Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire - 667 pages.

580 viatores of great repute. He was on the staff of GERMANICUS in the
East and in 19, after the death of the general, was consid-
Populonia on the western coast to Sabatia beyond ered as Cn. Calpurnius PISO’s replacement as governor of
Genoa. Constructed in 109 B.C.E. or 107 B.C.E. by SYRIA but lost to Gnaeus SENTIUS. Soon after he journeyed
Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, it was of considerable to ROME at the side of AGRIPPINA THE ELDER. Having sup-
value, for it connected Rome to the Via Postumia ported one avowed enemy of Tiberius he was neverthe-
and Gallia Narbonensis. less made proconsul of AFRICA (from 27 to 29). In 36, he
Via Traiana The major road constructed by was charged with treason and adultery but was later
Emperor TRAJAN in 109 C.E. to improve the route spared. Appointment as governor of Syria came finally in
from Beneventum to Brundisium (the southern 42, under CLAUDIUS. Until his departure in 45, Vibius
portion of the Via Appia). It is possible that Trajan maintained a suspicious eye on King AGRIPPA I, reporting
had the Via Traiana follow the approximate path on his strengthening of Jerusalem and breaking up the
of the ambiguous Via Minucia, but that is only conference held by the ruler. He also prevented the
speculation. Trajan’s Way probably stretched designs of VARDANES, king of Parthia, on Roman territory.
across a more eastern line, bypassing the rugged
Samnite terrain in favor of a coastal region Vibius Maximus, Gaius (fl. later first century C.E.)
through Apuleia. Writer and government official
Via Valeria A central Italian road, leaving Rome Vibius was a friend of the literary figures STATIUS and
and winding its way eastward to the Adriatic. The MARTIAL, receiving from the former the dedication for the
Via Valeria was not begun and completed with the Silvae. From Statius’s work it has been deduced that
single intent of connecting Rome to the Adriatic. Vibius was a historian and authored a Universal History.
Rather, it proceeded forward at widely separate While the history probably contained epitomes of SAL-
times. There was an ancient via called the Via LUST and Livy, it differed from them in terms of subjects
Triburtina, but it was absorbed in initial construc- treated. He was also the prefect of a cohort (III Alpino-
tion by the Censor Valerius (309 B.C.E. or 307 rum) in Dalmatia in 93–94 and served as prefect of Egypt
B.C.E.). More progress was made in 154 B.C.E. from 103 to 107.
under another censor, Marcus Valerius Messalla,
who was responsible for advancing the highway to vicarii Powerful political figures of the late empire who
Corfinum. CLAUDIUS made the last improvement acted as deputies to the Praetorian prefects, with control
by adding more territory, all the way to the coast. over groups of provinces. Traditionally, the term vicarius
Thus, on the Via Valeria were such towns as Tibur or vicarii referred to those officials who acted as substi-
(with Tivoli), Alba Fucens, and Aternum. tutes or temporary replacements for a governor of a
province who died or was away. They acted on the
viatores One of the classes of the apparitores, or civil assumption that their position was extraordinary and
servants to the magistrates in the Roman government. would terminate either on the return of the governor or
The viatores were the public bailiffs who had the duty of upon the naming of his replacement.
summoning senators to sessions, running assorted
errands, and executing the many duties assigned to them The special nature of the vicarii did not change with
by magistrates. They also had the duty of making arrests the increased centralization of the imperial administra-
and confiscating goods. Like the other apparitores, the tion in the second and third centuries C.E. Tied to the
viatores were drawn from the freedmen and the sons of Equestrian Order (EQUITES), they were sent out by an
freedmen, and were organized into a corporation of sev- emperor to act as his representative in a senatorial
eral decuriae (panels) depending on the class of the mag- province or in some specific jurisdiction. With the exten-
istrates they served. sive reforms of DIOCLETIAN came a major change in the
nature of the office. Henceforth the vicarii acted as
Vibius Crispus, Quintus (c. 10–90 C.E.) Orator from deputies to the Praetorian prefects with considerable
Vercellae rights. They heard all appeals from provincial governors,
He acquired the respect and friendship of Emperors watched over the administration programs of individuals
NERO, VITELLIUS, VESPASIAN, and DOMITIAN, and served as and oversaw the workings of groups of provinces, the
CONSUL under all except Vitellius. He was never very DIOCESES, as founded by Diocletian. They were, in turn,
popular, for he not only prosecuted many, using his answerable to the Praetorian prefects, who administered
formidable oratorical skills, but also survived the harsh the various prefectures in the new system. There were a
years of war and tyranny. number of exceptions. AFRICA and Asia were private hold-
ings of the emperors, managed exclusively by prefects of
Vibius Marsus, Gaius (fl. 17 C.E.) Consul and legate the imperial household. Further, Italy had two vicarii,
According to the historian TACITUS (1), Vibius Marsus one for Italy itself and the other for ROME, known as the
was descended from an illustrious family and was a man

vicarius urbis Romae. The vicarii remained part of the Vienna 581
imperial government until disbanded by Justinian in the
sixth century. Born into a pagan African family, Victorinus became a
noted and versatile intellectual of great reputation. Aside
See GOVERNMENT and DIOCESE. from his Neoplatonic books, translations of Aristotle,
Porphyry, and Plato (now lost), he wrote commentaries
vicarius See VICARII. on CICERO’s Topica (lost) and De inventione (extant).
There were, as well, an Ars grammatica, derived in the
Victor (fl. fourth century C.E.) Magister equitum of the main from Aphthonius, in four books; texts; and writings
East from 363 to circa 379 on Christian thought. Converted circa 356 to CHRISTIAN-
A SARMATIAN who married the daughter of the Saracen ITY, he composed further commentaries on epistles by
Queen MAVIA, he became an ardent Christian. Victor Paul and penned attacks on ARIANISM. Poems on the Bible
began his career in the service of CONSTANTIUS II and was and a number of texts attributed to him are now doubted.
later promoted by Julian to the rank of general; he com-
manded the rearguard of the imperial army during the Victorinus, Marcus Piavonius (fl. mid-third century
Persian Campaign of 363. He was made MAGISTER PEDI- C.E.) Gallic usurper made coemperor to the major usurper,
TUM by either Julian or Jovian but was appointed magister Postumus, in 267 or 268
equitum by Jovian in 363. VALENS came to the throne in Victorinus took over virtual control of Gaul when both
364, and not only retained Victor but also used him Posthumus and Laelianus died, but he was murdered,
extensively. In 366–367, he operated against the GOTHS perhaps in 270. His mother Victoria was listed as one of
but later negotiated with them (in 369) and with the Per- the THIRTY TYRANTS, as was her son.
sians in 377. He held a consulship in 369. Prior to the
battle of ADRIANOPLE in 378, Victor protested Valens’s per- Victory Called Victoria by the Romans and Nice
secution of orthodox Christians and advised that the (Nike) by the Greeks, a goddess who was the personifica-
emperor await the reinforcements of Emperor Gratian tion of success or victory. According to legend she was
before engaging the Goths in Thrace. He was able to the daughter of Pallas and Styx, becoming the patroness
extricate his own units from the disaster of Adrianople of heroes, guiding them along their appointed paths to
and informed Gratian. Victor retired at CONSTANTINOPLE greatness. Revered by the Roman people, she was given
after 382–383 and was in correspondence with GREGORY an altar in the SENATE. This sacred monument became
OF NAZIANZUS. one of the most important symbols of organized PAGAN-
ISM in the Roman Empire and a point of bitter confronta-
Victor, Claudius (fl. mid-first century C.E.) Nephew of tion between pagans and Christians in the fourth century
the Gallic rebel leader Civilis C.E. Ordered removed several times by emperors, the altar
He was a commander of cavalry during the uprising of was finally abolished in 394, after THEODOSIUS I defeated
69–70 C.E. He was sent, with Julius Maximus, to launch EUGENIUS and the MAGISTER MILITUM, ARBOGAST, in battle
an attack upon the Roman General Dillius Vocula, but and decreed that the symbol of Victory be removed from
was unsuccessful. the Curia, never to appear again.

Victorinus, Aufidius See AUFIDIUS VICTORIANUS, GAIUS. Vienna Modern Vienne, not to be confused with mod-
ern Vienna (VINDOBONA), this was a leading town in GAL-
Victorinus, Furius (d. 168 C.E.) Prefect of the Praeto- LIA NARBONENSIS whose origins dated to the time of the
rian Guard Allobroges, when it served as the tribal capital of that
He served during the reign of ANTONINUS PIUS (138–161 generally peaceful people. A colony was founded some-
C.E.) and into the reign of MARCUS AURELIUS (161–180 time after the assassination of Julius CAESAR (c. 43 B.C.E.)
C.E.). He was appointed originally with Fabrius Repenti- but the title of colonia was not granted until the reign of
nus, as a successor to Tattius Maximus. In 168, at the GAIUS CALIGULA. By that time prosperity allowed an
start of the MARCOMANNIC WARS, he was still at his post intense rivalry with nearby LUGDUNUM (Lyons). Thus, in
and was sent by Marcus Aurelius and Lucius VERUS to 68 C.E., when VINDEX revolted against NERO, Lugdunum
help defend Italy from barbarian invasions. While fight- remained loyal but Vienne rejoiced at the rise of the
ing near Aquileia he was killed, and a large part of his usurper, serving as his headquarters. The following year
army was annihilated. the community was nearly destroyed by an advancing
army of VITELLIUS, en route to Italy to defeat OTHO. Its
Victorinus, Gaius Marius (fl. fourth century C.E.) extirpation was pressed by Lugdunum. Despite competi-
Philosopher, rhetorician, and eventually a Christian theolo- tion from the provincial capital, Vienne was able to
gian thrive, building all of the usual Roman structures, includ-
ing an odeon, a theater, and a Temple of Rome and
Augustus.

582 vigiles that many villas were actually owned by prosperous citi-
zens in the provinces who had adopted Roman customs.
vigiles Term used for the fire brigade of ROME during
the imperial era. With its congestion and poorly con- The traditional Roman or Italian villa consisting of a
structed INSULAE (apartments), Rome was always suscep- farming estate with domestic buildings was described in
tible to fires, but surprisingly the city possessed no great detail by such writers as Vitruvius and Va rro. They
official squad for fire-fighting. Prior to the reign of were maintained for the owner—often an urban land-
AUGUSTUS, prevention and extinguishing of blazes fell holder—by slaves and other workers concentrated around
under the duties of various officials, including the a central house. There was also a simpler dwelling type, a
AEDILES and the little known triumviri nocturni. They villa rustica (house in the country), owned by poorer
were in charge of a group of public slaves but received smallholders. Later, villas developed into large estates pro-
support from private contractors, normally wealthy slave viding their wealthy owners a respite from stressful urban
owners who used their own workers. Such a system was life. Naturally, a wide variety of architectural styles were
inefficient. employed, and the degree of obvious Roman characteris-
tics might depend upon the wealth, taste, and personal
Augustus reformed the entire administration of fire tendencies of the owner.
control, beginning around 23 B.C.E. The aediles were
given a body of slaves numbering some 600. More fires Villas began appearing beyond the confines of Italia
brought several changes, culminating in 6 C.E. with the from about the first century B.C.E. They spread across
creation of the Vigiles, under the command of their own much of the Roman world, but they were especially com-
prefect (praefectum vigilum), a 7,000-man corps divided mon in northern provinces, particularly the provinces of
into seven cohorts, each under a TRIBUNE and composed Gaul. They were also found in Hispania, Africa, Britan-
of freedmen, not slaves. Seven cohorts were employed in nia, Germania, and along the Danube. They were less
order to provide the 14 regions of Rome with adequate common in the eastern provinces, but knowledge is lim-
protection; every two sections of the city were patrolled ited because of the fewer remaining models of eastern
by one cohort. They not only put out fires but also proba- villas and the relatively limited archaeological work per-
bly aided in keeping order in the traditionally tempestu- f o rmed on surviving sites. Archaeology remains the chief
ous streets of the capital. In 31 C.E., at the fall of the source of knowledge, along with aerial photography and
Praetorian Prefect SEJANUS, they proved indispensable a rt history. Villas were represented in art, mostly in
under their Prefect Graecinus Laco. While they were at mosaics and wall paintings, and were mentioned by writ-
first quartered in numerous houses like the PRAETORIAN ers. Aside from the previously noted Varro and Vitruvius,
GUARD, they eventually had stations spread throughout another notable writer was Marcus Portius Cato, who
the various districts of the city. wrote De Agri Cultura (On agriculture), including details
of villas and their operations with slave labor, in the sec-
villa The Latin term for a country estate or rural ond century.
dwelling, either a farmstead that was part of a larger
property or a large country dwelling for the wealthy out- Early villas were of the villa rustica variety. They
side of a city. It should be noted, however, that the pre- began as simple buildings and gradually assumed a peri-
cise functions and nature of villas changed over time in style structure in which the house was designed around a
the Roman world, and even the specific definition of a central atrium or courtyard or garden surrounded by a
villa remains debatable. colonnaded portico. This basic design became increas-
ingly more ornate and sophisticated in the hands of
The villa began as a rural dwelling that was built for Roman architects and builders. One later form featured
agricultural purposes. Even the later models, luxurious two courtyards, permitting the owner to have a more dis-
residential estates in the country, depended on agricul- tinct separation between the farming activities of the villa
ture. Farming was the essential economic reality of the and its residential quarters. From this emerged the trend
villa system, and virtually every villa was self-sufficient. for villas to become even larger and more grand, with the
Fields supplied the estate with its food and crops sold in focus on the residence. The farming facilities were of sec-
nearby towns or cities provided income. Thus villas were ondary importance to the owners, who were concerned
commonly clustered around towns where the produce principally with the luxury and comfort of their sur-
they raised could be sold easily at market. It is noted, of roundings when they visited.
course, that not every farm with a central house was con-
sidered a villa. While the Romans themselves had differ- A unique form of villa was the villa maritima, an
ing definitions of a villa, it was differentiated from a farm immense estate owned by the most wealthy in Roman
by its degree of Roman culture (such as mosaics and wall society or even emperors, situated on coasts or along the
paintings), its signs of wealth and status, and the pres- seaside. Several areas were famous for their seaside villas,
ence of slave labor. It was long assumed that the owners including Baiae and Bauli, in Campania, where the most
of most provincial villas were wealthy Romans who had powerful figures in the capital owned estates. The best
migrated from Rome. Recent indications are, however, known villa maritima was the VILLA JOVIS, built by
Emperor Tiberius on the island of Capri.

A villa in Herculaneum (Courtesy Fr. Felix Just, S.J.) Vindex,
GaiusJ
 ulius 583

The typical villa owned by a smallholder was not Villa Jovis The Villa of Jove (Jupiter), constructed in
ornately decorated and was a simple rectangular building CAPRI by Emperor TIBERIUS before 26 C.E. Always a pri-
divided into assorted rooms. Larger villas might have vate man who liked retreats such as his own on Rhodes,
more extensive buildings, and decorations might include Tiberius desired a place in Campania where he could
mosaics and paintings. In the villas of the very wealthy, escape from the unpleasantness of ROME. A small seaside
there might be tiled roofs, mosaics, and plastered walls. villa on Capri, built by AUGUSTUS, became his favorite
Floor mosaics were made of fragments (or cubes termed place. From 14 C.E. he enlarged its dimensions and added
tessellae) of stone, glass, tile, and pottery that were then to its beauty; by 26, when he abandoned Rome forever,
arranged into often complex designs to form pictures. he had a palace suitable as his home. The villa was situ-
Typical designs were from Greek and Roman mythology. ated on the top of a cliff, with a view of the eastern side
During winter months, heat was provided by charcoal of the island and a panorama of Campania’s coast. There
braziers or by so-called hypocausts. The latter were a were baths, a main hall, private suites, and an observa-
kind of underground heating based on the heating sys- tory for the imperial astrologer, THRASYLLUS. A lighthouse
tems used in baths. A furnace produced hot air that was helped the suspicious emperor to stay in touch with the
channeled throughout the house by stone-lined depres- fleet at Misenum and with Rome, via a relay system. In 31
sions beneath the flooring. Actual hot air was released C.E., when awaiting news concerning the fall of the Prae-
into the rooms through flues cut into the floor or walls. torian Prefect SEJANUS, Tiberius made plans to desert the
Given the cost and the complexity needed for such heat- villa for the nearby fleet. The lighthouse was destroyed by
ing, only several rooms were heated effectively. Second- an earthquake just before his death in 37. Because of the
story rooms were not heated. terrible stories about his debaucheries on Capri, the Villa
Jovis was not a favorite place of residence for subsequent
Suggested Readings: Bowen, H. C. “The Celtic Back- emperors.
ground.” In The Roman Villa in Britain, edited by A. L. F.
Rivet. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969; Branigan, Vinalia The Roman festival of wine held every August
K., and Miles, D., ed. The Economy of Romano-British Vil- 19 in honor of the new vintage for the year. It was widely
las. Sheffield, U.K.: University of Sheffield, 1989; D’Arms, but incorrectly believed that the Vinalia was associated
John H. Romans on the Bay of Naples; a Social and Cultural with the goddess VENUS. In all probability, the fete was
Study of the Villas and Their Owners from 150 B.C.E. to C.E. connected with Jupiter, for the Flamen Dialis sacrificed a
400. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970; ewe, cooked it and offered it on an altar of that deity.
Davies, Roy W. “Social and Economic Aspects.” In The Once this had been done, the first of the grapes for the
Roman Villa in Britain, edited by A. L. F. Rivet. London: year were cut and the harvest began.
Routledge, 1969, 173–216; Percival, John. The Roman
Villa: An Historical Introduction. London: Batsford, 1976; See also FLAMENS; JUPITER.
Puppi, Lionello. The Villa Badoer at Fratta Polesine.
Translated by Catherine Enggass. University Park: Penn- Vindex, Gaius Julius (d. 68 C.E.) Governor in Tres
sylvania State University Press, 1975. Galliae (most likely, of Gallia Lugdunensis) in 68 C.E.
Vindex’s revolt against Emperor NERO was one of the
major events leading to the fall of Nero that same year.
Vindex was a Romanized Gaul, a member of the senato-
rial class and a figure of great importance with local Gal-
lic tribes. He was also a member of a growing group of
officials who had become tired of Nero’s tyrannies. Thus
he entered into communication with his fellow governors
and, in the days before the summer of 68, openly
declared himself in revolt from ROME.

He did not seek the throne for himself, but supported
Servius Sulpicius GALBA (2), then head of Hispania Tarra-
conensis. His actual goals were never clear, except that he
encouraged Galba to seek the purple and promised him
the help of the Gallic provinces. Unfortunately, he failed
in his task, as his command over the tribes other than the
AEDUI and Arverni (Averni) was limited. Further, his
headquarters had to be in Vienna (Vienne), not LUG-
DUNUM (Lyons), because that city refused to open its
gates to him. Lugdunum proved fatal to his plans, for
while he wasted precious time besieging it, VERGINIUS

584 Vindex,M
 .
Macrinus There was another Annius Vinicianus, said by the
historian TACITUS (1) to be 26 years old in 63. He served
RUFUS, legate of Germania Superior, gathered all available with Domitius CORBULO (2) in ARMENIA and was married
troops, marched to the scene and defeated Vindex near to Corbulo’s daughter. In 66, he died as a result of a failed
Vesontio (modern Besancon). It is possible that both plot to replace NERO with his father-in-law. His exact rela-
commanders attempted to avoid bloodshed through tionship to the first Annius Vinicianus is curious,
negotiations, but a battle was eventually fought. After although he may have been his son.
most of his troops died, Vindex killed himself.
Vinicius, Marcus (1) (fl. later first century B.C.E.)
Vindex, M. Macrinus (d. c. 169–170 C.E.) Prefect of Consul in 19 B.C.E. and general during the reign of Augustus
the Praetorian Guard (27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.)
Vindex served during the reign of MARCUS AURELIUS; pos- One of a new class of imperial favorites who owed their
sibly the successor to Furius VICTORINUS, who died in political careers to the new emperor, Marcus Vinicius
battle in 168 C.E. during the MARCOMANNIC WARS. He fol- repaid the faith placed in him with loyalty and compe-
lowed in Victorinus’s footsteps, for in the continued fight- tence. In 25 B.C.E. he was sent to the Alps to help quell
ing he too was slain (c. 169–170). The emperor erected the local tribes. Over the next few years he campaigned
three statues in his honor. in PANNONIA, serving with Marcus AGRIPPA in 13 B.C.E.
and later with TIBERIUS. He may also have been the
Vindobona Modern Vienna, city on the DANUBE River, legate of Illyricum mentioned in inscriptions as the con-
to the west of Carnumtum, in the province of PANNONIA ductor of operations over the DANUBE, sometime
Superior. Originally a Celtic community, the site was seen between 6 B.C.E. and 4 C.E.. His actions hemmed in the
as ideal for Roman occupation, and by the end of the first chieftain MAROBODUUS and extended Roman influence
century C.E., its status had been increased to municipium; n o rth of the Danubian frontier. Vinicius then replaced
it was headquarters of the X Gemina Legion and the main Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (c. 1 C.E.) as legate in
port of the Classis Pannonica, an imperial river fleet. While Germany.
it did not possess the political power of the provincial cap-
ital, Vindobona was clearly important in a strategic sense. Vinicius, Marcus (2) (d. 45 C.E.) Grandson of the
Augustan general of the same name
Vingeanne Minor engagement fought in 52 B.C.E. A successful Equestrian (EQUITES) and CONSUL in 30 C.E.,
between the armies of Julius CAESAR and the chieftain Velleius Paterculus dedicated his history to him during
VERCINGETORIX, leader of the rebelling Gallic tribes. The his consulship and, in 33, Emperor TIBERIUS chose him to
Gauls avoided an open-field confrontation with Caesar, marry JULIA (6), daughter of GERMANICUS. Their marriage
remembering the other defeats suffered at his hands, but was not a happy one; she was banished by GAIUS
in July Vercingetorix allowed an attack to be made by the CALIGULA in 39 but recalled by CLAUDIUS in 41, only to be
Gauls. Caesar put his cavalry to rout and captured three put to death at the instigation of Empress MESSALLINA.
chieftains of the AEDUI. Vercingetorix ordered a retreat to Consul for a second time, in 45, Vinicius was an object of
the nearby site of ALESIA, setting the stage for a climactic lust to Messallina. He was executed because he refused to
siege and a Roman victory. have an affair with the empress. He was described as gen-
tle, a graceful speaker, and one who minded his own
See also GALLIC WARS. business in the hope of staying alive.

Vinicianus, Annius (fl. first century C.E.) Conspirator Vinius, Titus (d. 69 C.E.) Political ally of Emperor Otho
He was a leading figure in the plots against the imperial A former officer of the Spanish provincial government
house during the reigns of GAIUS CALIGULA (37–41 C.E.) and a greedy fortune hunter who journeyed to Rome in
and CLAUDIUS (41–54 C.E.). In 32 C.E., he was listed as a 68–69 C.E. with Emperor GALBA, becoming one of his
member of a treasonous group of politicians but escaped leading advisers, along with Cornelius LACO and the
trial and condemnation when TIBERIUS set aside certain freedman ICELUS. Described by the historian TACITUS (1)
cases for personal review. Nine years later he became one as the vilest of men, he became a stubborn supporter of
of the organizers in a plot to kill Caligula. After the OTHO for the position of Galba’s heir and sought to wed
emperor’s death, Vinicianus called for Valerius Asiaticus his daughter to Otho, who was unmarried. He lost to
to withdraw from seeking the throne, hoping to avert a Laco, who wanted Piso Licinianus. His backing of Otho
massacre of the SENATE by the PRAETORIAN GUARD, which was not enough to prevent his own murder in the assassi-
had just proclaimed Claudius emperor. Immediately nation plot of Otho against Galba on January 15, 69.
unhappy with Claudius, Vinicianus joined a conspiracy Vinius was cut down by the PRAETORIAN GUARDS outside
to elevate Scribonianus Camillus, governor of ILLYRICUM, of the TEMPLE OF DIVUS JULIUS.
to the throne in 42. When the attempt failed utterly, he
was one of those who followed Scribonianus’s example—
and killed himself.

Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro) (70–19 B.C.E.) Con- Virgil 585
sidered the greatest of all Roman poets
Virgil was a master of the finest Roman poetical forms, largely upon the Greek poet Theocritus. Origi-
including the pastoral, didactic, and epic. He was born in nally, the Bucolics were probably published indi-
Andes, a small town near Mantua, on October 15, 70 vidually under their own titles. Each dealt with a
B.C.E. to a family of moderate means that nevertheless p a rticular subject but contained numerous histor-
p rovided him with the finest possible education, in Cre- ical allusions such as to the civil wars, the death
mona (58), in Milan (55) and then in ROME (after 53). At of Caesar and promises of a new and better
first he probably studied oratory but moved on to philos- world. In this re g a rd they were technically the
ophy, learning from the noted Epicurean Siro; also in his least successful of all Virgilian creations, as there
field of scholarship were mathematics and medicine. was always a certain tension between the original,
When he returned home is unclear, but in the years rustic theme of the work and the nonbucolic
41–40, he was included in the confiscations of land in insertions.
Italy, begun at that time by the government. Virgil’s fam- The Georgics Organized into four books, the Geor-
ily estate was seized, but, because of friends such as gics were concerned about agriculture, nature, and
Asinius Pollio and Cornelius Gallus, Octavian (AUGUS- animals, and were written sometime between 37
TUS) was apparently convinced to intercede on his behalf. and 30 at the request of Maecenas, to whom the
At the end of the PERUSINE WAR (40), however, Virgil was dedication was made. Here Virgil found a subject
nearly killed when his home was again taken. With his where his own enthusiasms and love could shine.
father, he took up residence in an old house belonging to While the information was not particularly accu-
S i ro. His friends recommended that he go to Rome, rate from a scientific view, or even from a practical
where, through the popularity of his Bucolics, he came viewpoint, it was presented with rare style. An
under the patronage of the powerful MAECENAS. Not only atmosphere was created in which Virgil depicted
w e re his possessions eventually re t u rned, but he was also the beauty of the countryside and the value of the
admitted to the literary circle of Maecenas (along with simple life; it was an intense collection of his own
HORACE). experiences and research, using Greek and Roman
sources. The Georgics were concerned with things
A friendship developed between these two writers that might be of value to the farmer. Book 1 was
that lasted some years, as Virgil rose in the ranks of the on agriculture, specially farming, while book 2
literary figures of the time. In 29, he read the Georgics to explored the field of cultivating trees. Book 3 cov-
Octavian, and in 27 Augustus wrote to the poet, desiring ered domestic animals, and book 4 the raising of
some kind of monumental effort, the result being the bees.
Aeneid. When the imperial heir Marcellus died in 23, Vir- Aeneid Virgil’s masterpiece was the Aeneid, written
gil injected into the sixth book of his epic the tragic death in 12 books between 29 and his death in 19, but
of a youth. Octavia, Marcellus’s mother, was overcome by never completed; ironically, published by L. Varius
the composition and rewarded Virgil with great praise. and Tucca, despite the poet’s wishes to the con-
Possibly Virgil planned a trip to Greece, accompanying trary. For this task of compiling an epic on the
the emperor as far as Megara. Upon reaching Brundisium, scale of Homer’s mighty works, Virgil studied
his health, long in decline, gave out, and he died on carefully the structure and nuances of Homer, as
September 22, 19. He was buried near the road from well as earlier Roman masters of epic, Naevius
Naples to Puteoli. and Ennius. All of these preceding works had an
influence upon the Aeneid, but Virgil succeeded in
Virgil was a gentle poet, popular and graceful in his retaining his own style and imagination, and the
style. Enemies, if he had any, could fault only his political solemn tones so integral to the traditional Roman
views. Like Horace he was an ardent supporter of the writings. With these elements at work, the poet
Augustan regime, but lacked the ability to flatter the ruler forged an epic that did justice to the theme of
or to seek his own interests. Eventually surrounded with Rome’s foundation while embracing the future
luxuries, he maintained his gentle ways. As a poet Virgil imperial era with enthusiasm.
was honored not only by his contemporaries but also by
succeeding generations, who looked upon him as the The Aeneid was the story of Aeneas, a mighty
epitome of the Golden Age of Roman Literature. Three hero of the Trojan War and the ancestral father of
brilliant works earned Virgil his eternal fame: the Bucol- the Romans. Complex and sophisticated, the story
ics, the Georgics, and the Aeneid. was drawn from the accepted legends of Aeneas
and included his flight to CARTHAGE, where he met
The Bucolics Translated from the Greek, for poetry Dido before sailing to Latium. The Aeneid was
of oxherds; also called the Eclogues. These 10 filled with powerful images, virtually flawless ver-
poems were written between 41 and 39, based sification, and profound and compelling charac-
terizations.

586 Virilis,T
 empleo
 f Just at the Visigoths seemed ready to settle down,
more refugees fleeing from the Huns arrived, renewing ties
Suggested Readings: Horsfall, Nicholas. A Companion to between the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths. The Roman
the Study of Virgil. San Francisco: Brill Academic Publish- administration of their domain was also harsh, bringing
ers, 2000; Levi, Peter. Virgil; His Life and Times. New about war in Thrace. Alavius was slain in an ambush, but
York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998; Martindale, Charles. The Fritigern, aided by the Ostrogoths under Alatheus and
Cambridge Companion to Virgil. Cambridge, U.K.: Cam- Saphrax, stunned and horrified the Roman world with his
bridge University Press, 1997; Virgil. The Aeneid. Trans- smashing victory over Valens on August 9, 378, at ADRI-
lated by Robert Fitzgerald. New York: Vintage Books, ANOPLE. The Visigoths menaced Thrace and plundered the
1990; ———. Eclogues and Georgics of Virgil. Translated Balkans but were confronted with the lasting problem of
by David R. Slavitt. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University finding a home. Fritigern was murdered in a power stru g-
Press, 1990; Virgil and G. P. Gould. Eclogues, Georgics, gle, and the Visigoths remained, still unhappy, in MOESIA.
Aeneid I–VI. Translated by H. Rushton Fairclough. Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999. THEODOSIUS I, t rying to end the threat of the barbar-
ians and to create a buffer between the provincial cities
Virilis, Temple of A shrine dedicated to the goddess and the more dangerous hordes of the Huns, made an offer
FORTUNA but used only by men. to the Goths. In October 382, he allowed them to inhabit
large stretches of Moesia, but as federates of the empire,
Virunum One of the leading cities of the Roman with the duty of protecting the frontier. Whether or not
province of NORICUM; situated in southern Noricum near this agreement could have lasted was rendered moot by
the border of PANNONIA. From the start of ROME’s occupa- the emergence of the influential King ALARIC around 395.
tion, the site was important because of its position on the Alaric, like his ambitious predecessors, desired a perm a-
road connecting the DANUBE frontier with the major areas nent domain for his people and moved out of the Danu-
of Italy (AQUILEIA) and Pannonia. When the traditional bian provinces and roamed through Greece before setting
center of culture at Noreia (Magdalensberg) was out for Italy. His ultimate goal was the granting of conces-
destroyed to augment Romanization of the region, its sions by Emperor Honorius, but he had not counted on
replacement was Virunum. Here a MUNICIPIUM was the presence of the MAGISTER MILITUM, STILICHO. Despite
founded and the procurator housed. The city enjoyed all Stilicho’s chronic reluctance to finish off any potentially
of the usual architectural gifts of civilization, a bath, useful barbarian host, he did repulse Alaric twice, at Pol-
forum, basilica, and temples. So Italian did it become that lentina (402) and at Verona (403). With plague, exhaus-
coloniae were unnecessary, and it stood as a model both tion, and starvation depleting his ranks, Alaric withdrew.
for the northern regions of the province and for Pan- Stilicho had a hand in his easy retreat, for the Visigoths no
nonia. Following the MARCOMANNIC WARS, in the mid- doubt figured in the magister’s formula for annexing
second century C.E., Ovilava replaced Virunum as the Illyricum from the Eastern Empire.
capital, but the procurator remained. Virunum was never
fortified because of its location in southern Noricum, Alaric allowed himself to serve as a subject of the
always a more peaceful territory. empire once more, holding Epirus for Honorius (c.
407). By 408, however, he was again strong enough to
Visigoths Known as the Western Goths, one of the make his own demands. Sweeping into Noricum he
two major divisions of the GOTHS, the Visigoths devel- called for payment for his services, and through Stili-
oped separately from the OSTROGOTHS (Eastern Goths). cho’s influence received TRIBUTUM. Stilicho was put to
By the close of the Western Empire they had become a death in that same year, and, with all restraints removed,
powerful kingdom, occupying much of northern Spain the Visigoths marched on Italy. Rome was besieged thre e
and Aquitania. Splitting from their Ostrogothic kin in the times during 409 and 410, and on August 24, 410,
early fourth century C.E., the Visigoths settled in DACIA in Alaric and his warriors entered the Eternal City. For two
the area north of the DANUBE, remaining in that region or three days Rome was pillaged and sacked. The Visig-
throughout much of the century, pursuing a life based oths had thus not only annihilated a Roman empero r
largely on agriculture. As with so many other tribes, by and his army but had desecrated the most venerable city
376 the Visigoths were feeling the mounting pressure of in the empire.
the migrations of the HUNS from the East. Under their
kings, FRITIGERN and ALAVIUS, the Visigoths moved to the Alaric was still seeking a home for his people and
Danube and sent representatives to CONSTANTINOPLE to moved south to the edge of Italy, hoping to cross to
ask Emperor VALENS for permission to enter imperial ter- AFRICA. A storm wrecked the ships and the king died
ritory in THRACE. Fritigern, speaking to Valens on behalf soon afterward. His brother-in-law ATHAULF succeeded
of his people, was successful, although certain demands him, leading the Visigoths north, out of Italy and into
were made upon them in return, such as the surrendering southern Gaul (GALLIA NARBONENSIS). They had with
of hostages and the handing over of all weapons. them a prisoner, Galla PLACIDIA, as a bargaining tool and
were soon encamped throughout Narbonensis and Gallia
Aquitania. Athaulf then married Galla Placidia but was

forced by the patrician CONSTANTIUS to evacuate into Vitellius,
Aulus 587
northern Spain.
Rome. Henceforth his possessions were his alone, a
Events took a dramatic turn in 415, when Athaulf development that did much to sap the fleeting strength of
was assassinated. A usurper named Singeric aborted the the Western Empire. The Visigoths now owned a Gallic
king’s plans for better relations with Ravenna and the kingdom, a bastion of ARIANISM that would survive until
Western Empire, forcing Galla Placidia to endure humili- 507, when Clovis the Frank would crush Euric’s son,
ations. Singeric was replaced quickly by the far stronger Alaric II, at the battle of Vouille. Spain would then be
WALLIA, who was king from 415 to 418 and was impor- their home until the coming of the Moors early in the
tant in bringing his people into close relations with the eighth century.
Romans. He was elected ostensibly because of his anti-
Roman sentiments but reinstated Galla Placidia; and, Vitalianus, P. Aelius (d. 238 C.E.) Prefect of the Praeto-
after his fleet bound for Africa was ruined by a storm, he rian Guard in the reign of Maximinus I Thrax (235–238)
entered into negotiations with Contantius (soon to be A loyal supporter of the emperor, Vitalianus was left in
CONSTANTIUS III). According to the agreement, the Visi- charge of ROME during the emperor’s campaigns. Feared
goths would make war on the VANDALS, Alans, and Suebi and hated for what the historian Herodian called savage
in Spain while surrendering Galla. In return, they re- and merciless deeds, the prefect became the first target of
ceived corn and large sections of Gaul—Narbonensis and removal for the African usurper, GORDIAN I. Assassins
Aquitania—to call their own. Wallia waged cruel war in were sent to Rome with the task of carrying “important”
Spain, virtually annihilating large elements of barbarian documents to Vitalianus, pertaining to the emperor.
tribes, fulfilling his part of the bargain, as his people Entering his study early in the morning they found him
finally found a homeland in Gaul. alone and stabbed him to death. The way was clear for
the SENATE to elevate Gordian to the throne.
Wallia died in 418, followed on a throne by Theo-
doric I. Now settled, the Visigoths were able to consoli- Vitellius, Aulus (15–69 C.E.) Emperor from April until
date and to expand. No opportunity was missed to add December 69 C.E.; one of the four emperors who came to
pieces of Roman land, although extensive acquisition power in the year of civil war
was always difficult, given the constant movement of Vitellius was the son of the powerful Claudian adviser,
other peoples. As federates, the Visigoths had to aid the Lucius VITELLIUS (1), and used his father’s position to
West, as it was in their own interest to do so. Such was advance his own career. CONSUL in 48, he had already
the case in 451, as ATTILA the Hun threatened to wipe acquired a loathsome reputation for vice and greed. GAIUS
out every degree of order in Gaul. Theodoric joined the CALIGULA admired his chariot racing, CLAUDIUS his skill in
MAGISTER MILITUM AETIUS and his allies against Attila at dice and NERO his flattery. From the latter he won a
the battle of CATALAUNIAN PLAIN. In the fierce fighting, procuratorship in AFRICA (c. 61–62) and then the post of
Attila was halted but Theodoric fell in the fray. His son CURATOR AQUARUM. The fame for gluttony and avarice
Thorismund screamed for revenge, only to that Vitellius possessed was probably the reason GALBA
appointed him in 68 to the powerful office of governor of
have Aetius fill his head with fears of losing his Germania Inferior. Galba claimed that he had little to fear
c rown to scheming siblings. Thorismund rode home. from a glutton. From the start, however, Vitellius care-
Aetius may have been preserving the Huns to maintain a fully cultivated the favor of the LEGIONS so that on Jan-
balance in the barbarian realms, but his warning came uary 2, 69, in conjunction with the plotting of Fabius
true. Thorismund was murd e red by his brother, Theo- VALENS and CAECINA ALIENUS, two legates of the Rhine
doric II, in 453. legions, he was proclaimed emperor.

Theodoric helped AVITUS to occupy the Western Thus began the march of the legions of Germania
throne and launched an assault upon the resurgent Suebi Superior and Inferior to ROME. They caused ruin as they
in Spain, destroying them at Astorga in 456. Angered by advanced but won the first battle of BEDRIACUM in April,
the fall of Avitus in 456, he rampaged through Gaul, defeating the army of OTHO and winning Vitellius the
besieging Arles. Avitus’s successor, Marjorian, sent out his throne. Their candidate, who lingered behind the
best general, Aegidius, against Theodoric, and the Visi- advance, entered Rome in July. Enacting often thought-
goths were repulsed and forced into new negotiations. less edicts, Vitellius proceeded to horrify much of the
Barely 10 years later, in 466, Theodoric was himself as- empire with an overly extravagant lifestyle and stupid
sassinated by his brilliant, ambitious brother, EURIC. appointments, such as the new PRAETORIAN GUARD. While
Eager to enhance the position of the Visigoths, Euric the historians, especially TACITUS and SUETONIUS, were
embarked upon a deliberate program of extending Gothic harsh and perhaps exaggerated in their coverage of his
supremacy over all of Gaul. By 475 he was the master of brief reign, Vitellius certainly did nothing to improve his
most of Spain, southern Gaul and portions of Gaul’s political situation. He was a failure in terms of defending
northern lands. The Visigoth kingdom extended from his throne.
Spain to the Loire and the Rhine. He then took the dra-
matic step of declaring himself free of federate status to

588 Vitellius,
Lucius ing the city and causing great loss of life. His wife Triaria
supposedly put on a sword and helped slaughter the
The legions of the East declared for VESPASIAN on July inhabitants. Captured by the Flavians, Lucius tried to
1, joined by their comrades on the DANUBE in August. negotiate for his life but was executed.
Led by Antonius PRIMUS, the Danubian army set out for
Italy. In October they won the second battle of Bedri- Vitellius, Publius (d. 31 C.E.) Uncle of Emperor Vitel-
acum. With the Flavians on their way to Rome, Vitellius lius and a leading political orator in the reign of Tiberius
considered abdication but was blocked by his own fol- (14–37 C.E.)
lowers, who besieged SABINUS, Vespasian’s brother, on the Vitellius served as an aide to GERMANICUS during the Ger-
Capitol, eventually putting him to death. This act man Campaign (15 C.E.), taking command of two
enraged the Flavians, and Rome fell on December 20 LEGIONS, the II and XIV, and withdrawing them by land
after a bitter fight. Vitellius was found in the palace and from the theater of operations. A friend of Germanicus,
murdered. His reign would be condemned by Flavian he was horrified by the general’s suspicious death in 19.
propagandists, but he did initiate several good measures, Using all of his skills he helped secure the trial and
including the freedom of all persons to express their downfall of Gnaeus Calpurnius PISO, the man believed to
opinion. These few acts of moderation were not enough be Germanicus’s murderer. He received a priesthood in 20
to save him from his contemporaries or from the judge- for his work but was implicated in the fall of the Prefect
ment of history. SEJANUS in 31 and imprisoned. According to TACITUS (1),
he asked for a knife, slit his wrists, and died a short time
Vitellius, Lucius (1) (fl. first century C.E.) Consul in later. SUETONIUS wrote that his wrists were bandaged, and
34, 43, and 47, and a leading adviser to Emperor Claudius he survived briefly, dying of illness and despair.
Lucius was also the father, as well, of Emperor VITELLIUS.
Lucius Vitellius was the younger of four brothers, all of Vitruvius Pollio (fl. early first century C.E.) Foremost
whom attained considerable success in the early first cen- architect of the Augustan Age (27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.)
t u ry C.E. He became a friend of Claudius but was The author of the influential treatise De Architectura (On
appointed governor of SYRIA by TIBERIUS in 35 C.E. Architecture), Vitruvius apparently served in the CIVIL
Although he had earned a bad reputation in ROME, as the WARS, perhaps in the African campaign of 46 B.C.E., and
legate of Syria he displayed skill in war and in diplomacy. wrote his book at an old age. Although clearly educated
Pontius Pilate was sent to him after massacring the Samar- and experienced, he had an eccentric style and at times
itans, and TIRIDATES was set up (briefly) on the Parthian was unable to communicate clearly or managed to do so
throne, as a result of Vitellius’s actions. After re t u rning to in a way that did little justice to Latin. De Architectura,
the capital, his name was again dishonored because of his however, was an important work in the field, in that he
extreme flattery of GAIUS CALIGULA. Vitellius initiated the examined methods of construction, including private
tradition of treating the deranged ruler as a god. When dwellings, aqueducts, and even sundials. He relied heav-
Claudius came to the throne, the flattery continued, this ily upon Greek writers but did cover the training of ar-
time directed at the freedmen and wives of the empero r. chitects. The entire 10-volume study was dedicated to
He kissed MESSALLINA’s shoes and prodded the SENATE into AUGUSTUS, whom he called Imperator and Caesar. Its date
approving Claudius’s marriage to AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER. was sometime around 14 B.C.E., for Vitruvius mentioned
For his services he was made consul, censor, and chief very few buildings in ROME and no great architectural
counselor and was left in charge of Rome during achievements.
Claudius’s campaign in Britain. Although aged, he was
attacked in 51 as being treasonous, but Agrippina came to See also ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
his rescue. He died after this affair injured the political
future of his family. Sextilia was his wife. Vitellius was Volcae The Volcae Tectosages and the Volcae Are-
given a public funeral and a statue, inscribed with the epi- comici were Celtic tribes residing in GALLIA NARBONENSIS;
taph: “Steadfastly Loyal to the Emperor.” largely peaceful, they were increasingly Romanized under
the influence of the governor of the province. Some of
Vitellius, Lucius (2) (fl. first century C.E.) Brother of the Volcae Tectosages migrated to GALATIA in Asia Minor.
Emperor Vitellius
He was the son of Lucius VITELLIUS (1), governor of Vologases I (d. 80 C.E.) King of Parthia from around 51
SYRIA, and Sextilia. The historian TACITUS (1) wrote that to 80 C.E.
he suffered from the same vices as his brother but was Vologases was the greatest of the five kings who would
more active. After receiving the adulation of the SENATE bear his name, although Parthia was troubled throughout
upon his brother’s elevation to the throne, he was his reign on both its eastern and western borders. He was
appointed by Vitellius to command Rome during the civil the son of VONONES II, a one-time monarch of Media-
war with the Flavians. As the enemy legions advanced on Atropatene. His mother was reportedly a Greek concu-
the capital, he moved against Tarracina in Latium, storm-

bine. Vonones was replaced by Vologases in 51, with the VononesI
 589
consent of his two brothers, TIRIDATES (of ARMENIA) and
Pacorus, both of whom expected their own kingdoms. turing CTESIPHON once again, Vologases could not
Pacorus was given the ancestral domain of Media, and respond, as a short time later the vassal states of his realm
Tiridates received the often contested realm of Armenia. e rupted. Vologases was succeeded by his son, VOLOGASES V.
Parthian armies then swept into Armenia and placed Tiri-
dates in firm control, precipitating over a decade of hos- Vologases V (d. after 224 C.E.) King of Parthia and one
tilities with ROME. CORBULO (2) was sent by NERO to the of the last kings of the Parthian Empire
East in 55, and in 58 Tiridates was ousted. Vologases He succeeded his father, VOLOGASES IV, around 207 and
could not exert his full strength during the crisis because reigned until deposed by his brother, ARTABANUS V, some-
of troubles in the East, but by 62, the Roman client time before 224. Parthia was on the verge of internal col-
TIGRANES V had fallen. Negotiations were favored over lapse. Recognizing his own political weakness, Vologases
battle, despite the Parthian victory over PAETUS. Tiridates refused to be drawn into a war with ROME when Emperor
journeyed to Rome in 66 and was crowned by Nero. Rela- CARACALLA made threatening gestures in 214–215. His
tive peace followed between Parthia and Rome, especially caution, however, could not prevent a palace coup, for
in the reign of Nero. VESPASIAN had Vologases’s backing in Artabanus desired the throne. Vologases was perhaps
69, and the emperor even pondered sending him troops allowed to retain a minor post, although he had ceased to
to aid in the defeat of the barbarian ALANS. Better rela- exert any influence on the affairs of his realm.
tions allowed domestic opportunities, as Vologases
founded the city of Vologesia as a rival to SELEUCIA. He Volturnus One of the incarnations of the river god,
was followed on the throne by his SON PACORUS II. TIBER, whose name implied a flowing stream. Volturnus,
was held in high esteem, and a Flamen Volturnalis, or
Vologases II (d. 147 C.E.) King of Parthia or possibly a chief priest, conducted services dedicated to him. The
vassal in the Parthian Empire from circa 105 to 147 C.E. Volturnalia was his festival, held every August 27.
Vologases was most likely the weaker co-ruler with
OROSES for many years, perhaps administering the eastern Volusianus, Gaius Vibius Afinius Gallus Veldumni-
affairs of Parthia while Oroses suffered humiliating anus (d. 253 C.E.) Son of Emperor Trebonianus Gallus;
defeats at the hands of TRAJAN. When Vologases finally named Caesar by his father in 251.
came to the throne himself, he appointed MITHRIDATES IV To cement Gallus’s claim to the throne, Volusianus wed
to take over his duties in the east. He was succeeded by the daughter of the deceased Emperor DECIUS, and in 253
VOLOGASES III. Volusianus became Augustus or co-emperor. When
AEMILIAN, governor of MOESIA Inferior, revolted and
Vologases III (d. 192 C.E.) King of Parthia; the succes- marched on Italy, he convinced the outnumbered troops
sor to Vologases II and the ruler circa 149 to 192 of Gallus to murder their master. Volusianus perished
His reign was characterized by a renewed struggle with with his father.
ROME. Around 161–162, Vologases declared war on Rome
by placing a client king upon the throne of ARMENIA. Ini- Volusianus, Rufus (fl. early fourth century C.E.) Prob-
tial brilliant success was gained over the two Roman gov- ably Prefect of the Praetorian Guard during the reign of
ernors of CAPPADOCIA and SYRIA, but these triumphs Maxentius (306–312)
proved only the deteriorated condition of the Eastern Volusianus was noted for his campaign in AFRICA to quell
LEGIONS. Lucius VERUS launched a massive campaign in the revolt of DOMITIUS ALEXANDER, the prefect of
163–164, recapturing Armenia and stretching Roman CARTHAGE. Taking several cohorts of the Praetorian
supremacy once more into MESOPOTAMIA, to CTESIPHON Guard with him, he crushed Alexander and destroyed
itself. Plague broke out in the Roman ranks, causing most of Carthage in 311—for the support rendered by the
retreat in 165. Vologases remained in power until his city to the rebels.
death.
Vonones I (d. 18 C.E.) King of Parthia
Vologases IV (d. 207 C.E.) King of Parthia during the The Son of King PHRAATES IV and ruler of the Parthian
troubled period from 192 to 207 Empire from circa 7 to 12 C.E. Vonones had been one of
Eager to avenge the Roman defeats inflicted upon his pre- the children sent to ROME to serve as a hostage of good
decessors, but unable to do so, Vologases watched the faith and to prevent his murder at the hands of his own
numerous smaller kingdoms in MESOPOTAMIA, including family. As it was, Phraates was assassinated by Phraataces,
Adiabene and OSROENE, rise against Roman supremacy. his adopted son. There followed a period of instability as
When Emperor Septimius SEVERUS marched into Phraataces and his successor, ORODES III, were killed. The
Mesopotamia (c. 197) to subdue the petty domains, cap- Parthian nobility then requested that Vonones assume the
throne, but from around 7 to 12 C.E. he ruled with such
ineptness and foreign manner that a palace coup was

590 VononesI
 I entire Roman world within 10 years. In 18 B.C.E., he
accepted government over ROME for two five-year peri-
inevitable. Parthian nobles especially resented his Greek ods; in 8 B.C.E. for 10 years more; in 4 C.E. for yet another
habits. With the connivance of the palace, Artabanus, an 10, and in 13 C.E. for one more decade. Other emperors
Arsacid from Media, launched a rebellion (c. 12) that issued votive coins, including Antoninus Pius, MARCUS
ultimately ousted Vonones, who fled to SYRIA and took AURELIUS, COMMODUS, and other emperors in the fourth
refuge in ANTIOCH (1). He lived royally there on the century C.E.
money that he had taken with him and in 16 asked
Emperor TIBERIUS to sanction his seizing the vacant See also COINAGE.
throne of ARMENIA as a springboard for regaining Parthia.
Tiberius, however, detested him and with Artabanus Vulcan Also Volcanus, and to the Greeks, Hephaestus;
promising war if Vonones was not restrained, Creticus the great fire god of the Romans, whose power was
Silanus, governor of Syria, was ordered to arrest the fallen always on display at the volcanos of Etna or VESUVIUS.
king. In 18, GERMANICUS, then administering the Eastern Where he came from originally was never clear, except
provinces, agreed to a request from Artabanus and moved that he was ancient, perhaps arriving in Rome through
Vonones to Pompeiopolis in CILICIA. Knowing that he the Etrurians and via the Mediterranean. He was not a
probably would not live to see another such move, Roman original. Later, when Greek influences were
Vonones bribed his guards and fled to Armenia, where keenly felt in the Roman pantheon, Vulcan assumed all of
the Roman cavalry caught up with him. An officer named the characteristics of Hephaestus. Thus he was viewed as
Remmius, charged with his safety, ran him through, a the mighty smith of the gods, living and working beneath
death desired by Parthia and Rome. volcanos with his assistants, the Cyclops. According to
legend, Romulus introduced Vulcan’s worship to Rome.
See also ARSACID DYNASTY. The deity received his own member of the FLAMENS, the
Flamen Volcanalis, but was viewed as a counterpart to
Vonones II (d. 51 C.E.) King of Parthia for only a few VESTA, the positive force of fire. Vulcan was the destruc-
months in 51 tive side, the one that had to be appeased. His altar, the
Following the demise of King GOTARZES II, the throne of Volcanal, stood in the FORUM ROMANUM at the base of the
Parthia was vacant, largely because Gotarzes had killed Capitol, and a new temple, built around 214 B.C.E., was
virtually every possible claimant to ensure that no rivals found in the CAMPUS MARTIUS.
could murder him. Vonones, the head of the vassal state
of Media Atropatene, was given the throne by the Two festivals were held in his honor, the Festival of
Parthian nobility but died after a brief time and was suc- the Fishermen, and the Volcanalia. The former was staged
ceeded by his son, VOLOGASES I. Two other sons, Pacorus in June, involving the offering of fish caught by fisher-
and TIRIDATES, eventually became kings of Media men as an act of appeasement. The Volcanalia, on August
Atropatene and ARMENIA, respectively. 23, was similar to the ceremony in June but was more
state-oriented. Live fish were thrown into Vulcan’s fire,
See also ARSACID DYNASTY. again to avoid his wrath. The fish were always caught in
the TIBER because the fires were extinguished with water
votive coins Special coins minted to commemorate a from that river.
vow taken by an emperor on some special occasion, such
as a wedding or the Kalends of January, or a vow taken by See also GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME.
a ruler who was eager to make a propaganda statement.
AUGUSTUS, in 27 B.C.E., promised to bring peace to the

W

Wallia (d. 418 C.E.) King of the Visigoths from 415 to 418 Wall of Antoninus Also called the Antonine Wall; the
Wallia was responsible for their settlement in Roman ter- second great barrier erected in the second century C.E. by
ritory. In September of 415, the Visigoth monarch the Romans in the province of Britain. Situated farther
ATHAULF was stabbed to death and replaced by Singeric, a north than the Wall of HADRIAN, it stretched some 33
cruel and brief-reigning usurper. Singeric was also slain, miles from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde in
after only a week, and an election was held to find a legit- modern Scotland. The wall was made of turf, resting on a
imate successor. The Visigoths chose a little-known war- cobbled base, but lacked the sophistication or complexity
rior, Wallia, who was selected because of his desire to of Hadrian’s creation. The wall was only 14 feet wide,
have nothing to do with ROME, ironic given his subse- with a rampart and small wooden forts located at inter-
quent actions. vals along its length. A large ditch was dug in front of it,
and a road to the interior of the province lay behind it.
Wallia first restored Galla PLACIDIA, Athaulf’s Roman Only one road actually went through the wall, and was
widow, to her rightful position of respect within the probably used by the LEGIONS for any advance into wild
Visigoth community, making up for the harsh treatment CALEDONIA beyond. The Antonine Wall was constructed
meted out to her by Singeric. The most pressing problem, by the II, VI and XX legions, under the supervision of
however, was securing the site of permanent Visigo- Governor LOLLIUS URBICUS, in 142 C.E., some 20 years
thic settlement. Spain, their current home, was over- after work had begun on Hadrian’s defenses. Occupation
crowded and blockaded by the Roman navy. When ships of the wall continued from 142 to 184–185. From the
designed to carry the Visigoths to AFRICA were wrecked in start, the wall was impractical because of the pressures
a storm, Wallia looked northward to Gaul and began from the peoples to the north. Any temporary evacuation
negotiations with the Roman government, resulting in a to suppress provincial uprisings necessitated the virtual
treaty in 416 between Wallia and CONSTANTIUS III. The destruction of the turf to avoid capture. In 180 C.E., the
Visigoths pledged to serve as clients or federates of Rome, wall was destroyed by the Caledonians, leading to the
which meant making war upon the VANDALS, Suebi, and arrival of General Ulpius MARCELLUS in Britain. It was
ALANS in Spain. In return the Visigoths received massive ultimately decided that the defense was a luxury the
amounts of badly needed corn and, ultimately, permis- province could not afford. Roman troops were with-
sion to take up residence in Gallia Aquitania and large drawn, and the wall became a monument to Rome’s
sections of GALLIA NARBONENSIS as well. Over the next declining strength.
year, Wallia waged relentless war upon the barbarians in
Spain and was so successful that by 418 the Visigoths Wall of Aurelian Large wall erected around Rome
were able to move into Gaul, according to their agree- between 271 and 275 C.E. to defend the city from attack
ment with the Romans. This was Wallia’s legacy, for he by barbarians; begun by AURELIAN but finished by PROBUS.
died in 418. He was succeeded by Theodoric I, a grand- The JUTHUNGINE WAR in Italy in 270 had demonstrated
son of ALARIC.

591

592 Wall
of
Hadrian The Wall of Hadrian in Roman Britannia (Hulton/
Getty Archive.)
the vulnerability of the city, so construction was begun
on the wall with the cooperation of the SENATE and the Until the construction of the Antonine Wall in 142,
associations of workers and artisans in Rome. Because of Hadrian’s Wall was the only frontier marker in Britain.
the crises and internal threats of the time no LEGIONS With the Antonine Wall in the north, its importance
were available, so virtually the entire wall was built by decreased briefly until 180, when the Antonine Wall was
civilians. The Aurelian Wall was not strong enough to destroyed. In 196–197, CLODIUS ALBINUS took with him
withstand a protracted siege, as inconceivable as that every available soldier in Britain for his bid for the
must have been to the Romans, but was built to repulse a throne, thus allowing the wall to be ruined. SEPTIMIUS
sudden barbarian onslaught. It was 12 miles long, 12 feet SEVERUS repaired it from 205 to 207. Peace was main-
wide and 20 feet high, intertwined with other, older tained until the late third century C.E., when the chaotic
structures. It had 18 gates and 381 rectangular towers, situation in Roman Britain following the deaths of the
interspersed to provide adequate observation. Changes usurpers CARAUSIUS and ALLECTUS brought the PICTS
were made by Emperor MAXENTIUS (c. 306), who added down from Caledonia. CONSTANTIUS I launched a restora-
to its height by installing galleries. A ditch was also initi- tive campaign but throughout the fourth century barbar-
ated when the MAGISTER MILITUM, STILICHO (c. 401–403) ian inroads put pressure upon the wall as Roman
made repairs, followed by similar activities by VALEN- influence diminished. More invasions poured over the
TINIAN III (c. 442) and post-imperial rulers. wall, only to be repulsed by Count Flavius THEODOSIUS in
369. The last garrison on the wall withdrew around 400
Wall of Hadrian By far the most famous defensive as the barrier became a monument to Rome’s past.
barrier in the Roman Empire; served for nearly 300 years
as one of the major dividing lines between Roman Britain weights and measures
and the barbarians of CALEDONIA. With the exception of
the WALL OF ANTONINUS, built just to the north, the Wall ROMAN WEIGHTS
of Hadrian was unique in all of the imperial provinces.
Emperor HADRIAN ordered its construction in 122 C.E., The Romans used a weight system that had as its basic
and work was begun by Platorius NEPOS, governor of measurement the libra (pound; literally “balance”),
Britain, who completed it around 126. The wall extended derived from the use of scales to calculate the exact
some 73 miles (80 Roman miles) from Wallsend (Sege- weight of an item in question. This was reflected further
dunum) to Bowness-on-Solway (or the Solway Firth). It by the word for weight, pondus (from pendere, to hang).
was intended not as a formidable bastion but as a base One Roman pound was calculated at 11.849 ounces (or
from which Rome’s presence could be maintained. Roman 335.9 grams). It was also termed an as, based in the cus-
troops, mainly auxiliaries, manned its turrets and were to tom of weighing bars of copper (asses) on balance scales.
fight any large enemy force in the field while keeping
watch on the frontier. In the event of a direct assault, the
defenses were only adequate, perhaps explaining the col-
lapse of Roman power in Britain from time to time.

The original plans were probably drawn by Hadrian.
The barrier was to extend some 70 miles and be made
mostly of stone, 10 feet thick, while the rest would be
constructed of turf, 20 feet thick. The turf wall was com-
pleted, but the stone sections had only just begun when
the plan was extended several miles to ensure that the
barrier covered the area from sea to sea. Further, the
stone portions were to be only 8 feet thick, instead of 10,
and approximately 20 feet in height; the turf portions, 13
feet high. Forts were distanced some 5 miles from each
other, with so-called milecastles spread out every Roman
mile, connected by watchtowers. Two ditches were dug.
The one in front was approximately 30 feet wide and 15
feet deep, designed for defense and V-shaped. The ditch
behind the wall has caused considerable archaeological
debate. Called the Vallum (trench), it was straight and
flat-bottomed, 20 feet wide, 10 feet deep, and 10 feet
across at the bottom, fortified on both sides by earthen
walls (but then filled in). Scholars have speculated that it
was once used for some other, nonmilitary purpose.

women,s
 tatus
of 593

Each of the bars was one Roman foot long and was dodrans 9 unciae
divided into 12 inches (unciae), which in turn were bes 8 unciae
termed ounces (likewise unciae). The lower weights were septunx 7 unciae
listed as follows: semis 6 unciae
quincunx 5 unciae
libra (or as) 1 pound triens 4 unciae
deunx quadrans 3 unciae
dextans 11 ounces sextans 2 unciae
dodrans uncia 1 uncia
bes 10 ounces semuncia 1/2 uncia
septunx sicilicus 1/4 ounce
semis 9 ounces sesuncia 1.5 inches
quincunx dupondius 11/2 feet
triens 8 ounces
quadrans The Romans measured distances greater than a foot
sextans 7 ounces through the use of the passus (pace), which equaled five
sesuncia pedes and was roughly equal to the yard. The passus was
uncia 6 ounces approximately 4 feet 10 inches (1.48 meters). One thou-
semuncia sand paces (5,000 pedes) were equal to a Roman mile;
sicilicus 5 ounces termed milia passuum or mille passus, they equaled 4,856
sextula feet, 1,618 yards, or 1,480 meters. For measurements of
semisextula 4 ounces distances at sea, the Romans used the passus again, with
scriptulum 125 paces equaling 1 stadium.
siliqua 3 ounces
To measure distances of land, the Roman adopted an
2 ounces agricultural term, the actus (a driving), which reflected
11/2 ounces the distance that oxen would be driven in a field by a
1 ounce farmer before turning. It equaled 120 Roman feet (116
1/2 ounce feet 6 inches; 35.48 meters). The square actus (actus
1/4 ounce quadratus or acnua) was the equivalent of 14,400 square
1/6 ounce Roman feet (0.312 acres), with two Roman square acti
1/12 ounce equaling 1 iugerum, or 28,800 Roman feet. Where the
1/24 ounce actus was the distance plowed by two oxen in a field
1/144 ounce before turning, the iugerum was the distance that could
be plowed in one day. Two iugera equaled 1 heredium
Measurements of weight were made by use of a libra. (1.246 acres), a term derived from the designation of
It had a balance arm made of bronze or iron, and some- inherited land used for one person. One hundred heredia
times bone, with two bronze scale pans suspended from equaled 1 centuria (approx. 124.6 acres).
the balance at equal distances. The item being weighed
was placed in one pan, and weights of stone, lead, women, status of The status of women in the Roman
bronze, or other metals were placed in the second. When Empire was characterized by a long period of legal subju-
the weights balanced on the scale, the weight was deter- gation and family dependence that improved gradually
mined. from the time of the late Republic. Throughout the impe-
rial era, women gained for themselves a greater degree of
A second scale was the statera, a steelyard. The item personal, financial, and social freedom.
weighed was suspended from the short end of a balance
arm, and a steelyard, or counterbalance, was moved along The subservient condition of women in early Roman
the long arm until the balance was achieved. The balance society was maintained by the nearly all-encompassing
arm was also suspended from hooks to permit different right enjoyed by husbands and fathers within the paterfa-
weights to be calculated. milias. According to this dominating patriarchal system,
women were excluded from all forms of public life and
ROMAN DISTANCES remained in a kind of legal servitude to their husbands,
fathers or nearest male relative. In general terms, the
The Romans made calculations of distance principally by Roman wife in the Republic existed in manu, meaning
using parts of the human body. Thus, the standard unit of that she was subject to the authority (manus) wielded by
measurement was the Roman foot (pes, pl. pedes). The pes her husband over her. Manus declined in practice toward
had a standard length of around 11.65 inches in the early the end of the Republic and women began to retain defi-
empire and 11.5 inches in the later empire. It was called nite rights regarding property and status. However,
the pes monetalis, from the official measure that was kept
in the temple of Juno Moneta at Rome. Variations were
found in some of the provinces, such as Gaul and Germa-
nia. The pes was subdivided into measurements of 12
Roman inches, although a Greek system was also used of
16 fingers (digiti). The divisions of the pes were:

as 12 unciae (inches)
deunx 11 unciae
dextans 10 unciae

594 Worms Equally, Roman history is replete with women who came
to wield great power and influence and who were of
women were still considered under the patria potestas of great importance in the administration of government.
their fathers. The traditional separation of property own- Among these remarkable women were EUDOXIA, GALLA
ership between husband and wife was altered consider- PLACIDIA, and Theodora, wife of the sixth-century empe-
ably by the development of the dos (dowry), which made ror Justinian.
it possible for the wife to be returned the dowry at the
end of a marriage. Suggested Readings: Allason-Jones, Lindsay. Women in
Roman Britain. London: British Museum Publications,
Outside of MARRIAGE, women endured many social, 1989; Balsdon, J. P. V. D. Roman Women: Their History and
legal, and political handicaps, beginning from birth. A Habits. London: Bodley Head, 1962; Clark, G. Women in
girl born to a Roman was greeted with mourning, and it the Ancient World. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press,
was not uncommon for a baby girl to be left to die from 1989; Gardner, Jane F. Women in Roman Law & Society.
exposure, much as the Romans commonly put to death London: Croom Helm, 1986; Hallett, Judith P. Fathers
any infants with deformities, or severe mental illness. and Daughters in Roman Society: Women and the Elite Fam-
Growing up, a young girl was entirely under the power of ily. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984;
her father, remaining so until he was able to find her a Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and
suitable husband. In some cases, a patriarch might even Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley: University
sell daughters into slavery. As noted, marriage in manu of California Press, 1982; Lightman, Marjorie, and Ben-
meant a form of legal subjugation to husbands, and the jamin Lightman. Biographical Dictionary of Ancient Greek
wife held no legal control or claim over her children. and Roman Women. New York: Facts On File, 2000; Per-
adotto, John, and J. P. Sullivan, eds. Women in the Ancient
For various reasons, the position of women improved World: The Arethusa Papers. Albany: State University of
gradually during the centuries of the empire. One cause New York Press, 1984; Rowlandson, Jane, ed. Women and
was the established acceptance of the dowry system, Society in Greek and Roman Egypt: A Sourcebook. New
which provided greater independence for women in mar- York: Cambridge University Press, 1998; Trager, James.
riage. Another was the tightening of the laws under The Women’s Chronology: A Year-By-Year Record from Pre-
Augustus concerning divorce and adultery that discour- history to the Present. New York: Henry Holt, 1994.
aged husbands from taking marriage vows too lightly.
Finally, women, through determination and patience, cre- Worms Domain ruled by the BURGUNDIANS in Gaul;
ated for themselves a better position in the Roman world. centered around the city of Worms, on the Rhine between
Mainz and Mannheim. The kingdom was founded in 413
Life for lower-class women was quite different from C.E. when Emperor HONORIUS allowed Gundohar and his
that of women of the upper classes and nobility. It was people to settle permanently in imperial territory, with
marked by a certain stultification, with the days of the the status of a federate state. Their task was to protect the
peasant women cast in virtual stone from birth to death, Rhine frontier from invasion, and they remained faithful.
in much the same way as that of her male counterpart. Gundohar reigned until 436, when a Hunnic onslaught
Few details are known about the work and habits of overran the Burgundian lands. He and thousands of his
lower-class women, but it is acknowledged that they were men were killed, and the remnants of the Burgundians
engaged in various professions, such as textile produc- departed for Savoy, to the south.
tion. Evidence for the involvement of women in indus-
tries is found in the remains of Pompeii. We also know writing instruments and materials As an exception-
little about the daily lives of middle-class women, ally literate and literary people, the Romans relied on a
although their days were certainly spent in more comfort wide variety of writing materials and instruments. There
than those of the poorer women of Rome. were two chief means of writing: pen and ink on parch-
ment and papyrus or by a stylus on a waxed tablet.
The place of wealthy women in the empire was still
handicapped by legal and social restrictions, including The stylus (pl. styli) was made of bronze, bone, or
the inability to vote or participate openly in government, iron, with a sharpened, pointed end for writing. The
and by other traditional impediments in marriage and other end was flattened to serve as a counter weight, but
divorce. Nevertheless, women could exercise much inde- it had the added practical value of serving to smooth out
pendence and also political and cultural influence. Their the excess wax that developed in the process of scratch-
position was assisted by the largely self-enclosed upper ing the waxed tablet. Styli were often decorated. The pen
classes. The wealthy intermarried and knew each other, for writing upon parchment of papyrus was a type of pen
making it easier for women to play a role in political made of reed or bronze. The tip of the pen had a split
affairs by assisting husbands with their clients and the nub. Ink was made of a mixture of carbon black, gum,
maintenance of the domus and villa.

Young girls of the upper classes were also frequently
given an education equal to boys’, and there are a num-
ber of examples of women becoming notable writers,
poets, and artists. One of the best known was SULPICIA,
wife of Calenus, who was praised by the poet MARTIAL.

and water. It was held in inkpots made of samian, bronze, writing
instruments
andm
 aterials 595
and other pottery forms. They were crafted with a hidden
lip to prevent easy spills and a small hole in the top most common ways of protecting seals for perpetuity was
where the pen could be dipped with ease. to enclose them in seal boxes, normally made of bronze.
The box had a hinged lid, and wax was poured into the
The two main writing materials were papyrus and depression of the box. The wax was then stamped by
vellum. Papyrus was certainly the most common writing means of an official seal or by a seal ring.
material in the ancient world, originating in Egypt and
eventually adopted by the Romans around the third cen- Along with scrolls, papyrus and parchment were
tury B.C.E. Made from the pith of a water plant that grew used in book form. Called a codex, it dates from around
along the banks of the Nile, papyrus was sold in rolls of the first century C.E. and was made from eight folded
33 feet. Typical papyrus sheets were about 16 inches wide sheets of papyrus or parchment, creating a “book” of 16
and 9 inches high. pages. The pages were then stitched together at the spine
and bound between wooden boards. Slowly growing into
Vellum (vellus, from skin or hide) was made from the popular usage, the codex replaced the scroll in the fourth
skins of cattle, goats, and sheep that was scraped, rubbed century.
with pumice, and then finished with alum. It was later
termed parchment, from the city of Pergamum, which was Important documents, such as business transactions,
the best-known center of vellum manufacturing. Over were written and preserved on waxed tablets. Normally,
time, vellum, or parchment, replaced papyrus as the writ- such a tablet was a recessed piece of wood filled with
ing material of choice. beeswax. Each tablet was then bound into a set by leather
thongs or rings threaded through hinge holes in the outer
To use, the papyrus roll (volumen) was unrolled from edge. Two tablets bound together formed a diptych; three
the right and rolled up from the left. Once the scroll had bound tablets formed a triptych, creating four or six
been used, it was then rewound. Sometimes, the end of pages of writing space. The first or outer page was left
the scroll was attached to a wooden roller (umbilicus) unwaxed; pages two and three were waxed; page four was
with knobs. It was customary for the title of a book or either waxed or plain, and sometimes there was a groove
document to be placed at the end of the scroll, as this was down the middle of the page; page five was waxed and
the part that was least exposed on a regular basis and was always contained a summary of the information on the
most likely to survive the passage of time. Scrolls housed other pages; page six was plain. Page four was used for
in libraries were organized into pigeon holes and were the placement of signatures by witnesses, written either
identified by a hanging label, the titulus (pl. tituli). Addi- in ink or inscribed in wax. Seal impressions were then
tionally, important scrolls were rendered official by the added into the groove running the length of the page.
attachment of imperial or other types of seals. One of the Writing was inscribed in the wax by use of a stylus.

X

Xanthus Ancient, chief city of the province of LYCIA, Xenophon (fl. first century C.E.) Imperial physician
near the mouth of the XANTHUS RIVER; besieged in 42 Xenophon served Emperor CLAUDIUS in the last years of
B.C.E. by MARCUS BRUTUS, who wished to exact from the his reign (c. 53–54 C.E.). Xenophon was originally from
Lycians tribute for his war with ANTONY and Octavian Cos (Kos), where his family was held in high esteem. As
(AUGUSTUS). The proud Lycians refused him, killed them- a gift to him in 53, Claudius granted a special IMMUNITAS
selves and burned down the city. Marc Antony subse- (tax exemption) to the entire island. TACITUS (1) wrote
quently exempted the impoverished Lycians from that Xenophon had been bought by AGRIPPINA and was
TAXATION and invited them to rebuild Xanthus. They part of the murder of Claudius in 54. When the poisoned
apparently refused. mushrooms failed to bring about the emperor’s death,
Xenophon was summoned to use a feather dipped in poi-
Xanthus River The most important river in the son to ensure that Claudius died rapidly.
province of LYCIA; rose in the Taurus Mountains and cut
its way across the country to the south. Because of its size
and location, the Xanthus was used as part of the water-
borne trade system of ROME.

596

Y

Yazdagird I (d. 420 C.E.) King of Persia from 399 to 420 Yazdagird II (d. 457 C.E.) King of Persia from 438 to
Yazdagird’s reign was noted for its improved relations 457
with CONSTANTINOPLE and its easing of Christian persecu- Yazdagird succeeded VARAHRAN V to the throne. He soon
tions begun under SHAPUR II. Considered powerful, made incursions into the Roman portions of ARMENIA
Yazdagird was declared an honorary guardian to the until bought off probably by the MAGISTER MILITUM, ASPAR.
young Emperor THEODOSIUS II in the will of ARCADIUS Henceforth his reign was characterized by chronic trou-
upon his death in 408. Yazdagird’s willingness to protect bles in Armenia, where the Christians refused to be con-
the dynastic stability of the emperors was taken as a sign verted to Persian Zoroastrianism and fought to the death.
of improved relations between ROME and Persia, and in These pockets of resistance, however, could not entice
409 an attempt was made to reestablish trading ties. CONSTANTINOPLE into widening hostilities, mainly
CHRISTIANITY was allowed to flourish in Persian lands, because of the threats from the HUNS in the West. Yazda-
especially ARMENIA, until the Christian clergy attempted gird died, probably in the saddle, in 457 and was fol-
widescale conversions and was suppressed harshly, end- lowed by HORMAZD III.
ing the brief detente in 420. Yazdagird marched off to war
but died on the way. His son VARAHRAN V succeeded him.

597

Z

Zabdas, Septimius (fl. mid-3rd century C.E.) General sion to Rome. The terms of the subsequent treaty with
in the service of Queen Zenobia of Palmyra; also called Saba the emperor demanded that all of the Iazyges abandon
or Zaba the Danube region.
Zabdas led the armies of Palmyrene expansion in
270–271, sweeping into EGYPT and, with the aid of the See also MARCOMANNIC WARS.
pro-Palmyrene political faction, annexing the entire
p rovince in the name of his queen. Further advances were Zealots Name given to a party of Jewish extremists in
made throughout the entire East, including SYRIA and ASIA first century C.E. JUDAEA; they acted as the main organiz-
MINOR, until Emperor AURELIAN took to the field in 271. ers of resistance to Roman rule over the Jews. In 6 C.E.,
Zabdas focused on ANTIOCH as his strategic base and the Romans annexed Judaea and installed procurators to
moved north to the banks of the Orontes where he had his administer local government. Inevitably, small pockets of
first engagement with the Romans. Zabdas probably had a opposition emerged. From 6 to 66 C.E., the Zealots slowly
numerical advantage, especially in cavalry units, his horse- organized themselves, their presence felt by sporadic inci-
men being strongly armored on huge mounts, but this dents of unrest or violence. By 66, they were sufficiently
failed to serve him. Aurelian’s infantry allowed the cavalry manned to spearhead a major Jewish uprising, inducing
to charge and then simply rolled up the Palmyrene flank. the Judaean districts to rebel against ROME. JOSEPHUS, in
Defeated but not destroyed, Zabdas retreated to Antioch his Jewish War, called them the Sicarii (Assassins), clearly
but had to leave there because of the inhabitants’ unrest. depicting them as unrepresentative of the Jewish estab-
Aurelian entered the city and pushed on, following Zab- lishment. They pushed for war and then fought valiantly
das’s circuitous route to Emesa. Zabdas hoped for Persian as the Roman LEGIONS under VESPASIAN and then TITUS
aid, which did not materialize, and turned to give battle reclaimed the country. In JERUSALEM, the Zealots caused
again. With some 70,000 men at his disposal and the cav- dissension and bloodshed by terrorizing the moderates
a l ry still large and formidable, Zabdas repeated the tactics and murdering opponents, thereby inadvertently weaken-
of his first encounter with Aurelian, with the same results. ing morale and giving entrance to the unpopular and
The Roman cavalry (mostly Moors and Dalmatians) was harsh Idumaeans. They shared in the destruction of
routed, but the LEGIONS weathered the charges and then Jerusalem in 70 but their cause was not so easily extin-
advanced, demolishing the Palmyrene army. The survivors guished. At MASADA they fought bravely and survived
broke and fled to Emesa, while Zenobia retreated to her total extirpation until 132–135, and the revolt of Simon
native city. What became of Zabdas is unknown. BAR COCHBA.

Zanticus (d. after 175 C.E.) Iazyges leader Zela Town in north-central Turkey, about 75 miles
The chief of the IAZYGES tribe who, in 175 C.E., went inland from the Black Sea; site of a military engagement
before Marcus Aurelius and admitted defeat and submis- fought in May 47 B.C.E. between Julius CAESAR and PHAR-
NACES II, king of the BOSPORUS, resulting in a complete

598

triumph for Caesar. While the Roman world was Zeno
the
Stoic 599
engulfed by the CIVIL WAR of the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE, Phar-
naces II, son of the famed MITHRIDATES the Great (of Pon- EXCUBITORS. A gifted and reliable officer, Zeno was given
tus), attempted to emulate his father’s achievements. He the hand of Leo’s daughter, Aelia Ariadne, and the post of
marched on Caesar’s legate, Calvinus, in ASIA MINOR, and MAGISTER MILITUM in THRACE (c. 470). His official task
defeated him at the battle of NICOPOLIS in October 48. was to repel an invasion of the HUNS, but Leo was devel-
Caesar, embroiled in the siege of ALEXANDRIA, was unable oping him as a political weapon against the German mag-
to respond, and Pharnaces extended his conquests ister militum, ASPAR.
throughout Pontus and into CAPPADOCIA. By spring of 47,
however, Caesar had finished his Egyptian campaign. The Internal feuding followed as Aspar tried to have Zeno
Asian monarch greeted the general’s arrival on the Pontic killed, but he fled to Serdica. Leo, in his absence, was
borders with a delegation that sued for the retention of all forced to elevate Aspar’s son PATRICIUS to the rank of Cae-
lands taken. Two armies were camped near each other sar, and Aspar moved to win the support of the Isaurian
and close to Zela, the site of Mithridates’ success in 67 contingents. Zeno returned at once from Thrace, and in
B.C.E. Caesar had no intention of allowing Pharnaces to 471 Aspar and his son Ardaburius were murdered. What
keep the lands but allowed the Asian to make new offers part Zeno played in this is unclear, although he profited
and counteroffers while he maneuvered the LEGIONS into handsomely from the deaths. By 473, he held a consul-
a position of advantage. Made aware of Caesar’s ploy, ship (469) and the office of magister militum in the East,
Pharnaces ordered his chariots and infantry to the attack, where he suppressed the banditry of the Isaurian tribes.
surprising the Romans, who did not expect such a fool- Then he became the magister militum in CONSTANTINOPLE,
hardy advance. Chariots armed with scythes tore through where he advised the emperor on all important matters.
the confused Roman cohorts, but were soon rendered In October 473, Leo’s grandson (by Aelia Ariadne and
ineffective by massed archery and missiles. The legions, Zeno) was elevated to Augustus, succeeding to the throne
inspired by their tactical victory and by their position at on February 3, 474. He lived only long enough to certify
the top of a steep hill, moved into action. The battle his father’s already supreme authority, dying on Novem-
raged up and down the line, with the VI Legion, on the ber 17, 474.
right, breaking through first. The rout was on, and Phar-
naces fled from the field and was murdered a short time Zeno was now sole master of the East, although con-
later. Caesar named MITHRIDATES OF PERGAMUM the new sidered a usurping outsider by the palace. VERINA, Leo I’s
ruler of Pontus, now a reduced domain, and then headed widow, headed a conspiracy to remove him in favor of
for ROME. He summed up the defeat of Pharnaces with her lover, a secretary known as Patricius, and her accom-
the famous words, “Veni, vidi, vici”—“I came, I saw, I plices included the Isaurian General Illus and Verina’s
conquered.” brother BASILISCUS. Once more Zeno, forewarned, retired
to safety, becoming chief of the tribe again in Isauria.
Zeno (d. 34 C.E.) King of Armenia from 18 to 34 C.E. Basiliscus betrayed his sister and took power for himself.
Zeno was the son of POLEMO I, king of PONTUS, and his The people of Constantinople rose up and rejected him,
second wife, Pythodoris, with the support and presence and Zeno returned in August of 476, remaining as
of the Armenian nobility, GERMANICUS crowned Zeno emperor until his death in 491.
ruler of Armenia in 18 C.E., naming him Artaxias. His
accession was greeted with approval, and the Parthians Meanwhile in the West, Emperor JULIUS NEPOS could
under ARTABANUS III were too distracted by internal strife not prevent the rise of ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS, son of
to oppose anything in the client state. Zeno’s reign was Nepos’s own magister, ORESTES, and fled to DALMATIA to
the most peaceful in Armenian history. When he died in plead his case. He found himself in competition with a
34, Artabanus was preparing to move against Roman delegation sent by the barbarian King ODOACER, who had
supremacy in the region. deposed Romulus Augustulus and now sought recogni-
tion of his own control of Italy. Zeno chose a compro-
Zeno (Tarasicodissa) (d. 491 C.E.) Emperor of the mise, making Odoacer a patrician and reinstating Nepos.
East from 474 to 475 and 476 to 491 Odoacer agreed, having no intention of keeping his word.
Born in ISAURIA, the wild region between Pisidia and CILI- He called himself King of Italy until the invasion of the
CIA in ASIA MINOR, he bore the name Tarasicodissa and OSTROGOTHS in 489, and the West passed into history.
served as chieftain of the Isaurians. Emperor LEO I The other major act of Zeno’s reign was a peace treaty in
recruited him and his warriors as a military counterbal- 474 with King GEISERIC and the VANDALS that lasted half a
ance to the Germans in the Eastern lands. Tarasicodissa century.
changed his name to Zeno and was granted command of
the newly formed (mostly Isaurian) imperial guard, the Zeno the Stoic (fl. third century B.C.E.) Philosopher,
found of Stoicism
Zeno’s views, crystallized by Chrysippus, had a most
profound effect upon subsequent Greek and Roman
thinking.

600 Zenobia children were banished with him to Cucusus in CAPPADO-
CIA, where they were starved to death.
Zenobia (d. after 272 C.E.) Queen of Palmyra from 266
to 272 Zeus See JUPITER.
The daughter of Antiochus, she became the wife of ODAE-
NATH and aided him in transforming Palmyra into a Zosimus (d. 418 C.E.) Pope
mighty ally of ROME. He campaigns against PERSIA secured A brief reigning pope (417–418 C.E.), remembered for
Palmyran protection of PALESTINE, SYRIA, and parts of ASIA two stinging defeats of his policy. The first came in Gaul
MINOR, with the blessing of Emperor GALLIENUS. When where he attempted to aggrandize the Bishopric of ARLES
Odaenath was murdered sometime in 266 or 267, possi- in 417, giving that prelate the right to co-consecrate the
bly by the Queen herself, she immediately assumed con- other bishops of GALLIA NARBONENSIS. A brief and bitter
trol of the government, ruling in the name of their son fight ensued, and other popes ended the special status of
VABALLATH. She set about expanding her court, attracting Arles. The second failure was in AFRICA, where Zosimus
the finest minds of the time, especially the Neoplatonists issued a decree in favor of the Pelagians, only to find
and CASSIUS LONGINUS, who urged her defiance of Rome. himself facing St. Augustine, who forced him to recant
his decree. He died in 418.
When Emperor CLAUDIUS II GOTHICUS died in 270,
Zenobia launched a campaign to increase her power. See PAPACY.
General ZABDAS took command of the Palmyrene army
and invaded the provinces of Syria-Palestine, eastern Asia Zstommas, Chrysaphius (d. 450 C.E.) Eunuch
Minor and even into EGYPT. AURELIAN, new to the throne Highly influential during the reign of Emperor THEODO-
of Rome, was preoccupied with barbarian invasions until SIUS II, Zstommas stirred up trouble between PULCHERIA,
the summer of 271, when he marched against the Theodosius’s sister, and the emperor’s wife EUDOCIA and
Palmyrenes. Zabdas was defeated at ANTIOCH and Emesa, then forced Pulcheria from the palace. Eudocia was
and the Palmyrene acquisitions in Asia Minor and Syria exiled in 442 to JERUSALEM, where she lived until her
were lost. Zenobia fled to Palmyra, rejecting Aurelian’s death in 460. Zstommas filled the vacuum caused by the
offer of peace. She then tried to escape to the Persians but departure of those formidable women, using conciliatory
was captured and forced to walk in Aurelian’s TRIUMPH in policies and vast amounts of the treasury to buy off the
Rome, where she was transported in a golden chair. She HUNS, who were ravaging ILLYRICUM. His actions naturally
lived in Rome and on an estate at TIBUR for the rest of her brought him many enemies at court, and sometime in
life, on a state subsidy. 450 Pulcheria returned to her former position, with the
help of the army generals. Zstommas fell from power, and
Zenonis (fl. fifth century C.E.) Augusta in 475–476 and during the last months of Theodosius’s reign Pulcheria
wife of Eastern emperor Basiliscus gained complete control. After Theodosius died in July
When Zenonis was proclaimed Augusta, she entered a 450, MARCIAN, his successor, began his rule by executing
torrid affair with a stunningly handsome courtier named Zstommas.
Armatus, trying to conceal the relationship but working
to have Armatus promoted to the highest positions in the
city. When Basiliscus fell from power, Zenonis and her

APPENDIX I

EMPERORS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 27 B.C.E.– 476 C.E.

Name Period Dynasty

Augustus 27 B.C.E. to 14 C.E. } Julio-Claudian Dynasty
Tiberius 14–37 C.E.
Gaius Caligula 37–41 C.E. } Flavian Dynasty
Claudius 41–54 C.E. Antonine Dynasty
Nero 54–68 C.E. }
Galba 69 C.E. Severan Dynasty
Otho 69 C.E. }
Vitellius 69 C.E.
Vespasian 69–79 C.E.
Titus 79–81 C.E.
Domitian 81–96 C.E.
Nerva 96–98 C.E.
Trajan 98–117 C.E.
Hadrian 117–138 C.E.
Antoninus Pius 138–161 C.E.
Marcus Aurelius 161–180 C.E.
Lucius Verus 161–169 C.E.
Commodus 177–192 C.E.
Pertinax 193 C.E.
Didius Julianus 193 C.E.
Septimius Severus 193–211 C.E.
Clodius Albinus 193–194 C.E.
Pescennius Niger 193–194 C.E.
Caracalla 211–217 C.E.
Geta 211–212 C.E.
Macrinus 217–218 C.E.
Diadumenianus 218 C.E.
Elagabalus 218–222 C.E.
Severus Alexander 222–235 C.E.
Maximinus 235–238 C.E.
Gordian I 238 C.E.
Gordian II 238 C.E.
Balbinus and Pupienus 238 C.E.
Gordian III 238–244 C.E.
Philip the Arab 244–249 C.E.
Decius 249–251 C.E.
Trebonianus Gallus 251–253 C.E.
Aemilian 253 C.E.
Valerian 253–260 C.E.
Gallienus 253–268 C.E.
Postumus 260–268 C.E.
Claudius II Gothicus 268–270 C.E.
Quintillus 270 C.E.
Aurelian 270–275 C.E.
Tacitus 275–276 C.E.
Florian 276 C.E.
Probus 276–282 C.E.
Carus 282–283 C.E.
Carinus and Numerian 283–284 C.E.

601

602 AppendixI
 Period Name Period

Name Eastern Empire 284–305
Western Empire 293–305
DIOCLETIAN AND FIRST TETRARCHY 305–311
Maximian (Augustus) 284–305 C.E. 305–309
Constantius (Caesar) 305–311
285–305 Diocletian (Augustus) 305–308
Constantius (Augustus) 293–305 Galerius (Caesar) 308–313
Severus (Caesar) 308–324
SECOND TETRARCHY
Severus (Augustus) 337–361
Constantine I (Caesar) 305–306 Galerius (Augustus) 361–364
305–306 Maximin (Caesar)
Constantine I (Augustus) 364–378
COLLAPSE OF TETRARCHY 379–395
Constantine II
Constans 306–307 Galerius (Augustus) 395–408
Usurpation of Magnentius 306–308 Maximin (Caesar) 408–450
Julian Caesar Maximin (Augustus)
Julian Augustus 450–457
MAXENTIUS (USURPER) IN ITALY 457–474
Valentinian 306–312
Gratian 474–491
Valentinian II 307–337 Licinius (Augustus)
Maximus (Usurper)
Eugenius (Usurper) DOMITIUS ALEXANDER (USURPER) IN AFRICA
308–311
Honorius
(Stilicho regent) JOINT RULE OF CONSTANTINE I AND LICINIUS 313–324
Constantius III
John (Usurper) 337–340 CONSTANTINE I SOLE RULER
Valentian III 340–350 324–337
Petronius Maximus 350–353 Constantius II
Avitus 355–361
Majorian 360–363 Gallus Caesar
Libius Severus
Anthemius JULIAN SOLE RULE
Olybrius 361–363
Glycerius
Julius Nepos 364–375 JOVIAN SOLE RULE
Romulus Augustulus 375–383 363–364
375–392 Valens
383–388 Theodosius I
392–394
THEODOSIUS I SOLE RULER
394–423 394–395
395–408 Arcadius
Theodosius II
421
423–425 Marcian
425–455 Leo I
455
455–456 Zeno
457–461
461–465
467–472
472
473

473–475
475–476

APPENDIX II

603

604 AppendixI
 I

AppendixI
 I 605

606 AppendixI
 I

GLOSSARY

aedile an administrator in Rome, below the PRAETOR, dictator a magistrate granted extraordinary supreme
who was responsible for the care of temples, streets, and authority during a time of crisis or need, normally for a
the corn supply, and the organization of public games. period of only six months.

annona the tribute of grain paid by various provinces drachma the chief silver coin in the Greek monetary
(in particular Egypt); it was used chiefly to feed the city system; it remained in use in the Greek-speaking
of Rome and the legions. provinces of the empire and was approximately worth
one denarius.
as (pl. asses) the smallest copper coin in use through-
out the Roman Empire. Equites the Equestrian class of Rome. Originally refer-
ring to members of the cavalry, later the property-holding
Augusta the title of honor given to the empress or a aristocracy, below the rank of senator.
woman of great influence in Roman imperial affairs.
fasces a bundle of rods with an ax protruding from the
Augustus the title given to the emperor to signify his upper end; it was carried by lictors before magistrates
status above his subjects, used in some eras to signify as wielding the imperium as a symbol of their power.
well a “senior” emperor.
imperator an honorific title given to an emperor or to a
Caesar the name used to denote a “junior” emperor in victorious general.
some eras.
imperium the executive authority wielded by the
censor an official with considerable power in the emperors and by other magistrates, such as consuls or
Republic, responsible for the citizen rolls and for the rolls praetors.
of the Senate.
legate an officer who fulfilled a number of duties for
centurion a Roman military officer; generally, each cen- the emperor or the Senate, either military or political in
turion commanded a century (100 men); each legion was nature.
composed of 60 centuries, when at full strength.
lictor a minor official appointed to carry the fasces
colonus a tenant farmer in the empire who worked on before a magistrate wielding the imperium.
an imperial estate; also the name given to someone oper-
ating a mine on a government contract. magister militum (master of the soldiers) the top-rank-
ing commanders during the period of the late empire
comes a title common in the Empire, meaning a count. (fourth–fifth centuries C.E.); originating in the fourth-
Versions of the rank included comes domesticorum (count century creation of the titles magister equitum (master of
of the domestici or bodyguards) and comes sacra largition- the cavalry) and magister peditum (master of the
um (a count in charge of the imperial finances). infantry).

consul the supreme office during the Republic; magister officiorum the magistrate in charge of corre-
remained honorific but of reduced power during the spondence, petitions, and other areas for the imperial
imperial era. Consuls wielded the executive authority in government of Rome.
government that had been taken from the ancient kings.
notarii the imperial service of notaries or secretaries,
cursus honorum the process of bureaucratic promotions most active in the late empire.
by which a magistrate of Rome rose in political power;
the traditional sequence was quaestor, aedile, praetor, Patricians the hereditary nobility of Rome.
consul.
Plebeians the general, nonaristocratic population of
denarius a Roman silver coin; it was worth approxi- Rome, sometimes shortened to plebs.
mately four sesterces.

607

608 Glossary tribune a powerful magistracy in Rome and in the
legions. A tribune of the plebs (tribuni plebis) protected
Pontifex Maximus the “supreme pontiff,” the title of the interests of the plebeians while the military tribune
the head of the college of pontiffs and other priests in (tribuni militum) held administrative posts in the legions.
charge of the imperial cult of state; it was originally held
by the emperor but was later granted to the pope. triumph the procession made a general celebrating a
major victory on behalf of the empire; the procession was
praetor a magistrate with legal and judicial powers, made from the Campus Martius to the Capitol.
below a consul.
triumvirate A tripartite leadership. Two triumvirates
prefect of the Praetorian Guard also Praetorian prefect; during the Late Republic wielded immense power and
originally the commander of the Praetorian Guard and influence.
later a leading figure in the imperial government.
vir clarissimus a title of honor meaning “most illustri-
princeps the term used to designate an emperor or ous man” that was used for member of the Senate.
politician as “First Statesman,” an honorific title. Princeps
senatus designated the most senior or honored member of vir egregius a title of honor meaning “distinguished
the Roman Senate. man” that was used by members of the Equestrian class.

proconsul the governor of a province during the vir eminens also eminentissimus, a title of honor mean-
Republic and the governor of a senatorial province dur- ing “prominent” or “most prominent”; it was granted as
ing the imperial era. the highest title borne by public officials belonging to the
Equestrian class.
publican the term used for the tax collectors of the
empire. vir perfectissimus a title of honor meaning “most excel-
lent man” that was used for official of high rank among
quaestor the lowest-ranking magistracy in Rome, nor- the Equestrian class.
mally connected to finances.

Quirites the broad term for Roman citizens.

sestertius (pl. sesterces) a Roman coin with a value
equal to one-quarter of a denarius and four asses.

SUGGESTED READINGS

SELECTED PRIMARY SOURCES Latin Historians. Translated by C. S. Kraus and A. J.
Woodman. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1997.
The following are selected primary sources that may be of
value to readers. The list is not comprehensive; rather, it Lockwood, D. P. A Survey of Classical Roman Literature.
seeks to offer a sampling of Roman writers readily avail- Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
able in translation for general readers.
Lucan. Pharsalia. Translated by Jane Wilson Joyce. Ithaca,
Aili, Hans. The Prose Rhythm of Sallust and Livy. Stockholm: N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993.
Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1979.
———. Civil War. Translated by Susan H. Braund. Oxford,
Anthologia Latina. Stuttgart, Ger.: Tuebner, 1982. U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1992.
Barnes, Timothy David. The Sources of the Historia Augusta.
Martial. The Epigrams. Selected and translated by James
Brussels: Latomus, 1978. Michie. Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin Books, 1978.
Benson, Thomas, W., and Michael H. Prosser, eds. Readings
Murphy, James J., ed. Quintilian on the Teaching of Speaking
in Classical Rhetoric. Davis, Calif.: Hermagoras, 1988. and Writing: Translations from Books One, Two, and Ten of
Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Selected Political Speeches. New York: the Institutio Oratoria. Carbondale: Southern Illinois
University Press, 1987.
Penguin, 1969.
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Edited by Theodor Newman, John K. Augustus and the New Poetry. Brussels:
Latomus, 1967.
Mommsen. 16 vols. Berlin: Walter De Gruyter, 1873.
Courtney, E. The Fragmentary Latin Poets. Oxford, U.K.: Ovid. Ovid in Love: Ovid’s Amores. Translated by Guy Lee.
New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000.
Clarendon Press, 1993.
———. Musa Lapidaria: A Selection of Latin Verse ———. Fasti. Book IV. Edited by Elaine Fantham. Cam-
bridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Inscriptions. Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press, 1995.
Deeds of Famous Men (De viris illustribus). Translated and ———. The Art of Love, and Other Poems. Translated by J. H.
Mozley. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
edited by Walter K. Sherwin, Jr. Norman, University of 1979.
Oklahoma Press, 1973.
Deroux, Carl, ed. Studies in Latin Literature and Roman ———. Metamorphoses. Book XIII. Translated by Neil Hop-
History. Brussels: Latomus, 1979. kinson. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Dio Cassius. The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus.
London: Penguin, 1987. ———. Ovid in English. Edited by Christopher Martin. New
———. Roman History. Books LXI–LXX. Cambridge: York: Penguin Books, 1998.
Harvard, 1985.
A Garden of Roman Verse. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty ———. Ovid in Six Volumes. Translated by Grant Shower-
Museum, c1998. man. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
Grant, Michael, ed. Readings in the Classical Historians. New 1986–1988.
York: Scribner’s, 1992.
Horace. Carpe diem: Horace Odes I. Translated by David ———. The Love Poems. Translated by A. D. Melville.
West. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1995. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1998.
———. The Complete Odes and Epodes. Translated by David
West. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. The Oxford Book of Latin Verse, From the Earliest Fragments to
Julius Caesar. The Civil War. New York: Penguin, 1967. the End of the Fifth Century A.D. Oxford, U.K.: The
———. The Conquest of Gaul. New York: Penguin, 1982. Clarendon Press, 1968.
Kennedy, Eberhard, ed. Roman Poetry & Prose. Selections
from Caesar, Virgil, Livy and Ovid. Cambridge, U.K.: The Penguin Book of Latin Verse. Baltimore: Penguin Books,
University Press, 1959. 1962.
Kraus, Christina Shuttleworth. Latin Historians. Oxford,
U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1997. Petronius Arbiter. Petronius. Translated by Michael
Laistner, Max L. W. The Greater Roman Historians. Berkeley: Heseltine. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
University of California Press, 1977. 1969.

Pliny the Elder. Natural History: A Selection Translated by
John F. Healy. London: Penguin, 1991.

Pliny the Younger. Correspondence with Trajan from Bythinia.
(Epistles X). Translated by Wynne Williams. Warmins-
ter, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1990.

———. The Letters of Pliny: a Historical and Social Com-
mentary. Edited by A. N. Sherwin-White. Oxford, U.K.:
Clarendon Press, 1985.

609

610 Suggested Readings ———. Germania. Edited by D. R. Stuart. New York:
Macmillan Co., 1916.
Plutarch. Life of Antony. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1988. ———. Historiae. Edited by H. Heubner. Stuttgart: B. G.
Teubner, 1978.
Polybius. The Histories. Translated by W. R. Paton.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1922–1927. ———. The Histories. New York: Penguin, 1989.
Taylor, A. B., ed. Shakespeare’s Ovid: The Metamorphoses in
Ribaldry of Ancient Rome; An Intimate Portrait of Romans in
Love. New York: F. Ungar Pub. Co., 1965. the Plays and Poems. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2001.
Sacks, Kenneth. Polybius on the Writing of History. Berkeley: Velleius Paterculus. The Caesarian and Augustan Narrative.
University of California Press, 1981. Edited by A. J. Woodman. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1983.
Sallust. The Histories. Translated by Patrick McGushin. ———. The Tiberian Narrative. Edited by A. J. Woodman.
Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1992. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
Virgil. The Aeneid. Translated by Robert Fitzgerald. New
———. Catiline. Edited by A. T. Davis. Bristol, U.K.: Bristol York: Vintage Books, 1990.
Classical Press, 1987. ———. Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid I-VI. Translated by G. P.
Goold and Henry Fairclough. Cambridge, Mass.: Loeb
Seneca. De Clementia. Edited by F. Prechac. Paris: Les Belles Classical Library, 63, Harvard University Press, 1999.
Lettres, 1961. Walbank, F. W. Selected Papers: Studies in Greek and Roman
History and Historiography. New York: Cambridge
———. Epistulae. Edited by L. D. Reynolds. Oxford: University Press, 1985.
Clarendon Press, 1965. Woodman, A. J., ed. Velleius Paterculus. The Tiberian
Narrative. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
———. 17 Letters. Translated by C. D. N. Costa.
Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1988. SELECTED SECONDARY SOURCES

———. Apocolocyntosis. Bryn Mawr, Pa.: Thomas Library, The following is a suggested reading list of works in the
Bryn Mawr College, 1988. English language for the general reader. The list is intend-
ed to provide the student or reader with readily available
———. Hercules: The Madness of Hercules. Translated by material for further reading or study. For suggested read-
Ranjit Bolt. London: Oberon, 1999. ings in specific topics beyond general histories and sur-
veys, readers are encouraged to consult individual entries
———. Medea. Translated by Frederick Ahl. Ithaca, N.Y.: (e.g., ART AND ARCHITECTURE, LITERATURE, PAGANISM, and
Cornell University Press, 1986. LEGIONS). The list is divided into general histories and
references, the early Roman Empire, the late Roman
———. Moral and Political Essays. Translated by John M. Empire, and the Germanic invasions.
Cooper and J. F. Procopé. Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge
University Press, 1995. General Histories and References
Adkins, Lesley, and Roy Adkins. Handbook to Life in Ancient
———. Phaedra. Edited by Michael Coffey and Roland
Mayer. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Rome. New York: Facts On File, 1994.
Boardman, J., Griffin, J., and Murray, O. The Roman World.
——— The Tragedies. Translated by David R. Slavitt.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992–1995. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1986.
Brauer, George C. The Age of the Soldier Emperors: Imperial
———. Seneca’s Phoenissae: Introduction and Commentary.
Edited by Marica Frank. New York: E. J. Brill, 1995. Rome, A.D. 244–284. Park Ridge, N.J.: Noyes Press,
1985.
Share, Don, ed. Seneca in English. New York: Penguin Books, The Cambridge Ancient History. Vols. 9, 10, 11, 12. New York:
1998. Cambridge University Press, 1929–1939.
The Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. 1. New York:
Silver Latin Epic: A Selection from Lucan, Valerius Flaccus, Cambridge University Press, 1936–1949.
Silius Italicus & Statius. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press, Christ, Karl. The Romans. Berkeley and Los Angeles:
1985. University of California Press, 1984.
Clare, John D., ed. Classical Rome. San Diego, Calif.:
Suetonius The Twelve Caesars. Translated and with an Gulliver Books, 1993.
introduction by Michael Grant. New York: Penguin, Cornell, Tim, and John Matthews. Atlas of the Roman World.
1979. New York: Facts On File Publications, 1982.
Grant, Michael. The Founders of the Western World: A History
Sussman, Lewis A. The Major Declamations Ascribed to of Greece and Rome. New York: Scribner, 1991.
Quintilian: A Translation. Frankfurt am Main: Verlag P.
Lang, 1987.

Tacitus, Cornelius. Empire and Emperors: Selections from
Tacitus’ Annals. Translated by Graham Tingay. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1983.

———. The Annals of Imperial Rome. Translated and with an
introduction by Michael Grant. New York: Penguin,
1964.

———. The Histories. Translated by Clifford H. Moore; The
Annals. Translated by John Jackson. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1925–1937.

———. Annales. Edited by Henry Furneaux. Oxford, U.K.:
Clarendon Press, 1965.

———. De Vita Agricolae. Edited by R. M. Ogilvie. Oxford,
U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1967.

———. History of Rome. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, Suggested
Readings 611
c. 1978.
Gelzer, Matthias, Needham, Peter, trans. Caesar: Politician
———. The Roman Emperors: A Bbiographical Guide to the and Statesman. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 476. New York: Press, 1985.
Scribner, 1985.
Griffin, Miriam T. Nero: the End of a Dynasty. New Haven,
Hammond, Nicholas G. L., ed. Atlas of the Greek and Roman Conn. Yale University Press, 1985.
World in Antiquity. Park Ridge, N.J.: Noyes Press, 1981.
Gurval, Robert. Actium and Augustus: The Politics and
James, Simon. Ancient Rome. New York: Knopf, 1990. Emotions of Civil War. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Lewis, Naphtali, and Meyer Reinhold, eds. R o m a n Press, 1998.

Civilization, Selected Readings, Vol. 2, The Empire. New Holland, Richard. Nero: The Man Behind the Myth. Stroud:
York: Columbia University Press, 1990. Sutton, 2000.
Nicol, D. M. A Biographical Dictionary of the Byzantine Em-
pire. London: Seaby, 1991. Hurley, Donna W. An Historical and Historiographical
Oxford Classical Dictionary. Edited by N. G. L. Hammond Commentary on Suetonius’ Life of C. Caligula. Atlanta,
and H. H. Scullard. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Ga.: Scholars Press, 1993.
Press, 1970.
Randsborg, Klavs. The First Millennium A.D. in Europe and Levick, Barbara. Claudius. New Haven, Conn.: Yale
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Ridley, Ronald T. History of Rome: A Documented Analysis. Meier, Christian. Caesar. New York: HarperCollins, 1997.
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Starr, Chester G. The Beginnings of Imperial Rome: Rome in The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus. Translated by
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Athanassiadi-Fowden, Polymnia. Julian and Hellenism: An In-
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Bradford, Ernle. Julius Caesar: The Pursuit of Power. London: Baldwin, Barry. Studies on Late Roman and Byzantine History,
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H. Hamilton, 1984. Barnes, Timothy D. Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge,
Braund, David. Augustus to Nero: A Sourcebook on Roman Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981.
Carson, R. A. G., P. V. Hill, and J. P. C. Kent. Late Roman
History 31 BC–AD 68. London: Croom Helm, c. 1985. Bronze Coinage. New York: Sanford J. Durst, 1989.
Charles-Picard, Gilbert. Augustus and Nero. Translated by Croke, Brian. Religious Conflict in Fourth-Century Rome: a
Documentary Study. Sydney: Sydney University Press,
Len Ortzen. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1968. 1982.
Dodge, Theodore. Caesar: A History of the Art of War Among Drake, Harold A. In Praise of Constantine: A Historical Study
and New Translation of Eusebius’ Tricennial Oration.
the Romans Down to the End of the Roman Empire, With a Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976.
Detailed Account of the Campaigns of Gaius Julius Caesar. Ferrill, Arther. The Fall of the Roman Empire. New York:
New York: Da Capo Press, 1997. Thames and Hudson, 1996.
The Early Principate: Augustus to Trajan. Oxford, U.K.: Goffart, Walter A. Rome’s Fall and After. London: Hambledon
Clarendon Press, 1982. Press, 1989.
Ferrill, Arthur. Caligula: Emperor of Rome. New York: Gossman, Lionel. The Empire Unpossess’d: an Essay on
Thames and Hudson, 1991. Gibbon’s Decline and Fall. New York: Cambridge
Garnsey, Peter. The Early Principate: Augustus to Trajan. University Press, 1981.
Oxford: Published for the Classical Association, at the Johnson, Stephen. Late Roman Fortifications. London: B. T.
Clarendon Press, 1982. Batsford, 1983.

612 Suggested
Readings The Germanic Invasions
Cunliffe, Barry. Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of
Kaster, Robert A. Guardians of Language: the Grammarian
and Society in Late Antiquity. Berkeley: University of Interaction. London; Batsford, 1988.
California Press, 1988. Goffart, Walter A. Barbarians and Romans, A.D. 418–584: The

Macdowall, Simon, and Gerry Embleton. Late Roman In- Techniques of Accommodation. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
fantryman 236–565 AD. London: Osprey Publishing Ltd., University Press, 1980.
1994. Grant, Michael. Dawn of the Middle Ages. New York: Bonanza
Books, 1981.
Nicolle, David and Angus McBride. Romano–Byzantine Macdowall, Simon and Angus McBride Germanic Warrior
Armies 4th–9th Centuries. London: Osprey, 1992. 236–568 AD. London: Osprey, 1996.
Randers-Pehrson, Justine D. Barbarians and Romans: The
O’Flynn, John M. Generalissimos of the Western Roman Birth Struggle of Europe, A.D. 400–700. Norman:
Empire. Edmonton, Alta., Canada: University of Alberta University of Oklahoma Press, 1983.
Press, 1983. Thompson, E. A. Romans and Barbarians: the Decline of the
Western Empire. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press,
Pelikan, Jaroslav J. The Excellent Empire: The Fall of Rome 1982.
and the Triumph of the Church. San Francisco: Harper & Wolfram, Herwig. The Roman Empire and Its Germanic
Row, 1987. Peoples. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.

Rollins, Alden M. The Fall of Rome: A Reference Guide.
Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1983.

Williams, Stephen. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery.
London: B. T. Batsford, 1985.

Zosimus. New History. Translated by Ronald T. Ridley. Can-
berra; Australian Association for Byzantine Studies, 1982.

INDEX

Boldface page numbers indicate Adventus, Marcus Oclatinus 5–6, and Baalbek 65 Alavius 5, 220, 586
main headings. Italic page num- 338 and Chersonese 108 Alesia 12–13, 63, 228, 232
bers indicate illustrations. and Cologne 134 Alexander 32, 37–38
Adversus Marcionem (Tertullian) 528 and Gallia 228 Alexander, Domitius 9, 13, 97
A Adversus Nationes (Arnobius) 325 harpax developed by 252, 382, Alexander Jannaeus 17, 267, 283
Advice on Public Life (Plutarch) 437 Alexander of Alexandria 35, 52
Abdagaeses 1, 543 advocatus 6, 8, 91, 97 504 Alexander of Cotiaeon 13, 37
ab epistulis 199 Aedesius 6, 116, 259 and Hispania 262 Alexander of Seleucia 13
Ablabius, Flavius 1 aedile 6, 7, 19, 475, 582 and literature 10, 323 Alexander the Great 13, 16, 95, 191,
ab ovo usque ad mala 216 Aedui 6, 37, 57, 63, 104, 228, 340, and Lucius 10
Ab urbe conditi (Livy) 327 and Pompey, Sextus 10, 58, 123 253, 519
Acacius of Constantinople 1 484, 498 sons of 10, 86, 88 Alexandra Salom 37, 267
Academy 1–2, 22, 428 Aegidius 6 wife of 10, 289–290 Alexandria 13–14, 14, 83, 87, 122,
accensi 28 Aelian (Claudius Aelianus) 7 Agrippa Postumus, Marcus
Accius, Lucius 2 Aelianus, Casperius 7, 388 Vipsanius 10, 60–61, 326 191
acclamatio 2 Aelius Caesar, Lucius 7, 24, 251, Agrippina (Vipsania Agrippina) 10, Alexandria, battle of 15
acetum 216 50, 539 Alexandria, Library of 15–16
Achaea 2, 53, 63 349 Agrippina the Elder 10–11, 11 Alexandria (classis) 383
Achillas 2, 15, 42 Aemilian 7, 51, 566 and Drusus 11 Alexandria Troas 16
Achilleid (Statius) 514 Aemilianus, Asellius 164, 422 and Gaius Caligula 11, 225 Alexandrine War (Caesar) 16, 88,
Achilleus 2 Aeneid (Virgil) 323, 585–586 and Germanicus 10–11, 241
acnua 593 aerarium 7, 211, 495 and Livia 10–11, 326 261
Acron, Helenius 3 aerarium militare 7, 60, 309 and Piso, Gnaeus Calpurnius alimenta 550
Acropolis 54 Aetius, Flavius 7–8 Allectus 16, 49, 80, 96, 329, 359,
acta 3 432
acta diurna 3 and Chlodius 219 and Plancina, Munatia 434 431
acta Senatus 3, 55 and Felix, Flavius Constantius and Tiberius 10–11, 50, 460 Allobroges 6, 16
Acte, Claudia 3, 11, 388, 397 Agrippina the Younger (Julia Almagest (Ptolemy) 356, 459
Actium 3–4, 10, 26, 27, 44, 58, 92, 209 Agrippina) 11–12 Alps 16
and Heracleus 255 and Anicetus 12, 19 Altar of Peace 30, 42, 92
127, 191, 252, 312, 313 and Huns 7–8, 54, 102, 342, and Britannicus 11, 81 Altar of Victory 518, 581
actors 26, 331, 332, 373, 413, 461, and Burrus, Sextus Afranius 11, Amandus and Aelianus 16, 65
587 Amaseia (Amasia) 16–17
520, 531 and Majorian 343 84 Amathus 17
Acts of the Pagan Martyrs 4 and Petronius Maximus 8 and Claudius 11, 56, 125, 328, Ambiorix 5, 17, 189
actus 593 and Placidia, Galla 434, 565 Ambrose 5, 17, 57, 63, 73, 406, 534
actus quadratus 593 and Valentinian III 8, 565 331, 381 amici Caesaris 141
adaeratio 4 Afer, Gnaeus Domitius 8, 231, 460 and Domitia 180 amici principis 17, 122, 141
Ad dictum (Ulpian) 561 Afranius, Lucius 8, 122, 269–270 and Domitius Ahenobarbus, Ammianus Marcellinus 17–18, 21,
ad epistulis 198 Africa (province) 8–9, 122, 159,
Ad Eunapium (Oribasius) 400 207, 224, 306 Gnaeus 11, 183 325
Adiutrix (legion) 311 Africa Nova 8, 9 and Lollia Paulina 328, 381 on Arabians 30
adlectio 4, 495 African War (Caesar) 262 and Lucusta 331 on Armenia 48
Ad martyres (Tertullian) 528 Africa Proconsularis 8, 9, 97 and Nero 3, 11–12, 56, 351, on Bassus Theotechnis 70
Ad nationes (Tertullian) 528 Africa Vetus 8, 9 on Constantina 142
adoptio 4 Against the Christians (Porphyry) 386–387 on Constantius II 149
adoptiominus plena 4 444 and Pallas, Marcus Antonius on Druids 186
adoption 4 agentes in rebus 466–467 on Gallus Caesar 235
Ad Quirinam (Cyprian) 162 Ager Helvetiorum See Helvetia 408 on gluttony 244
Adrianople 4–5 ager publicus 207, 301 and Poppaea 11, 444 on Gratian 248
Agricola (Tacitus) 259 and Sallustius Passienus Crispus on Sebastianus 493
Constantine and Licinius at 4–5, Agricola, Gnaeus Julius 9, 78, 79, on silk 109
142, 143, 158, 321 189 485 on Valentinian I 565
Agricultura, De (Cato) 207, 582 and Silana, Junia 91, 505 Amminius 79, 95, 159
Valens and Goths at 5, 36, 168, agriculture See farming Agrippinensis See Cologne Ammonius Saccas 18
220, 247, 402, 471 Agrippa I, Marcus Julius 9, 75, 187, Alamanni (Alemanni) 12, 35, 56, Amores (Ovid) 404
228, 257, 281, 285, 288 62, 95, 240, 360, 564 Ampelius, Lucius 18
Adriaticum Mare 5 Agrippa II, Marcus Julius 9, 75, 211, Alans (Alani) 12, 78, 229, 402, 567 amphitheaters 38, 211, 532 See also
adrogatio 4 228, 235, 283 Alaric 12 Colosseum
Ad Sabinum (Sabinus) 483 Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius 9–10 and Athaulf 12, 53 amphora 18
Ad Sabinum (Ulpian) 561 at Actium 3, 10 and Attalus, Priscus 54 Ampius, T. Balbus 18
Ad Scapulam (Tertullian) 528 and architecture 10, 43, 71, 92, and Constantius III 264 Amyntas 21, 226
Aduatuca 5, 189, 232, 529 and Honorius 12, 264, 438, 586 Anabasis (Arrian) 40
adultery 60, 318, 353 410, 475 and Pelagius 418 Anabasis (Xenophon) 443
and augurs 56 and Stilicho 12, 264, 438, 465,
and Augustus 3, 10, 58, 60
514–515, 560, 573, 586
Alaudae (legion) 311–312

613

614 Index

ancile 484 and Artavasdes 48 apprenticeship 190 Liberius and 320
Andalusia 19 and Athens 53 Apronius, Lucius 28, 220, 521 Lucifer of Cagliari and 330–331
Andragathius 248, 361 and Augustus 25–26, 58, 82, Apuleius 8, 28, 325, 340 Vandals and 98
Anicetus 12, 19 Aqua Appia 29, 194 Visigoths and 587
Annalists 19 123, 127, 217–218, 317, 522, Aqua Ducto, De (Frontinus) 221 Ariarathes X of Cappadocia 32, 36
Annals (Tacitus) xii, 50, 52, 171, 556–557 aquae 28–29 Ariobarzanes III 36, 39
and Bibulus, Lucius Calpurnius aquae et ignis interdicto 205 Ariobarzanes of Media 36, 47
324, 343, 521 75 aqueducts 29, 29, 43, 194–195, 221 Ariogaesus 36–37
Anna Perena 19, 245 brothers of 24, 25 Aquileia 5, 17, 30, 42, 54, 266, 276, Ariovistus 37, 239, 340, 470, 498,
Annius Verus, Marcus 19 and Brutus, Marcus Junius 25, 516
annona 19–20, 199 58, 75, 123, 217 277 Aristides, Aelius 13, 37, 49
ante diem 90 and Brutus Albinus 83, 123, 379 Aquitania 30, 83, 202, 228, 232 Aristobulus II (king of Judaea) 22,
ante meridiem 543 and Caesar, Julius 87, 122 Arabia 30, 233 34, 37, 267, 287, 380
Anthemius (Emperor of West) 20, and Calenas, Q. Fufius 89 Arabia Petraea 30, 422 Aristobulus (praetorian prefect) 37
and Candidus Crassus, Publius Ara Pacis 30–31, 42, 92 Aristobulus (son of Herod the Great)
48, 249, 342, 398, 471 92 Ara Pacis Augustae 48 37–38, 39
Anthemius (prefect of Praetorian and Cassius 58, 99, 123, Arar, battle of 31, 231 Aristophanes 38
426–427, 557 Arausio (Orange) 31 Aristotle 385
Guard) 20, 32, 146, 168, 460 and Cleopatra 3, 16, 25–26, 58, Arbitio, Flavius 31, 380 Arius 35, 38, 115, 203
Anti Cato (Caesar) 88, 102 107, 118, 123, 127, 523, 557 Arbogast 31, 32, 201, 214, 220, 406, Arles 38, 52, 119, 184, 186
anti-Gnosticism 67 daughter of 23 armatura 307
Antigonus 16, 257 and Domitius Ahenobarbus, 534 Armenia and Armenia Minor 38–40
Antinopolis 20, 459 Gnaeus 182 Arcadius, Flavius 31–32, 56, 73, See also specific city
Antinous 20, 43, 251 laws of 318 Corbulo, Gnaeus Domitius and
Antioch (capital of Seleucid Empire) legions of 311, 313 201, 204, 514
and Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius Archaic Latin 303 151–152
20–21, 167, 519, 520 25–26, 58, 317, 556–557 Archelaus 32, 288 kings of 47, 155, 371–372, 544,
Antioch (colony) 21–22 and Liberators 88, 320, 426–427 Archelaus of Cappadocia 32, 39, 93,
Antiochus I 22, 26, 36, 139 and Messalla Corvinus 366 599
Antiochus III 22, 139 and Parthia 22, 41, 47, 430 118 Marcus Aurelius and 349
Antiochus IV 22, 118, 139 and Plancus, Lucius Munatius arches 29, 32–34, 194 Nero and 387
Antiochus of Ascalon 1–2, 22 434 Architectura, De (Vitruvius) 588 patron saint of 248–249
Antipater of Idumaea 22–23, 34, 37, and Polemo I 438 architecture 43–46, 475–477 queen of 199–200
and Pollio, Gaius Asinius 438 rulers of 170, 413
257, 267, 269, 283, 287, 380 and Pompey, Sextus 370, 441 aqueducts 29, 194–195 armilustrium 484
Antiquitates (Varro) 468, 569 sons of 24–25, 26 arches 32–34 Arminius 40, 60, 86, 109, 214, 239,
Antistia 442, 480 and Sosius, Gaius 512 basilicas 68 241, 352, 529, 569
Anti-Symmachus (Prudentius) 325 and Turrullius 558 baths 70–72, 71 armor 307, 308
Antonia (daughter of Claudius) 23 wives of 221–222, 397 bridges 194–195 army See legions
Antonia (mother of C. Domitius Antyllus 26 Colosseum 135–137, 136 Arria 40
Anullinus, Publius Cornelius 26, Pantheon 410, 411 Arria the Elder 40
Ahenobarbus) 23 422 Arch of Augustus 33, 44 Arria the Younger 40
Antonia (mother of Claudius) 23, Apamea Cibotus 26 Arch of Beneventum 43 Arsacid dynasty 34, 39, 40–41, 413,
Apamea Orontem 26 Arch of Caracalla 33 543
60, 187, 225, 327 Apelles 26 Arch of Constantine 33 Ars Amatoria (Ovid) 403, 404
Antonine Baths 72, 97 Aper, Arrius 26–27, 37, 98, 175 Arch of Drusus 33 Ars grammatica (Charisius) 108
Antonine itinerary 279, 472 Aper, P. Salvius 322, 447, 449, 492 Arch of Germanicus 33 Ars grammatica (Diomedes) 178
Antonines 23–24, 43, 605 See also apex 484 Arch of Septimius Severus 33 Ars grammatica (Palaemon) 407
Apicata 23, 27, 327 Arch of Tiberius 31, 33 Arsinoe (daughter of King Ptolemy
Antoninus Pius; Commodus; Apicius 27, 215, 244 Arch of Titus 32–33, 288 XII) 2, 15, 42, 235
Marcus Aurelius; Verus, Lucius Apis 27 Arch of Trajan 32–33, 316 Arsinoe (Egyptian towns) 42
Antonine Wall See Wall of Apocolocyntosis (Seneca) 490, 497 Ardaburius 50, 100, 315 Ars major (Donatus) 185
Antoninus Apocritica (Macarius Magnes) 336 Ardashir I 34, 39, 41, 47, 159, 252, Ars minor (Donatus) 185
Antoninianus 24, 95, 132, 133, 172 apodyterium 71 488 Ars Poetica (Horace) 265, 323
Antoninus, Arrius 24 Apollinaris (legion) 313 Aretas III 22, 34, 37, 267, 380 art 42–43
Antoninus Pius 23, 24, 24 Apollinaris of Laodicea 27 Aretas IV 34–35, 258 Artabanus III 41, 46–47, 543
and adoptions 4 Apollo 27, 60, 168, 245, 467, 468, Argentoratum 35 Artabanus V 34, 41, 47, 338, 488
and Alexander of Seleucia 13 510 argentus 35, 133, 172 Artagira 47, 86
and architecture 92, 476–477 Apollodorus 27, 45, 218, 475–476, Argonautica (Flaccus) 213 Artavasdes (King of Armenia) 34,
and Christianity 111 550 Ariadne 276, 315, 572, 599 39, 47, 48, 92, 200
coinage of 24, 24 Apollonius of Tyana 27–28, 385 Arianism 35–36, 115 Artavasdes (King of Media
and Galatia 226 Apologeticus (Tertullian) 528 Ambrose and 17 Atropatene) 47
and Gavius Maximus, Marcus Apologia (Apuleius) 28, 325, 340 Antony and 25 Artaxata 47–48, 544
Apology for Origen (Pamphylius) Arius and 38 Artaxerxes 48 See also Ardashir I
236 409 Athanasius and 52 Artaxes II 36, 39, 48
and Hadrian 24, 251, 349 Apophoreta (Martial) 353 Basil the Great and 67 Artaxias See Zeno (king of Armenia)
and literature 324 apotheosis 509 Constantine and 144 Artemidorus Daldianus 48
ludi held by 332 Apotheosis (Prudentius) 325, 459 Constantius II and 142, 149 Artes (Celsus) 104
and Senate 24 apparitores 28, 580 Council of Nicaea and 389–390 Arulenus Rusticus, Q. Junius 48
and Verus, Lucius 251, 573 appeal, rights of 304, 305 Cyril of Jerusalem and 164 Arval Brethren 48, 60, 168, 452,
wife of 208 appearance 420–421 Eusebius and 202 468
Antonius, Gaius 24 Appendix Vergiliana 28 George of Cappadocia and 238 Arvandus 48
Antonius, Iullus 24–25 Appian 32, 88 Gregory of Nazianzus and 248 as 48–49, 133, 172
Antonius, Lucius 25, 421 Hilary and 260 Asclepiodotus 16, 17, 49, 148, 329
Antonius Musa 25, 61 Hosius and 265
Antony (“St. Antony”) 25 Julius and 293
Antony, Marc 25–26 Justina and 295
at Actium 3, 10, 26, 27, 58, 92,

127, 191, 252
and Archelaus 32
in Armenia 39

Asclepius (Aesculapius) 49, 49, 50, and Antioch 21 and Hirtius, Aulus 261 Index 615
467, 468 and Antonius, Lucius 25, 421 and Hispania 262
and Antony, Marc 25–26, 58, 82, and Horace 264, 323 in Juthungine War 296, 433
Asconius Pedianus, Quintus 49 and Illyricum 270 and Praetorian Guard 448
Asia 49–50, 50 123, 127, 217–218, 317, 522 and imperium 272 and Probus, Marcus Aurelius
Asia Minor 49, 50, 76, 93, 118, 335, and Apollo 27, 60, 510, 524 and Juba II 287, 356
and Aquae Sextiae 29 and Judaea 288 454
368, 379, 412, 430, 487 and Arabia 30 laws of 60, 304, 318, 319, 343, Aurelius Victor 62, 186, 325
Asinius Gallus 50 and Ara Pacis 30 Aureolus, Manius Acilius 62, 233
Aspar, Flavius Ardaburius 50, 100, and Archelaus 32, 118 352 aureus 62, 95, 132, 133, 500, 550
and architecture 43, 68, 92, 217, legions of 307, 310, 311, 312, Ausonius, Decimus Magnus 62–63,
200, 286, 315, 342, 415–416, 599
Aspurgus 77, 372, 438 475, 524, 525, 526 313 83, 518
assassinations 50–51 and Ariobarzanes of Media 36 and Lepcis Magna 316 auspicia impetrativa 55
astrology 51–52, 340 and Arles 38 and Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius auspicia oblativa 55
Astronomica (Manilius) 345 and Armenia 39 Autun See Augustodonum
astronomy 52, 459 and art 42 25–26, 58, 317, 556–557 auxilia 229, 310, 554
Athanasius (St. Athanasius) 25, 35, and Arval Brethren 48, 60 and Liberators 88, 320, auxilia palatina 310
and Asia 49 Avaricum, Siege of 63, 232, 238,
52–53, 68, 142, 149, 167, 238 and Asinius Gallus 50 426–427
Athaulf 12, 53, 54, 149, 231, 264, on astrology 52 and literature 323–324 572
and Baalbek 65 and Macedonia 336–337 Aventine Hill 260–261, 473
287, 433, 586–587 and Balbus, Lucius Cornelius 66 and Maecenas, Gaius Cilnius Ave Phoenice, de (Lactantius) 430
Athenadorus 53, 523 and Bosporus kingdom 77 Averni (Arverni) 6, 12, 63, 104,
Athenaeum 53 and Britannia 79 339, 378
Athens 53–54 and Caesar, Gaius 86 and Marcellus, Marcus Claudius 228, 232, 238, 340, 572
Atia 57, 427 and Caesar, Lucius 88 Avidius Heliodorus 63
Attalus, Priscus 53, 54, 149 and Caesarea 89 346 Avidius Nigrinus, Gaius 63
Attalus III 49, 335 and Calvinus, Gnaeus Domitius and Marcomanni 351–352 Avidius Quietus, Titus 63
“attendants” 112 and Menas 364–365 Avitus 63–64, 343, 433, 471, 505,
Attianus, Publius Acilius 54 91 and Messalla Corvinus 366
attic 32 and Cantabri 93 and Murena 377–378 587
Attic Nights (Gellius) 237 and Capito, Gaius Ateius 93 and Nicopolis 391 Axona 64, 231, 516
Attila 54, 54, 266 and Carthage 97 and Noricum 392 Axum 64
and Cassius 58, 99, 123, and Ostia 402
and Aetius 8, 54, 102, 342 and Ovid 403 B
and Aquileia 30, 54 426–427, 557 and Pannonia 409
and Avitus 63 and Cassius Parmensis 100 and Parthia 41, 430 Baalbek 65
and Heruli 258–259 and census 105 physician of 25 Bacchus 65, 245, 468
and Honoria Augusta 54, 263 and Chalcis 107 and Plancus, Lucius Munatius Bactria 65
and Leo I (pope) 316 and Chatti 108 Baetica 19, 65, 262
and Priscus 453 and Cicero 118 434 Bagaudae 16, 65
and Theoderic I 587 and civil service 121 and Polemo I 438 Baiae 66, 72, 277
and Troyes 557 coinage of 131, 132, 133, 172 and Pollio, Publius Vedius 439 Balbillus, Tiberius Claudius 66
and Valentinian III 565 and concilia 140 and Pompey, Sextus 370, 441 Balbinus 30, 51, 66, 132, 246, 448,
auctoritas 55, 60, 496 and consulship 150 and praefectus urbi 449
Aufidius Bassus 55 and Cordus, Aulus Cremutius and Praetorian Guard 60, 185, 496
Aufidius Victorinus, Gaius 55 Balbus, Lucius Cornelius (ally of
Augsburg 56–57 152 446, 447
Augurium Canarium 55 and Cornificius, Lucius and provinces 457–458 Julius Caesar) 66
augurs and augury 52, 55–56, 452 and rationalis 212 Balbus, Lucius Cornelius (nephew of
Augusta 11, 23, 56–57 153–154 and Ravenna 466
Augusta (legion) 311, 312 and Corsica 154 Res Gestae Divi Augustus written Lucius Cornelius Balbus) 66
Augustan History See Scriptores and Crassus, Marcus Licinius Balbus, T. Ampius 66
Historiae Augustae by 469–470 Balearic Islands 66–67
Augustans 56 156 and Rhodes 471 Ballista 67, 337
Augusta Taurinorum See Turin and Crete 157 and Rhoemetalces I 471 baptismo, De (Tertullian) 528
Augusta Treverorum See Trier and cursus publicus 161, 551 and Salona 485 barber shops 421
Augusta Vindelicorum 56, 240 and Cyprus 162 and Samaria 486 Barbia Orbiana 67, 502
Augustine (St. Augustine) 57, 429 and Dacia 165 and Sardinia 487 Bar Cochba, Simon 67, 251, 258,
and Apollonius of Tyana 28 and Danube 168 and Senate 49, 58, 60, 228, 495,
as bishop of Hippo 261 daughter of 289–290 284, 289, 502
and Boniface 77 deification of 272 509 Bardasanes of Edessa 67
and Donatus 115, 184 and delatores 171 sister of 397 Bargoia, Simon 67, 286
and Orosius, Paulus 401 and Druids 186 and social classes 509 Barnabas 67
and Pelagius 115, 418 and Egypt 191 stepfather of 427 Basil the Great 36, 67–68, 115, 203
and Theodorus 533 and Epaphroditus 196 and Taurus 523 Basilianus 68
Augustodonum 6, 57, 104, 228 and Epirus 198 tax system of 523 basilica 68, 92, 114
Augustus 57–61, 58, 59 and Equestrians 199 and Terentia 527 Basilica Aemilia 44, 68, 68, 218
acta of 3 and Evocati 205 and Tiridates II 544 Basilica Julia 44, 68–69, 218
at Actium 3, 10, 26, 27, 58, 92, father of 397–398 and tribunes 554 Basilica Maxentia 46, 69
fleets of 503–504 and Turrullius 558 Basilica Ulpia 45, 69, 219
127, 191, 252 freedmen of 219 tutor of 53 Basilides 69
and Adriaticum Mare 5 and Fulvia 222 and vigiles 582 Basilina 149, 291
and Africa 8 and Gallia 228, 229, 239 wives of 58, 326, 492, 539 Basiliscus 69, 200, 237, 315, 345
and Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius and Gallus, Gaius Cornelius 234 Aurelian 14, 16, 61–62 Bassianus 69
games provided by 243 and architecture 46 Bassus, Aufidius 69
10, 56, 58, 60 and Herod 38 assassination of 51 Bassus, Betilinus 69–70
and Alexandria 13 and Herod the Great 257 and Claudius II Gothicus 125 Bassus, C. Julius Quadratus 70
and annona 19 coinage of 62, 132 Bassus, Caesius 69
and Firmus 212 Bassus, Junius 70
and Goths 247 Bassus, Quintus Caecilius 70
Bassus, Saleius 70
Bassus Theotechnis, Junius 70

616 Index

Batavi 70, 74, 82, 121, 239 See also Boniface (magister militum) 8, 77, Burdigala 83, 228 and Commius 139
Civilis, Gaius Julius 100, 236, 266, 418, 567 Burebista 83, 165, 169 and Corinth 152
Burgundians 8, 83–84, 229, 249, and Crassus 156
baths 28, 70–72, 71, 226, 420, 475 Boniface (pope) 38, 103, 107 and Crassus, Marcus Licinius
Baths of Agrippa 43, 92, 475 Book of the Laws of the Nations 594
Baths of Caracalla 46, 71–72, 95 burial 169 87, 156, 231, 556
Baths of Hadrian 72, 316 (Bardasanes) 67 Burrus, Sextus Afranius 11, 81, 84, daughter of 289
Baths of Titus 136 Bordeaux itinerary 279, 472 and Deiotarus 171
Bathyllus 72, 531 Bosporus kingdom 76, 77–78, 155, 91, 101, 387, 449 as dictator 173, 174
Bato (chief of Breucian tribes) 72, Byzantium 84, 145 and Domitius Ahenobarbus,
372, 425
85 Boudicca 78, 79, 80, 103, 105, 269, C Gnaeus 182
Bato (chief of Dalmatians) 72, 85 and Domitius Ahenobarbus,
Bato (gladiator) 72 329, 387, 517 Cabiri 85
Battarius 72 braca 130, 307 Caecina, Paetus 40, 85 Lucius 183
Bauli 72–73, 277 brazier 223, 583 Caecina Alienus, Aulus 85 and Druids 186
Bauto 31, 32, 73, 201 bread 215 and Eburones 189
beards 420–421 breakfast 215 at Bedriacum 73, 74 and Equestrians 199
Beata Vita, De (Augustine) 533 Breucian tribes 72 and Chaerea 106 and Evocati 205
beauty aids 420 Breviarum ab urbe condita and Gallus, Appius Annius 233 and Gabinius, Aulus 224
Bedriacum 73–74 and Helvetii 254–255 and Galba 64, 226
(Eutropius) 325 at Placentia 433 Gallic Wars of See Gallic Wars
Otho and Vitellius at 16, 70, 73, bridges 29, 194–195, 473, 477, 538 and Sabinus, Publius 483 Gardens of 236
85, 104, 212, 233, 311, 403, Brigantes 78, 79, 89, 98, 189 and Valens, Fabius 564 and Hirtius, Aulus 261
452, 507, 569 Britannia (British Isles) 79–81, 80 and Vitellius, Aulus 85, 587 and Hispania 262
Caecina Severus, Aulus 40, 82, and Illyricum 270
Vitellius and Primus at 73–74, See also specific city 85–86 and Juba I 287, 395
376, 452 Augustus and 79 Caelian Hill 260, 473 and Juba II 287
Caesar, Julius and 79, 87, 100, Caelius Rufus, Marcus 86, 128 and Labienus, Titus 298
beds 222 Caenis 86 laws of 318, 319
Belgae 74, 79, 103, 139, 226, 228, 103, 232 Caesar, Gaius 25, 30, 36, 47, 60–61, legions of 307, 311, 312
Catuvellauni in 95, 103, 124, 86, 326 ludi held by 333
232 Caesar, Gallus See Constantius II and Mamurra 344
Bella Germaniae (Pliny) 436 131, 159 Caesar, Julius 86–88 and Mithridates of Pergamum
Belle Civile (Lucan) 324, 330 Celts in 104–105, 228 and acta diurna 3
Bello Africa, De (Caesar) 262 Claudius and 95, 125, 269, 329, and Aedui 6 372–373, 391
Bello Alexandrino, De (Caesar) 16, and Afranius 8 and Moors 375
435 and Africa 9, 122 and Oppius, Gaius 399
88, 261 Constantine and 80, 142, 189 and Alexandria 13–14, 15, 122 and Ostia 402
Bello Gallico, De (Caesar) 88, 261, Constantius I Chlorus and 80, and Ambiorix 5, 17 as Pater Patriae 414
and Ampius, T. Balbus 18 and Pedius, Quintus 418
571 96, 329 and Antioch 21 and Petreius, Marcus 423
Bello Hispaniensi, De (Caesar) 262, culture in 9, 80–81 and Antonius, Gaius 24 and Piso, Lucius Calpurnius 432
Decangi in 169 and Antonius, Lucius 25 and Plancus, Lucius Munatius
377 Diocletian and 80 and Antony, Marc 87, 122
Bellona 74 Druids in 186 and architecture 44, 68, 119, 434
Bello Vandalico, De (Procopius) 567 Gaius Caligula and 79 and Pompey the Great 87, 122,
Bellum Africum (Caesar) 88 Hadrian and 251 160, 217
Bellum Germanicum (Bassus) 55, 69 Iceni in 269 and Ariobarzanes III 36 188, 231, 269–270, 307, 330,
beneficiarii 74, 383 Picts in 430–431 and Ariovistus 37 355, 356, 377, 425, 442, 530,
beneficiarii legati legionis 74 Severus, Septimius and 80, 329, and Aristobulus 23 556
beneficiarii procuratoris 74 and Arles 38 and Ptolemy XII Auletes
beneficiarii tribuni 74 339, 502 and Arsinoe 42 459–460
beneficium 74 Britannia (coin) 81 assassination of 82, 88, 98, 99, and Raurici 466
Beneventum 74–75 Britannica (classis) 383 and Sallust 485
Berenice 75, 162, 187, 545 Britannicus 11, 81–82, 84, 125, 331, 119, 123, 160, 320, 553 and Sinope 507
Berytus 75 and Augustodonum 57 sister of 289
Betriacum See Bedriacum 367, 387 and Augustus 57–58 son of 26, 88
Bibliotheca Alexandrina 16 bronze coinage 132 and Balbus, Lucius Cornelius 66 and Trebonius 553
Bibliotheca Historica (Diodorus) 178 Bructeri 82, 239, 481 and Balbus, T. Ampius 66 and tribunes 553–554
Bibracte 6, 75, 231 Brundisium 82, 188 and battle of Arar 31 and Varro 568
Bibulus, Lucius Calpurnius 75 Brundisium, Treaty of 58, 82, 123, and Bibracte 75 and Vatinius 570
Bibulus, Marcus Calpurnius 75, 87, in Britannia 79, 87, 100, 103, Vercingetorix and 12
182, 557 wives of 86, 88, 90–91, 153,
173, 444, 556 Bruttidius Niger 82 232 439–440
bidentes 207 Brutus, Marcus Junius 82–83, 320 and Burdigala 83 and Zela 598–599
bipalium 207 and Burebista 83 Caesar, Lucius 60–61, 86, 88, 326
birds 56 and Antony, Marc 25, 58, 75, and Caelius Rufus, Marcus 86 Caesar, Ptolemy 26, 88
biscuits 215 123, 217 and Calenas, Q. Fufius 89 Caesarea 89, 94, 257, 283, 284
bishops 112, 411–412, 415 calendar reform of 88, 89, 512 Caesares (Julian) 490
Bithynia 50, 76, 164, 335, 389, and Ariobarzanes III 36 and Calvinus, Gnaeus Domitius Caesarion See Caesar, Ptolemy
and Caesar, Julius 88, 99 Caesaropapism 115–116
390–391 and Domitius Ahenobarbus, 91 Caesar (Plutarch) 88
Black Sea 76 and Carthage 97 Caesars (Aurelius) 62
Black Sea (classis) 383 Gnaeus 182 and Cato Uticensis 88, 102 The Caesars (Julian) 292
Blaesus, Quintus Junius 76–77, 396, at Philippi 426–427, 557 and Chatti 108 caldarium 71, 72
suicide of 83 and Cicero 117 Caledonia 79, 89, 140, 430–431,
521 wife of 444 and Cleopatra 87, 122, 127 502
Bleda 54, 266 Brutus Albinus, Decimus Junius 83 and Clodius Pulcher 129
bodyguards 322, 492, 493 See also and Antony, Marc 83, 123, 379 coinage of 132
and Gallia Cisalpina 230
domestici, protectores; Praetorian and Hispania 262
Guard and Veneti 232
Bolanus, Vettius 77 Bucolici 83, 99
Bona Dea 77, 129, 439, 576 Bucolics (Virgil) 207, 585
buildings 194, 475–477 See also
houses
Bulla Regia 83

Index 617

Calenas, Q. Fufius 89 Caratacus 78, 79, 95–96, 98, 103, Catholicae Ecclesiae Unitate, De and Domitian 108, 181, 322,
calendar 88, 89–90, 512 124, 159, 492 (Cyprian) 162 471
caliga 130
Caligula See Gaius Caligula Carausius, Marcus Aurelius catholicos 275 and Drusus 108, 187, 239
Callistus 90, 261 Mausaeus 80, 96, 148, 329, 358, Cato (Cicero) 102 and Galba 224
Callistus, Gaius Julius 90, 106 431 Cato the Elder 253, 428 and Germanicus 353
Calpurnia 88, 90–91, 432 Cato Uticensis, Marcus Porcius 82, and Hermunduri 256
Calpurnius Siculus, Titus 91 carbatina 130 and Pomponius Secundus 108,
Calvinus, Gnaeus Domitius 29, 36, carcer 558 88, 102, 129, 162, 183, 423
cardinal numbers 394 Catullus 102 443
91, 425 Caria 96 Catullus, Gaius Valerius 102–103, and Saturninus 360
Calvisius 91, 180 Carinus, Marcus Aurelius 96, 98, Chauci 108, 151, 235, 240
Calvus, Gaius Licinius Macer 91 119, 128, 161, 344 Chersonese 108
camels 551 175, 395 Catus Decianus 78, 103 Cherusci 108–109 See also
Camillus, Furius Scribonianus 28, Carmen Apologetica (Commodian) Catuvellauni 95, 103, 124, 131, 159 Arminius
causis corruptae eloquentiae, De and Batavi 70
40, 91 325 and Drusus 108, 187, 239
Cammuni 91 Carmen Saeculare (Horace) 265 (Quintilian) 463 and Franks 219
Campania 91–92, 255, 370, 532 Carmina (Horace) 264–265 cavalry 309, 310 and Ingiuomerus 274
camps 240, 309, 447 Carmina (Sidonius) 505 cavea 532 and Italicus 279
Campus Agrippa 92 Carna 96, 245 Celer, Caninius 103 and Marsi 353
Campus Martius 42, 71, 74, 92, 119, Carneades 1, 427, 428 Celer, Publius 103 prince of 214
carne Christi, De (Tertullian) 528 Celer (architect) 103, 245 and Varus 109, 569
475, 525 Carnuntum 96, 142, 176, 227, 321, Celestine I 38, 98, 103, 163, 196, children, clothing for 130, 546
Camulodonum 78, 79, 92, 100, 103, China 109, 129
359 315, 389 Christianity 109–116, 468, 477–479
159, 329 carpentum 96, 207, 474 Celsus 103–104 in Africa 8
canabae 240, 410 Carpi 96, 166 Celsus, Aulus Cornelius 104, 324, in Alexandria 14
Candidus, Tiberius Claudius 92 Carrhea 87, 96–97, 99, 156, 414, in Antioch 21
Candidus Crassus, Publius 4, 362 Antoninus Pius and 111
442, 518 Celsus, L. Publius 104 Antony and 25
92–93 Carthage 8, 72, 97–98, 119, 567 Celsus, Library of 196 in Arabia 30
candles 223 Cartimandua 78, 79, 95, 98 Celsus, Marius 73, 104 Arianism and 35, 38, 52, 67,
Cantabri 93, 262 carts 551–552 Celsus, Publius Juventus 104
cantica 530–531 Carus, Marcus Aurelius 26, 51, 96, Celts 78, 79, 80, 104–105, 186, 115
Cantii 328 in Armenia 39, 40
Capella, Martianus 93, 190 98, 448, 454 228–229 and art 43
Capellianus 93, 97, 246 Casca, Gaius 98 cena 215, 216 in Asia 50
Caper, Flavius 93 Casca, Servilius 98 Cena Trimalchionis (Petronius) 423 and astrology 52
capita 524 Cassian, John 98–99, 103 censor 105, 124, 150 Aurelian and 62
Capito, Cossutianus 69–70, 93 Cassian law 318 censoria potestas 10, 105 in Bithynia 76
Capito, Fonteius 121, 564 Cassius, Gaius Avidius 83, 99, 159, Censorinus 105 in Cappadocia 94
Capito, Gaius Ateius 93, 99, 298, census 105 in Carthage 97–98
209, 349, 350 centenionalis 132, 133 and catacombs 101–102
455, 482 Cassius (Gaius Cassius Longinus) centesima rerum venalium 524 Celsus and 103–104
Capitoline Hill 260, 473 centum 393, 496 in Cilicia 118
Cappadocia 32, 36, 50, 70, 93–94, 99, 320 centumviri 69 conflicts in 114–116
and Antipater of Idumaea 23 centuria 593 Constantine and 112, 114–115,
137 and Ariobarzanes III 36 centuriation 105, 135
Capri 94, 540, 583 and Augustus and Antony 58, centuries 306, 310 144, 367–368, 389–390, 406,
Capua 94, 243, 277 centurions 307, 308, 310, 448 479, 569
Caracalla 94–95, 95, 290, 477, 502 99, 123, 426–427, 557 Cerealia 105, 332 Constantius II and 406
and Caesar, Julius 87, 88, 99 Cerealis 105–106 Council of Chalcedon and 107
and Adventus, Marcus Oclatinus at Carrhae 97, 99 Council of Ephesus and 196
6 at Philippi 99, 123, 426–427, and Batavi 70, 121, 234 Council of Nicaea and 389–390
and Brigantes 79, 98 Decius and 112, 114, 170, 206,
and Alamanni 12, 240 557 and Bructeri 82 320
and Antioch 21 suicide of 83 and Civilis 375 Demetrius and 172
and Apollonius of Tyana 27–28 Cassius Longinus, Gaius 99–100, and Classicus, Julius 123 Diocletian and 112, 176, 299,
and architecture 46 295, 482 and Iceni 78, 105 364
assassination of 51, 55, 205, Cassius Longinus, Lucius 100 and Treveri 105–106 Domitian and 111, 182
Cassius Parmensis 100 Ceres 105, 106, 245, 468 in Doura 186
338, 354 Cassius Severus 100, 187 Cerretani 106 and Druidism 186
and Bato 72 Cassivellaunus 79, 92, 100, 103 Cervidius, Scaevola Q. 106 in Egypt 192
and Castra Praetoria 101 Castinus 77, 100, 286 Cestius Gallus 89, 106 Galerius and 227
coinage of 24, 95, 132, 133, 172 Castor 179, 182, 245 Cestus, Gallius 106 and gladiators 243
Constitutio Antoniniana of 119, castra 195 Chaerea, Cassius 106–107, 225 Gnosticism and 244–245
castra aestiva 309 chairs 222 Hadrian and 111
150, 277, 280, 377, 523–524 Castra Peregrina 100, 419 Chalcedon 107 in Hibernia 416
and Geta, Lucius Septimius Castra Praetoria 100–101, 143, 447, Chalcedon, Council of 107, 115, hierarchies in 112–114
473, 494, 540 204, 316, 375, 547 Hierocles, Sossianus and 259
241–242 castra stativa 309 Chalcis 107 history of 110–112
and gladiators 243 catacombs 101, 101–102 Chaldaea 107 and Imperial Cult 111
and Macrinus, Marcus Opellius Catalaunian Plain 102, 266, 342, Chaldaean Oracles 107 in Jerusalem 284
565, 587 Châlons, battle of See Catalaunian Jovian and 287
338 Catalepton 28 Plain Julian and 291–292, 406
and Papinian 412 Catecheses (Cyril) 164 Charisius, Aurelius Arcadius 108
and Pertinax, Publius Helvius Catechetical Orations (Gregory) Charisius, Flavius Sosipater 108
248 Charon 108
421 Catechetical School 126, 179 Chatti 108
and Praetorian Guard 447 Catena See Paulus (Catena)
tax system of 523–524 cathedra 222
tutor of 119 Cathemerinon (Prudentius) 459
and Vestal Virgins 157, 299,

499, 576
wife of 435

618 Index

and literature 325 Civil War, First Triumvirate 87, and Tiberius 124, 151 of Constantine 132, 134, 506,
Marcionism and 347 122–123, 188, 376–377, 442, 530 and Veranus 572 510
Marcus Aurelius and 111 Afranius, Lucius in 8 wives of 11, 56, 81, 125, 317,
Maximinus Daia and 359–360 Deiotarus in 171 of Constantius II 132, 133, 134
Neoplatonism and 385 in Gallia Cisalpina 230 367, 381, 387 of Diocletian 132, 133
Neo-Pythagoreanism and 385 in Illyricum 270 Claudius II Gothicus 61, 125–126, of Domitian 181
Nero and 111, 433 Labienus in 299 of Gaius Caligula 131
and paganism 406 legions in 307 143, 431 of Hadrian 81, 250
and philosophy 428 in Mauretania 356 clay pots 18 of Julian 132
Prophyry and 444 Trebonius in 553 Cleander, Marcus Aurelius 126, 140, of Nero 131
and science 356 from Parthian Empire 414
Severus and 111 Civil War, Second Triumvirate 16, 178, 419, 487 from Sassanid Persian Empire
and slavery 509 123, 230 Clemens, Arrecinus 106, 126, 181
spread of 113 Clemens, Flavius 111, 126, 182 489
in Thessalonica 536 civitas 228, 229 Clemens, M. Arrecinus 126 of Severus, Septimius 132
Trajan and 111 civitas sine suffragio 120 Clement of Alexandria 126, 400 of Severus Alexander 132
Valerian and 112, 566 clabulae 161 Clement I (Clement of Rome) 114, Collectanae Rerum Memorabilium
Chronica (Nepos) 386 claqueurs 123 (Solinus) 510
Chronicle (Eusebius) 203 Clarus, C. Septicius 123, 482 126–127 collectiones medicae (Oribasius) 400
Chronicle (Hydatius) 267 classiarii 351 Cleopatra 127, 127–128, 191 collegia 273–274, 511
Chronicles (Tiberianus) 538 Classical Latin 303 Cologne 134–135, 239, 240, 277
Chrysanthius (philosopher) 116 Classicus, Julius 106, 121, 123 at Actium 3 Colonia Agrippina See Cologne
Chrysanthius (vicarius of Britain) Claudian 123–124 and Antony, Marc 3, 16, 25–26, coloniae civium Romanorum 135, 377
116–117 Claudius 124, 124–125 colonies 135
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (orator) 58, 107, 118, 123, 127, 523, Colosseum 44, 45, 135–137, 136,
117–118, 171, 323, 428 acta of 3 557 181, 243, 245, 475, 545
and Antiochus 2, 22 and Agrippa I 9, 285 and Arsinoe 42 Columella, Lucius Junius Moderatus
and Antony, Marc 25, 58, 117 and annona 19 and battle of Alexandria 15 137, 216
and Asconius Pedianus 49 and Antiochus IV 22 and Caesar, Julius 87, 122, 127 Column of Antoninus Pius 137
and Augustine 57 and architecture 44, 475, 524, and Epaphroditus 196 Column of Marcus Aurelius 137
and Caelius Rufus 86 and Nicolaus of Damascus 390 Column of Trajan 43, 137, 138, 307
and Caesar, Julius 88 525 and Ptolemy XIII 13, 460 columns 137, 307
and Catullus, Gaius Valerius 102 and Armenia 39 and Ptolemy XIV 460 Comana (town in Cappadocia) 137
and Clodius Pulcher 117, 129 assassination of 51, 331, 567 son of 26, 88 Comana (town in Pontus) 137
on education system 190 on astrology 52 clepsydrae 543 Comazon 193, 204
and Equites 199 and Athens 53 client states 128 come domesticorum 77
and Figulus, Nigidius 211 and Balbillus 66 clocks 543 comedy 530
and Labeo Marcus Antistius 298 and Bosporus kingdom 77 Clodia 86, 102, 128, 367 comes 138
and Licinius Macer Calvus 322 and Brigantes 78 Clodius Albinus, Decimus 80, comes Aegypti 14
as Pater Patriae 414 in Britannia 95, 125, 269, 329, 128–129, 300, 334, 395, 500 comes Africae 138
and Piso, Lucius Calpurnius 432 Clodius Pulcher, Publius 4, 129, comes Avernorum 138
and Tiro, Marcus Tullius 544 435 556 comes Britanniarum 138
and Vatinius 570 and Burrus, Sextus Afranius 84 and Bona Dea 77, 129 comes dispositionum 138
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (son of and Caecina, Paetus 85 and Calenas, Q. Fufius 89 comes domesticorum 138, 180
Cicero) 118 and Caligula 124, 151 and Cato Uticensis 102, 129, comes Hispaniarum 138
Cicero, Quintus Tullius 5, 17, 118 and Callistus, Gaius Julius 90 162 comes Orientis 138
Cilicia 118, 398, 427, 519, 523 and Camillus, Furius and Cicero 117 comes privatae largitionis 138, 143
Cilo, Lucius Fabius 119 and Deiotarus 171 comes rei privatae 407
cinctus Gabinus 546 Scribonianus 91 and Metellus Celer 367 comes rerum privatarum 138, 141,
Cinna, Gaius Helvius 98, 102, 119 and Castra Praetoria 101 and Milo, Titus Annius 369 207, 212
Cinna, Lucius Cornelius 98, 119 and civil service 121 and Pompeia 88, 439 comes sacrae vestis 138
circumcelliones 184 coinage of 124, 131 and Pompey the Great 442 comes sacrarum largitionum 138,
Circumnavigation of the Black Sea and Commagene 139 and Sallust 485 141, 143, 212
(Arrian) 76 and consilium 141 clothing 109, 129–130, 546 Comitatenses 138, 143, 176, 310,
circumvallation 195 and Crispinus, Rufrius 158 codex 595 341
circus 119 daughter of 397 Codex Euricianus 202 Comitates 138
Circus Maximus 119, 120, 473 and delatores 171 Codex Justinianus 304 comites 122, 138
Ciris 28 and Druids 186 Codex Theodosianus 534 comites largitionum 212, 407
Cirta 119 father of 187 coemptio 352 comitia 150, 524
citizenship, Roman 119–121 freedmen of 124, 125, 219 Cogidubnus, Tiberius Claudius Comitia Centuriata 4, 150, 303, 446
The City of God (Augustine) 57 and Gallicus, Julius 231 131 comitia curiata 553
Civilis, Gaius Julius 121, 229, 239 games provided by 243 cognomina 310 Comitia Tributa 139, 553
and Bructeri 82 and Geta, Lusius 242 cohors equitata 310 Commagene 22, 139, 486, 519
and Cerealis 70, 105 and Julia Livilla 290 cohors miliaria 310 commendatio 392
and Classicus, Julius 123 ludi held by 332 cohors praetoria 446, 447 commentarienses 74
and Cologne 134 and Macedonia 337 cohors quingenaria 310 Commentary (Macrobius) 339
and Gallus, Appius Annius 234 and Mauretania 356 cohortes urbanes See urban cohorts commerce See trade and commerce
and Moguntiacum 374–375 and Mithridates 371 coinage 131, 131–134, 132, 133, Committee of Twenty 66
civil eervice 121–122, 219, 393, and Moesia 373 307 See also specific coin Commius 79, 104, 139
445, 456 mother of 23 of Antoninus Pius 24, 24 Commodian 139, 325
Civil War (Appian) 88 and Narcissus 381 of Augustus 132, 133, 172 Commodus 23, 139–140
The Civil War (Caesar) 88, 425 and Ostia 402 of Aurelian 62, 132 assassination of 51, 151, 300,
physician of 301 of Caesar, Julius 132
and Pomponius Secundus 443 of Caracalla 24, 95, 132, 133, 381
and Praetorian Guard 185, 447 172 and Aufidius Victorinus 55
and Rhodes 471 from Christian era 111
sons of 81, 188 of Claudius 124, 131
and Thrace 537 of Commodus 140

Index 619

and Callistus 90 legal system of 304 consul 150–151, 160, 446, 448 and Artavasdes 47
and Candidus, Tiberius Aurelius legions of 310 consules ordinarii 150 and Balbus 66
and Licinius, Valerius Licinianus consules suffecti 150 and Bassus 70
92 consul perpetuus 151 and Caesar, Julius 87, 156, 231,
and Capri 94 5, 143, 144, 321–322, 359 consultum 55
and Cleander, Marcus Aurelius and literature 325 Consus 150, 151 556
and magister militum 341 contagious magic 340 and Cassius 99
126 and Maxentius 142, 143, 227, Contra Apionem (Josephus) 286 and Orodes II 401
coinage of 140 Contra Celsum (Origen) 400 and Pompey the Great 87,
and Dionysius, Papirius 178 358, 369, 477 Contra Flaccum (Philo) 427
and Eclectus 189 and Maximian 142–143 contra Symmachum (Prudentius) 155–156, 231, 556
and Marcia 346 mother of 252 and Surenas 41, 96–97
and Marcomanni 348, 349, 350 and Musonianus, Strategius 378 459 Crassus, Marcus Licinius (general)
and Mithras cult 371 and Pompeianus, Ruricius 440 controversia 170 156, 171–172, 191, 336–337, 518
and Paternus, Tarrutenius 414 and Praetorian Guard 143, 180, conubium 119 Crassus, Publius Licinius 83, 97,
and Perennis, Sextus Tigidius conventus 49, 151 156, 228, 232
341, 447, 448, 449–450, 492 conventus matronalis 495 Credo ut intelligam 429
419 and Senate 496 cookbook 27, 215 cremation 169
and Pertinax 421 sons of 141, 144, 148, 158, 321 cooking 215–216 Cremutius Cordus, Aulus 156
and Pompeianus, Tiberius and Sopater 511 coqui 508 Crescentia, Cannutia 156
and Trier 555 Corbulo, Gneaus Domitius (praetor) Crete and Cyrenaica 156–157, 163
Claudius 440 wife of 208, 358 criminal court See quaestiones
and Praetorian Guard 447 Constantine II 141, 144, 321 151 Crispina 157–158
and Quintilii brothers 463–464 Constantine III 80, 144, 229, 264 Corbulo, Gneaus Domitius (Roman Crispinilla, Calvia 158
and Saoterus 487 Constantinople 20, 114, 143, Crispinus, Rufrius 158, 242, 444
wife of 158 144–148, 145, 147, 164, 240, 279 general) 151–152 Crispinus, Tullius 158
Compendiosa doctrina ad filium Constantinople, Council of 36, 115, and Armenia 41, 47, 151–152, Crispus, Flavius Julius 144, 158,
(Marcellus) 346 148, 248, 364, 375, 415 321, 511
concilia 140–141, 229, 272 Constantius I Chlorus 148, 148 387, 517, 542, 544, 561, 589 Crispus of Vercellae, Vibius
conclamare 2 and Allectus 16, 49 and Bolanus 77 158–159
conclamatio 169 and Britannia 80, 96, 329 and Chauci 151, 235 Crocodilopolis 42
concordia 528 and Carausius, Marcus Aurelius and Frisii 151, 220 Ctesiphon 41, 158–159, 189, 292,
Condianus, Sextus Quintilius and Paetus 406 401, 495, 500, 543
463–464 Mausaeus 96, 329 and Tiridates 41, 47, 152, 542, cucullus 130
conductores 445 daughter of 142 Cuicul 159
confarreatio 352 and Eumenius 202 544, 561, 589 Culex 28
Conferences of the Egyptian Monks and Galerius 227 and Vologases I 41, 152, 561, cultu feminarum, De (Tertullian) 528
(Cassian) 99 and Maximian 112, 176, 358, Cunobellinus 79, 92, 95, 103, 159
Confessions (Augustine) 57, 429 589 cura annonae 6, 19, 159
Confessio (Patrick) 416 359 Cordius (Gordius) 152 cura aquarum 93, 159
congiarium 141, 181, 528, 550 son of 142 Corduba 152 curae palatiorum 159
Consilium Principis 141, 143, 150, and Trier 555 Cordus, Aulus Cremutius 152 curator aquarum 221, 475
199, 251, 496, 502 wives of 252, 532 Corinth 152–153 curatores 151, 159–160, 207, 277
Consistorium 141, 143, 146, 393 Constantius II 144, 148–149 corn 8, 19–20, 50, 159 curatores aquarum 105
consolatione philosophiae, De and Ablabius 1 Cornelia (Vestal Virgin) 153 curator veteranorum 577
(Boethius) 429 and agentes in rebus 466 Cornelia (wife of Julius Caesar) 86, curator viarum 151
Consolation (Julian) 292 and Arbitio 31 curia 159, 218
Constans, Flavius Julius 35, 51, and Arianism 35–36, 115 153 Curia Cornelia 159–160
141–142, 144, 148, 342, 431 and Athanasius 52 Cornelia (wife of Pompey the Great) Curia Hostilia 160, 173
Constantia 35, 142, 143, 149, 235, and Christianity 406 Curia Julia 68, 160
321 coinage of 132, 133, 134 153, 367, 442 curialis 160, 188
Constantina 142, 149, 251 and Constans 141 Cornelius (legislative reformist) 318 Curia Pompeia 160
Constantine (“the Great”) 142–144, and Dalmatius 167 Cornelius (pope) 153 currency 133
143, 477 and Datianus 168 cornicularis 74, 308 curses 340
and Acacius of Constantinople 1 and Eusebius 202 Cornificius, Lucius 153–154 cursus honorum 160, 190, 199, 306,
and Adrianople 4–5 and Gallus, Caesar 235 Cornutus, Caecilius 154 308, 341, 462–463, 495
and Africa 9 and Julian 291–292 Cornutus, Lucius Annaeus 154, 330 cursus publicus 160–161, 179, 251,
and architecture 46, 69 and Lucifer of Cagliari 330–331 Corpus Hermeticum 256 378, 472, 551
and Arianism 35, 38, 52 and Lupicinus, Flavius 334 Corpus Iuris Civilis 303, 304 curule 173
and art 43 and magister militum 341 correctores 2, 49, 154, 274, 277 customs duty 445
and Bassus, Junius 70 and Magnentius, Flavius Magnus Corsica 154 customs offices 445
and Britannia 80, 142, 189 corvus 504 Cybele 161–162, 245, 332, 363,
and Castra Praetoria 101 342–343, 378 cosmetics 420 467, 468
and Christianity 112, 114–115, and Musonianus, Strategius 378 Cotta Messalinius, M. Aurelius 154 Cynegetica (Grattius) 248, 324
and Paulus 417 Cottiaen Alps 16, 154 Cynegetica (Nemesianus) 384
144, 367–368, 389–390, 406, and Philippus, Flavius 427 Cottius 154–155 Cynegetica (Oppian) 399
479, 569 and Shapur II 488 cotton 129 Cynegius, Maternus 161, 406
coinage of 132, 134, 506, 510 and Vadomar 563 Cotys (king of Armenia Minor) 39, Cynics 162, 172, 266, 428
and Consistorium 141 and Vetranio 576–577 Cyprian of Carthage 97, 112, 115,
and Constantinople 143, wife of 202 155 162, 300, 325
144–146 Constantius III 53, 77, 100, 149, Cotys (king of Bosporus) 77–78, Cyprus 162–163
daughter of 142 433–434 Cyrenaica 157–158
and farming 207 Constantius , Julius 149 155, 372 Cyrenaica (legion) 311
and Franks 219 Constitutio Antoniniana 95, 111, Cotys of Thrace 155, 470, 537 Cyrene 163
and Germania 240–241 119, 121, 150, 277, 280, 377, couch 222
and gladiators 243 523–524 courier service 161, 221, 466–467,
and Hannibalianus 251 constitutiones 149–150, 304
Consualia 150 551
craftsmen 273–274
Crassus, Candidus 4, 155 See Can-

didus Crassus, Publius
Crassus, Marcus Licinius (triumvir)

155–156

620 Index deportatio in metalla 305 on Pannonia 409 Discourses Against the Arians
Desert Fathers 336 on Perennis, Sextus Tigidius 419 (Athanasius) 53
Cyril of Alexandria 163, 196–197, dessert 216 on Pescennius Niger 422
204, 389 Dexippus, Publius Herennius 173, on Plautianus, Gaius Fulvius Discourses (Arrian) 40
distances 593
Cyril of Jerusalem 163, 296 202, 325 434–435 distributives 395
Cyrus, Flavius 146, 164 Diadumenian 68, 173 on Plotina, Pompeia 436 Divinae Institutiones (Lactantius)
Cyzicus 164 diakonoi 112 on Suburanus 516
Cyzicus, battle of 164, 422 Dialogue on the Orators (Tacitus) on Titiana 544 299
on Trajan 548, 550 divorce 318, 352–353 See also mar-
D 521 on Turbo 558
Dialogue (Tacitus) 324, 355, 399 on Verus, P. Martius 574 riage
Dacia 165–167, 522 Dialogues (Lucian) 330 on Vespasian 236 doctors 361–362
capital of 488 Dialogue with Trypho the Jew (Justin) diocese 143, 175, 176 Doctrina Christiana, De (Augustine)
and Domitian 166, 170, 181, diocetes 192
223, 522 295 Diocletian 175–176, 477 57
Goths in 247 Dialogus de Vita S. Joannis and Achaea 2 Dolabella, Publius Cornelius 86, 99,
and Hadrian 250 and Alexandria 14
kings of 83 See also Decebalus Chrysostomi (Palladius) 408 and Amandus and Aelianus 16 179–180, 396, 521, 553
and Trajan 70, 166, 166, 168, Diana 173, 245 and Aper, Arrius 26–27 dolphin 180
169, 488, 517, 522, 550 Diatessaron (Tatian) 523 and architecture 46, 69, 72, 160 domestici, protectores 26, 138, 143,
dictator 173–174 and Aristobulus 37
Dalmatia See Illyricum Didius Julianus 174 and Armenia 39 180, 287, 457
dalmatic 130 and Asia 49 domestici et notarii 393
Dalmatius, Flavius 167 assassination of 51 and Bagaudae 65 domi 223
Dalmatius, Flavius Julius 167 and Chauci 108 and Britannia 80 domina 352
Damascus 167 and Genialis, T. Flavius 238 and Carinus, Marcus Aurelius dominus gregis 531
Damasus 167, 282, 446 and Juvenalis 296 Domitia 180
damnati 243 and Praetorian Guard 101, 158, 96, 175 Domitia Lepida See Lepida, Domitia
damnatio memoriae 167–168, 168 and Christianity 112, 176, 299, Domitia Longina 56, 180, 181
Danube 168 174, 447, 500, 517 Domitia Lucilla See Lucilla, Domitia
Daphne 168, 245 diet 215–216 364 Domitian 180–181, 181
Datianus 168 Digest (Cervidius) 106 and civil service 122
deacons 112 Digest (Eutropius) 204 coinage of 132, 133 and Aelianus, Casperius 7
Dea Dia 48, 168–169, 245 Digest (Julianus) 293 coin of 35 and Agricola, Gnaeus Julius 9
death 169 digiti 593 and Consistorium 141 and Annius Verus, Marcus 19
death penalty 305 dinner 215 and Constantius I Chlorus 148 and Apollonius of Tyana 27
Decangi 169 Dio Cassius 174, 325 and curiales 160 arch constructed by 33
Decebalus 165, 168, 169–170, 181, dioceses of 175, 176 and architecture 45, 92, 119,
on Antioch 21 and Egypt 192
223, 522, 550 on Antiochus IV 22 and Equites 199 136, 137, 181, 219, 475, 525,
decemviri legibusscribundis 303 on Antonia 23 and farming 207 527
deceres 504 on Apicata 27 financial reform of 212 assassination of 51, 413, 494,
Decius, Gaius Messius Quintus on Apollodorus 27 and frumentarii 221, 466 514
on Ariovistus 37 and Galerius 227 on astrology 52
(Trajanus) 168, 170 on Armenians 40 and Germania 240 and Athens 53
and Christianity 112, 114, 170, on Athenadorus 53 and Jovians and Herculians 287 and Chatti 108, 181, 322
on Bar Cochba, Simon 67 legions of 310 and Christianity 111, 182
206, 320 on battle of Issus 276 and Manichaeism 344 and Clemens, Arrecinus 126
and Goths 170, 247, 297 on Bibulus, Marcus Calpurnius and Maximian 358–359 coinage of 181
and Philip I 170, 426 and Mithras cult 371 and Dacia 166, 170, 181, 223,
wife of 256 75 and Praetorian Guard 341, 342, 522
declamatio 170, 470 on Boudicca 78 and delatores 171
The Decline and Fall of the Roman on Britannia 79 447, 448 and Fuscus, Cornelius 223
Empire (Gibbon) 17 on Burrus, Sextus Afranius 84 provinces of 177, 458 and Gallia 229, 239
decreta 150, 304 on Caesar, Julius 319 and Sardinia 487 and Illyricum 270
decumae 524, 554 on Caledonia 89 and Split 512, 513 and John 285
decuriae 199, 508 on Caligula 73 and Syria 520 and Julia Flavia 290
decuriones 170, 188, 377, 524 on Caracalla 55, 95 tax system of 524 legion of 311
Deiotariana (legion) 313 on Cleopatra 4 and Thrace 537 and literature 324
Deiotarus 170–171, 226 on Commodus 140 and Trier 555 ludi held by 332
delatores 171, 319, 343 See also fru- on Crassus, Marcus Licinius 97, and vicarii 580 and Marcomanni 348
mentarii Dio Cocceianus 76, 162, 178 and Moesia 374
and Libo 171, 321 156 Diodorus, Siculus 178, 186 and Nerva 388
Nero and 387 on Cynics 428 Diogenes, Laertius 178, 186, 515 palace of 183–184
Suillius Rufus as 517 on Decebalus 170 Diomedes 178 and Paris 413
Tiberius and 154, 171, 540 on Densus, Sempronius Dionysius, Papirius 178 and Praetorian Guard 447
Titus and 171 Dionysius of Alexandria 14, 178 and Saturninus 490
Trio as 555 172–173 Dionysius of Halicarnassus 19, 178 and Sirmium 507
Deldo 156, 171–172 on Domitia Longina 180 Dionysius the Areopagite 179 and Titus 181, 545
Demetrius 172, 400 on Domitian 181 Dionysius the Great 179 and Vestal Virgins 153, 181, 576
Demetrius the Cynic 162, 172, 428 on Drusus the Younger 187 Dioscorides 179 wife of 56, 180, 181
Demonstratio Evangelica (Eusebius) on Hadrian 53, 256 Dioscuri 179, 182, 245 Domitianus, Gaius 62, 182
203 on Hatra 252 diplomata 161, 179, 383 Domitilla, Flavia (daughter of
denarius 24, 35, 132, 133, 172, 172, on India 273 diplomata militaria 179 Vespasian) 182
181, 540 on Livia 326 Dirae 28 Domitilla, Flavia (granddaughter of
Densus, Sempronius 172–173 on Livilla 327 Vespasian) 111, 126, 182
Dentheleti 173, 507 on Maeatae 339 Domitilla, Flavia (wife of Vespasian)
Deo Socratis, De (Apuleius) 28, 325 on Marcellus, Lucius Ulpius 345 180, 182
deportatio in insulam 205 on Marcus Aurelius 243 Domitius Ahenobarbus 182
on Maternas, Curiatius 355
on Numerianus 395

Domitius Ahenobarbus, Gnaeus Eclectus 140, 189, 300, 346 Eprius Marcellus, Titus Clodius Index 621
(consul in 32 B.C.E.) 182 Eclogues (Virgil) See Bucolics 198, 255
Exegetica 69
Domitius Ahenobarbus, Gnaeus (Virgil) epulum 498 Exempla (Nepos) 386
(consul in 32 C.E.) 11, 23, economy 50, 277, 508 See also eques 244 Exhortation to Martydom (Origen)
182–183, 386 Eques militia 199
farming Equester ordo See Equites 400
Domitius Ahenobarbus, Lucius Edessa 190, 503, 566 Equestrians See Equites exile 205, 305, 467
(praetor in 58 B.C.E.) 87, 102, edicta 304 equipment of legions 307–308 Exploratores 205
183 education 190 Equites 198–199, 509 Exsilium 205
Egypt 58, 127, 190–192, 207, 306, extispicium 511
Domitius Ahenobarbus, Lucius (con- Augustans recruited from 57 extremum vale 169
sul in 16 B.C.E.) 23, 108, 168, 458, 459 Augustus and 60, 121, 199
183 Egypt, prefect of 192 chief of 452 F
Elagabalus 193 and freedmen 199, 219
Domitius Domitianus, Lucius 2, 183 Hadrian and 212, 251 Fabatus, Rubrius 206
Domitius Ulpianus 183, 295 assassination of 51, 193, 259 tribunes from 199, 308, 554 Fabian 112, 206
domus 183, 184, 474 and Cordius 152 and vicarii 580 Fabianus, Papirius 206
Domus Augustana 183 courtier of 259 Equite scutarii 493 Fabiola 206
Domus Aurea See Golden House of and Diadumenian 173 equites equo publico 199 fabulae preatextate 531
and Julia Maesa 193, 291 equus publicus 199 Factorum (Valerius) 567
Nero and Macrinus 21, 193 Erato 36, 199–200 Falco, Sosius 206
Domus Flavia 181, 183–184, 475 and Praetorian Guard 448 Ermanaric 200 falx messoria 207
Domus Tiberiana 184, 475 Senaculum established by 495 errore profanarum religionum, De falx putatoria 208
Domus Transitoria 44, 184, 475 and Severus Alexander 193, 502 (Firmicus) 212 falx veruculata 207
Donatism 57, 98, 184–185, 275 tutor of 235 Erucius Clarus, Sextus 200 falx vinitoria 208
donativum 51, 124, 125, 174, 185, Elagabalus (sun god) 468, 511 Esquiline Hill 261, 473 familia 508
“elders” 112 essedarii 244 familia rustica 508
226, 299, 421, 447, 507 El Djem See Thysdrus Essenes 200, 425 familia urbana 508
Donatus, Aelius 185 Elegira 193 ethnarch 192 family life 60, 415
Donatus, Tiberius Claudius 185 emancipatio 415 etiarii 244 farming 206–208, 582
donkeys 551 Embroidered Girdles (Julius Etruria 200, 242
Doryphorus 185–186, 388 Africanus) 293 Etruscan language 301 in Africa 8
dos 352, 594 Emerita See Merida Etruscans 230, 378 in Crete 157
Doura 186 emeritis stipendis 515 Eubulus, Aurelius 200 in Egypt 191
drama 531 Emesa 193 Eucherius 200 in Gallia 229, 230–231
drink, Roman 215–216 Empiricus, Sextus 193 Eudocia, Aelia 164, 201, 266, 398, in Hispania 263
dromos 546 enarratio 190 460 slaves working in 508
Druids and Druidism 78, 79, 104, engineering 193–195 Eudoxia, Aelia 32, 56, 73, 99, 116, fasces 173, 208, 322
Enneads (Plotinus) 385 201, 204, 285 fasciae 244
186, 228, 468 Ennia Thrasylla 196, 338 Eudoxia, Licinia 201, 237, 343, 424 fashion 129–130, 546
Drusilla, Julia 23, 186–187, 317 entertainment 242–244 Eugenius, Flavius 31, 38, 161, 201, Fasti (Ovid) 404
Drusilla 187, 209 Epagathus 196 214, 219–220, 406 Faunus 208
Drusilla, Livia See Livia Epaphroditus (freedman of Nero) Eulogy of Cato (Brutus) 61 Fausta, Flavia Maxima 141, 142,
Drusus (son of Claudius) 125, 188 196, 387 Eumenius 202 144, 208, 358
Drusus (son of Germanicus) 187 Epaphroditus (freedman of Eunapius 116, 202, 515 Faustina, Annia Galeria (“the Elder”)
Drusus, Julius Caesar (“Drusus the Octavian) 196 Euphrates River 202 208–209
Ephemeris (Ausonius) 63 Euric 20, 48, 202, 386, 505, 587 Faustina, Annia Galeria (“the
Younger”) 187–188 Ephesus 49, 196, 419, 437 Eusebia 202 Younger”) 99, 139, 209, 349, 350
and Asinius Gallus 50 Ephesus, Council of 107, 163, Eusebius 202 Favonius Eulogius 209
daughter of 290, 388 196–197, 316, 547 Eusebius of Caesarea 202–203, 325 Favorinus 209
father of 10, 11, 187 Ephesus, Library of 196, 197 on Alexandria 14 Felicitas 209, 245
and Germanicus 11, 187 Epicharis 197, 433, 456 on Bar Cochba 67 Felix, Flavius Constantius 209
mother of 10 Epictetus 40, 197, 428 and Basil the Great 68 Felix, M. Minucius 209, 325
and Pannonia 76, 187 Epicureanism 197–198, 428 on Constantine 144 Felix, Marcus Antonius 187, 209,
and Sejanus 23, 187, 494 Epicurus 197, 428 on James 281 417
wife of 187, 327 Epigrams (Martial) 324, 353 tutor of 6 Fenestella 210
Drusus, Nero Claudius (“Drusus the Epiphanius 198 Eusebius of Nicomedia 35, 38, 203, Ferrata (legion) 312
Elder”) 23, 70, 108, 187, 239, Epiphanus (Augustus) 61 390 festivals 210
326, 333, 539 Epirus 198 Eustathius of Antioch 35, 203 Festus, Porcius 209, 210–211, 417
Dubius Sernio (Pliny) 436 episkopoi 112 Eustathius of Sebaste 203 Festus, Rufius 211
dungeons 558 Epistles (Horace) 265 Eutherius 203–204 Festus, Sextus Pompeius 211, 213
duoviri 377 Epistle to the Philippians (Polycarp) Eutropia 204 fibulae 129
dupondius 133 439 Eutropius (eunuch) 204, 480 Fidenae, Amphitheater of 211
duumviri 188 Epistola ad milites Corotici (Patrick) Eutropius (historian) 204, 325 Fides 211, 245
duumviri honorarius 188 416 Eutyches 107, 204, 316 Figulus, Nigidius 51, 211, 385, 428
duumviri municipales 188 Epistola Dogmatica (Leo) 107 Eutychianus, Valerius Comazon 204 finance 131–134, 211–212, 470
dyes 129 epistrategus 192 Evagrius Ponticus 204–205 financial minister 466
Dynamis 77, 372, 438 Epistulae ex Ponto (Ovid) 404 Evangelium Veritatis (Valentinus) fire brigade 582
Dyrrhachium 8, 87, 117, 122, 188, Epistulae Heroidum (Ovid) 404 566 fires 474, 582
425, 440, 442 Epistulae morales (Seneca) 497 Evocati 205, 354, 448 Firmicus Maternus, Julius 212
epistulis, ab 198 exactores 524 Firmus 212, 242
E epitaphion 409 Excubitors 205 Firmus, Plotius 212
Epitoma de rei militaris (Vegetius) executioners 322 First Apology (Justin) 295
Early Latin 303 570 First Principles (Origen) 400
eating 215–216, 244 Epodes (Horace) 264 First Triumvirate See Triumvirate,
Eburacum (York) 78, 189 First
Eburones 5, 17, 189, 232
Ecbatana 189
Ecclesiastical History (Eusebius) 14,

67, 281, 282, 325, 510, 512

622 Index

fiscus 121, 200, 211, 212–213, 466, Fritigern 5, 220, 402, 586 and Ostia 402 Tenth Legion in 527
470 Frontinus, Sextus Julius 79, 194, and Petronius Turpilianus 423 Treveri in 553
and Praetorian Guard 447 Veneti in 571
fiscus frumentarius 20 220–221 and Priscus, Junius 454 Gallic Wars (Caesar) 88, 261, 571
Flaccilla 213 Fronto, Marcus Cornelius 8, 37, and Thrace 537 Gallienus, Publicus Licinius
Flaccus, A. Persius 213 and Tiberius 225, 540 Egnatius 232–233
Flaccus, C. Valerius 213 119, 209, 221, 324, 349 wives of 328, 467 and Alamanni 12
Flaccus, Verrius 211, 213 fruits 235 Galatia 16, 50, 226 and art 43
Flamen Dialis 213, 452, 583 frumentarii 5–6, 171, 221, 251, 389 Galba 51, 64, 226, 231, 516 assassination of 51
Flamen Martialis 213, 214, 353 Galba, Servicus Sulpicius 226–227 and Aurelian 61
Flamen Quirinalis 213, 214, 464 See also delatores and Aedui 6 and Aureolus 62
flamens 213–214 frumentationes 510 assassination of 101, 172, 227 and Claudius II Gothicus 125
Flamen Volcanalis 590 fuga in persecutione, De (Tertullian) and Caecina Alienus 85 and Franks 240
Flamen Volturnalis 589 and Celsus, Marius 104 and Heraclianus, Aurelius 255
Flavia Felix (legion) 311 528 freedman of 268–269 ludi held by 333
Flavia Firma (legion) 313 fullers 129, 130 and Helvidius Priscus 255 and Odaenath 398
Flavian Amphitheater See Fulminata (legion) 312–313 and Laco, Cornelius 226, 299 and Postumus 445
Fulvia 25, 82, 123, 221–222, 421 legion of 312 son of 486
Colosseum funeral 169, 271 and Lycia 335 and Trapezus 552
Flavians 79, 214, 604 See also funestum 169 and Otho 227, 403, 507 wife of 486
Furnilla, Marcia 222 and Piso Licinianus 432–433, Gallio, Junius 233
Domitian; Titus; Vespasian furnishings 222–223 Gallio, Lucius Annaeanus Junius
and architecture 475 Furrina 223, 245 507 233
and art 42 Furtius 36, 223 and Praetorian Guard 51, 226, Gallus, Aelius 30, 34, 191, 200, 233,
coinage of 131 Fuscus, Cornelius 74, 166, 169, 273
and delatores 171 447 Gallus, Appius Annius 73, 105, 121,
and Gallia 239 181, 223 and Primus, Marcus Antonius 233–234, 403, 433
and Jerusalem 284 Gallus, Aulus Didius 234
Flavianus, Virius Nicomachus 214 G 452 Gallus, Cestius 215, 234, 283
Flavius 214 and Sabinus, Nymphidius 226, Gallus, Gaius Asinius 234
flavus Tiberus 538 Gabinius, Aulus 34, 97, 224, 287, Gallus, Gaius Cornelius 234,
flax 129 318, 372, 460 483 323–324
fleets 382–383, 503–504 and Tigellinus 542 Gallus Caesar 149, 234–235
floors 222 Gabinius, P. 224 and Vindex 226, 583 Gamala 235, 242
Flora 214, 245 Gaetulia 224 Galen (Claudius Galenus) 227, 349, games 242–244, 331–333
Florentia 214 Gaius 224–225, 294 362, 400 Gannascus 235
Florianus, Marcus Annius 51, Gaius Caligula 225 Galerius 227–228 Gannys 235
214–215, 454 and Christianity 112, 227 Ganymedes 235
Florida (Apuleius) 28 and Africa 8 and Constantine 142–143, 227 gardens 92, 235–236
Florus, Gessius 106, 215, 283 and Agrippa I 9 and Diocletian 176, 227, 358, Gardens of Antony 236
Florus, Julius 215, 484 and Antiochus IV 22, 118 Gardens of Asiaticus 236
Florus, Publius Annius 215 and Apelles 26 359 Gardens of Caesar 236
flutes 378 and architecture 44, 524, 525, and Licinius 321 Gardens of Sallust 236
food and drink, Roman 215–216, and Maximinus Daia 227, 359 garum 216
244 526 and Mesopotamia 366 Gaul See Gallia
footwear 130 and Armenia 39 and Narses 381, 488 Gavius Maximus, Marcus 236, 361
foricea 216–217 assassination of 51, 90, 106, and Severus II 227, 499–500 Geiseric 236–237, 567
Formulus 42, 217 and Thessalonica 227, 536 and Anthemius 20
fornix 32 447, 482 wife of 566 and Basiliscus 69
fortresses 309 and Bacchus 65 Galilee 228 and Boniface 77, 567
forts 309 and Bassus, Betilinus 69–70 Galla, Satria 228, 432 and Carthage 98, 567
Fortuna 217, 245, 376 and Bauli 72–73 Galli 244 and Eudoxia, Licinia 201, 424
forum 27, 60, 68, 217 and Bosporus kingdom 77 Gallia 228–229 See also specific city and Hippo 261
Forum Augustum 27, 44, 217 and Britannia 79 Gallia Aquitania See Aquitania and Leo I (emperor) 315
Forum Caesaris 217 and Callistus, Gaius Julius 90 Gallia Belgica 228 See also Belgae and Leo I (pope) 316
Forum Gallorum 123, 217–218 and Carthage 97 Gallia Cisalpina 8, 87, 104, 230 and Libius Severus 320
Forum Julium 218 and Chaerea, Cassius 106 Gallia Narbonensis 16, 31, 38, 218, and Majorian 344
Forum Nervae 219 and Claudius 124, 151 228, 230–231, 381, 384, 569 son of 266
Forum of Constantine 146 coinage of 131 Gallia Transalpina See Gallia and Valentinian III 565
Forum Pacis See Temple of Peace and Commagene 139 Narbonensis Gellius, Aulus 15, 209, 237, 325
Forum Romanum 44, 68, 217, 218, and Cotys 155 Gallica (legion) 311, 313 Gemellus, Tiberius 225, 237
218, 475, 524, 525, 527 courtiers of 317, 567 Gallicus, Julius 231 Gemina (legion) 312, 313
Forum Tauri 146 and Domitius Ahenobarbus, Gallic Wars 87, 228–229, 231–232, Gemonian Stairs 237–238
Forum Traiani 137, 218–219, 550 556 Geneva 238
Forum Transitorium 219, 475 Gnaeus 183 Aduatuca in 5 Genialis, T. Flavius 238
fossa regia 8 and Drusilla 186 Ampius, T. Balbius in 18 genius 238, 301
Fosse Way 492 and Ennia Thrasylla 196, 338 Averni in 238, 572, 584 geocentricism 52
Franks 6, 82, 219, 469 freedmen of 219 Belgae in 74 geography 473, 515
fratres 6 and Gemellus, Tiberius 237 in Britannia 79 Geography (Strabo) 515
freedmen 19, 60, 124, 125, 199, 219 and gladiators 243 Celts in 104 George of Cappadocia 238
Fretensis (legion) 312 grandmother of 23 in Gallia Cisalpina 230 Georgics (Virgil) 207, 585
fretum gaditanum 543 and Herod Antipas 257 in Germania 239 Gepaepyris 77, 155, 372
frigidarium 71 horse of 225, 273 in Helvetia 254
Frigidus 31, 219–220, 406, 534 and Judaea 288 Rhemi in 470
Frisii 220, 239 and Julia Livilla 290 Siege of Avaricum in 63
and legatus 306 Suebi in 516
and literature 324 Suessiones in 516
and Livia 326
and Macro 338–339
and Mithridates 371
and Mnester 373
mother of 11
and Numidia 396

Gergovia 232, 238 and Herennia Etruscilla 256, beard of 421 Index 623
Germania 181, 187, 238–241 297 and Britannia 251
Germania (classis) 383 and Celsus, L. Publius 104 Herculaneum 255, 255–256, 440
Germania Inferior 134–135, 239, and Huns 383–384, 402–403 and Christianity 111 heredium 593
and Trebonianus Gallus 247, and civil service 121 Herennia Etruscilla 256
555 and Clarus, C. Septicius 123 Herennius Etruscus 170, 256, 297
Germania Superior 239, 555 552–553 coinage of 81, 250 heres 4
Germania (Tacitus) 324, 522 and Valens 5, 168, 564 and consilium 141 Hermes Trismegistos 256, 365, 468
Germanica (legion) 311 and Victor 581 and Dacia 166, 250 Hermogenes 256
Germanicus Julius Caesar 241 gourmands 244 and Egypt 192 Hermopolis 20
Gradivus 353 and frumentarii 221, 251 Hermunduri 256, 462
and Antioch 21 Graecina, Pomponia 247, 435 and Galatia 226 Herod Antipas 9, 32, 228, 256–257,
and Apis 27 grammaticus 190 and Gavius Maximus, Marcus
and Batavi 70 Gratian 247–248 258, 538
and Bructeri 82 and Arbogast 31 236 Herod the Great 257, 288
and Caecina Severus 86 assassination of 51 and gladiators 243
and Chatti 40, 108 and Ausonius 63, 247 and Heliodorus, C. Avidius 252 and Antony, Marc 257
and Cherusci 109 and Bauto 73 and Jerusalem 284 and Augustus 257
daughter of 290 and Danube 5 and literature 324 brother of 23, 257, 426
and Drusus the Younger 187 and Maximus, Magnus 247, 361 and Lycia 335 and Caesar, Julius 283
and Egypt 191 and paganism 406, 518 and Marcus Aurelius 349 and Caesarea 89, 257
father of 187 and Symmachus 518 and Pannonia 410 father of 23, 257
and Flavius 214 and Theodosius I 36, 247, 533 and Parthia 41 and Jericho 282
and Gallia 229 and Valentinian II 247, 565 physician of 256 and Masada 257, 354
mother of 23 gratiarum acto 409 and Polemo, Marcus Antonius and Nicolaus of Damascus 390
and Piso, Gnaeus Calpurnius Grattius 248, 324 and Parthians 257, 269
Great Collection (Ptolemy) 52 437 and Samaria 486
432, 434 Great Forum 218 and Praetorian Guard 447 sons of 32, 37, 256, 257, 426
and Silius, Gaius 506 Great Harbor 14 and rationalis 212 and Sosius, Gaius 512
sons of 187, 225, 388 Great Mother See Cybele and Salinator 485 and Temple of Jerusalem 257,
and Tiberius 241, 539 Greek culture xiii, 42–43, 253–254, and Servianus, Julius 499
wife of 10–11 428, 467 and Severus, Sextus Julius 502 526
Geta, Lucius Septimius 51, 94, Gregorian calendar 90 sister of 416 Herodes Atticus 13, 37, 53,
241–242, 290, 435, 502 Gregory of Nazianzus (St. Gregory and Suetonius 516
Geta, Lusius 158, 242 Nazienzen) 36, 67, 68, 115, 204, and Tivoli 545–546 257–258, 349
Getae 242, 472 248 and Trajan 250, 548 Herodian 6, 30, 80, 94, 258, 325
Gildo 242, 514 Gregory of Nyssa 36, 67, 115, 248, and Trapezus 552 Herodias 257, 258
Gischala 242 429 and Turbo 558 Herodion 258
gladiators 72, 140, 242–244, 305, Gregory the Illuminator 248–249 wife of 54, 250, 356, 482 Heruli 233, 258–259
532 gremio matris 190 hair dyes 420 Hesychius of Jerusalem 259
gladius 307 grex 531 hairstyles 420 Hexapla (Origen) 400
gluttony 244 groma 195 Halieutica (Oppian) 399 hiberna 309
Glycerius 244, 386 Gubernatione Dei, De (Salvianus) Halieutica (Ovid) 404 Hibernia 259, 416
gnosis 244 486 “Hand-on-Hilt” 61 Hierocles 6, 259, 385
Gnosticism 69, 114, 244–245, 275, guilds 273–274 Hannibalianus 142, 251 Hierocles, Sossianus 259
385, 453, 523, 566 Gunderic 567 harbor tax 523 Hieronymian Martyrology 259
gods and goddesses of Rome 245, Gundioc 249 harpax 3–4, 251–252, 382, 504 highways See viae
467–468 Gundobad 244, 249, 471 harpists 378 Hilarianus, Q. Iulius 259
gold coinage 131, 132, 133 See also Gundohar 83, 287, 594 haruspices 361, 511 Hilary (Hilarius) 260
specific coin Gundomadus 563 haruspicium 56 Hilary (Hilary of Arles) 259–260
Golden Ass (Apuleius) 28, 325 Gurio, Gaius 395 hastatus posterior 308 Hilary (Hilary of Poitiers) 260, 354
Golden House of Nero 42, 44, 71, gustatio 216 hastatus prior 308 Hills of Rome 260–261, 473
136, 217, 245, 387, 474–475 gymnasiarch 192 Haterius, Quintus 252 Hippicus Tower 285
Gordian I 8–9, 93, 97, 245–246, gymnasium 27 Hatra 252 Hippo 77, 261
360, 587 heating 223, 583 Hippolytus 90, 261
Gordian II 93, 246, 360 H Hebe 296 Hirtius, Aulus 88, 123, 217,
Gordian III 246 Hegesippus 252
assassination of 51 Hadrian 23, 250, 250–251, 604 Helena 252, 532 261–262
and Balbinus 66, 246, 461 and Achaea 2 heliocentricism 52 Hispana (legion) 312
and Carthage 9 and Aelius Caesar 7, 251 Heliodorus, C. Avidius 252 Hispania 262–263, 365
and Philip I 426 and Antinopolis 20 Heliopolis 65 Hispania Citerior 262
and Praetorian Guard 448 and Antoninus Pius 24, 251, Helius 252–253 Hispania Ulterior 262
and Pupienus 66, 246, 461 349 Helix, Aurelius 253 Historia Augustae See Scriptores
and Shapur I 246 and Apollodorus 27 helladarch 2
and Timesitheus 246, 543 and architecture 45–46, 92, 251, Hellenism xiii, 42–43, 253–254, Historiae Augustae
wife of 551 410, 476 428, 467 Historiae adversus Paganos (Orosius)
Gotarzes II 246, 363, 568 and Arrian 40 helmets 307
Goths 246–247 See also Kniva; and art 42–43 Helvetia 238, 254–255 401
Ostrogoths; Visigoths and Athenaeum 53 Helvetians 31, 231, 254–255, 399 Historia Ecclesiastica (Eusebius) 203
in Bithynia 76, 247 and Athens 53 Helvidius Priscus 48, 255 Historiae Philippicae (Trogus) 557
Christianity and 36, 560 and Attianus, Acilius 54 heptastadium 14, 15 Historiae Romanae (Velleius) 570
and Claudius II Gothicus 125 and Avidius Heliodorus 63 Hera 293–294 Historia (Tacitus) 522
in Dacia 167, 247 and Avidius Nigrinus 63 Heracleus the Eunuch 255, 565 Historical Library (Diodorus) 178
and Decius 170, 247, 297 and Baiae 66 Heraclianus, Aurelius 233, 255 Histories (Sallust) 19
and Gallienus 233 and Bar Cochba, Simon 67 Histories (Tacitus) 215, 324
History (Ammianus) 17
History (Cordus) 152
History (Cremutius) 156–157
History (Eunapius) 202
History (Sallust) 485
History of Alexander (Rufus) 481

624 Index

History of Parthia (Arrian) 40 Ibis (Ovid) 404 Instructiones (Commodian) 325 and John of Gischala 286
A History of the World (Julius Icelus 226, 268–269 Insubres 230 Josephus, Flavius in 286
Iceni 78, 79, 269 insula 275, 474 Justus in 295
Africanus) 293 Ides 90, 269 Insula Batavorum 70 Silva, Flavius and 506
Histria 276 idiologus 192 insulae 194 and Temple of Jerusalem 526
Holy Land See Judaea idolatria, De (Tertullian) 528 Insulae Britannicae See Britannia Vespasian and 288, 574
homeopathic magic 340 Idumaea 269 Jewish revolt (132–135 C.E.) 67,
homoiousios 36, 53 ientaculum 215 (British Isles) 192, 251, 258, 284, 289, 502
homoousios 35, 164, 265, 390 Ignatius (St. Ignatius) 269 Insula Tiberina 473 Jewish War (Josephus) 9, 284, 286,
honestiores 509 Ilerda 8, 87, 122, 269–270 intelligence service 221, 466–467 598
honores 120 Illyricum (Dalmatia) 72, 270–271, intercalation 89 Jews, and Christianity 110–111
Honoria Augusta 54, 263 internship 190 John 285
honorific arches 32–34 514 The Interpretation of Dreams John Chrysostom 285
Honorius, Flavius 263–264 Illyricum Inferius 270 and Cassian 99
Illyricum Superius 270 (Artemidorus) 48 and Eudoxia, Aelia 32, 116, 201,
and Alaric 12, 264, 438, 586 imagines 271 io hymen 2
and Athaulf 53, 264 immunes 308, 448 Ionia 275 285
and Attalus 54 immunitas 271 io triumphe 2 and Innocent I 275
and Burgundians 84 imperator 58, 76, 271 Ireland See Hibernia and Isaurians 276, 285
and Castinus 100 Imperial Cult 271–272, 406, 468, Irenaeus 275, 412 and Palladius 408
and Claudian 124 Isaac the Great (St. Sahak) 275 and Theodore of Mopsuestia
and Constantine III 144 509 Isauria 205, 275–276, 342
ludi held by 333 in Achaea 2 Isis 276, 468 532–533
and Ravenna 466 in Britannia 81 Issus 276, 500 and Theophilus 285, 535
and Stilicho, Flavius 124, 200, in Camulodunum 92 Istria 276 John of Gischala 242, 283–284, 286,
and Christianity 111 Italia 135, 276–279, 278 538
264, 514–515 and flamens 214 Italica (legion) 311 John the Usurper 50, 100, 286
and trousers 130 in Gallia 229 Italicus 214, 279 Josephus, Flavius 9, 187, 228, 235,
wives of 124, 200, 351 in Lepcis Magna 316 itineraria 279, 420 284, 286, 286, 295
hoplomachi 244 in Lugdunum 333 Itinerarium Antoninianum 279, 472 Jotapianus 286–287
Horace 216, 264–265, 300, 323, in Macedonia 337 Itinerarium Burdigalense sive Jovian (Flavius Jovinus) 168, 287,
339, 340 and Mithraism 371 292
Hormasdas 265 in Narbo 381 Hierosolymitanum 279, 472 Jovians and Herculians 287
Hormazd Ardashir (Hormazd I) 265 in Nemausus 384 Itinerarium Egeriae 279, 303 Jovinus 53, 287
Hormazd II 265 in Nicomedia 390 Iturius 91, 180 Juba I 88, 122, 224, 287, 395
Hormazd III 265 in Pergamum 419 iudices 199 Juba II 224, 287, 356
horologia 543 in Rome 473 iudicium 190 Judaea 287–289, 407 See also
horses 551 Imperial Guard See Praetorian Iuga 279 Jewish rebellion; Jewish revolt;
Hortensius (Cicero) 57 Guard iuga 524 specific city
hortis, De (Martialis) 354 Imperial mints 131, 134 iugerum 593 Agrippa I and 9
Hosius 265, 390 Imperial Post 161, 378, 472, 551 iugum 551 Archelaus and 32
Hostilian 256, 265–266 Imperial Secret Service 221 iurisprudentes 190 Aretas III and 34
Hostilianus 266, 552–553 Imperiim Galliarum 553 ius civile 279–280, 280, 304 Herod the Great and 257
houses 183, 275, 474, 582 imperium 150, 272 ius emphyteuticum 280 Hyrcanus and 22–23
humiliores 243, 510 Imperium Galliarum 121, 123 ius gentium 280, 304, 446 procurators of 209, 210–211,
Huneric 237, 266, 398 imperium maius 60, 272, 272–273, ius honorum See praetor
Huns 266–267 See also Attila; 458 ius Italicum 135, 277, 280, 316 289, 443
Mandiuch; Rugila; Uldin imperium proconsulares 61, 149, 272, ius Latii 120, 280, 377, 505 Judaism 289, 425, 468, 484
and Aetius, Flavius 7–8, 54, 273 iusta facere 169 Judaizers 110
impetrativa 56 Jugurthine War 395
102, 342, 587 inauguration 151 J Julia (Caesar’s aunt) 86
and Alans 12 Incarnatione, De (Theodore) 533 Julia (daughter of Augustus)
and Anthemius 20 Incarnatione Domini, De (Cassian) 99 James 110, 281
and Constantinople 146 Incitatus 225, 273 James the Greater 281 289–290
and Goths 383–384, 402–403 India 273 James the Less 281–282 and Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius
and Italia 279 Indike (Arrian) 40 Janiculus Hill 473
and Marcian 347 industry 273–274, 277 Jannaeus 17, 267, 283 10, 25
and Theodosius II 535 infamia 531 Janus 48, 245, 282, 445 and Antyllus 26
and Valentinian III 565 Infancy Gospel 281 Janus bifrons 282 and Marcellus 60, 346
and Visigoths 5 inflation 132 javelin 307 and Phoebe 429
and Worms 84 informers See delatores; frumentarii Javolenus Priscus, Gaius Octavius sons of 86, 88
Hunting Baths 72 infula 576 and Tiberius 50, 234, 539
Hydatius 267 Ingenuus 62, 233, 274 Tidius Tassianus Lucius 282 Julia (daughter of Drusus Caesar)
Hyginian legionary camp 309 Ingiuomerus 274 Jericho 282 290, 388, 495
Hyginus, Gaius Julius 267, 309 inheritance tax 524 Jerome (“St. Jerome”) 36, 185, 206, Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar) 88,
hylics 566 ink 594–595 289, 442, 556
Hypatia 163, 267, 356 Innocent I 274–275 282, 364, 400 Julia (daughter of Marcus Agrippa)
hypocausts 583 In Pisonem (Cicero) 432 Jerusalem 282–285, 283, 288 290
Hyrcanus 22–23, 34, 37, 257, 267, Insani Montes 487 Jerusalem, Council of 67, 110, 281 Julia (sister of Julius Caesar) 289
287, 380, 426 Institutes (Gaius) 225 Jerusalem itinerary 279, 472 Julia Domna 94, 193, 290–291, 429,
Institutes of the Monastic Life Jewish Antiquities (Josephus) 9, 500
I (Cassian) 99 Julia Flavia 180, 290, 483
Institutio Oratoria (Quintilian) 324, 286 Julia Livilla 290
iaculatione equestri, De (Pliny) 436 463 Jewish rebellion (66–70 C.E.) Julia Maesa 193, 235, 291, 338, 502
Iamblichus 6, 268, 385 Julia Mamaea 56, 67, 172, 291, 502
Iazyges 36, 268, 479, 598 Apollinaris legion in 313 Julia Soaemias 193, 235, 291
Iberia 268, 424–425 in Galilee 228, 235 Julian calendar 90
Gallus, Cestius and 234
and Herodion 258
in Idumaea 269

Index 625

Julian the Apostate 149, 291–292, L organization of 308–309 lex Munatia Aemilia 319
292 training and equipment of lex Papia Poppaea 171, 319, 352,
and Aedesius 6 Labeo, Pompnius 298
and Alamanni 12, 292 Labeo Marcus Antistius 93, 295, 307–308 412
and Ammianus Marcellinus 17 lemures 169, 314 lex Petronia 319, 508
and Apollinaris of Laodicea 27 298, 455, 456 Lemuria 169, 344 lex Pompeia Licinia 556
and Arbitio, Flavius 31 Labienus, Quintus 298, 405 Lentulus, Gnaeus Cornelius 314 lex Rufrena 319
and Arianism 53 Labienus, Titus 12, 139, 232, Lentulus, P. Cornelius 25 lex Saenia 415
and Aurelius Victor 62 Lentulus Gaetulicus, Gnaeus lex Titia 319, 556, 557
and battle of Argentoratum 35 298–299, 377, 530 lex Trebonia 553, 556
and Christianity 291–292, 406 lacerna 130 Cornelius 225, 314–315, 317 lex Vatinia de Caesaris Provincia 556,
coinage of 132 Laco, Cornelius 226, 269, 299, 432, Leo I (emperor of the East) 315
and Donatism 184 570
and Eutherius 203–204 449, 467 and Aspar 50, 315 lex Vatinius 319
and Franks 219, 292 Laco, Graecinus 299 and Basiliscus 69, 200, 315 Libanius 21, 285, 319–320, 325,
and Libanius 320 laconicum 71, 514 and Excubitors 205
and Lupicinus, Flavius 334 Lactantius 112, 158, 227, 299, 430 and Glycerius 244 378, 471
and Maximus of Ephesus 361 Laelianus, Upius Cornelius 299, 445 and Isauria 276, 315, 342 libellatici 300, 320
and Mesopotamia 366 Laeta, Clodia 299 legions of 310 libelli pacis 162, 320
and Mithras cult 371 laeti 299 and Nepos, Julius 386 libellis 199, 320
and Neoplatonism 385 Laetus 299–300, 334 and Olybrius 398 libellis respondens 320
physician of 400 Laetus, Quintus Aemilius 140, 189, and Vandals 237, 315 Liberators 88, 320 See also Brutus,
and Priscus 453 wife of 572–573
and Procopius 455 300, 421 and Zeno 276, 315, 342, 599 Marcus Junius; Cassius (Gaius
and Saturninus 490–491 Lamia, Aelius Plautius 300 Leo I (pope) 20, 38, 54, 107, 260, Cassius Longinus)
tutor of 116 lamps 223 263, 315–316, 546, 565 and Antonius, Lucius 25
and Vadomar 563 land tax 524, 555 Leo II 315 at battle of Philippi 58, 75, 99,
land transportation 551–552 Leontia 315, 416, 572
Julianus, Salvius 96, 292–293, Langobardi 279, 300, 300, 348 Lepcis Magna 46, 69, 72, 316, 472, 426–427, 557
294–295, 338 languages 301, 302, 303 500 and Cicero, Marcus Tullius 118
lanista 243 Lepida, Aemilia 187, 316–317, 464 and Labienus, Quintus 298
Julianus, Tettius 170, 181, 522 Laodicea, Canons of 300 Lepida, Domitia 317, 367, 386–387, and Messalla Corvinus 366
Julio-Claudians 603 See also lapis manalis 344 485 Liberatrix (legion) 311
lapsi 153, 162, 300, 393, 422 Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius (courtier) Liberius 167, 203, 320
Augustus; Claudius; Gaius Lapsis, De (Cyprian) 162 317 Liber memorialis (Ampelius) 18
Caligula; Nero; Tiberius Lara 245, 300, 301 Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius (Triumvir) Liber spectaculorum (Martial) 353
Julius 293 lararium 184, 300–301 25–26, 58, 82, 312, 317, 556–557 libertas 271
Julius, Clemens 293 Lares 169, 245, 300, 301, 418 Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius (would-be libertini 219
Julius Africanus, Sextus 293 Lares compitales 301 assassin) 317 Libitina 320
Julius Caesar (Suetonius) 88 Lares praestites 301 Lepidus, Paullus Aemilius 317–318 libitinarius 320
Julius Gabinianus, Sextus 293 Lares publici 301 “Lesbia” See Clodia Libius Severus 6, 20, 51, 320–321,
Julius Nepos 51, 244 Lar familiaris 301 The Letter of Aristeas 15 471
Julius Victor, Gaius 293 Large Baths 72 Letters (Cicero) 118 Libo, M. Drusus 171, 321, 340
Junia 99, 293 Largus, Scribonius 301, 362 Letters (Pliny) 123 libra 592, 593
Junius Otho 82, 293 Lateranus, Plautius 301, 433 Letters (Sidonius) 505 Library of Alexandria 15–16
Juno 245, 279, 293–294, 331, 355, Late Stoa 515 lex 318–319 Library of Celsus 196
375, 467, 511, 526 latifundia 207, 301 lex Aelia Sentia 318, 508, 510 Library of Ephesus 196, 197
Jupiter 48, 60, 179, 213, 245, 294, Latin language 301–303 lex Annales 318 Liburnia 321
467 Latium 303 lex Antonia de actis confirmandis 318 liburnicae 321, 504
jurists 6, 294–295, 303, 325, 446 latrine 216–217 lex Appuleia 343 Licinius, Valerius Licinianus
Justina 295 Latrocinium Council 107, 316 lex Calpurnia de ambitu 318 321–322
Justinian 2, 4, 36, 304 latus clavus 496 lex Cassia de plebeis in patricious and Constantine 5, 143, 144,
Justin Martyr 295, 429 laudatio funebris 409 adlegendis 318, 415
Justus 295 Laureolus (Catullus) 102 lex Clodiae 318 321–322
Justus, Cantonius 295, 439 lavatory 216–217 lex Cornelia 318 and Edict of Milan 112, 321,
Jutes 295–296 law 3, 149–150, 303–305, 304, lex curiata 4
Juthungi 433 lex de adulteriis coercendis 318 367–368
Juthungine War 62, 296 318–319, 455, 482 See also specif- lex de imperio Vespasian 318 and Maximinus Daia 321, 359
Juvenal 213, 284, 296, 490 ic law lex de maritandis ordinibus 23 wife of 142
Juvenalia 296 Lawrence (Laurence) 305 lex Fufia Caninia 318, 508, 510 Licinius Macer Calvus, Gaius 19,
Juvenalis, Flavius 296 leagae 368 lex Gabiniae 318, 441 322
Juvenal of Jerusalem 296 lectica 551 lex Iulia de maiestate 171 lictors 151, 208, 322
Juvencus, Gaius Vettius Aquilinus lectio 190 lex Julia agraria 318 Life of Apollonius of Tyana
296 lectus 222 lex Julia de adulteriis 60, 352–353 (Philostratus) 429
Juventas 245, 296 legal system See law lex Julia de ambitu 319 Life of Pompey (Plutarch) 370
Legatio ad Gaium (Philo) 427 lex Julia de maiestate 319, 343 lighting 223
K legati pro praetore 456 lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus 60, Ligur, Valerius 322
legatus 305–306 319, 352 Liguria 29, 322
Kalends 90, 297, 590 legatus Augusti pro praetore 306, 555 lex Julia et Papia Poppaea 4 Ligurians 154, 230
Kanus, Julius 297 legatus legionis 306 lex Julia municipalis 552 limes 240, 310, 322–323
katholikos 275 leges 303 lex Junia Petronia 319, 508 Limitanei 143, 176, 310, 323
Knights See Equites legibus, De (Cicero) 117 lex Licinia de provincia Caesaris 319 limites 322–323
Kniva 7, 168, 170, 247, 297 legionary camps 240, 309, 447 lex Malacitana 319 Lincoln See Lindum
Koblenz 297 legiones palatinae 310 lex Manciana 319 Lindum (Lincoln) 78, 323
koin 253–254 legions 306–314, 307 lex Manilia 117 Lingua Latina, De (Varro) 568
koinon 272 development of 306–307 liquamen 216
in late Empire 310 literati 508
list of 310–314 literature xii, 323–325, 437
litterator 190

626 Index ludi Scaenici 331 Majorian 6, 343–344, 433, 471, 505 and Verus, Lucius 349–350, 573
ludi Terentini 332 Mamertinus, Claudius 344 and Verus, P. Martius 574
Lives of Famous Men (Nepos) 386 ludi Victoriae Caesaris 58, 333 Mamurra 344 wives of 209, 349, 350
Lives of the Caesars (Suetonius) 123, ludi Volcanalici 333 manceps 161 Mare Internum 363
ludi votivi 331 mancipationes 4 Maria 264, 351
493, 516 ludus 243 Mandiuch 54, 266, 344, 481 Mariamme Tower 285
Lives of the Great Men (Suetonius) Lugdunum 119, 131, 228, 239, 300, manes 169, 301, 344 Mariamne 37, 257
Mani 344–345 marines 252, 351
516 333–334 Manichaeism 57, 344–345, 468, 567 Maritime Alps 351
Lives of the Sophists (Eunapius) 116, Lugdunum, battle of 334, 500 Manilius 345 Marius 351
Luna 245, 334 Manilius, Marcus 345 Marius, Marcus Aurelius 351
202 lunch 215 manipulus 306 Marius (consul) 86, 306
The Lives of the Sophists Lupercalia 208 mansiones 161, 345, 472 Marius Maximus, Lucius 351
Lupicinus, Flavius 334, 431 Manu ad ferrum 61 Maroboduus 274, 300, 348,
(Philostratus) 429 Lusitania 262, 365 manumissio 510 351–352, 366, 516
Livia 56, 326, 327 lusoria arma 243 manumission of slaves 508, 523 marriage 60, 319, 352–353, 594 See
Lutetia 119, 228, 232, 334 manum viri 352 also divorce
and Agrippa Postumus 10, 326 Lycaonia 334 manus 352, 593 Mars 48, 60, 213, 245, 353, 484,
and Agrippina the Elder 10–11, Lycia 335 map 424 561
Lydia 49, 50, 335 Marcella 10, 25 Marsi 353
326, 434 Lydia 28 Marcellinus of Dalmatia 342, 345, Martial xi, 296, 324, 353–354, 421
and Antonia 23 Martialis, Julius 205, 354
and Augustus 58, 61, 326 M 471 Martialis, Q. Gargilius 354
and Gaius Caligula 225 Marcellus, Lucius Ulpius 140, Martianus Capella 354
and Plancina, Munatia 434 Macarius Magnes 336 Martin of Tours 354, 453, 502
sons of 187, 326, 539–540 Macarius the Egyptian 336 345–346 martyrology 259
Livianus, Claudius 326–327 Macedonia 2, 253, 336–337 Marcellus, Marcus Claudius 10, 60, martyrs 111–112, 281, 305, 330,
Livilla 23, 27, 86, 187, 290, 327, Macedonica (legion) 311, 312 409, 439
494–495 macellum 337 289, 326, 346 Masada 269, 354–355
living conditions 474–475 Macer, Aemilius 337 Marcellus, Nonius 346 Massilia 87, 122, 183, 230, 355
living quarters 183, 275 Macriana (legion) 311 Marcellus, Sextus Varius 193, 346 Materia Medica (Dioscorides) 179
Livius, Drusus Claudius 327 Macrianus, Titus Fulvius 62, 67, Marcellus, Ulpius 346 Mater Matuta 355
Livy (Titus Livius) 69, 282, 324, Marcellus of Gaul 346 Maternas, Curiatius 355
327–328 233, 337 Marcia 189, 346 Mater Regina 355
loincloth 130 Macrianus, Titus Fulvius Junius 67, Marcian 50, 64, 107, 346–347 mathematics 355–356, 459
Lollia Paulina 328, 467 Marciana, Ulpia 347 Matheseos (Firmicus) 212
Lollius, Marcus 328 337–338 Marcianus, Aelius 347 Matidia 356
Lollius Urbicus, Quintus 78, 328 Macrinus, Marcus Opellius 6, 21, Marcionism 347 Mattiarii seniores 315
Londinium 78, 80, 189, 328–329, Marcius, Publius 347 Mauretania 8, 287, 356–357, 459
522 68, 95, 173, 193, 338, 448 Marcomanni 62, 256, 277, 347–348, Mauretania Caesariensis 357
London See Londinium Macrinus, Veturius 338 Mauretania Tingitana 357
Longinus 144, 145, 329 Macro, Quintus Naevius Cordus 351–352 Mauriac, battle of See Catalaunian
Longinus, Cassius 329 Marcomannic Wars 13, 139, 240, Plain
Longus, Velius 329 Sutorius 126, 196, 225, 299, Mavia 357, 487
lorica hamata 307 338–339 348–349, 350, 466 Maxentius, Marcus Aurelius Valerius
lorica segmentata 307 Macrobius, Ambrosius Theodosius Marcus Aurelius 251, 349–351, 350 357–358
lorica squamata 307 339, 499 and Alexander, Domitius 13
Luca, Conference of 156, 183, Maeatae 339, 430 adoption of 23, 24 Basilica Maxentia built by 69
329–330, 442 Maecenas, Gaius Cilnius 72, 264, and Aelius Caesar 7 and Carthage 97
Lucan, Marcus Annaeus 186, 324, 339, 378, 456, 585 and architecture 476–477 and Constantine the Great 142,
330, 363 Maecianus, Lucius Volusius and Ariogaesus 36
Lucania 330 339–340 assassination of 243 143, 227, 358, 369, 477
Lucian 203, 330 maeniana 136 and Athens 53 father of 208, 359
Lucian of Antioch 38, 330 Magetobriga 340 and Aufidius Victorinus 55 and Fausta, Flavia Maxima 208
Lucifer of Cagliari (Lucifer of magic 340 and Battarius 72 and grain supply 20
Sardinia) 330–331 magister equitum 31, 143, 310, and Candidus, Tiberius Aurelius and Licinius 321
Lucilius, Gaius 331, 489, 490 340–341 and Praetorian Guard 358, 447,
Lucilla, Annia Aurelia Galeria 140, magister equitum praesentalis 341 92
158, 331, 440 magister libellorum 320 and Cassius, Gaius Avidius 99 448
Lucilla, Domitia 174, 331, 349 magister memoriae 341 and Castra Praetoria 101 and Severus II 358, 499–500
Lucina 331 magister militum 6, 100, 143, 201, and Chatti 108 Maximian 358–359
Lucullus 39, 542 310, 341–342, 383, 415 and China 109 and Bagaudae 65
Lucusta the Poisoner 81, 331 magister militum praesentalis 341 and Christianity 111 baths built by 72
ludi 243, 331–333, 378 magister militum praesentis 341 daughter of 331 and Carausius 96
ludi Actiaci 332, 391 magister officiorum 122, 138, 141, legions of 311 and Diocletian 175–176
ludi Apollinares 331 143, 212, 342 and literature 324 son of 208, 357–358, 359
ludi Augustales 331–332 magister peditum 31, 50, 143, 310, and Marcomanni 348–349, 350 wife of 204
ludi Capitolini 253, 332 340, 341, 342 and Pertinax 421 Maximinus 359
ludi Ceriales 332 magister populi 173 physician of 227 Maximinus Daia 5, 112, 142, 143,
ludi Circenses 331, 332 magister scriniorum 342 and Pompeianus, Tiberius 321, 359–360
ludi Decennales 332 magistrates 303, 304, 446 Maximinus I Thrax 360
ludi Florales 332 magistri scrinii 493 Claudius 440 and Alamanni 12, 360
ludi magister 190 Magnentius, Flavius Magnus 31, and Pomponius Proculus, Titus and Aquileia 30, 360
ludi Megalenses 332 142, 148–149, 342–343, 378, assassination of 51, 360
ludi Palatini 332 386, 427 442
ludi Plebeii 332 maiestas 167, 171, 224, 319, 343, and Sardinia 487
ludi Pontificales 332 462, 540 sons of 139
ludi Romani 332 maiores 213 and Stoicism 350–351, 428, 515
ludi Saeculares 27, 331, 332–333, and Suebi 516
477 tutors of 13, 221, 257, 339, 349,

481

Index 627

and Capellianus 93 Metellus Scipio, Quintus Caecilius Montanism 114, 375 Nepos, Platorius 386
and Carthage 97 367 Montanus, Votienus 375, 453 Nepotianus, Julius 342, 386
and Gordian I 246, 360 Monumentum Ancyranum 470, 474 Neptune 245, 386, 484
and Goths 247 methodo medendi, De (Galen) 227 Moors 263, 356–357, 375–376, 463 Nero 386–387 See also Pisonian
and Senate 496 Middle Academy 428 Moral Enchiridion (Epictetus) 428
Maximus, A. Lappius 181, 360 Middle Stoa 515 Moralia (Plutarch) 437 Conspiracy
Maximus, Gaius Julius Verius 360 Milan See Mediolanum Moretum 28 and Achaea 2
Maximus, L. Marius 6, 360–361 Milan, Edict of 112, 114, 144, 321, Mortibus Persecutorum, De on adoption 4
Maximus, Magnus 73, 247, 341, and Apollo 27
361, 431, 534 367–368, 406, 479 (Lactantius) 299 and architecture 44–45, 103,
Maximus, Sextus Quintilius miles 307, 308 mosaic floors 222, 223
463–464 Milestones 368, 551 Mosella (Ausonius) 63 387, 475, 525
Maximus, Tattius 361 Miletus 368 “Mother of all Gauls” 38 and Armenia 39, 387
Maximus of Ephesus 116, 361 milia 393 Mucianus, Gaius Licinius 74, 121, and art 42, 387
Maximus of Tyre 361 milia passuum 368, 593 Augustans formed by 57
meals 215–216 miliarense 132, 133 181, 234, 376 Augustiani established by 2
measures 592–593 Milichus 368, 433, 491 mules 551 and Baiae 66
meat market 337 military engineering 195 Muliebris, Temple of Fortuna 376 and Bosporus kingdom 78
Media Atropatene 361 military treasury 7 mulsum 216 and Boudicca 78, 387
medicamentis, De (Marcellus) 346 mille 393 Munda 88, 123, 356, 376–377, 441 bureaucratic system of 7
medici 362 mille passus 368, 593 munera 120 and Burrus, Sextus Afranius 84,
medicine 49, 227, 301, 346, Milo, Titus Annius 86, 117, 173, munera municipalia 120
361–362, 400, 511 municipia civium Romanorum 377 387, 449
Mediolanum 264, 277, 358, 359, 368–369, 485 municipium 120, 135, 254, 316, 377 and Capito, Cossutianus 93
362–363, 466 Milvian Bridge 4, 143, 208, 369, 473 Munitionibus Castrorum, De and Cassius Longinus, Gaius
Meditations (Marcus Aurelius) 13, mime 530
221, 351 minerals 262–263 (Hyginus) 309 99–100
Mediterranean Sea 363 Minerva 48, 245, 369–370, 467, 526 munus publicum 120 and Christianity 111, 433
Megalesia 161, 363 Minervia (legion) 311 Murena, Licinius Aulus Terentius coinage of 131
Meherdates 246, 363 Minervina 144, 158 and Corbulo, Gnaeus Domitius
Mela, Annaeus 93, 363–364 minimi 370 Varro 339, 377–378
Mela, Pomponius 364 minores 213 Murmurithon (Syrus) 520 151–152, 387
Melania the Elder 364 mints 131, 134 Mursa Major 31, 343, 378 and Doryphorus 185–186
Melania the Younger 364 mirrors 420 music 378, 530–531 and Drusus 187
Melitian Schism 364, 390 Misenum 72, 370 Musonianus, Strategius 378 and Epaphroditus 196
Melitius and the Melitians 364, 422 Misenum (classis) 383 must 216 and Eprius Marcellus, Titus
Melitius of Antioch 364 Misenum, Conference of 370, 441 mutationes 378, 472
memoria 341 Mithraism 468 Mutina 123, 317, 379 Clodius 198
men Mithras 30, 52, 370–371 Mysia 49, 379, 419 father of 182, 386
clothing for 129, 546 Mithridates (king of Armenia) mysticism 385 and Formulus 217
footwear for 130 freedmen of 219, 424
Menas (Menodorus) 364–365 371–372, 424, 465, 561 N and Galba, Servius Sulpicius 226
mensores frumentarii cereris 106 Mithridates (king of Bosporus) 77, and Helius 252–253
merchant ships 503, 552, 552 Nabataeans 30, 380, 422 legion of 311
Mercury 245, 300, 301, 365 372 Nacolea 380 and literature 324
Merida (Emerita) 262, 365 Mithridates (king of Iberians) 47, Namatianus, Rutilius Claudius lovers of 3, 158, 397, 513
Merobaudes, Flavius (consul) 247, and Lucan, Marcus Annaeus 330
340, 365, 565 372 380–381 and Messallina, Statilia 366–367
Merobaudes, Flavius (poet) 365 Mithridates of Pergamum 15, 122, Narbo 31, 230, 381 and Moesia 373
Mesopotamia 252, 365–366, 392 Narbonensis See Gallia Narbonensis mother of 11–12, 56, 81, 386
Messalla Corvinus, Marcus Valerius 372–373, 391, 599 Narcissus (freedman) 367, 381 and Nerva 388
154, 366, 449 Mithridates III (king of Parthia) Narcissus (slayer of Emperor and Otho 403
Messalla Messallinus, Marcus and Paetus, Lucius Caesennius
Valerius 72, 366 224, 372, 401, 518 Commodus) 140, 346, 381
Messallina, Statilia 366–367, 388 Mithridates IV (coruler of Parthia) Narses 39, 265, 381, 392, 488 406
Messallina, Valeria 367 Nasamones 381–382 palace of 184, 245
and Claudius 125 372 Nasidius, Q. 382 and Pallas, Marcus Antonius
daughter of 397 Mnester 373, 531 Natalis, Antonius 382, 433
and Julia Livilla 290 Modalism 482 natatio 71 408
and Lateranus, Plautius 301, Modestus, Domitius 373 Natura Animalium (Aelian) 7 and Paris 413
Moesia 156, 165, 181, 337, natura Deorum, De (Cicero) 117 and Petronius 423
435 Natural History (Pliny) 68, 109, 186, and Praetorian Guard 447, 512
and Mnester 373 373–374, 391 and Primus, Marcus Antonius
mother of 317 Moesia (classis) 383 324, 340, 362, 436
and Narcissus 381 Moesia Inferior 374 Naulochus 58, 382, 441 452
and Polybius 439 Moesia Superior 374 naumachia 137 and Rhodes 471
and Silana, Junia 505 Moguntiacum (Mainz) 239, 240, navarch 383 and Rufus, Cluvius 480–481
and Silius, Gaius 505, 506 navy 251–252, 382–383, 431, and Scribonii brothers 492–493
son of 81 374–375 and Seneca 3, 11, 19, 387, 416
Metamorphoses (Apuleius) 28, 325 Monarchianism 417, 482 503–504 and Silanus, M. Junius 505–506
Metamorphoses (Ovid) 404 Moneta 375, 526, 527 Nedao 266, 383–384 and Soranus, Barea 103
Metellus Celer, Quintus Caecilius 8, monetary system 131–134 nefastus 575 suicide of 387, 507
37, 128, 367 monogamia, De (Tertullian) 528 Nemausus 29, 29, 384, 384 and Thrasea Paetus 537
Monophysitism 375 Nemesianus 91, 325, 384 and Tigellinus 449, 541
monotheism 468 Nemesius 384 and Tiridates 47–48
Mons Aurasius 375 Neoplatonism 57, 244, 356, tutors of 387, 496–497
Mons Aventinus 260–261 and Vespasian 574
Mons Caelius 260 384–385, 428 See also specific and Vetus, Lucius Antistius 577
Mons Capitolinus 260 philosopher and Vindex 387, 583
Mons Esquilinus 261 Neo-Pythagoreanism 385–386, 428 wives of 125, 387, 388, 397,
Mons Janiculus 261 Nepos, Cornelius 386
Mons Palatinus 260 Nepos, Julius 202, 386, 398, 479 444
Mons Vaticanus See Vatican Hill

628 Index Obodas 34, 397 orchards 235 and science 356
Octavia 3, 23, 25, 58, 82, 123, 397 ordinal numbers 394 Symmachus and 518
Nero, Julius Caesar 288, 388 Octavia, Claudia 11, 19, 84, 125, ordinarii 508 Paidogogus (Clement) 126
Nerva, Marcus Cocceius 388 Ordo Nobilium Urbium (Ausonius) Palace of Lausus 69
367, 387, 388, 397, 505 Palaemon 445
and Aelianus, Casperius 7 Octavian See Augustus 63 Palaemon, Quintus Remmius 37,
and Beneventum 74 Octavius, Gaius 397–398 Orestes 386, 398, 399, 479 407
and Dio Cocceianus 178 Octavius (Felix) 209 Orgetorix 399 Palaestina 407
and Domitian 52 Odaenath 67, 233, 398, 408, 488, Oribasius 399–400 Palatine Hill 260, 473
Forum Transitorium built by Oriens 400 Palatini 143, 407
503, 600 Origen 14, 18, 38, 103, 172, 179, Pales 245, 407
219 Odes (Horace) 264–265 palestra 71
and Frontinus, Sextus Julius 221 Ode to Germanicus (Priscus) 453 198, 400 Palfurius Sura 407
and John 285 Odoacer 386, 398, 479, 496, 599 Origenes 400 palla 129
and Praetorian Guard 338, 447 Oea (Tripoli) 398 The Origin of Sin (Prudentius) 325 Palladas 407
and Raetia 465 offenses 305 Origo gentis romanae (Aurelius) 62 Palladius 103, 407–408
and Trajan 388, 548 oil lamps 223 ornamenta 401 Palladius, Rutilius Taurus
Nervii 104, 231, 388–389 Olba 398 ornamenta triumphalia 555 Aemilianus 408
Nestor, Julianus 389 Old Academy 428 Orodes II 47, 97, 298, 372, 401, Pallas, Marcus Antonius 23, 408
Nestorianism 375, 533 olive press 274 palliata 530
Nestorius 103, 163, 196, 204, 389 olives 50 518 Palma Frontonianus, Aulus
Nevitta, Flavius 389 Ollius, T. 398 Orodes III 401 Cornelius 30, 104, 408, 423,
New Academy 428 Olybrius 20, 237, 244, 320, 398 Oroses 41, 401, 413 550
The New Testament 116 Olybrius, Quintus Clodius Orosius, Paulus 15, 401 Palmyra 167, 186, 398, 408, 600
Nicaea 389 Orthographia, De (Scaurus) 492 paludamentum 130
Nicaea, battle of 389 Hermogenianus 398–399 Orthographia, De (Velius) 570 Pammachius 409
Nicaea, Council of 35, 38, 52, 76, Olympiodorus of Thebes 399 Osiris 276, 401, 468 Pamphylia 50, 335
112, 114, 115, 179, 203, 265, On Alexander (Dexippus) 173 Osroene 190, 300, 401–402 Pamphylius of Caesarea 409
300, 364, 389–390, 415 On Anatomical Procedure (Galen) Ostia 402 Pandateria 290, 409
Nicator 20, 26 Ostrogoths 5, 220, 244, 402, panegyric 365, 409
Nice 390, 581 227 Pannonia 26, 72, 96, 187, 270,
Nicene Creed 35, 36, 203, 248, 390 On Faith (Ambrose) 17 402–403, 564 409–410
Nicolaus of Damascus 390 On Fishing (Nemesianus) 384 Otho, Lucius Salvius Titianus 104, Pannonia (classis) 383
Nicomedia 46, 76, 176, 277, On His Consulship (Cicero) 118 Pannonia Inferior 409, 410
390–391 On His Own Times (Cicero) 118 403, 432–433 Pannonia Superior 409, 410
Nicopolis (city in Epirus) 198, 391 On Hunting (Nemesianus) 384 Otho, Marcus Salvius 403 Pansa Caetronianus, Gaius Vibius
Nicopolis (city in Moesia) 391 On Man’s Nature (Nemesius) 384 123, 410
Nigrinus, Gaius Avidius 391 On Medical Experience (Galen) 227 and Caecina Alienus, Aulus 433 Pantaenus 410
Nike 390, 581 On Perfection (Gregory) 248 and Castra Praetoria 101 Pantheon 43, 46, 92, 251, 410, 411,
Nile 87, 191, 391 On Seamanship (Nemesianus) 384 and Celsus, Marius 104 475
Nile, battle of 391 On the Christian Life (Gregory) 248 and Firmus, Plotius 212 papacy 411–412 See also specific
Nîmes See Nemausus On the Fortune of the Romans and Galba 227, 403, 507 pope
Nisibis 392 and Gallus, Appius Annius 233 Papak 34, 412, 488
noble class 415 (Plutarch) 437 legions of 311 Paphlagonia 412
Noctes Atticae (Gellius) 237, 324 On the Holy Spirit (Ambrose) 17 and Poppaea, Sabina 158, 444 Papinian 122, 295, 412, 417
nominatio 392 On the Holy Spirit (Basil) 68 and Praetorian Guard 73, 447 Papius Mutilus, Marcus 412
non conveniendo cum haereticis, De On the Incarnation (Athanasius) 53 and Primus, Marcus Antoninus papyrus 594, 595
(Lucifer) 331 On the Life of Julius Agricola (Tacitus) Parcae 412
Nones 90, 392 452 parchment 595
Norbanus 181, 388, 392 522 and Proculus, Licinius 456 Parentalia 169, 344
Noricum 392–393 On the Marriage of Mercury and and Tigellinus 542 Parentalia (Ausonius) 63
notarii 141, 393 and Vitellius, Aulus 16, 73, 233, Paris (actor) 180, 413
Notitia Dignitatum 393 Philosophy (Martianus) 354 Paris (city) See Lutetia
Novatian 114, 115, 162, 393 On the Movement of the Muscles 403, 433, 507, 587 pars pro toto 340
Novatianism 300, 393 ovatio 403 Parthamasiris of Armenia 401, 413
novendiale sacrificium 169 (Galen) 227 oven 216 Parthamaspates of Parthia 413
Nuceria 393 On the Natural Faculties (Galen) 227 “overseers” 112 Parthenius 413
Numa 378, 443, 484, 527, 575 On Virginity (Ambrose) 17 Ovid 323, 403–404, 404, 456 Parthenon 54
numeral adverbs 394–395 On Virginity (Gregory) 248 Parthia 413–414 See also specific
numerals, Roman 393–395 On Widows (Ambrose) 17 P city
numeri 395 Opalia 399 Candidus Crassus and 92
Numerian 26, 51, 96, 98, 175, 395, operculum 18 Pacatianus, Titus Claudius Marinus Cassius and 99
448 Oppian 399 405 Crassus, Marcus Licinius and
Numerianus 395 oppidium 119
Numidia 8, 9, 93, 159, 261, Oppius, Gaius 399 Pacatus, Latinus Drepanius 405 97, 401
395–396 See also Juba I; specific Ops, goddess of the harvest 245, Pachomius 405 Herod the Great and 257, 258
city pack animals 551 Orodes II and 401
nummus 499 399 Pacorus 401, 405, 571 Pacorus and 405
nummus castrensis 396 optimo genere oratorum, De (Cicero) Pacorus II 405–406 Phraataces and 430
nutrition 215–216 paenitentia, De (Tertullian) 528 Phraates III and 430
Nux (Ovid) 404 117 paenula 130 Phraates IV and 430
nymphaeum 316 optimo iure Quiritium 280 Paetus, Lucius Caesennius 48, 152, Tiridates and 1, 543
optio 308 Tiridates II and 544
O optio equitum 309 406
Opus agriculturae (Palladius) 408 paganism 406–407 See also
oath of allegiance 484 Orange See Arausio
oblativa 55 Oratio ad Graecos (Tatian) 523 Imperial Cult
oratione, De (Tertullian) 528 Cynegius, Maternus and 162
Orator ad M. Brutus (Cicero) 117 Eugenius, Flavius and 201
oratore, De (Cicero) 117 Flavianus and 214
oratory 399 and gladiators 243
orbi 319 Julian and 291–292, 320
and philosophy 427–428
Praetextatus and 446

Trajan and 550 Pertinax, Publius Helvius (Emperor Phrygia 49, 85, 430 Index 629
Vologases I and 588–590 in 193) 421 phylarch 537
Parthian campaign 22, 25–26, 401 assassination of 51 Piazza Armerina 430 Plebeians 129, 130, 435–436,
Parthian War 26 and Castra Praetoria 101 Picenum 430 509–510, 553–554, 554
Parthica (legion) 311 and Didius Julianus 174 Picts 80, 430–431
Parthicus 159 and Eclectus 189 pilum 307 plebeius ordo 436
partitione oratoria, De (Cicero) 117 and Laetus, Quintus Aemilius pilus posterior 308 plebiscitum 303–304
passus 368, 593 300 pilus prior 308 pledge of allegiance 484
Patavium 414 and Praetorian Guard 421, 447 Pinakes 15 Pliny the Elder 68, 109, 186, 324,
Paternus, Tarrutenius 140, 414, 419 wife of 544 Pincian Hills 261, 473
Pater Patriae 60, 117, 414 Pinus, Cornelius 42, 431 340, 362, 436, 576
patres 509 Pertinax, Publius Helvius (son of piracy 118, 157, 382, 431, 441 Pliny the Younger 24, 48, 76, 111,
patres Nestorii blasphemiae 533 Pertinax) 421 Pisidia 49, 431
patria potestas 4, 414–415, 594 Piso, Gaius Calpurnius 228, 387, 123, 181, 324, 436
patriarch 415 Perusine War 25, 123, 222, 421 plostellum 208
Patricians 129, 130, 415, 509 Pervigilium Veneris (Tiberianus) 538 431–432, 433 plostellum poenicum 208
Patricius 50, 69, 315, 415–416 pes 593 Piso, Gnaeus Calpurnius 241, 432, Plotina, Pompeia 54, 436
Patrick 416 Pescennius Niger 422 Plotinus 18, 385, 436–437
patrimonium 211, 470 434, 572, 588 Plutarch 4, 97, 370, 437
patristic Christian philosophy 428, coinage of 132 Piso, Lucius Calpurnius (consul in Pluton 245, 437
429 and Severus, Septimius 21, 26, poena capitis 305
patrocinium 301 15 B.C.E.) 432, 449 poetry 117–118, 437
patromonium sacrae 212 276, 334, 389, 391, 422, 500 Piso, Lucius Calpurnius (consul in Polemo, Marcus Antonius 437–438
Patruinus, Valerius 416 pes monetalis 593 Polemo I 438
Paulina, Domitia 416, 499 Peter of Alexandria 364, 422 58 B.C.E.) 432 Polemo II 77, 155, 438
Paulina, Pompeia 416 Peter (St. Peter) 110, 112, 412, 422, Piso Licinianus 173, 227, 403, police 60, 561
Paulinus of Nola 416–417 polis 253–254, 377
Paullus, Lucius Aemilius 290, 336, 569 432–433, 507 politarchs 536
417 Petra 380, 422–423 Pisonian Conspiracy 387, 433, 475 Pollentia 438, 514
Paul of Samosata 417 Petreius, Marcus 122, 269–270, 423 Pollio, Gaius Asinius 50, 82, 234,
Paul of Tarsus (St. Paul) 67, 110, Petronius 303, 324, 423, 490 Lateranus, Plautius in 301, 435
111, 304, 305, 417 Petronius Maximus 8, 63, 201, 237, Lucan, Marcus Annaeus in 330 366, 438–439, 470
Paulus, Julius 121, 295, 417 Milichus and 368 Pollio, Publius Vedius 439
Paulus (Catena) 417–418 343, 423–424, 565 Natalis, Antonius in 382 Pollio, Rufrius 295, 322, 439
Pausanias 418 Petronius Turpilianus, Publius (con- Petronius Turpilianus and 424 poll tax See tributum capitis
Pax 418 Piso, Gaius Calpurnius in 66, Pollux 179, 182, 245
Paxaea 298 sul in 19 C.E.) 423 Polybian legionary camp 309
Pax Romana 30, 418 Petronius Turpilianus, Publius (gov- 431–432 Polybius 125, 309, 439
Peace, Altar of 30, 42 Proculus, Volusius and 456 Polycarp 111, 439
Peasant Letters (Aelian) 7 ernor of Britain) 424 Quintianus, Afranius in 463 Polycleitus 439
peculatus 462 Peutinger Table 424 Rufus, Gaius Musonius in 481 polytheism See paganism
pecunia 132, 133 Phaedrus 424 Scaevinus, Flavius in 491 Pomaxathres 97, 156
pecunia maiorina 133 phalanx 306 Seneca in 497 pomerium 272, 439, 468, 525
Pedius, Quintus 418 Phaon 424 Senecio in 498 Pomona 245, 439
Pelagia 418 Pharasmanes 371, 424–425, 465 Silvanus, Gaius in 506 Pompeia (wife of Julius Caesar) 88,
Pelagianism 115, 275, 315, 416, 418 Pharisees 425, 484 Sulpicius Asper in 517
Pelagius 98, 115, 418 Pharnaces 36, 39, 87, 91, 425 Tigellinus and 541 439–440
Peloplato 13 Pharsalia (Lucan) See Belle Civile pistores 508 Pompeia (daughter of Pompey) 440
Penates 245, 418–419 Pituanius, Lucius 433 Pompeianus, Ruricius 369, 440
pens 594 (Lucan) Placentia 73, 433, 507 Pompeianus, Tiberius Claudius 331,
pentekontos 504 Pharsalus 8, 70, 82, 87, 122, 191, Placidia, Galla 433–434
Peponila 419, 483 and Aetius, Flavius 8, 434 440
Peraea 419 307, 312, 425, 442, 527 and Aspar 50, 286 Pompeii 42, 243, 277, 440, 440
Percennius 419 Phasael 23, 257, 283, 288, 426 and Athaulf 53, 149, 433 Pompey, Gnaeus 37, 440–441, 530
perduellio 343 Phasma (Catullus) 102 and Boniface 77, 100, 434 Pompey, Sextus 431, 441
Peregrinatio Aetheriae 279 Philae 426 and Felix, Flavius Constantius
peregrini 119, 280, 377, 419, 446 Philip I 39, 170, 247, 426, 448, 454, and Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius
Perennis, Sextus Tigidius 140, 414, 209 10, 382
419 477 and Honorius 264, 434
performances 531 Philip II 426 son of 565 and Antony, Marc 370, 441, 522
Pergamum 49, 419 Philip the Tetrarch 426 and Wallia 433, 591 and Augustus 370, 382, 441,
periploi 279, 419–420 Philippi 58, 75, 99, 426–427, 557 Plancina, Munatia 432, 434
Periplus Maris Erythraei 420 Philippic Histories (Trogus) 557 Plancus, Lucius Munatius 183, 333, 522
Periplus of the Euxine Sea 420 Philippics (Cicero) 117 421, 434 and Caesar, Julius 123, 441, 530
Periplus of the Outer Sea 420 Philippus, Flavius 427 Plancus Bursa, Titus Munatius 434 and Cornificius, Lucius 154
Peristephanon (Prudentius) 325, 459 Philippus, Lucius Marcius 60, 427 Plato 1, 361, 428, 429 and Domitius Ahenobarbus,
Peroz 420 Philo (Philo Judaeus) 1, 22, 427 Platone et euis dogmate (Apuleius)
Persia 26, 361, 420, 488, 503, Philocalia (Gregory) 248 325 Gnaeus 182
567–568 Philopater I 427 Platonism 13 See also and Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius
Persians and Athenians 420 Philopater II 427 Neoplatonism
Persius Flaccus, Aulus 69, 420, 490 philosophy 1–2, 427–429 See also plaudite 2 317, 441
personal appearance 420–421 Plautianus, Gaius Fulvius 94, 241, and Menas 364–365
Cynics; Epicureanism; 296, 338, 434–435, 500 and Titius, Marcus 544–545
Neoplatonism; Neo- Plautilla 94, 435, 435 Pompey the Great 441–442
Pythagoreanism; Platonism; Plautius 435 and Achillas 2
Stoicism; specific philosopher Plautius, Aulus 79, 92, 435 and Afranius, Lucius 8
Philostorgius 429 Plautius Lateranus 435 and Alexandria 13
Philostratus, Flavius 13, 28, 429 Plautius Silvanus, Marcus 435 and Amathus 17
Phoebe 429 Plautius Silvanus Aelianus, Tiberius and Ampius, T. Balbus 18
phoenix 430 435 and Antioch 21
Phraataces 430 and Aretas III 34
Phraates III 401, 430 and Ariobarzanes III 36
Phraates IV 25, 39, 47, 48, 97, 401, and Armenia 39
430, 544 and Balbus, Lucius Cornelius 66
and Balbus, T. Ampius 66