITIVELY CHARGED)

EXAMPLE OF COVALENT BONDING
2p-orbital
1s-orbital 1s-orbital
1s-orbital Electrons shared
in Σ-orbital
2p-orbital
Incomplete
1s-orbital of
hydrogen and 2s-orbital
2p-orbital 2p-orbital of
flourine overlap
2s-orbital 2p-orbital 2p-orbital


1. NEUTRAL HYDROGEN NEUTRAL FLUORINE 2. COVALENT BONDING: HYDROGEN
ATOM (H) ATOM (F) FLUORIDE MOLECULE (HF)
309

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTR Y
The periodic table


Atomic number
AN ELEMENT is a substance that consists of 1 Chemical symbol
atoms of one type only. The 92 elements that H
occur naturally, and the 17 elements created Group I Hydrogen Chemical name
Atomic number is
artificially, are often arranged into a chart number of protons 1.0 Relative atomic mass
1
called the periodic table. Each element is H in each nucleus RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS
defined by its atomic number—the number Atomic mass (formerly atomic
Hydrogen Group II
of protons in the nucleus of each of its atoms 1.0 weight) is the mass of each atom
Atomic number of an element. It is equal to the
(it is also the number of electrons present). goes up by one
3 4 number of protons plus the
Atomic number increases along each row Li Be along each number of neutrons (electrons
(period) and down each column (group). The period have negligible mass). The figures
Lithium Beryllium given are the averages for all the
shape of the table is determined by the way 6.9 9.0
different versions (isotopes) of
in which electrons arrange themselves around 11 12 each element, measured relative
the nucleus: the positioning of elements in Na Mg to the mass of carbon-12.
order of increasing atomic number brings Sodium Magnesium 1st transition metals
together atoms with a similar pattern of 23.0 24.3
orbiting electrons (orbitals). These appear 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
in blocks. Electrons occupy shells of a certain K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn
energy (see pp. 308-309). Periods are ordered Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese
according to the filling of successive shells 39.1 40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9
with electrons, while groups reflect the 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
number of electrons in the outer shell Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc
(valency electrons). These outer electrons Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium
are important—they decide the chemical 85.5 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 (98)
properties of the atom. Elements that appear 55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75
in the same group have similar properties Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re
because they have the same number of Cesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2
electrons in their outer shell. Elements in
Group 0 have “filled shells,” where the outer 87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107
shell holds its maximum number of electrons, Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh
and are stable. Atoms of Group I elements Francium Radium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium
223.0 226.0 (267) (268) (271) (270)
have just one electron in their outer shell.
This makes them unstable—and ready s-block Two series always separated out from d-block
to react with other substances. the table to give it a coherent shape
Soft, silvery, and
highly reactive metal
METALS AND NON-METALS
Elements at the left-hand side of each Silvery, Hard,
period are metals. Metals easily lose reactive silvery
electrons and form positive ions. Non- metal metal
metals, on the right of a period, tend
to become negative ions. Semimetals, SODIUM: MAGNESIUM: CHROMIUM:
which have properties of both metals GROUP 1 METAL GROUP 2 METAL 1ST TRANSITION METAL
and non-metals, are between the two.
TYPES OF ELEMENT KEY: Radioactive 57 58 59 60
metal La Ce Pr Nd
Alkali metals Poor metals Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2
Alkaline earth metals Semi-metals
89 90 91 92
Transition metals Non-metals Ac Th Pa U
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium
Lanthanides Noble gases (227) 232.0 231.0 238.0
PLUTONIUM:
ACTINIDE SERIES METAL
Actinides Unknown chemical
properties
310

THE PERIODIC TABLE
Bright yellow
crystal
Purple-black
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON solid turns to
Some elements exist in IODINE: gas easily
more than one form— GROUP 7
these are known as SOLID NON-
allotropes. Carbon powder, SULFUR: METAL Group 0
graphite, and diamond are GROUP 6 SOLID NON-METAL
allotropes of carbon. They
Boron and Nitrogen and 2
DIAMOND all consist of carbon atoms, carbon groups oxygen groups Halogens
but have very different He Period
physical properties. Helium
Group III Group IV Group V Group VI Group VII
4.0
5 6 7 8 9 10
B C N O F Ne Short
period
Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2
13 14 15 16 17 18
GRAPHITE CARBON POWDER
Al Si P S Cl Ar
2nd transition metals 3rd transition metals Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 40.0
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Long
period
Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8
44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Unreactive,
Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo colorless
Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Ununtrium Ununquadium Ununpentium Ununhexium Ununseptium Ununoctium gas glows
(269) (278) (281) (281) (285) (286) (289) (289) (293) (294) (294) red in
discharge
tube
d-block p-block
Yellow, unreactive Soft, shiny, NOBLE GASES
precious metal reactive metal Group 0 contains elements that 
have a filled (complete) outer shell
of electrons, which means the atoms
Shiny do not need to lose or gain electrons
semi- by bonding with other atoms. This
metal
makes them stable and they do not NEON:
easily form ions or react with other GROUP 0
GOLD: TIN: ANTIMONY: elements. Noble gases are also called COLORLESS
GOLD:
3RD TRANSITION METAL GROUP 4 POOR METAL GROUP 5 SEMI-METAL rare or inert gases. GAS
3RD TRANSITION METAL
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
(145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
(237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
f-block

311

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTR Y

Chemical reactions SALT FORMATION (ACID ON METAL)


Glass
A CHEMICAL REACTION TAKES PLACE whenever bonds between
beaker
atoms are broken or made. In each case, atoms or groups of Hydrogen gas
(H ) given off
atoms rearrange, making new substances (products) from the 2
original ones (reactants). Reactions happen naturally, or can be Zinc (Zn) replaces
hydrogen in acid
made to happen; they may take years, or only an instant. Some
(HCl) to form zinc
of the main types are shown here. A reaction usually involves chloride solution
a change in energy (see pp. 314-315). In a burning reaction, for (ZnCl )
2
example, the making of new bonds between atoms releases energy Hydrogen in acid
driven off when Hydrochloric
as heat and light. This type of reaction, in which heat is given
acid meets a acid (HCl)
off, is an exothermic reaction. Many reactions, like burning, are reactive metal
irreversible, but some can take place in either direction, and are Effervescence
Zinc metal
said to be reversible. Reactions can be used to form solids from
chippings Zinc metal
solutions: in a double decomposition reaction, two compounds (Zn) chippings (Zn)
in solution break down and re-form into two new substances,
THE REACTION
often creating a precipitate (insoluble solid); in displacement, Hydrochloric acid added to zinc
an element (e.g., copper) displaces another element (e.g., silver) produces zinc chloride and hydrogen.
from a solution. The rate (speed) of a reaction is determined by Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl + H 2
2
many different factors, such as temperature, and the size and DISPLACEMENT
shape of the reactants. To describe and keep track of reactions,
internationally recognized chemical symbols and equations
are used. Reactions are also used in the laboratory to identify Copper metal Copper (Cu)
matter. An experiment with candle wax, for example, (Cu) displaces silver
ions (Ag ) from
2+
demonstrates that it contains carbon and hydrogen.
silver nitrate
Silver nitrate solution (AgNO )
3
BURNING MATTER solution
In this burning reaction, (AgNO 3 ) Blue solution of
Ammonium dichromate atoms form simpler copper nitrate
((NH 4 ) 2 Cr 2 O 7 ) substances and give Two metals compete (Cu(NO ) )
3 2
off heat and light for nitrate ions forms
Flame Ammonium dichromate Needles of silver
) Cr O ) converts to Glass flask metal (Ag) form
((NH 4 2 2 7
chromium oxide (Cr O )
2 3
THE REACTION Nitrogen monoxide (NO) THE REACTION
When lit, ammonium and water vapor (H O) Copper metal added to silver nitrate solution
2
dichromate combines with oxygen from air. given off as colorless gases produces copper nitrate and silver metal.
(NH ) Cr O + O → Cr O + 4H O + 2NO Cu + 2AgNO → Cu(NO ) + 2Ag
3 2
4 2
2
2 3
2
3
2 7
A REVERSIBLE REACTION Pipette Pipette Sodium
hydroxide
Flat-bottomed Hydrochloric acid (NaOH)
glass flask (HCl) added in drops Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) added in
neutralizes the acid drops
Potassium
Acid causes reaction
Chromate solution to take place Solution turns to
(K CrO ) Solution returns
2 4 bright orange of
Chromate ions potassium dichromate to original
converted to orange bright yellow
Bright yellow dichromate ions Potassium color
solution contains Potassium dichromate (KCr O 7 )
2
potassium and dichromate re-forms to potassium
chromate ions chromate (K 2 CrO 4 )
(KCr 2 O 7 ) forms
1. THE REACTANT 2. THE REACTION 3. REVERSING
Potassium chromate dissolves in water to Addition of hydrochloric acid changes Addition of sodium hydroxide changes
form potassium ions and chromate ions. chromate ions into dichromate ions. dichromate ions back into chromate ions.
2- 2- 2- Cr 2 O 7 → 2CrO 4 2-
2-
K 2 CrO 4 → 2K + + CrO 4 2CrO 4 → Cr 2 O 7
312

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Potassium iodide
solution added to
lead nitrate
FERMENTATION DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION
solution
Potassium Lead nitrate Two solutions
iodide solution solution swap partners
) )
(KI) (Pb(NO 3 2
Airtight
Yeast converts stopper
sugar into alcohol
(C H OH) and
2
5
carbon dioxide Flat-bottomed Lead iodide
gas (CO ) glass flask (PbI 2 ), a yellow
2
solid, forms
Potassium
Yeast mixed with nitrate solution
warm water and Carbon dioxide (KNO 3 ) forms
sugar (C H O ) bubbles (CO 2 )
6
12 6
1. THE REACTANTS 2. THE REACTION
Potassium iodide in water When the solutions are mixed, lead
(KI) and lead nitrate in water iodide, a precipitate, and potassium
(Pb(NO ) ) each form colorless nitrate solution are formed.
3 2
THE REACTION solutions. 2KI + Pb(NO ) → PbI + 2KNO 3
2
3 2
Yeast converts sugar and warm water
into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
C H O → 2C H OH + 2CO 2
2
5
6
12 6
TESTING CANDLE WAX, AN ORGANIC COMPOUND
Clamp stand
Burning produces Delivery tube
carbon dioxide gas
(CO 2 ) and water
vapor (H 2 O) Delivery tube
Gases are
trapped in
Unburned funnel Stopper Stopper Tube connection
carbon forms to pump that
soot particles sucks gases
Thistle U-tube Stopper through
funnel
Flame
Water vapor
Burning condenses to Test tube
candle wax form liquid
water (H 2 O)
Clamp
Water vapor
trapped by solid Carbon dioxide gas
drying agent, Anhydrous (CO 2 ) given off
anhydrous copper
copper sulfate sulfate Calcium hydroxide Calcium
4
Candle wax (CuSO 4 ) (CuSO ) (Ca(OH) ) and hydroxide
2
(C 18 H 38 ), a carbon dioxide solution
hydrocarbon, Anhydrous copper (CO ) form insoluble (lime water,
2
contains the sulfate crystals calcium carbonate Ca(OH) 2 )
elements (CuSO ) combine (CaCO ): lime water
3
4
carbon and with water vapor becomes milky
hydrogen (H O) to form darker
2
blue hydrated copper
sulfate (CuSO 4 .
10H 2 O)
1. THE BURNING REACTION 2. TESTING FOR WATER VAPOR 3. TESTING FOR CARBON DIOXIDE
Burning wax produces carbon A solid drying agent traps water vapor, proving Calcium hydroxide in solution reacts with carbon
dioxide gas and water vapor. the presence of hydrogen in the candle wax. dioxide, forming a carbonate and turning milky.
2C 18 H 38 + 55O 2 → 36CO 2 + 38H 2 0 CuSO 4 + 10H 2 O → CuSO 4 . 10H 2 O Ca(OH) 2 + CO 2 → CaCO 3 + H 2 O
313

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTR Y

Energy SANKEY DIAGRAM SHOWING ENERGY
FLOW IN A COAL-FIRED COMBINED
HEAT AND POWER STATION
ANYTHING THAT HAPPENS—from a pin-drop to an Heat energy produced by
burning each kilogram
explosion—requires energy. Energy is the capacity for
of coal (25 million J) Useful electrical
“doing work” (making something happen). Various forms of energy (7 million J)
energy exist, including light, heat, sound, electrical, chemical,
nuclear, kinetic, and potential energies. The Law of
Conservation of Energy states that the total amount of energy in
the universe is fixed—energy cannot be created or destroyed.
It means that energy can only change from one form to another
(energy transfer). For example, potential energy is energy that is
“stored,” and can be used in the future. An object gains Waste heat Heat used in local
potential energy when it is lifted; as the object is released, (5 million J) schools and housing
(13 million J)
potential energy changes into the energy of motion (kinetic
energy). During transference, some of the energy converts into
CROSS-SECTION OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER
heat. A combined heat and power station can put some of the STATION WITH FRANCIS TURBINE
otherwise “waste” heat to useful effect in local schools and Transformer Insulator High voltage
housing. Most of the Earth’s energy is provided by the Sun, in cable
the form of electromagnetic radiation (see pp. 316-317). Some Switch gear Bushing
including Rotor house
of this energy transfers to plant and animal life, and ultimately circuit braker
Generator
to fossil fuels, where it is stored in chemical form. Our bodies unit
Gate
obtain energy from the food we eat, while energy needed for
Generator rotor
other tasks, such as heating and transport, can be obtained by turned by turbine
burning fossil fuels—or by harnessing natural forces like wind
Shaft
or moving water—to generate electricity. Another source is Francis turbine
nuclear power, where energy is released by reactions in the
Curved blade
nucleus of an atom. All energy is measured by the international
unit, the joule (J). As a guide, one joule is about equal to the
Gate
amount of energy needed to lift an apple one meter.
Screen Afterbay
Water in
CROSS-SECTION OF NUCLEAR POWER STATION WITH reservoir
PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR Potential energy Penstock Tailrace
of water intake Draft
Steam generator turns turbine tube Water that flows
out has lost some
Concrete Water in heat energy
shielding exchanger turns Turbine shaft
to steam turns generator
Water Transformer
pressurizer Steam drives Generator produces increases voltage
turbine electric current at to 300,000 volts
Steel girder 25,000 volts
framework
High voltage
Control rod cable
Reactor core
Tower carries
Pump high voltage
electricity
Moderator
(water) Hot water to
Heat Pump cooling tower
Enriched Coolant (water) exchanger Water cools used steam
uranium fuel takes heat from Cold water
reactor core to Water pumped back into Steam loses energy to turbine from cooling
heat exchanger steam generator and condenses back to water tower

314

ENERGY
ENERGY SYSTEMS Sun radiates about 300 million million
THE SUN million J of energy each second
Electromagnetic Electromagnetic radiation of
radiation emanates about 100 thousand million
in all directions million J reaches Earth from
from Sun Sun each second Leaves trap light
energy from Sun,
converting it to
Energy of chemical energy
electromagnetic of sugar by
radiation is stored Nuclear photosynthesis
in oil, a fossil fuel, reactions in
retrieved by oil rig Sun’s core convert Chemical energy in
mass to energy wood is released as
OIL RIG
heat, light, and
TREE sound by burning
Sun’s energy converted
to chemical energy in
photosynthesis, which
builds sugars in grasses
Waste heat given off
CROPS
Power station releases
chemical energy by burning Human gains
oil to produce heat chemical energy
from eating plants
Heat turns water to or animals
steam, which drives BURNING WOOD
a turbine to produce
electrical energy

OIL-FIRED Electrical energy
POWER STATION transmitted to homes COW
via high-tension wires
Bicycle and rider
Cow breaks down sugars in grasses, gain gravitational
releasing some energy as heat
potential energy
House supplied by climbing
with electrical HUMAN a hill
energy
Waste
heat ENERGY KEY:
given
off Chemical
energy in rider’s Electromagnetic
muscles used to give radiation
bicycle kinetic energy
A television uses Electrical energy is Chemical
about 150 J of converted to kinetic
electrical energy energy of moving
each second, air in a hairdryer Electrical
given off as heat,
light, and sound
In a washing Heat
machine,
HOUSE HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES
electrical energy
Microwave oven changes to heat, Sound
CAR
uses electrical kinetic energy,
energy to heat food, and sound
using about 700 J Light
Chemical energy each second
from gasoline used
to power car—one Kinetic
gallon of gasoline
releases up to 83
million J Potential
315

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTR Y
Electricity VAN DE GRAAFF (ELECTROSTATIC) GENERATOR


Positive charges Metal
dome
at many thousands
and magnetism of volts

ELECTRICAL EFFECTS result from an imbalance of electric charge.
Rotation
There are two types of electric charge, named positive (carried by of belt
protons) and negative (carried by electrons). If charges are opposite
(unlike), they attract one another, while like charges repel. Forces
of attraction and repulsion (electrostatic forces) exist between Positively charged Pulley
belt strips negative wheel
any two charged particles. Matter is normally uncharged, but if charges (electrons)
electrons are gained, an object will gain an from dome via metal
overall negative charge; if they are removed, comb, giving dome a
positive charge
it becomes positive. Objects with an overall
negative or positive charge are said to have Moving rubber Insulating
belt gains a column
an imbalance of charge, and exert the same positive charge prevents
forces as individual negative and positive charges
charges. On this larger scale, the forces will Positive metal leaking
comb strips away
always act to regain the balance of charge.
negative charges Negatively
This causes static electricity. Lightning, for (electrons) from belt charged
example, is produced by clouds discharging a metal plate
huge excess of negative electrons. If charges
Connection
LIGHTNING
are “free”—in a wire or material that allows to positive Pulley
electrons to pass through it—the forces cause a flow of charge electrical wheel
supply
called an electric current. Some substances exhibit the strange
Rotation
phenomenon of magnetism—which also produces attractive and Connection of belt
repulsive forces. Magnetic substances consist of small regions to negative
electrical supply
called domains. Normally unmagnetized, they can be magnetized
by being placed in a magnetic field. Magnetism and electricity
are inextricably linked, a fact put to use in motors and generators.
CURRENT
ELECTRICITY Junction Metal wire
(conductor)
Crocodile clip Direction of Four 1.5 volt cells VOLTAGE coated with
connector current, opposite (total of 6 volts) The higher the voltage, plastic (insulator)
to electron flow the greater the energy of
Bulb receives by convention electrical charges. One
3 volts volt is one joule (unit of Bulb holder
Electrons energy) per coulomb
Bulb holder flow from (unit of charge). Bulb receives
negative 6 volts
terminal Negative terminal
to positive Bulb has high
Metal wire
(conductor) terminal Positive terminal resistance
coated with
plastic (insulator) CURRENT RESISTANCE
The greater the number of For a given voltage,
Switch electrons moving around the the flow of current
Bulb receives completes circuit, the higher the current. depends upon the
3 volts or breaks Current is measured in amps (A). resistance of a circuit.
circuit One amp equals one coulomb Resistance is the
Bulb holder (unit of charge) per second. degree to which a
substance resists
electrical current.
It is measured in
ohms (Ω).
SERIES ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT SIMPLE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

316

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
MAGNETIC FIELDS AND FORCES Like poles repel Unlike poles attract South-seeking
pole of
Iron filings North-seeking North-seeking North-seeking electromagnet
pole pole pole
Profile of
magnetic field
Bar magnet






North-seeking South-seeking South-seeking South-seeking
pole pole pole pole
Unlike poles Direction Electromagnet
attract of force Like poles repel Wire to battery
MAGNETIC DOMAINS GENERATING MAGNETISM FROM ELECTRICITY
Direction of Direction of
Domain magnetization magnetization Direction of Electric current
within domain within domain magnetic field produces
is random has aligned (from north pole magnetic
to south pole) field
Domain Magnetic
aligned with field
magnetization
has grown
Coil carries
electric current
Domain not
Domain aligned with Direction Direction
boundary magnetization of overall of current
has shrunk magnetization

UNMAGNETIZED IRON MAGNETIZED IRON IN Metal wire
A MAGNETIC FIELD (conductor) coated
with plastic (insulator)
Four 1.5
Negative terminal volt cells
GENERATING ELECTRICITY FROM MAGNETISM
(total of
Positive terminal 6 volts)
Terminal
Terminal box CIRCUIT WITH ELECTROMAGNET
Stator
Main rotor turns
Coil of wire in magnetic field Coil of wire rotates
produced by coil within magnetic field
of wire in stator of permanent magnet
Permanent Coated copper
magnet Fan Permanent magnet winding
Iron
Drive Steel casing core Commutator
Bearing end
Terminal
Coil of
Non-drive wire Spindle
end
Shaft End of
shaft
Coil of wire Secondary
(exciter) rotor Terminal
ELECTRIC GENERATOR ELECTRIC MOTOR
In a generator, the rotor rotates within the magnetic In a motor, magnetic forces between the winding
field of the stator to produce an electric current. and permanent magnet produce a rotary motion.

317

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTR Y

Light MAXWELLIAN DIAGRAM OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION AS WAVES
Oscillating electric field
Wavelength
LIGHT IS A FORM OF ENERGY. It is a
type of electromagnetic radiation, like X-
rays or radio waves. All electromagnetic Oscillating
INFRARED IMAGE radiation is produced by electric charges magnetic field
OF A HOUSE (see pp. 316-317): it is caused by the effects
of oscillating electric and magnetic fields as they travel Two fields at
right angles
through space. Electromagnetic radiation is considered to
Direction
have both wave and particle properties. It can be thought of travel
of as a wave of electricity and magnetism. In that case,
the difference between the various forms of
radiation is their wavelength. Radiation can ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AS PARTICLES
also be said to consist of particles, or packets
Photon thought Blue light has about
of energy, called photons. The difference of as wave packet twice the energy of
between light and X-rays, for instance, is of energy red light
the amount of energy that each photon
carries. The complete range of radiation is Blue light has shorter
referred to as the electromagnetic spectrum, Red light has wavelength: waves are
long wavelength more tightly packed
extending from low energy, long wavelength
radio waves to high energy, short wavelength PHOTON OF RED LIGHT PHOTON OF BLUE LIGHT
gamma rays. Light is the only part of the
electromagnetic spectrum that is visible. SPLITTING WHITE LIGHT INTO THE SPECTRUM
White light from the Sun is made up of all
Prism forms spectrum
the visible wavelengths of radiation, which
by bending wavelengths
can be seen when it is separated by using a at different angles Glass prism White light
prism. Light, like all forms of electromagnetic
radiation, can be reflected (bounced back) Red light (wavelength:
6.2–7.7 × 10 -7 m)
and refracted (bent). Different parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum are produced in Orange light (wavelength:
5.9–6.2 × 10 -7 m)
different ways. Sometimes visible light—
and infrared radiation—is generated by the Yellow light (wavelength:
-7
vibrating particles of warm or hot objects. 5.7–5.9 × 10 m)
The emission of light in this way is called Green light (wavelength:
incandescence. Light can also be produced 4.9–5.7 × 10 m)
-7
by fluorescence, a phenomenon in which
Blue light (wavelength:
electrons gain and lose energy within atoms.
-7
4.5–4.9 × 10 m)
Violet light (wavelength:
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM 3.9–4.5 × 10 -7 m)
ENERGY 10 -28 10 -27 10 -26 10 -25 10 -24 10 -23 10 -22 10 -21 10 -20
(JOULES)


WAVELENGTH 10 4 10 3 10 2 10 1 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5
(METERS)
Long-wave Medium- Short-wave Very high- Microwaves Infrared
radio wave radio radio frequency radiation
(VHF) radio

Radio waves

318

LIGHT
ARTIFICIAL LIGHT SOURCES
Glass tube filled with Coiled tungsten filament
FLUORESCENT TUBE mercury vapor
Ceramic end-piece
Electrical contact

Glass support
Filament heated and negatively Electrons accelerate Electrons collide
charged electrons emitted from one coil to the with mercury atoms
other
SECTION OF FILAMENT OF
Mercury atom Free INCANDESCENT INCANDESCENT LIGHT BULB: HOW
electron LIGHT BULB INCANDESCENT LIGHT IS PRODUCED
Energy from
collision produces Phosphor Moving electrons collide
ultraviolet light coating with metal atoms
(short-wave
radiation)
Glass
Lead-in
Action of ultraviolet wire Hot filament Vibration of
light on phosphor gives out light metal atoms
produces visible Glass bulb increases
light (long-wave temperature
radiation) Seal Coiled tungsten
filament
SECTION OF PHOSPHOR COATING OF Glass support
FLUORESCENT TUBE: HOW FLUORESCENT Mixture of unreactive
LIGHT IS PRODUCED Screw fitting gases at low pressure
Electrical contact Electrical contact
REFLECTION OF LIGHT REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Incident laser light Glass (transparent substance)
Mirror Incident laser light
Light enters
Mirror substance
support
Light slows down
Light strikes and bends as passes
smooth surface at from air to glass
an angle, which
reflects it at the Light speeds up as
same angle leaves glass

Refracted
Reflected
(bent) light
light
10 -18 10 -17 10 -16 10 -15 10 -14 10 -13 10 -12 10 -11 10 -10 10 -9 10 -8




10 -6 10 -7 10 -8 10 -9 10 -10 10 -11 10 -12 10 -13 10 -14 10 -15 10 -16 10 -17

Visible Ultraviolet X-rays Gamma rays
light radiation





319

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTR Y
Force and Single-pulley system SIMPLE MACHINES Four-pulley
system (compound
Two-pulley system
pulley)
(simple pulley)
(simple pulley)
Pulley wheel
motion Simple pulley only changes Pulley wheel Two pulley
wheels
direction of a force
FORCES ARE PUSHES OR PULLS that change the Effort is the
motion of objects. To make a stationary object same size as the Effort is Effort is
load (10 N) and half the load one quarter
move, or a moving object stop, a force is needed. (5 N), but the
is pulled the of the load
A force is also required to change the speed or same distance rope must be (2.5 N), but
pulled twice
direction of an object. This change in speed or the rope
One rope the distance must be
direction is known as acceleration. Acceleration depends
attached pulled four
on the size (magnitude) of the force, and on the mass of to load Two ropes times the
the object. The effects of forces were first summarized by share the distance
Load force and
Isaac Newton in his three laws of motion. The international
of 10 N distance Four
unit of force, named after him, is the newton (N), which is ropes
Pulley share the
approximately equal to the weight of one apple. Gravity—the force of
wheel force and
attraction between any two masses—can be measured using a newton distance
meter (spring balance). Forces are put to useful effect in machines. A
simple machine, such as a wheel and axle, is a device that changes the
size or direction of an applied force. It allows an applied force (the effort) Load
to produce another force (the load). A lever uses a bar that turns on a of 10 N
fulcrum to exert force. In all simple machines, there is a relationship
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND PULLEYS
between force and distance. A small force (in a compound pulley, for
instance) moves through a large distance to lift a heavy object Two
pulley
a small distance. This is called the Law of Simple Machines. wheels
NEWTON METERS (SPRING BALANCES)
Pedal
Wheel and axle Load
Weight is measured multiplies the effort of 10 N
using a spring
Effort, provided by
When weight pulls Force is transmitted cyclist’s muscles, is
downward, pointer to the wheels by the chain smaller than the load,
moves along scale Crank but moves through a
and measures force greater distance
A larger force,
the load, is
Weight is 10 N produced
WHEEL AND AXLE
at the axle
Weight is 20 N Effort, a
A screw, acting like turning force
a wedge wrapped supplied Effort Ax blade has
around a shaft, through a pushes ax wedge shape
multiplies the effort screwdriver into wood
Wedge
Mass of 1 kg Pitch multiplies
(the angle A larger effort
of the screw force, the
thread) load, moves
Mass of 2 kg The smaller the through
angle of pitch, a smaller
WEIGHT AND MASS the less force is distance to
The “mass” of an object is a measure of the required, but A larger push wood
quantity of matter that it possesses. Mass is more turns are force, the apart
usually measured in grams (g) or kilograms needed to move load, pulls
(kg). The “weight” of an object is the force it through a the screw
exerted on the object’s mass by gravity. Since greater distance into wood
weight is a force, its unit is the newton (N). SCREW WEDGE
320

FORCE AND MOTION
NEWTON’S THREE LAWS OF MOTION


NEWTON’S FIRST LAW
When no force acts on a body, it will Constant
continue in a state of rest or uniform motion. speed
Newton meter
Newton meter shows
no applied force shows no
Mass of 1 kg Mass of 1 kg applied force



Mass of trolley Trolley is not in motion, and will Trolley is in motion, and will continue at a
is negligible remain at rest until a force acts constant speed in a straight line until a force acts
NO FORCE, NO ACCELERATION: STATE OF REST NO FORCE, NO ACCELERATION: UNIFORM MOTION


NEWTON’S SECOND LAW
When a force acts on a body, the motion of the body will change. The size of the change
will depend upon the mass of the object and the magnitude of the applied force.
Trolley and mass (2 kg)
Acceleration Trolley and mass (1 kg) gain Acceleration is gain 1 meter per second of
is 2 ms -2 2 meters per second of speed 1 ms -2 speed each second (1 ms -2 )
each second (2 ms -2 )
Newton meter registers Newton meter
Mass of 1 kg force of 2 N Mass of 2 kg registers force of 2 N




With the same applied force, an object with 2 kg mass
accelerates at half the rate of object with 1 kg mass
FORCE AND ACCELERATION: SMALL MASS, LARGE ACCELERATION FORCE AND ACCELERATION: LARGE MASS, SMALL ACCELERATION

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW
If one object exerts a force on another, an equal and opposite force, Newton meters pull on each other with
called the reaction force, is applied by the second object on the first. equal and opposite forces
Acceleration: the trolley and Newton meter registers Newton meter registers
mass accelerate at 2 ms -2 force of 2 N to the left force of 2 N to the right
Mass of 1 kg

Person experiences
a reaction force
ACTION AND REACTION

THREE CLASSES OF LEVER
Fulcrum,
between effort Load is applied
and load
Fulcrum at open end
Effort forces
tongs together
Effort Load, Load is smaller
between effort than effort, but
Load is and fulcrum
greater than moves through
greater distance
effort, but moves Effort is smaller than load, but Effort, between
through smaller
moves through greater distance fulcrum and load Fulcrum
distance
CLASS 1 LEVER CLASS 2 LEVER CLASS 3 LEVER
Pliers consist of two class 1 levers. Nutcrackers consist of two class 2 levers. Tongs consist of two class 3 levers.
321



RAIL AND ROAD




STEAM LOCOMOTIVES ........................................ 324
DIESEL TRAINS .................................................. 326
ELECTRIC AND HIGH-SPEED TRAINS .................. 328
TRAIN EQUIPMENT ............................................ 330
TROLLEYS AND BUSES ........................................ 332
THE FIRST CARS ................................................ 334
ELEGANCE AND UTILITY .................................... 336
MASS-PRODUCTION ............................................. 338
THE “PEOPLE’S CAR” ....................................... 340
EARLY ENGINES ................................................. 342
MODERN ENGINES ............................................. 344
ALTERNATIVE ENGINES ...................................... 346
BODYWORK ........................................................ 348
MECHANICAL COMPONENTS ............................... 350
CAR TRIM .......................................................... 352
HYBRID CAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
RACE CARS ......................................................... 356
BICYCLE ANATOMY ............................................. 358
BICYCLES ............................................................ 360
THE MOTORCYCLE ............................................. 362
THE MOTORCYCLE CHASSIS ............................... 364
MOTORCYCLE ENGINES ...................................... 366
COMPETITION MOTORCYCLES ............................ 368

RAIL AND ROAD
Steam ROCKET STEAM LOCOMOTIVE, 1829



locomotives Chimney steam from
Pipe takes
boiler to Remains of
Smokebox cylinder firebox
WAGONS THAT ARE PULLED along tracks have been used
to transport material since the 16th century, but these Regulator
Leaf spring (throttle) Valve
trains were drawn by men or horses until the invention chest
of the steam locomotive. Steam locomotives enabled the Rocke Wrought-
basic railroad system to realize its true potential. In 1804, nameplate iron boiler Valve
setting
Richard Trevithick built the world’s first working steam control
locomotive in South Wales. It was not entirely
successful, but it encouraged others to develop
Wooden
new designs. By 1829, the British engineer buffer
Robert Stephenson had built the Rocket, beam
considered to be the forerunner of the modern
locomotive. The Rocket was a self-sufficient
unit, carrying coal to heat the boiler and a water
supply for generating steam. Steam passed from Wooden
the boiler to force the pistons back and forth, driving
wheel
and this movement turned the driving wheels,
propelling the train forward. Used steam was then
expelled in characteristic puffs. Later steam
locomotives, like Ellerman Lines and the Mallard,
Ballast
worked in a similar way, but on a much larger scale. Metal tire Wooden Piston Carrying
Rail chair
The simple design and reliability of steam locomotives tie rod wheel
Axle Wrought-
ensured that they changed very little in 120 years of Driver’s
iron rail Cylinder platform
use, before being replaced from the 1950s by more
efficient diesel and electric power (see pp. 326-329). ELLERMAN LINES, 1949 (CUTAWAY VIEW)
Stay
Vacuum Panel brace Water Coal space Tender hand brake Cab Firebox Brick arch
reservoir tank
Panel
Water filler sheeting
Hand
rail






Buffer






Footplate
Brake Wheel Tender Brake Water float Water Step Coupling
vacuum guard Axle Axle wheel rigging to indicate float Grate
pipe box water level lever Axle box Coil spring
cover Fire drawn
TENDER Trailing wheel into fire tubes

324

STEAM LOCOMOTIVES

CAB INTERIOR OF MALLARD EXPRESS STEAM LOCOMOTIVE, 1938

Steam sanding control Blower isolator valve Pressure gauge isolator valve
Vacuum brake Steam heating
isolator valve isolator valve
Steam chest Sliding roof vent
pressure gauge
Boiler pressure
Vacuum brake gauge
pressure gauge
Gauge glass to
Blower control
show level of
water in boiler
Regulator controls
flow of steam Exhaust steam water
injector control
to cylinders
Cab side window Steam heating
pressure gauge
Vacuum brake lever
Glass deflector
Live steam water
injector control Whistle lever
Manual Cylinder drain
sanding lever cock lever
Control valve for
Reverser handle
hot water hose
Driver’s seat
Fireman’s seat
Steam-operated
reversing shaft Steam heat
lock control Oil can warming tray Firebox Firehole Firebox door safety valve

Fire tube Steam dome Mechanical lubricator
Pipe takes steam Chimney
Thermal Regulator Superheater tube from boiler to
siphon valve inside flue tube Boiler cylinder Blast pipe
Smokebox

Smokebox
door

Lubricating
pipe
Piston valve

Buffer








Screw
Brake shoe Expansion lever Slide bar coupling
Driving Combination Bogie
Brake rigging wheel Crank Connecting rod lever Piston, linked to frame Leading
connecting rod wheel
Coupling rod STEAM LOCOMOTIVE Cylinder

325

RAIL AND ROAD
FRONT VIEW OF UNION PACIFIC
Diesel trains DIESEL-ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE, 1950S


Exhaust Windshield Cab front
RUDOLF DIESEL FIRST DEMONSTRATED the diesel engine vent wiper Horn window Headlight
in Germany in 1898, but it was not until the 1940s that diesel
locomotives were successfully established on both passenger Cab Name of
door operating
and freight services in the US. Early diesel locomotives like railroad
the Union Pacific were more expensive to build than steam
locomotives, but were more efficient and cheaper to operate,
Illuminated
especially where oil was plentiful. One feature of diesel engines locomotive
is that the power output cannot be coupled directly to the wheels. unit number
To convert the mechanical energy produced by diesel engines,
a transmission system is needed. Almost all diesel locomotives
have electric transmissions, and are known as diesel-electric Railroad
crest
locomotives. The diesel engine works by drawing air into the
cylinders and compressing it to increase its temperature; a small
quantity of diesel fuel is then injected into it. The resulting
combustion drives the generator (more recently an alternator)
to produce electricity, which is fed to electric motors connected
to the wheels. Diesel-electric locomotives are essentially
electric locomotives that carry their own power plants, Cab Step Motor-driven Air-brake Center buck-
and are used worldwide today. The Deltic diesel-electric step bogie axle coupling eye coupler
hose
locomotive, similar to the one shown here, replaced
classic express steam locomotives, and ran
at speeds up to 100 mph (160 kph). PROTOTYPE DELTIC DIESEL-ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE, 1956
Engine room vent Inspection hatch Engine exhaust port Radiator fan Engine room window Engine room vent


































Fuel tank Water for Inspection Folding Drain for Radiator Sand Telescopic Drain for
heating boiler socket step radiator coolant coolant box damper control reservoir

326

DIESEL TRAINS
DIESEL ENGINE OF BRITISH RAIL CLASS 20
DIESEL-ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE
EXAMPLES OF FREIGHT CARS
Cylinder head Turbo-charged diesel
Exhaust vent (V-four configuration) engine drives generator

Generator
cooling fan
Generator
compartment
vent
BOX CAR
Auxiliary
generator
Main generator
produces
electricity that
drives wheels
Main chassis
member HOPPER CAR
Innermost
wheel set on Engine crankcase
cab-end bogie
Brake Battery Air reservoir and Lubricating oil
Air brake pipe rigging box isolator valves primary pump and
fuel supply pump

Driver’s seat
Cab Warning horn REFRIGERATOR CAR
door Cab
Windshield

Windshield wiper
Cab window
Manufacturer’s
logo

LIVESTOCK CAR
Cab vent






Indicator FLAT CAR WITH BULKHEADS
light
Sand box

Buffer

Brake cylinder

Roller-bearing AUTOMOBILE CAR
axle box
Brake Brake Transverse leaf spring Coil spring primary
shoe actuating chain secondary suspension suspension

327

RAIL AND ROAD

Electric and

HOW ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)
ELECTRIC TRAINS WORK
high -speed trains Running rail
for return
Feeder station
current provides current Catenary
THE FIRST ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE ran in 1879 in Berlin, Vacuum
circuit
Germany. In Europe, electric trains developed as a more
breaker
efficient alternative to the steam locomotive and diesel-
Pantograph
electric power. Like diesels, electric trains employ electric Thyristor converter collects current
converts current (ac)
motors to drive the wheels but, unlike diesels, the electricity
to direct current (dc)
is generated externally at a power station. Electric current
is picked up either from a catenary (overhead cable) via a
pantograph, or from a third rail. Since it does not carry its own
power-generating equipment, an electric locomotive has a better
power-to-weight ratio and greater acceleration than its diesel-
Traction motor Transformer Axle
electric equivalent. This makes electric trains suitable for urban
turns wheel steps down brush
routes with many stops. They are also faster, quieter, and cause voltage
Control circuit
less pollution. The latest electric French TGV (Train à Grande
Vitesse) reaches 185 mph (300 kph); other trains, like the
London to Paris and Brussels Eurostar, can run at several voltages FRONT VIEW OF ITALIAN STATE
and operate between different countries. Simpler electric trains RAILROADS CLASS 402 ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE
perform special duties—the “People Mover” at Gatwick Airport
in London runs between terminals. Collector strip for
electric current
FRONT VIEW OF PARIS METRO
Double-arm pantograph
Route number Door open ∕shut Headlight
indicator light
Windshield wiper Windshield
wiper
Driver’s seat
Italian State
Unit number Handle Railroad crest
Operator’s initials Front light Number of electric
(Régie Autonome (white) (E) locomotive
des Transports (class 402 No. 5)
Parisien) Rear light
(red) Buffer
Rubber
running wheel Buffing pad Jumper cable
Front
Guard for Rubber light (white) Conventional
rubber wheel guide wheel hook-screw
Rear light (red) coupling
SIDE VIEW OF SHANGHAI MAGLEV TRAIN












Automatic door Onboard levitation magnet Driver compartment Guideway

328

ELECTRIC AND HIGH-SPEED TRAINS
EUROSTAR MULTIVOLTAGE ELECTRIC TRAIN
Cab side-
Electric
window
equipment Cab Side
Cab front compartment door vent
Cab window Grill over window
warning horn
Headlight
Rear light (white)
(red)

Fiberglass
Fiberglass reinforced
reinforced
plastic cover
plastic cover
Airfoil wheel
Airfoil wheel guard
guard
Sanding
FRONT VIEW pipe Leading Horizontal Third (electric) Coil spring
driven axle telescopic damper rail collector shoe suspension
SIDE VIEW
TGV ELECTRIC HIGH-SPEED TRAIN

Luggage rack Main overhead lighting

Reading light Automatic electric
car end door

Double-glazed and Antimacassar
tinted side window
Headrest
Sliding curtain
Armrest
Seat
Center gangway
INTERIOR OF TGV

Cab door Hand rail Side vent Roof vent
Cab side window
Cab front window

Windshield
wiper
Emergency
exit door

Access
panel for
servicing

Nose air
deflector dam




Vertical damper Horizontal damper SIDE VIEW OF TGV

329

RAIL AND ROAD

Train equipment MECHANICAL SEMAPHORE SIGNAL
Red, square-ended
arm in raised position
means “all clear”
MODERN RAILROAD TRACK consists of two parallel steel rails clipped
on to a support called a railroad tie. Railroad ties are usually made of
reinforced concrete, although wood and steel are still used. The distance
Red glass
between the inside edges of the rails is the track gauge. It evolved in Britain,
which uses a gauge of 4 ft 8½ in (1,435 mm), known as the standard gauge. As
engineering grew more sophisticated, narrower gauges were adopted because Green glass
they cost less to build. The loading gauge, which is equally important, determines
the size of the largest loaded vehicle that may pass through tunnels and under
bridges with adequate clearance. Safe train operation relies on following a Actuating
lever system
signaling system. At first, signaling was based on a simple time interval between
trains, but it now depends on maintaining a safe distance between successive
Motor operating
trains traveling in the same direction. Most modern signals are color lights, but
“home” stop
older mechanical semaphore signals are still used. On the latest high-speed lines, signal
train drivers receive control instructions by electronic means. Signaling depends
on reliable control of the train by effective braking. For fast, modern trains,
which have considerable momentum, it is essential that each vehicle
in the train can be braked by the driver or by a train control Green glass
system, such as Automatic Train Protection (ATP). Braking is
achieved by the brake shoe acting on the wheel rim (rim brakes), Yellow glass
Yellow,“distant”
by disc brakes, or, increasingly, by electrical braking.
warning arm
in horizontal Tubular
FOUR-ASPECT COLOR LIGHT SIGNAL
position means steel post
“caution”
Lifting lug
Glass Ladder
(yellow) Lamp shield
Clip
Glass
(green)

Yellow
glass (lit) Electrical
relay box
Glass
(red) Base

FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW
HOW A MODERN MAIN-LINE SIGNALING SYSTEM WORKS
Green “all clear” light
instructs train B to proceed
Red “stop” light instructs Green “all clear” light into this section of track
next train not to enter instructs train B to proceed
this section of track into this section of track Green “all clear” light
instructs train B to proceed
into this section of track
Pantograph Catenary





Train B Track


330

TRAIN EQUIPMENT
EXAMPLES OF INTERNATIONAL TRACK GAUGES EXAMPLES OF INTERNATIONAL
LOADING GAUGES
Britain: 9 ft 0 in (2.75 m) × 12 ft 11 in (3.95 m)

Europe: 10 ft 2 in (3.1 m) × 14 ft 9 in (4.5 m)
US: 10 ft 10 in (3.3 m) × 16 ft 2 in (4.9 m)
3 ft 3½ in 3 ft 6 in 4 ft 8½ in Russia: 11 ft 2 in (3.4 m) × 17 ft 4 in (5.3 m)
(1,000 mm) (1,067 mm) (1,435 mm)
East Africa, Japan, Australia, US, Canada, China,
India, Sudan, West Africa, Egypt, Turkey, Iran,
Malaysia, South Africa, and Japan, Peru, Britain,
Chile, and New Zealand Europe, Australia,
Argentina Brazil, and Mexico









5 ft 0 in 5 ft 3 in 5 ft 6 in 4 ft 8½ in (1,435 5 ft 0 in
(1,524 mm) (1,600 mm) (1,676 mm) mm ) Standard (1,524 mm)
Russia, Spain, Ireland, Australia, India, Pakistan, track gauge Track gauge of Russia,
Portugal, and and Brazil and Argentina with largest loading gauge
Finland
FLAT-BOTTOMED RAIL DISC BRAKES ON MODERN WAGON BOGIE
Airbag secondary
Flat-bottomed steel rail
Base of wagon suspension
Railroad tie
supports track
Steel spring secures and maintains
rail to railroad tie
gauge
Synthetic
insulating pad
BULL-HEAD RAIL
Wooden “key” secures Bull-head pattern
rail in chair steel rail
Cast-iron chair
Steel tapered Damper Hand Axle
screw fastens
Wooden brake
chair to railroad Brake Brake calliper wheel Wheel
railroad tie
tie disc
Green “all clear” light
Two yellow “preliminary instructs train A to proceed
caution” lights instruct train Yellow “caution” light into this section of track
B that it must stop in two instructs train B that it
signals’ time must stop at next signal Red “stop” light instructs
train B not to enter
this section of track






Braking distance Train A


331

RAIL AND ROAD

Trolleys and buses


AS CITY POPULATIONS exploded in TROLLEY, c.1900
the 1800s, there was an urgent need for
mass transportation. Trolleys were an Trolley boom Trolley
head
early solution. The first trolleys, like buses,
Trolley base
were horse-drawn, but in 1881, electric Drop window
streetcars appeared in Berlin, Germany. Upper deck
Quarter light
Electric streetcars soon became widespread
throughout Europe and North America.
Trolleys run on rails along a fixed route,
METROLINK using electric motors that receive power
TROLLEY,
MANCHESTER, UK from overhead cables. As road networks Brake
developed, motorized buses offered a flexible alternative to
trolleys. By the 1930s, they had replaced trolley systems in Stair
many cities. City buses typically have doors at both front and
rear to make loading and unloading easier. Double-decker
designs are popular, occupying the same amount of street Lower deck Underframe Platform
space as single-decker buses but able to transport twice the
Controller Truck Lifeguard
number of people. Buses are also commonly used for inter-
city travel and touring. Tour buses have reclining seats, large
windows, luggage space, and toilets. Recently, as city traffic
has become increasingly congested, many city planners have MCW METROBUS, LONDON, UK
designed new electric streetcar routes to run alongside bus
Square roof dome
routes as part of an integrated transportation system.
Upper deck
air intake
Window vent Mirror for driver
to see upstairs
Upper deck
windshield Route
number
Route information Operator’s
logo
Destination screen Destination
screen
Side
Side mirror mirror
Asymmetric Side
windshield mirror

Windshield Permit
wiper holder
Sidelight
Turning
Headlight indicator
Grill Front
bumper
Fog light
License plate Manufacturer’s Entrance Emergency
badge door door control Turning
indicator
FRONT VIEW

332

TROLLEYS AND BUSES
SINGLE-DECKER BUS, NEW YORK CITY

Wheelchair access Sliding window Sloped roof dome Marker light Repeater
indicator
Entrance
door Side
Tinted
mirror
glass Route
number Headlight
Bumper Turning
indicator
Air intake Exit Access panel Entrance License plate
Tire Axle door Sidelight door Bumper
SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW
DOUBLE-DECKER TOUR BUS, PARIS, FRANCE

Tinted glass Raked
windshield
Air intake Panoramic
window
Access panel Turning
indicator
Skirt Bumper
Access Side Single Plug-style entrance door
door Twin entrance front axle Tire
rear axle
Sliding window vent




Upper saloon
window


Advertising
panel

Air intake



Lower saloon
window

Fleet number

Engine
access panel

Rear bumper

Emergency Two-leaf style Legal London Tire Skirt
door control exit door lettering Buses logo
Axle
SIDE VIEW

333

RAIL AND ROAD

The first cars STEAM-POWERED CUGNOT FARDIER, 1770
Twin cylinder engine

Steam Rocking Wooden wheel
THE EARLIEST ROAD VEHICLE powered by an Chimney pipe beam Steering tiller (artillery wheel)
engine, the Cugnot steam traction engine,
Brake Seat Wooden Load
was built in 1770. More practical steam Haystack pedal frame space
carriages, such as the Bordino, were boiler
available in the early 19th century,
but they were heavy and cumbersome.
Restrictive laws and the introduction of
railroads, faster and able to carry more
Carrying
passengers, saw the decline of “cars” fork
powered by steam. It was not until 1860 Piston Step Broad,
that the first practical power unit for road vehicles rod Log basket rough
Ratchet Single front tire
was developed, with the invention of the internal wheel driving wheel
combustion engine by the Belgian
Etienne Lenoir. By around 1890, Chimney
BORDINO STEAM CARRIAGE, 1854
Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler in
Germany, and Albert de Dion and Hood iron Landau body Drop-down
(landau iron) window
Armand Peugeot in France were
building cars for sale to the public. Leather
These early cars, despite being hood
primitive, expensive, and produced Fire-tube boiler
in limited numbers,
heralded the Safety valve Sprung chassis
age of the Safety valve Water
automobile. weight tank
Coke hopper
Chauffeur’s seat
(stoker’s seat;
spider seat;
tiger seat)













Step


Tie bar Tie rod Steam chest
Full-elliptic leaf spring Connecting Twin-cylinder
rod steam engine
Iron tire
Wooden spoke
Unsprung chassis
Wooden wheel (artillery wheel) Hub Steam distributor valve

334

THE FIRST CARS
SIDE VIEW OF GAS-DRIVEN BENZ MOTORWAGEN, 1886 REAR VIEW OF BENZ MOTORWAGEN, 1886
Brake Brake Cooling water tank Pinion Lubricator Cooling tank
Steering tiller quadrant lever Crown wheel
Full-elliptic leaf Driving
Steering column spring pulley
Bevel gear Fuel
Steering rack tank Drive
Final drive belt
Steering link sprocket
Seat
Steering spring
head




Driven
pulley
Big-end Groove for
bearing rope starter
Wheel Tubular Driving Crankshaft Flywheel
fork chassis chain
Hub
Driving sprocket Solid Tangent-spoked
rubber tire wire wheel
Candle lamp Driver’s seat
Steering tiller
Brake lever Seat squab
OVERHEAD VIEW OF BENZ
Dashboard MOTORWAGEN, 1886
Steering link

Steering
Headlight Footboard tiller

Brake
lever Tool and
battery
Round pin box
Splinter bar Trembler
coil box
Towing
hook
Intake
Forecarriage pipe

Single cylinder
Fuel tank
Cooling water tank
Oil-filled lubricator
Flywheel

Steam
pipe Spoke Drive belt
Crown wheel
Frame Crankshaft Driving pulley

335

RAIL AND ROAD

Elegance 1904 OLDSMOBILE SINGLE-CYLINDER ENGINE
Crankcase
Oil bottle dripfeed
Starting
Exhaust pipe handle
and utility Cylinder head bracket


DURING THE FIRST DECADE OF THE 2OTH CENTURY, the Cylinder Starter cog
motorist who could afford it had a choice of some of the finest
Carburetor Engine
cars ever made. These handbuilt cars were powerful and
timing gear
luxurious, using the finest woods, leathers, and cloths, and Crankshaft
bodywork made to the customer’s individual requirements; some
had six-cylinder engines as big as 15 liters. The price of such cars was
several times that of an average house, and their yearly running costs
were also very high. As a result, basic, utilitarian cars became popular. Flywheel
Gear
Costing perhaps one-tenth of the price of a luxury car, these cars had band
very little trim and often had only single-cylinder engines.

FRONT VIEW OF 1906 RENAULT SIDE VIEW OF 1906 RENAULT
Mahogany framed Cast aluminum
Canopy Windshield wheel spider Luggage grid
Rear
British Automobile window Button-quilted
Association badge upholstery
Bedford cord
upholstery
Window Mahogany-
blind British framed plate
Royal glass window
Blind pull Automobile
Club badge
Window Rearview
lift strap mirror
Round-corner
Broad Lamp bracket single limousine
lace coachwork
trim Oil side lamp
Windshield
support Dashboard
radiator
Fender
(wing)
Rear oil
Brass bevel Access lamp
panel
Hood catch
Bail handle Lifting
handle
Mirror
reflector Shock
absorber
Acetylene
headlight Steering
spindle
Hub
Elliott
steering Hub cap
Chevron- knuckle
tread tire Front axle Beaded edge tire
Screwdown Track rod
Dumb iron greaser Starting handle Tire security bolt

336

ELEGANCE AND UTILITY
1904 OLDSMOBILE TRIM AND BODYWORK 1904 OLDSMOBILE CHASSIS
Seat back
rest frame
Reflector Front steering
Dashboard track-rod Front
Rear spring
lamp
Brake
Engine Tiller rod Full-
cover elliptic
handle steering
Brake Steering spring
Engine pedal wiffletree
cover
Throttle
pedal Front
Fender Rear Starting axle
Mirror spring handle
bracket
Ignition
Fender stay switch Combined spring
and chassis unit Non-skid
Seat squab tire
Openable
Brass scrollwork Blind pull Canopy windshield
Brass bevel


Oil side
Division lamp
Dashboard
Hood
Handbrake
Broad
lace Leather Steering
trim upholstery wheel Water pipe
Gear Plug lead Acetylene
lever
conduit headlight
Fuel∕air
intake pipe
Bi-block engine

Bulb
horn










Spare Dashboard
tire
radiator

Wooden
Jump seat (opera Tire Running Leather Tire Hood Exhaust Starting artillery
seat; strapontin) Rim clamp carrier board valance strap support manifold handle wheel

337

RAIL AND ROAD
FRONT VIEW OF 1913 FORD MODEL T
Mass-production Throttle lever Openable

windshield
THE FIRST CARS WERE HAND-ASSEMBLED from
individually built parts, a time-consuming Steering wheel
procedure that required skilled mechanics and
Ignition lever Windshield
made cars very expensive. This problem was solved, stay
in America, by a Detroit car manufacturer named Dashboard
Henry Ford; he introduced mass-production by Side lamp
using standardized parts, and later combined Spring
Bulb horn shock
these with a moving production line. The work
absorber
was brought to the workers, each of whom
performed one simple task in the construction Fender
process as the chassis moved along the line.
Headlight
The first mass-produced car, the Ford Model T,
was launched in 1908 and was available in a Radiator
limited range of body styles and colors.
Front transverse
However, when the production line was leaf spring
introduced in 1914, the color range was cut
back; the Model T became available, as Henry Ford
said, in “any color you like, so long as it’s black.” Ford
cut the production time for a car from several days to
about 12 hours, and eventually to minutes, making
cars much cheaper than before. As a result, by 1920 License Starting
Front axle plate handle Steering
half the cars in the world were Model T Fords.
knuckle
Steering spindle connecting-rod
STAGES OF FORD MODEL T PRODUCTION
Track rod
Left half of Pinion Rear leaf spring Demountable Hub brake
differential housing (cross-member) Steering wheel shoe Steering
Hub bolt arm King pin wheel


Pinion
housing Front transverse
leaf spring
Rear
Differential housing Chassis frame spring
perch
Front cross-member Radius rod
Rear Battery
axle carrier


Body mount
Bearing sleeve
King pin
Half-
shaft
Crown Torque tube
Right half of wheel Bevel
differential pinion Front Demountable Radius rod
housing Rear axle axle wheel
bearing Running
board support
Hub brake shoe

338

MASS-PRODUCTION
SIDE VIEW OF 1913 FORD MODEL T


Rear
seat Hood Steering
Hood frame Front Steering column Windshield
seat wheel
Rear Side lamp
door Horn Radiator filler cap
bulb Hood
Radiator
filler neck
Front
fender
Rear fender Spring
(rear wing) shock
absorber




Tire valve
Drain plug Horn


Wooden-spoked
wheel
Running board Spare Dummy Radius rod
Hub cap tire front door Radiator shell
Valance
Starter Headlight
Steering Fuel Running board switch rim
column Bun lamp sediment bracket Light
Demountable burner bowl switch Headlight
Drag link wheel

Handbrake
Ruckstell axle Hood Steering
Track clip gearbox Radiator
Starter rod Rear cross- Brake hose
member drum
Drop arm
Drag link
Crank Torque Greaser
handle tube
Cylinder
Transmission block Brake
casing Tank rod Front wing stay Carburetor
Radiator support
apron

Demountable
wheel
Radiator Steering Clincher
arm wheel Battery Hood clip
strap Reflector
Handbrake Running board Detachable Fender
quadrant support rim Headlight Running eye bolt
shell board

339

RAIL AND ROAD
The “people’s car” WORKING PARTS OF

VOLKSWAGEN BEETLE

THE MOST POPULAR CAR in the history of car manufacture is Fuel tank
the Volkswagen Beetle, originally called the KdF Wagen.
Steering tie-rod
The car was developed in Germany in the 1930s by Fuel tank
Dr. Ferdinand Porsche. At that time, Germany had sender unit
Fuel filler
only half the number of cars of Britain or France,
Windshield- neck
and Adolf Hitler took a personal interest in the wiper motor
development of the Volkswagen (“people’s car”). assembly
Steering box
The intention was to provide a new industry,
Steering assembly
new jobs, and a car so cheap that idler
anyone with a job could afford it.
Dr. Porsche designed a car that
was cheap to build and run; its
rear-mounted, air-cooled engine Frame
head
cut down the number of parts
needed and also reduced weight. Anti-roll bar
However, few civilians managed to Brake back Suspension
strut
obtain the Beetle before the outbreak plate Track
of World War II in 1939. After the control Pedal
arm
war, the Beetle proved so popular cluster
that eventually more than 20 million
were sold. Dust shroud Strut insert
(shock
Front suspension absorber)
CUSTOMIZED top mount Gear
VOLKSWAGEN lever knob
BEETLE

Rear Quarter Front
lamp Air scoop light road spring
Seat mount
Hood Front suspension
top mount
Handbrake
Floor pan
(platform chassis)
Indicator
Torsion bar cover
Pressed Fuel Rear
Tail steel filler cap brake Trailing
pipe wheel drum arm

FLAT-FOUR Tire
CYLINDER
ARRANGEMENT Sports wheel
Counterweight
Piston Rear shock absorber Drive shaft
Transaxle (gearbox Heat exchanger
and final drive)
Clutch and flywheel Starter motor
Crankshaft
Flat-four engine
Connecting rod
Big end (con-rod) Air filter Tail pipe

340

THE “ PEOPLE ’ S CAR”
BODY SHELL OF
VOLKSWAGEN BEETLE
Front bumper Hood release
Left side handle Right side
headlight unit headlight unit
Chrome
Left turn trim strip
signal lens Hood Right turn
signal lens



Left front
fender Right front
fender
Front
fender Spare Front
piping tire fender
well piping
Hood
Blade hinge
Vent window
Right side
running Mirror
Arm Left side board
running
Windshield wiper board Door catch






Steering
column
Wind
deflector
(baffle) Sun roof

Quarter Door
light handle
Window winder
Passenger door handle
Body shell
Window
winder
regulator
Rear Drop glass
fender
piping Rear
Air intake fender
vents piping
Engine lid
Rear valance (engine cover)

Left side rear Air Right side
fender License intake rear fender
plate vents
light
License plate Right taillight
Left taillight
Rear bumper

341

RAIL AND ROAD
TROJAN TWO-STROKE ENGINE, 1927
Early engines Port linking combustion

chambers of upper
and lower cylinders Water connection
STEAM AND ELECTRICITY were used to power cars until
early this century, but neither power source was ideal. Electric Upper paired cylinder
cars had to stop frequently to recharge their heavy batteries, and Spark plug
steam cars gave smooth power delivery but were too complicated
for the average driver to use. A rival power source, the internal Wide piston-ring
combustion engine, was invented in 1860 by Etienne Lenoir Transfer port
(see pp. 334-335). This engine converted the force of a controlled
Wire gauze pad
explosion into rotary motion, to turn the wheels of a vehicle. Early
variations on this basic model included sleeve valves, Upper piston
separately cast cylinders, and the two-stroke combustion Flexible,
forked Flywheel
cycle. Today, many internal
BERSEY ELECTRIC connecting-
CAB, 1896 combustion engines, including the rod
Wankel rotary and diesels (see
pp. 346-347), use the four-stroke
cycle, first demonstrated by
Nikolaus Otto in 1876. The Otto cycle,
often described as “suck, squeeze,
bang, blow,” has proved the best
method of ensuring that the engine
turns over smoothly and that exhaust
Mounting emissions are controllable.
for tray of
40 batteries Housing for electric motors Counterweight
Big end
Crankcase
SECTIONED WHITE STEAM CAR, 1903 Steering wheel Throttle wheel
Brake Automatic cylinder
Flash steam Reverse lever lubricator
generator lever
Lamp
bracket High-pressure
cylinder
Rocking Exhaust
lever pipe
Water
pump
Condenser
Low-
pressure
cylinder





Fuel tank






Semi-elliptic Spiral Steel-reinforced Drop Water
spring Brake drum tubes wooden chassis arm tank Drag link Dumb iron

342

EARLY ENGINES
CYCLE OF A FOUR-STROKE INTERNAL 16-HORSEPOWER HUMBER ENGINE, 1911
COMBUSTION ENGINE
Brass housing for Inlet port
INDUCTION STROKE (“SUCK”) ignition cable Water pipe
Inlet valve Valve cap Spark plug
Exhaust
port closed Inlet port Side valve Pair-cast cylinder
opens (inlet valve)
Fan bracket
Fuel and air Water
(the “charge”) jacket
Piston sucked into Valve spring
moves cylinder Tappet
downward
Counterweight Timing chain

Crankshaft Crankpin Timing chest
COMPRESSION STROKE (“SQUEEZE”)
Exhaust port
closed
Charge Inlet Crankcase Starting
compressed port handle
by piston closed
Flywheel Oil sump
Piston Camshaft Oil pump
Connecting moves
rod (con-rod) upward
DAIMLER DOUBLE-SLEEVE VALVE ENGINE, 1910
OUTER SLEEVE
Spark plug socket Junk ring VALVE
Cylinder head Inlet port Oil
POWER STROKE (“BANG”) groove
Exhaust port Inlet manifold
Spark plug Inlet port
closed Outer sleeve valve Water jacket
Exhaust port
closed Cylinder wall Inner sleeve
Charge ignited valve
Explosion by spark plug Piston
pushes piston Carburetor
downward



Big end INNER SLEEVE
Engine VALVE
bearer
EXHAUST STROKE (“BLOW”) Sleeve
port
Exhaust Inlet port
valve closed
Exhaust Burned
port opens gases forced
out of cylinder
Piston moves
upward

Flywheel Eye for connecting
con-rods to secondary crankshaft

343

RAIL AND ROAD

Modern engines FRONT VIEW OF A FORD COSWORTH V6 12-VALVE
Plenum chamber
Idle control valve
Valve rocker
TODAY’S GASOLINE ENGINE WORKS on the same basic Oil dipstick
principles as the first car engines of a century ago, Power steering
pump reservoir
although it has been greatly refined. Modern engines, High-tension
often made from special metal alloys, are much Steering pump ignition lead
pulley (spark plug
lighter than earlier engines. Computerized ignition
lead)
systems, fuel injectors, and multivalve cylinder heads Cogged
achieve a more efficient combustion of the fuel ∕air drive belt Fan
mixture (the charge) so that less fuel is wasted. As a result
Alternator Crankshaft pulley
of this greater efficiency, the power and performance of a
modern engine are increased, and the level of pollution in Viscous coupling Oil sump
the exhaust gases is reduced. Exhaust pollution levels
FRONT VIEW OF A FORD COSWORTH V6 24-VALVE
today are also lowered by the increasing use of special
filters called catalytic converters, which absorb many Idle control valve Plenum chamber
exhaust pollutants. The need to produce ever more Exhaust gas Camshaft
efficient engines means that it can take up to seven recirculation valve timing gear
years to develop a new engine for a family car, Camshaft chain
Steering pump
at a cost of many millions of dollars.
drive pulley
Belt tensioner Air-
conditioning
Alternator pump
SECTIONED VIEW OF A JAGUAR STRAIGHT 6 cooling fan
Drive belt
Valve Cam Oil sump
Cam follower spring lobe Cam Combustion Crankshaft pulley
(bucket tappet) chamber Compression ring
Cam cover
Camshaft
Distributor
Cylinder head Fan
Air-
Valve stem conditioning
refrigerant
pipe
Exhaust
valve Suspension
self-leveling
Cylinder pump
liner
Power
Water jacket steering
pump
Piston
Swash plate
Connecting
rod (con-rod) Drive belt
Main
bearing
housing Compressor
piston
Big end
Transmission Air-conditioning
adaptor plate compressor
Crankcase
Crankshaft Oil pick- Anti-surge
counterweight Oil sump up pipe baffle Oil-control ring (scraper ring)

344

MODERN ENGINES
FRONT VIEW OF A JAGUAR V12 Distributor Piston
Fuel injector nozzle
Air Camshaft Crankshaft
cleaner sprocket Inlet manifold tract
Plenum
chamber
Camshaft
Cam follower
Coolant Piston ring land STRAIGHT 4
outlet CYLINDER
Piston ring groove ARRANGEMENT
Cam cover
Exhaust manifold
Piston skirt

Viscous coupling Gudgeon
pin

Cooling
fan Counterweight
Fan drive V12 CYLINDER
Alternator shaft Connecting ARRANGEMENT
rod (con-rod)
Belt pulley
Alternator pulley
Throttle Inlet Ignition amplifier
butterfly manifold
SECTIONED VIEW Fuel Throttle
OF A JAGUAR V12 Distributor drive shaft pipe linkage

Air inlet Exhaust valve
Cam cover
Inlet valve
Timing
chain
Oil feed pipe
Piston
crown Cylinder head
Piston Coolant rail
ring (water rail)
land
Exhaust
Water heat shield
pump
Exhaust
Piston manifold
Oil pipe
banjo
Ancillary
drive
pulley
Drive
Timing chain plate
drive sprocket
Starter
Connecting rod (con-rod) ring
Crankcase
Counterweight (balance weight) Main Oil filter
bearing Pipe to oil cooler Sump

345

RAIL AND ROAD

Alternative engines ROTARY-ENGINED MAZDA RX-7

Aerodynamic windscreen
THE MOST COMMON TYPE OF ALTERNATIVE ENGINE is the diesel engine, Headrest
which, instead of igniting the compressed fuel/air mixture with a spark, Hood bag
uses compression alone, heating the mixture to the point where
it explodes. A diesel engine’s fuel consumption is low
in comparison with similarly sized piston engines,
despite its heavier, reinforced moving parts and
cylinder block. Another type of engine is the rotary-
combustion, first successfully developed by Felix
Front spoiler Side marker Rubbing Cast alloy
Wankel in the 1950s. Its two trilobate (three-sided) rotors (chin spoiler) lamp strake wheel
revolve in housings shaped in a fat figure-eight. The four
sequences of the four-stroke cycle, which occur consecutively
REAR ROTOR
in a piston engine, occur simultaneously in a rotary engine, INTERMEDIATE HOUSING CHAMBER
producing power in a continuous stream.
FRONT ROTOR CHAMBER Oil filler Aluminium
Intake port alloy
WANKEL ROTARY ENGINE Trailing Dipstick Intake port backing
FRONT SIDE spark-plug tube
OIL-PUMP HOUSING HOUSING hole
Distributor fixing point
(drive point)





















Oil-pump drive Coolant Exhaust
passage port Water drain bolt Leading
spark-
THE WANKEL ROTARY CYCLE Leading spark- Trailing spark-plug hole plug hole
plug hole
Exhaust Intake port Exhaust port
port closed Burned gas
Fuel/air Vacuum sucks continues
mixture being in fuel/air to exhaust
compressed mixture
Burned Output
gas shaft
Gas exhausts turns
continues
Water to expand
passage Rotor gear Fuel/air mixture Compression
Trilobate continues to enter begins
Burning rotor Compression
gas Stationary gear continues Compressed gas Burned gas begins
expands (fixed gear) ignites to expand

346

ALTERNATIVE ENGINES
FORD Engine Oil filler cap
TURBOCHARGED lifting eye
DIESEL ENGINE Cam follower
Rocker cover
Valve return spring
Baffle plate
Water jacket
Inlet track
Water pump pulley
Turbo impeller (inlet rotor)
Compression ring
Turbo propeller
(exhaust rotor) Oil-control ring
Exhaust Piston
Accessory drive belt
Bell housing
Water jacket

Oil cooler
Engine Oil cooler matrix
REAR SIDE HOUSING block Oil filter
Oil
Chrome pan Oil return pipe
plating for turbocharger
Corner seal spring
ROTOR AND SEALS Rotor bearing Corner seal insert
Inner oil seal spring
Outer oil seal Rotor gear Corner seal
Inner oil seal
Side Rotor
gear
Balancing
drilling

Apex seal




Inner oil seal groove Apex seal
spring
Outer oil seal groove Apex
Outer oil seal groove
seal spring Hole for output shaft Side seal
spring Side seal
Side seal groove
Exhaust port
OUTPUT SHAFT
Front
counterweight
Front eccentric Oil hole Rear stationary
rotor journal gear (fixed gear)






Front Main Eccentric Rear eccentric
V-belt stationary journal shaft rotor journal
pulley gear (fixed
gear) Oil jet
Flywheel with balance weight


347

RAIL AND ROAD
Bodywork BODYWORK OF A RENAULT CLIO
Door
handle
THE BODY OF A MODERN mass-produced car is built on Door
the monocoque (single-shell) principle, in which the roof, lock
side panels, and floor are welded into a single integral unit.
This bodyshell protects and supports the car’s internal parts.
Steel and glass are used to construct the bodyshell, creating
RENAULT
LOGO a unit that is both light and strong. Its lightness helps to Left-hand
conserve energy, while its strength protects the occupants. Modern door glass
bodywork is designed with the aid of computers, which are used to
predict factors such as aerodynamic efficiency and impact-resistance.
High-technology is also employed on the production line, where robots
are used to assemble, weld, and paint the body.
Left-hand quarter glass
Window
Tailgate washer jet
support






















Heating
element
contact
Rear
window Tailgate
glass support Bodyshell
Tailgate
Rear
bumper Fuel
cap
Zinc phosphating
Right-hand
quarter glass
Degreased
bare metal

Right-hand
Primer door glass
Base coat Cataphoresic Door
color coating key and
lock
Varnish Chrome
passivation Door handle


348