Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire - 667 pages.

530 Thamugadi cers fled from the field. In a rare act of cruelty, Caesar’s
normally efficient and disciplined legions massacred the
the area of GALLIA NARBONENSIS. Marius destroyed the remaining enemy. Caesar was now a master of Africa, but
Teutons in 102 B.C.E. at the battle of Aquae Sextiae, but he was also aware of the fact that others had escaped,
some tribes in Gaul subsequently claimed descent from including Gnaeus and Sextus Pompey and Labienus. The
the remnant. Over time, the name Teuton was used gen- war was not yet over.
erally to refer to any German tribe.
See also CIVIL WAR, FIRST TRIUMVIRATE.
Thamugadi (Timgad) A Roman city in Africa, situ-
ated in NUMIDIA, just north of the Aurasius Mountains theater There were several types of performance, in
and to the east of Lambaesis. Thamugadi was founded in Rome, including comedy, drama, pantomime, and tra-
100 C.E. by Emperor TRAJAN. As part of the intensive gedy, although favorite types depended upon the social
Romanization programs, only Roman army veterans were level of the audiences.
used to populate the colony. In turn, they helped to
defend southern Numidia from the frequent incursions of Theatrical performances owed their development to
local nomads. Built with the assistance of the III Augusta Greek culture and its foremost literary representative,
Legion, Thamugadi was remarkable because of its organi- Livius Andronicus, who came to Rome as a captive in 200
zation, with its streets laid out in perfect order. The city B.C.E. While there had been plays and productions prior
was, in fact, a nearly flawless square, with the usual to the time of Andronicus, it was this brilliant writer and
Roman architectural necessities: baths, a basilica, a fo- translator who made available to the Romans the finest
rum, the Arch of Trajan, and the Temple of Genius Colo- examples of original Greek tragedies and comedies. Eager
niae. Thamugadi was also an example of too much successors either continued his tradition or initiated
growth in too confined an area. By the late second cen- entirely new forms.
tury C.E. any new monuments or buildings had to be
placed outside of the city. Such was the case with the new COMEDY AND MIME
baths, the temple, and the capitol.
Roman or Italian comedy actually began with the so-
Thapsus Ancient town on the east coast of modern called versus Fescennini from Etruria, introduced around
Tunisia that was the site of a battle fought in February of 390 B.C.E. as part of the general mime drama. The satire,
46 B.C.E. between Julius CAESAR and the combined rem- a distinctly Roman creation, came from this early period
nants of the Pompeian forces. After defeating King Phar- and left an influence on later comedy by introducing
naces at the battle of Zela in 47, Caesar understood that such elements as music, dance, and verse. The Atellan
he had a great deal of fighting to do in Africa. In 49, his Farce, or Atellana, was noteworthy, not only as comedy
lieutenant there, G. Scribonius Curio, was defeated and but also as a composition form with definite characters
slain by the Pompeians, supported by King JUBA of and traits.
Numidia. Their position was strengthened in 48, when
the survivors of the battle of PHARSALUS poured over the Greek comedy or, more correctly, the New Greek
Mediterranean. By the time that Caesar was ready to deal comedy arrived with Livius Andronicus, who made trans-
with them, the Pompeians possessed 60,000 men under lations of established Greek plays. The Roman imagina-
the command of such notables as METELLUS SCIPIO, King tion did the rest. Greek works were called palliata, after
Juba, Sextus, and Gnaeus POMPEY, as well as Titus LABI- the Greek cloak, the pallium. In the second century B.C.E.,
ENUS and CATO UTICENSIS. Against them came Caesar the togata made its appearance. Again named after a
himself, with his veteran legions, 40,000 strong. cloak, or toga, this comedy was a departure from the Hel-
lenic mold, for the stories, characters and atmosphere
Caesar sailed from Lilybaeum in Sicily on October 8, were Italian. Thus, two different styles of comedy co-
47. After arriving on the African coast, he set out for Rus- existed, the Greek and the Italian, represented by the
pina but was nearly defeated by Labienus and Petreius. Atellan Farce and satire. Actual Latin Comedy was writ-
Caesar escaped brilliantly, taking up a strong enough ten by Plautus and Terence, many of whose plays sur-
position to allow his reinforcements to arrive. There fol- vived. They were modeled after their Greek predecessors.
lowed a period of marches and counterattacks, as at the Mimic comedy was equally produced, and by the end of
battle of Ilerda, in which Caesar compelled the Pom- the Republic was the favorite theatrical fare, remaining so
peians to give battle on the worst possible terms. Only a throughout the imperial era. With easily understood
general of Caesar’s caliber could be gifted or lucky plots, broad humor, and lightweight intellectual de-
enough to bring that about. mands, the comedy had a wide appeal to the easily dis-
tracted mobs attending the festivals or games.
With the town of Thapsus nearby, the Pompeian-
supported city that had served as bait, Caesar dressed his Famous writers of comedies, aside from Terence
lines. The famed Tenth Legion was on the right flank, led and Plautus, were Ennius, Naevius, Turpilius, Novius,
the charge, and shattered Scipio’s left; Scipio and his offi- Pomponius, Publilius, Syrus, and Laberius. Traditionally,
the play consisted of a mixture of verse in iambic tri-
meter and straight dialogue. Music, called cantica, was

used to score the action or as interludes usually played theaters
and
amphitheaters 531
on the flute.
did they appear in comedies. In drama or in tragedy their
DRAMA AND TRAGEDY parts were played by men. It was Roscius who introduced
the wearing of masks to heighten effect. Previously
Although Roman authors never matched the Greek mod- makeup and wigs served the same purpose.
els introduced by Livius Andronicus, there were some
brilliant successes, most notably the purely Roman tragic The two most famous actors of the Augustan Age
form of the fabulae praetextate or praetexta. The fabulae were Bathyllus and Pylades. While Pylades was eventu-
were tragedies composed along the lines of a Roman ally exiled, his rival was an excellent example of the ris-
character, with sources based on Italian or Roman history. ing station of the actor. Originally from Alexandria, he
The authors of the tragedies were some of the more served as the freedman of Gaius Maecenas, who became
notable literary figures in Rome: Naevius, Ennius, Pacu- his patron. With such help, Bathyllus received money and
vius, Accius, during the Republic; and the imperial writ- approval from AUGUSTUS. Later, in the reign of GAIUS
ers, Asinius POLLIO, OVID, POMPONIUS SECUNDUS, Curiatus CALIGULA, Mnester, the most famous and arrogant actor
Materna, and SENECA THE YOUNGER. Seneca wrote Her- of the day, secured the favor of the emperor. Surviving
cules Troades, Phoenissae, Medea, Phaedra, Oedipus, Aga- Caligula’s fall, he was honored at the court of CLAUDIUS.
memnon, Hercules Oetaeus, and Thyestes. Octavia, the only Unfortunately, he attracted MESSALLINA and spent much
extant praetexta, was not composed by Seneca, although time unsuccessfully avoiding her unwanted attentions.
attributed to him. When she was finally put to death in 48 C.E., Mnester
joined her, mainly because of the plottings of Claudius’s
Drama (in the ancient sense both comedy and freedmen. A similar fate was suffered by two actors
tragedy) took a more tenuous path to production. Con- named Paris. The first tried to teach NERO how to mime,
sidered a useful part of public or private spectacles, dra- and when the emperor proved a dismal failure, Paris was
matic performances were staged by actor troupes called put to death in 67. The other Paris, loved by DOMITIAN’s
the grex. Their subject matter was chosen by the director wife, Domitia Longina, was hunted down by the emperor
(dominus gregis), who purchased the rights to a play from and murdered in the street.
an often unknown playwright. The acquisition of a play
was purely on speculation. If the production failed, no theaters and amphitheaters Places of amusement
money was paid to the director. With dark themes, the for the Romans and an integral part of the government’s
drama was less popular with the mob but found an audi- commitment to entertaining the masses. In the provinces
ence in the more educated upper classes, where plays the structures were symbols of successful Romanization
might be given at parties or even at funerals. and the claim to civilization.

ACTORS AND PERFORMANCES THEATERS

The profession of acting presented some interesting con- Theaters were virtually unknown in Rome throughout
tradictions. Acting was considered an infamia (disrep- much of the Republic, owing to the absence of organized
utable), among the lowest of the Romans in social status, theatrical performances until the late third century B.C.E.
but some actors obtained reputations, adulation, and ado- Around 240 B.C.E., a drama was given in the circus, but
ration from people of all walks of life, and others became the stage was torn down after each performance. Subse-
the lovers of empresses or victims of emperors. Most quently, senatorial opposition made construction of a per-
actors began as slaves or as FREEDMEN who had been sent manent theater with seats very difficult. Even after the
to work as members of a troupe. At first despised off- conquest of Greece and the importation of Hellenic cul-
stage, the influence of the Greeks was seen in the gradual ture, senators still opposed theaters, and such standing
acceptance of actors. By the late Republic, two actors, structures were not permitted.
Roscius the comedian and Aesopus the tragedian, fre-
quented the best social circles and were becoming Aemilius Scaurus, in 58 B.C.E., erected a wooden the-
wealthy. ater complete with nearly 80,000 seats and thousands of
bronze statues. POMPEY THE GREAT took the decisive step
With the founding of the Roman Empire, the acting in 55 B.C.E. of building a theater out of stone (the CURIA
profession took a major step forward. As all forms of per- POMPEY). In 44 B.C.E., Julius CAESAR was stabbed to death
formances became associated with either public recre- in the Curia Pompey when the SENATE met there because
ation or private display, the lavishness of productions of the unavailability of their normal curia. A fire broke
increased. Costumes were improved, decorations or sets out in 22 C.E. but was extinguished quickly by the Prae-
made larger, and even the size of the cast grew from the torian Prefect SEJANUS, who also saved the surrounding
traditional Greek three to many. In the Theater of Pom- buildings, receiving a statue from Emperor TIBERIUS, who
pey, actual horses were used to show the sack of a city. helped repair the damage. Cornelius Balbus funded a sec-
Women were not a key part of the Roman theater. They ond stone theater in 13 B.C.E. but was overshadowed by
were allowed some roles in mimes, and not until very late Augustus, who dedicated in the same year the Theater of
Marcellus, named after his nephew who died in 23 B.C.E.

532 Themistius Born at Byzantium, he came from a Paphlagonian family,
his father the philosopher Eugenius. After studying under
These were the main examples of stone theaters in the Hierocles at Sinope, near Pontus, he returned home in
empire; from then on, most would be constructed out of 337, to CONSTANTINOPLE. Taking up a career of teaching,
wood. Themistius centered on Aristotle and by 350 was consid-
ered a highly successful philosopher and orator. He
The Roman theater was usually in the shape of a earned wide acclaim by delivering a speech (extant) to
semicircle, with seats sectioned off for the various levels Constantius II. A member of the SENATE in 355, hence-
of society. Two balconies over the cavea (where the musi- forth he was a prominent member of the new senate of
cians played) were for the emperors and their retinues, Constantinople, serving as one of its envoys to Constan-
including the Vestal Virgins. Other rows were for sena- tius when he was at Rome in 357. As the last proconsul
tors, knights, ambassadors, and the rest of Roman society. of Constantinople (before creation of the prefectship of
As with other public spectacles, admission was free, entry the city), Themistius aided in the recruiting of senators
being gained by the tesserae, or tickets, handed out to the for the Senate of Constantinople, now given equal power
public by the government. to that of its Roman counterpart.

AMPHITHEATERS Subsequently, Themistius was a confidant and fa-
vorite of three Christian emperors, despite his own PAGAN-
Roman amphitheaters were circular in design to afford ISM, and was the author of a letter to JULIAN to remind him
everyone a view of the staged events, which were nor- in 361 of the duties of a king. A speech to JOVIAN in 363
mally GLADIATOR displays or productions involving ani- celebrated the brief-reigning monarch’s first consulship,
mals (the venationes). followed by numerous addresses and panegyrics to VALENS
and later to THEODOSIUS I. All of his oratory reflected his
The first amphitheater in Italy was built not in Rome own views in favor of fair rule and toleration in religious
but in nearby CAMPANIA, where Scribonius Curio erected matters. Theodosius probably had a hand in the appoint-
a wooden stadium in 50 B.C.E., although his creation ment of Themistius to the post of PREFECT OF THE CITY in
was actually the result of combining two theaters. Julius 384. Although the philosopher was much criticized and
CAESAR funded one in 46 B.C.E., while Statilius TAURUS left office after only a few months, he took care of the city
constructed the first stone amphitheater in 29 B.C.E. and continued the education of Archadius during Theodo-
Destroyed by the great fire of 64 C.E., Taurus’s structure sius’s trip to the West. In 350 or 351, Themistius met the
was rebuilt by NERO, but this time out of wood. famed orator LIBANIUS, developing a friendship with him
that lasted for many years. A quarrel erupted in 362, but
Provincial and Italian amphitheaters actually dis- by 364 the two were once more in touch, continuing to
played considerable beauty and imagination. The stru c- correspond until 388. Themistius was also married twice,
tures in ARLES and NEMAUSUS (Nîmes) were particularly the second time to a Phrygian woman.
impressive. Unfortunately, a Flavian project, the Amphithe-
atrum Flavium, dominated the attentions of the empire. Theodora (fl. late third century C.E.) Stepdaughter of
This was, of course, the masterpiece of the COLOSSEUM, Maximian and wife of Constantius I Chlorus, whom she
the zenith of amphitheater construction. married around 293
Theodora’s union with Constantius was a purely political
See also ART AND ARCHITECTURE; CIRCUS; FESTIVALS; one, terminating his marriage to HELENA, mother of CON-
LUDI; TESSERA; and individual entries for circuses. STANTINE the Great. As the spouse first of a Caesar and
then an Augustus, Theodora bore six children: Hanni-
Suggested Readings: Arnott, Peter D. The Ancient Greek balianus, Iulius Constantius, Flavius Delmatius, Constan-
and Roman Theatre. New York: Random House, 1971; tia, Eutropia, and Anastasia. Constantine gave great
Beacham, Richard C. The Roman Theatre and Its Audience. honors to his mother, apparently neglecting Theodora;
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992; Duck- her children, however, were given a role in the court.
worth, George E. The Nature of Roman Comedy: A Study in Theodora’s parents were Afranius Hannibalianus and
Popular Entertainment. Norman: University of Oklahoma EUTROPIA.
Press, 1994; The History of the Greek and Roman Theater.
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1961; Simon Theodore of Mopsuestia (c. 350–428) Ecclesiastical
Erika. The Ancient Theatre. Translated by C. E. writer, biblical exegete, theologian, and bishop of Mopsuestia
Vafopoulou-Richardson. London: Methuen, 1982; Vince, B o rn in Antioch, he studied at the renowned school of
Ronald W. Ancient and Medieval Theatre: A Historiographi- rhetoric in the city under the pagan orator Libanius.
cal Handbook. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1984; While there, he met and became a friend of St. John
Wiles, David. The Masks of Menander: Sign and Meaning in Chrysostom and Maximus, the future bishop of Seleucia.
Greek and Roman Performance. Cambridge, U.K.: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1991.

Themistius (c. 317–388 or 389 C.E.) Philosopher of the
late fourth century, writer, orator, educator, and political
adviser

A round 369, influenced by the example of Chrysostom, TheodosiusI
 533
Theodore entered the school run by Diodore (Diodorus),
later bishop of Tarsus, and became an ascetic. Ordained Theodoret was an accomplished writer, although few
sometime between 383 and 386, he left Antioch around of his works are extant. Notable among his compositions
392 to join Diodore in Tarsus and was named bishop of were a collection of heretical fables dealing with Arian-
Mopsuestia that same year, probably through Diodore’s ism, Nestorianism, and Eutychianism; a church history
influence. He remained bishop until his death. During the from 323 to 428; a history of clerics, covering the lives of
controversy involving Chrysostom’s dispute with Empress the monks; and the important apologetic, Cure for the
Eudoxia at Constantinople, he stood by his friend. Pagan State of Mind, a carefully composed defense of
Christianity, with direct comparisons between Christian
While friendly to the Pelagians and perhaps influ- and pagan thinking.
enced by them, he accepted the condemnation of
Pelagianism and was largely considered by his contempo- Theodorus, Flavius Mallius (fl. late fourth century
raries to be an adherent of orthodoxy. Theodore was the C.E.) Government official
author of a vast body of works, including exegetical com- His life and career were preserved by Claudian, the pagan
mentaries (on the Old and New Testaments) and theolog- panegyricist. Theodorus began as an advocate (ADVOCA-
ical treatises such as De Incarnatione (15 books, written TUS) but was appointed a governor (377), MAGISTER
in Antioch c. 382–392), on the Incarnation; De Sacramen- MEMORIAE (379), probably comes sacrarum largitionum
tis (one book, now lost), on the sacraments; and De Spir- (380) and then Praetorian prefect of Galliarum under
itu Sancto (two books, now lost), on the Holy Spirit, Gratian in 382. After retiring to his home in Mediolanum
against the Macedonians. His biblical commentaries are (Milan) he became an influential figure in literary and
known for their high critical standard; he applied scien- philosophical circles, including among the Neoplatonists.
tific, historical, and philological methods in marked con- A writer, he authored several books on philosophy, earn-
trast to the allegorical interpretations of Scripture used by ing the respect of St. Augustine, who dedicated to him
members of the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Theo- the De Beata Vita (On the Happy Life), although he came
logically, he proposed that Christ had two natures, divine to regret this action because of his return to politics.
and human, but his terminology was at times ambiguous, From 397 to 399 he held the rank of Praetorian prefect of
was common among Theologius in the era before the Italy, Africa, and ILLYRICUM, through the influence of
Council of Chalcedon (451). His views on the Incarna- STILICHO. Through his initiative, Milan was favored over
tion were subsequently condemned at the Councils of Rome. He was CONSUL in 399.
Ephesus (431) and Constantinople (553). Theodore,
however, had a major influence upon the Nestorians (see Theodosius I (d. 395 C.E.) Emperor of the East from
NESTORIUS), earning the title, with Diodore, patres 379–392 and sole master of the Roman Empire from 394
Nestorii blasphemiae (fathers of the Nestorian blas- to 395
phemy). He was revered by the Nestorians, who called Theodosius was called “the Great” because of his ardent,
him the Interpreter and looked upon him as one of their although often cruel CHRISTIANITY. Like his father, the
most important sources for doctrine. The rediscovery of highly successful Count THEODOSIUS, the emperor was a
many of Theodore’s works in modern times has forced a Spaniard, born at Cauca. While his father emerged as one
careful reappraisal of the often harsh criticism of his of the foremost generals of the time, Theodosius followed
views by historians and contemporary theologians. him into the army, eventually serving as a staff member
for the count himself (c. 368). Around 373 or 374, he
Theodoret (c. 393–466 C.E.) Bishop of Cyrrhus and an was made governor of Moesia Prima, also called Moesia
admirer and defender of Nestorius Superior, defeating the SARMATIANS along the Danube. His
From Antioch, Theodoret entered a monastery sometime career was seemingly terminated in 375, when his father
around 415 or 416 after giving away his possessions. was executed by the imperial government for treason.
Consecrated against his will as bishop of Cyrrhus in 423,
he found himself embroiled in the bitter dispute between Having retired to his estates in Hispania, Theodosius
Nestorius, patriarch of CONSTANTINOPLE, and CYRIL, patri- was suddenly called back to duty in 378 by Emperor GRA-
arch of Alexandria, over matters of doctrine. Despite the TIAN, in the wake of the disaster at the battle of ADRI-
Council of Ephesus in 431, Theodoret continued to sup- ANOPLE, in which Emperor VALENS was killed. He was
port Nestorius against Cyril and his successor Dioscorus. given the Danubian frontier as his theater of operations,
He was deposed and anathematized in 449 by the Coun- launching such vengeful campaigns against the GOTHS
cil of Ephesus, which received the name Latrocinium or that he was made Eastern emperor by Gratian at Sirmium
“Bandit Council.” Exiled, he was summoned to Chal- on January 19, 379.
cedon in 451 and compelled to accept the condemnation
of Nestorius. Years of war followed, but by 382 the emperor came to
the conclusion that a total victory was impossible
and negotiated an agreement with the Goths, which
allowed the tribes to settle on land in Thrace and to receive

534 TheodosiusI
 I left the Western provinces in 391, he placed the MAGIS-
imperial subsidies. In return, the barbarians promised to TER MILITUM, ARBOGAST, as caretaker of the imperial
supply contingents for the armies and to maintain loyalty administration of VALENTINIAN II. The following year
to the emperors. MARCUS AURELIUS had tried the same Valentinian died, and Arbogast elevated a former school-
thing in the past, but Theodosius gave the barbarians vast teacher, Eugenius, to the throne. War began once more,
territories, which proved in time to be dangerous to impe- ending in 394 with the battle of FRIGIDUS. Theodosius
rial stability, but it also enlisted the Visigoths. won the struggle, achieving unification of both imperial
domains. Such unity was shortlived, for Theodosius
In 383 Gratian was murdered by the usurper from died at Mediolanum (Milan) in January of 395. Theodo-
BRITANNIA, the Spaniard, Magnus MAXIMUS. When Max- sius was succeeded by his two sons, Arcadius and Hono-
imus occupied Gaul, he received recognition from Theo- rius. Although his reign had been characterized by civil
dosius, who may have preferred a fellow countryman to war and humiliating settlements with the Goths, his last-
Gratian. The usurper invaded Italy in 387 and spurned ing achievement was the creation of a dynasty through
Theodosius’s gesture. Theodosius organized an army of his two empresses, Aelia Flavia Flaccilla and Galla. His
barbarian units and headed west, routing Maximus and children were Arcadius, Honorius, and Aelia Galla
beheading him at Aquileia. In his reorganization of the Placidia.
West, he transferred large parts of MACEDONIA and Moesia
Superior to the Eastern Empire, placing them under the Theodosius II (401–450 C.E.) Emperor of the East from
jurisdiction of the newly created prefecture of ILLYRICUM. 408 to 450 and the longest reigning ruler in the history of
This territory subsequently became a point of contention the Roman Empire
between the empires. Theodosius headed a government that epitomized the dif-
ference between the sound East and the increasingly
While in the West, Theodosius fell under the influ- chaotic and doomed West. Also, backed by the army and
ence of AMBROSE, bishop of Milan. The emperor had a fine administration he was proof of the degree to which
always been devoutly Christian, persecuting eagerly all Christianity had permeated the sociopolitical structure of
heretics and reversing the Arian favor shown by Valens. imperial Rome.
This policy of enforced Christianization culminated in
391 with the closure of pagan temples. In large measure Theodosius was the son of Emperor Arcadius and
his views were reinforced by Ambrose. Such was the posi- Aelia Eudoxia and was thus the grandson of THEODOSIUS
tion of Ambrose that in 390 he excommunicated Theodo- I. Born at CONSTANTINOPLE, he was Arcadius’s only male
sius for massacring 7,000 people in Thessalonica for civil heir, succeeding to the throne in 408. He had already
disorder—until the emperor did public penance. been raised to the rank of Augustus, and his claims were
cemented by Arcadius’s naming of YAZDAGIRD I, the king
Another episode in the West ended in complete tri- of Persia, as his guardian. The early years of his reign
umph for Theodosius but at a terrible price. When he were remarkably smooth, mainly because of the efforts of
the Praetorian Prefect ANTHEMIUS. This gifted and loyal
Emperor Theodosius I (Hulton/Getty Archive) regent improved the empire from 404–414. The grain
supply of Constantinople was reorganized, the defenses
of the city were strengthened, and the Walls of
Anthemius, or the Walls of Theodosius, finished in 313.
His services were terminated in 414 by Theodosius’s sis-
ter, Aelia PULCHERIA, who, though only two years his
senior, assumed the title of Augusta as well as near-total
control of the state.

Pulcheria became the main influence in the life of the
young emperor, supervising his education, indoctrination
into Christianity, and even his marriage to Aelia Eudocia
in 421. By 416, Theodosius was ready to take up the bur-
dens of office, but the mark of Pulcheria was irrevocable.
Theodosius preferred matters of the intellect, especially
religion and literature. As a result, Constantinople blos-
somed with a university boasting departments in Greek,
Latin, philosophy, and law. An interest in legal matters
culminated with the monumental code of Theodosius
(Codex Theodosianus), completed in 438 with the coop-
eration of VALENTINIAN III. In 16 books the decrees and
enactments of the previous years were collected and codi-

fied, preserving forever the nature of Roman law in the Thessalonica 535
fifth century. The codes served as the basis for the equally
important Code of Justinian. 375. Survived by his wife Thermantia and his son, he
made it possible for his family to lay claim to the throne
Theodosius’s preference for the less bloody aspects of in 379.
rule, combined with an intensely devout nature and a
pleasant demeanor, never changed. As he grew older, he Theon of Smyrna (fl. second century C.E.) Mathemati-
paid even less attention to the murderous aspects of his cian
office. Fortunately, he was surrounded by competent offi- From Smyrna, authored an introduction an introduction
cials, allowing the administration to continue. Internal to the field, in the tradition of the Peripatetic school. He
feuds did flourish, naturally. The eunuch Chrysaphius was overshadowed by his great contemporary, Claudius
ZSTOMMAS replaced Pulcheria in the mid-440s as the most PTOLEMY.
powerful adviser at court. Just before Theodosius died
the eunuch fell, mainly through the efforts of Pulcheria See also MATHEMATICS.
and the Eastern generals. Relations between the capitals
of East and West were repaired with the placing of Valen- Theophanes of Mytilene (nicknamed Gnaeus Pom-
tinian III on the throne of the Western Empire in 425. peius) (d. after 44 B.C.E.) Historian
Not only did Theodosius travel to Ravenna to crown Theophanes was one of the closest friends and advisers of
Valentinian, but in 437 he had his daughter, Licinia POMPEY THE GREAT. From Mytilene on Lesbos, he stayed
Eudoxia, marry Valentinian as well. at the side of Pompey right up until the triumvir’s depar-
ture for Egypt after Pharsalus. As a writer, Theophanes
In foreign policy, Theodosius was highly successful distinguished himself as the leading panegyrist in the
in some areas and a failure in others. Around 422 he cause of his patron, composing a history of Pompey’s
made a lasting peace with the Persian Empire that campaigns in the East.
brought tranquility to the often war-ravaged Eastern
provinces. The treaty remained in effect for over a cen- Theophilus (1) (d. c. 412 C.E.) Bishop of Alexandria
tury and was a contributing factor to the military and from 385 to 412
political vitality of Constantinople. While aid was sent to One of the most violent anti-pagans in the Church,
the West against ALARIC and the Visigoths, the East was Theophilus also worked tirelessly to improve his own
faced with its own crisis, the Huns. Chrysaphius Zstom- religio-political position. As head of the Christians in
mas nearly bankrupted the treasury by paying expensive Egypt, he suppressed ruthlessly the pagans, destroying
subsidies to the Hunnic armies, a blackmail that ended the Serapeum in 391. Originally a supporter of Ori-
with his fall. Despite the efforts of two MAGISTER genism, he turned against it, using his campaign against
MILITUMS, ARDABURIUS and ASPAR, much of the Danube the sect to battle the see of CONSTANTINOPLE and St. JOHN
was ravaged, and the question of what to do about the CHRYSOSTOM for the supremacy of the Eastern Church. In
barbarians troubled the palace. A solution was not found 403 he manipulated the Council of Constantinople to
in the time of Theodosius, for he died on July 28, 450, condemn Chrysostom. His nephew was his successor, the
after falling from a horse just outside of the city. He was equally severe CYRIL.
succeeded immediately by Marcian.
Theophilus (2) (fl. second century C.E.) Bishop of Anti-
Theodosius, Flavius (Count Theodosius) (d. 375 och and Christian apologist
C.E.) Formidable general in the late part of the fourth Theophilus was a distinguished theologian, writing
century numerous treatises on Christian doctrine. In these he
Theodosius was the founder of the House of Theodosius expressed the superiority of the creed over paganism. He
through his son, THEODOSIUS I, the Great. A Spaniard, he was important in his development of the nature of God
was serving as a comes rei militari in the West in 368–369, and the Trinity. Little of his output has survived.
when Jovinus was recalled from Britain and he was sent
to the isles as his replacement. In a campaign lauded by Thessalonica Also called Therma, Saloniki, Thessa-
the historian Ammianus Marcellinus, the count restored lonika, and Salonica; an important city in MACEDONIA at
Roman supremacy in Britain. For his victory, VALENTINIAN the head of the Gulf of Therme, south of Pella and on the
I promoted him to MAGISTER EQUITUM in 369, again economically vital Via Egnatia. Known originally as
replacing Jovinus. Years of war followed as Theodosius Therma, the site was old but of little consequence, even
served as Valentinian’s chief general. He defeated the during the glory years of Athens. Later, possessed by the
Alani, the Alamanni, and the SARMATIANS. In 373 he was Macedonians, the city was developed by King Cassander
dispatched to Africa to quell a local uprising led by Fir- (c. 315 B.C.E.) and named after the sister of Alexander the
mus (see GILDO). Perhaps because of his political influ- Great. It grew in size until occupied by the Romans and
ence and potential for meddling in the succession, he was made the capital of the province of Macedonia (c. 148
executed under mysterious circumstances at Carthage in B.C.E).

536 Thessaly While 32 separate usurpers were actually mentioned,
only nine were known to exist at the time of Gallienus;
Thessalonica was administered by Cicero for a time the others were either in different reigns or never existed
and served throughout the CIVIL WAR between POMPEY at all. Thus, the entire Thirty Tyrants is more than ques-
THE GREAT and Julius CAESAR as the headquarters for the tionable as a historical source.
SENATE, as Rome was in Caesar’s hands. Its loyalty to
Pompey did not cause a loss of status upon the founda- Those usurpers verified either through coinage or
tion of the empire. Not only did the governor have his sources, were, in the order of coverage in the Historia:
residence there but also a high degree of independence Cyriades, Postumus, Lollianus (Laelianus), VICTORINUS,
was retained. A local government, headed by the so- Mariius, Ingenuus, Regalianus, Aureolus, Macrianus,
called politarchs, was allowed from the time of Augustus Macrianus the Younger, Quietus, Odaenath, Maeonius,
(ruled 27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.). Ballista, VALENS, Valens the Elder, Aemilianus, Tetricus the
Elder, Tetricus the Younger, ZENOBIA, Victoria, and Titus.
The honor of being made a colonia was not given The suspect usurpers were: Postumus the Younger, Victor-
until the third century C.E., but Roman building was inus the Younger, Herodes, Piso, Saturninus, Trebellianus,
extensive from the second century until the early fourth, Herennianus, Timolaus, Celsus, and Censorinus. Sulpicia
when Hellenic designs and fortifications were changed to D ryantilla, the wife of Regalianus, can be added to the list,
meet Roman architectural needs. When Thessalonica was for she appeared prominently on COINAGE.
chosen as the capital for the territory given to Empero r
GALERIUS as part of the TETRARCHY, Galerius constructed a Thrace The large territory south of the DANUBE, north
large palace to the east of the city and a circus just to the of the Aegean, west of the BLACK SEA and east of MACEDO-
south of the Via Egnatia. To the north was Galerius’s mau- NIA. Thrace was one of Rome’s important Danubian
soleum, finished sometime before 311. It was ironic that provinces, protecting the frontier and also securing the
Thessalonica, the base for Galerius’s personal campaign lines of communication from Macedonia, via Byzantium,
against Christianity, should in turn serve as an orthodox to Bithynia and Asia Minor. Late in being annexed, the
Christian center. St. Paul visited the city in 50 or 51, province was of even greater value to the empire after the
establishing the second Christian community in Europe. fourth century C.E. because of the presence of CON-
Thessalonica later was a bishopric and, by the late fourt h STANTINOPLE, the Eastern capital, on the Bosporus.
or fifth century, was closely connected to the papacy.
Thrace was an ancient land, still considered in the
Thessaly In Latin, Thessalia; the largest territory in time of Herodotus to be a wild and cruel place. Its inha-
Greece, it encompassed the flatlands to the east of EPIRUS bitants, a conglomeration of tribes of mainly Indo-
and just south of MACEDONIA. Thessaly was supposedly European stock, were savage, warlike, and brave.
founded by descendants of Hercules, who became kings Although independent, they developed certain civilized
of the wild tribes in the region but were later deposed, habits and produced numerous Greek poets. Greek colo-
their families emerging instead as the ruling nobility. In nization brought Hellenic influence but the two cultures
time, the Thessalians joined together to form separate were never very compatible. A Thracian kingdom was
confederations under individual councils, although oli- founded in the fifth century B.C.E., remaining until the
garchical powers were retained by the nobles. They time of Philip of Macedon and Alexander the Great.
served Philip of Macedonia and Alexander the Great and Macedonia was henceforth the master of Thrace until 168
fell under Roman domination after the battle of Cynos- B.C.E. and the battle of Pydna, when the Romans defeated
cephalae in 197 B.C.E. the Macedonians. Thrace, however, was left under the
administrative control of Macedonia.
For administrative purposes, the Romans decided to
utilize the sense of independence that was a trademark of The importance of this pre-imperial history was in
the Thessalians. Attached for practical and historical pur- the ties between the Thracians and the Macedonians, a
poses to Macedonia, Thessaly was allowed its own local connection that had far-reaching consequences. In the
league and a Koinon, a version of the concilium. Under the revolt of Macedonia in 149 B.C.E., the Thracians were a
reorganization of DIOCLETIAN, Thessaly was made an major support to the rebels. It was not surprising that,
actual province, attached to the diocese of MOESIA. after Rome seized Macedonia, it subjected Thrace to
attack, often in response to raids and incursions. With
See also ACHAEA. the aim of stabilizing the region, a series of kings was
established by the Romans, preferably loyal clients to
Thirty Tyrants Name given in the Historia Augusta Rome.
(see SCRIPTORES HISTORIAE AUGUSTAE) to a group of
usurpers in the middle of the third century C.E. Chosen Rhescuporis was the first of the Thracian monarchs.
to parallel the famous tyrants of Athens, the writings on He was not a friend to Caesar or his successor Octavian
the lists of 30 tyrants were supposedly composed by Tre- (AUGUSTUS), but aided POMPEY THE GREAT and Cassius
bellius Pollio. They were highly dubious and partly ficti- and Brutus. Much of the country’s future was shaped sub-
tious, designed to discredit the regime of Gallienus. sequently by the dynast RHOEMETALCES I, who wisely

sided with Octavian against Antony at Actium. With the Thrasyllus 537
founding of the Roman Empire, Rhoemetalces was
allowed to keep his throne, largely with the help of a of the GOTHS. King Kniva of the Goths earned lasting noto-
Roman army, eventually receiving all of Thrace after riety by campaigning in Thrace and then destroying
being expelled briefly in 11 B.C.E. by the Bessi. Rhoemet- Emperor Decius at Abrittus in 251. Over a century later, in
alces lived until 12 C.E. when, upon his death, the realm 378, Emperor VALENS was annihilated at ADRIANOPLE in
was partitioned between his son COTYS of Thrace and his s o u t h e rnThrace, again at the hands of the Goths.
brother RHESCUPORIS.
With the reforms of Emperor DIOCLETIAN in the late
Intrigues characterized the last years of the monarchy. third century and the subsequent Constantinian shift of
In 19, Rhescuporis attacked and killed Cotys. TIBERIUS imperial might to Constantinople, Thrace was not over-
removed him, but again divided Thrace, this time between looked. Further cities were constructed and a diocese of
the sons of Rhescuporis—Rhoemetalces and Cotys. Rhes- Thrace was formed, comprising the province of Moesia
cuporis was taken to Rome, accused by Cotys’s widow, Inferior, Scythia, Thracia, Rhodope, Haemimontus, and
Antonia Tryphaena, condemned, exiled, and later put to Europa. Such bureaucratic steps, while improving life to
death. One son of Cotys, Rhoemetalces III, was granted some degree, did nothing to prevent the continual rav-
his father’s domain in 39 by Emperor GAIUS CALIGULA. It is aging of Thrace by the barbarians in the fourth and fifth
possible that he was granted all of Thrace, for in 46 a King centuries.
Rhoemetalces was murdered by his wife. CLAUDIUS, having
had enough of the Thracians, annexed the country and Thrasea Paetus, Publius Clodius (d. 66 C.E.) Most
the province of Thrace was born . famous Stoic dissenter during the reign of Nero (54–68 C.E.)
From Patavium (Padua), he studied philosophy before
Opposition to provincialization was acute, but the taking up his seat in the SENATE. Thrasea Paetus subse-
Roman administration was hampered more by the quently acted as the conscience of the state, opposing
absence of urbanization. A procurator of the Equestrian many of Nero’s more abusive pieces of legislation but also
(EQUITES) class was at first appointed but TRAJAN changed receiving censure from his fellow Stoics for ignoring mat-
this to a Praetorian legate who was aided by procurators. ters of supreme importance in favor of lesser ones. His
The central government was based in Perinthus. Because reputation for stubborn moral opposition was such that
of the lack of cities, a system was adopted similar to TACITUS (1), his greatest admirer, called him “virtue
the one in Cappadocia. Thrace was divided into seve- itself.” Thrasea married Arria the Younger, daughter of
ral strategiai, or local districts, headed by a strategos the noted Arria the Elder. His idol was the Republican
named by the governor. Tribes were answerable through orator Cato Uticensis, whom he honored with a biogra-
their chief, called a phylarch, from phyle, the name of the phy, and he was a close friend of Persius, a relative of
tribal unit. Arria. Associates also included the future Emperor VES-
PASIAN and Demetrius the Cynic.
The Romans focused on the creation of cities and
colonies. Under Claudius and VESPASIAN early colonization Consul around 56 C.E., Thrasea was at first men-
took place at Apri, Deultum, and Philippopolis, the latter tioned by the historian Tacitus as disliking a motion that
by veterans. Through Trajan’s imperial policy more colo- would have given the Syracusans more facilities for gladi-
nies were founded, and the gradual flowering of Thrace’s ators. In 59, he walked out of the Curia when it was pro-
urban life commenced. Such cities as Plotinopolis, Marcia- posed to make AGRIPPINA’s birthday a day full of evil
nopolis, Traianopolis were very successful but also tended omen, earning the dislike of Nero, who ensured that he
to inculcate the Thracians with Grecian lifestyles rather was not among the delegates sent to offer senatorial con-
than Latin. Where the native tongue was not spoken, dolences upon the death of the imperial daughter in 63.
Greek was preferred; in the villages, even Greek was little By 66, Thrasea had neglected to attend the Juvenalia and
known. Rome’s greatest need was to create a province that had been absent on purpose when divine honors were
was stable enough and urban enough to support the given to Empress Popaea. His fate was sealed. Capito
chain-link system of the Danubian frontier. In this Rome Cossutianus charged him with treason. Condemned by
succeeded, but beyond this, hopes were limited. Nero, Thrasea killed himself by opening his veins in a
scene recorded with suitable emotion and drama.
Thrace was one of the provinces that paid for itself,
largely through the flesh and blood of its inhabitants. Long Thrasyllus (d. 36 C.E.) Private astrologer of Emperor
accustomed to a martial lifestyle, the Thracians made Tiberius
excellent soldiers, especially in the auxilia of the legions. Thrasyllus became attached to the household of Tiberius
Economic life was a combination of mining, agriculture, c. 4 C.E., while that eventual emperor was on Rhodes. As
and some trade along the Danube and the Black Sea. Tiberius himself was fascinated by the stars, he allowed
Growth and financial expansion were always hindered by Thrasyllus to become an intimate, regretting this deci-
the presence of the destabilizing barbarians just beyond sion eventually. The astrologer would have been thrown
the frontier. This was most true in the third century C.E., to his death from a rocky cliff on the island had he not
when the province suffered terrible privations at the hands

538 Thugga A bridge across the Tiber (Courtesy Fr. Felix Just, S.J.)

supposedly predicted that he felt himself to be in danger ficult to maintain, and Claudius, needing a radical solu-
and that the ship then sailing into the harbor of Rhodes tion, built an artificial mouth.
brought good news. Right on both counts, Thrasyllus
accompanied his patron to Rome on the same ship that Politically the Tiber divided two sections of Italia,
had informed Tiberius of the deaths of Gaius and Lucius Etruria to the east and Latium to the west. The Tiber was
Caesar. under the patronage of the divine personification of the
river, and a Tiber festival was held every May 14. Nor-
For the rest of his life he was a constant companion mally, a bundle of rushes shaped to resemble a man, the
of Tiberius, even in 14, at the side of Augustus in his final argii, was thrown into the Tiber to appease the divine
days. After Tiberius became emperor, the ruler consulted nature.
him every day. Aside from his optimistic predictions, the
astrologer used his influence to prevent executions by Tiberianus (fl. fourth century C.E.) Poet and probable
declaring that Tiberius need not be troubled with them as government official in the latter part of the reign of Constan-
the emperor had many years to live and need not be con- tine the Great
cerned with killing them immediately. Thrasyllus died Possibly holding posts in AFRICA and in one of the Span-
one year before Tiberius, in 36. His son was the equally ish provinces, Tiberianus was called by Jerome vir diser-
successful astrologer, BALBILLUS. tus (well-spoken man) in his Chronicles. He served as
Praetorian prefect of Gallia in 335. Little of Tiberianus’s
Thugga (Dougga) Old town at the center of the writings has survived, beyond a few poems. He composed
province of AFRICA, to the southeast of Bulla Regia and 28 hexameters on the evils of gold and a poem of praise
southwest of Utica and Carthage. Thugga, once a capital to the Supreme Being, displaying Platonic and Orphic
for a smaller Numidian kingdom, later developed into influences. Possibly to his pen can be ascribed a work on
one of the more beautiful Roman communities in Africa. a bird and the famous Pervigilium Veneris.
What made the site so interesting was its layout, a hill
town with an impressive capital at the summit. Tiberias City on the western shore of the Sea of
GALILEE. It was built during the reign of TIBERIUS (14–37
Thysdrus (El Djem) Small town in Roman AFRICA, C.E.) by HEROD ANTIPAS, in gratitude to the emperor for his
found to the south of Thapsus on the Roman roads lead- help politically. In 43 C.E., the city was the scene of a brief
ing away from the coastal line of communications and meeting between Herod Agrippa I and the client kings of
running from Carthage to Tripolitania. The amphitheater the nearby provinces, including Herod of Chalcis, Anti-
there, constructed during the governorship of the future ochus IV of Commagene, Cotys of Armenia Minor, Po-
Emperor GORDIAN I (c. 238 C.E.), was one of the largest in lemo of Pontus, and Sampsigeramus, king of Emesa.
Africa. Viewed by the governor of Syria, Vibius Marsus, as poten-
tially conspirational, the conference was term i n a t e d .
Tiber The chief river of Italy. Known by many other
names, including Tibris, Tybris, Amnis Tiberinus, and There was a strong anti-Roman movement in
Thyber, the river was, according to legend, originally Tiberias. By 66 C.E. and the outbreak of the Jewish Rebel-
called the Albula but its name was changed to Tiber after lion, the city was one of the main supporters in Galilee of
Tiberinus, king of Alba, was drowned in its swift cur- JOHN OF GISCHALA. Other factions included followers of
rent. Emerging from springs in the Apennines near Ar-
retium, the Tiber flows south for over 100 miles to the
Nar (Narnia); from then on it is a large, fast but naviga-
ble waterway. Continuing south for about 70 miles it
connects with the Anio (Te v e rone), just above Rome,
although there are many other tributaries along the
entire route.

The Tiber was a dangerous river for navigational pur-
poses and also noted for its flooding and the silt that
passed down its length. After the rains, the Tiber over-
flowed, usually into the lower stretches of Rome. Most
attempts to prevent such disasters, even by Augustus,
were unsuccessful. Because of the silt that turned the
water a muddy yellowish color, the river was nicknamed
flavus Tiberis (yellow Tiber). This silt accumulated at the
mouth of the river as it poured into the Tyrrhenian Sea
just past OSTIA. Silt made the ports there increasingly dif-

JUSTUS, the political and later literary rival of Galilee’s Tiberius 539
Jewish head, JOSEPHUS, and a small but vocal pro-Roman
party. Thus by the time VESPASIAN was launching his cam- years), and apparently chosen as the heir to the throne.
paign in Palestine, Tiberias was divided, opening its gates That Augustus had qualms about him was obvious from
in late 67 to the Romans. the aging emperor’s search for anyone else who might be
suitable, and by the adoption of Agrippa Postumus, the
Tiberius (Tiberius Claudius Nero) (42 B.C.E.–37 surviving brother of Gaius and Lucius.
C.E.) Emperor of Rome from 14–37 C.E.
Thanks to the writings of TACITUS (1), SUETONIUS, and The revolt in Germania (4–6 C.E.) and the major
others, the reign of Tiberius was heavily documented. uprising in Pannonia (6–9) demanded Tiberius’s pres-
Tiberius suffered from the considerable burden of suc- ence. When they had been suppressed, word arrived that
ceeding to the principate after AUGUSTUS. It would appear the legate Quinctilius VARUS had been killed with his
that whatever good qualities he possessed were blotted three legions, massacred in the TEUTOBURG FOREST.
out eventually by the deterioration of his regime in its Tiberius stabilized the Rhine region and then went back
later years and by his desire to live away from the Rome to Rome, where the task of running the government fell
that he hated. to him. As Agrippa Postumus was exiled to Planasia,
Tiberius was the only logical choice for emperor when
Tiberius was a member of the family of the Claudi- Augustus died in 14, as he held the IMPERIUM PROCON-
ans, the son of LIVIA Drusilla and TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS SULARE.
NERO, the ardent Republican. He was born on November
16, 42 B.C.E., probably on the Palatine Hill in Rome. Most With the knowledge that Augustus had cared little
of his early childhood was difficult because his family for him, Tiberius began his own imperial era with disas-
had to flee Italy as a result of his father’s failed revolt trous debates in the SENATE as to the extent and nature of
against Octavian (AUGUSTUS) in 40. They returned in 39, his powers. The legions in Pannonia and Germania
per the terms of the treaty of Misenum, and Octavian fell revolted for better pay and improved conditions of ser-
in love with Livia. Tiberius’s parents thus divorced, and vice. Drusus, Tiberius’s son, was sent to Pannonia while
the rest of his life was entwined in the fortunes of his GERMANICUS, son of Drusus the Elder and a respected fig-
stepfather. Tiberius did deliver the funeral oration for his ure in the empire, was dispatched to the Rhine. The
natural father in 33. unrest was eventually ended, and Germanicus launched a
retributive campaign against the Germans. While these
He received a superb education as well as every operations were more successful from the perspective of
opportunity to embrace the political lifestyle. A marriage propaganda than actual military gain, Tiberius gave Ger-
was arranged with Vipsania AGRIPPINA, daughter of Mar- manicus, whom he had adopted, a triumph. This celebra-
cus AGRIPPA, and Augustus began to entrust various mili- tion made tensions in the palace more severe, as the mob
tary commands to him. In 20 B.C.E., he went to the East, in Rome preferred Germanicus to the somber emperor.
where he restored Tigranes to the American throne and The popularity of Germanicus probably had something to
received back the standards of Crassus that had been cap- do with his being given the IMPERIUM MAIUS and sent to
tured at Carrhae in 53. By 12 B.C.E., he was a general of the East in 17.
Rome in PANNONIA, proving himself extremely able in
war. Pannonia was his posting from 12–9 B.C.E., and he The attempt to remove Germanicus from the public
served in Germania from 9–7 B.C.E. Then, various events eye backfired badly, for in 19 he died suddenly in Anti-
brought him great loss and embarrassment. In 9 B.C.E, his och, after quarreling with the governor of Syria, Gnaeus
beloved brother, DRUSUS (1) the Elder, died from an Calpurnius PISO. A hot issue erupted as Piso and his wife
injury while on campaign in Germania. Tiberius walked Plancina were suspected of poisoning Germanicus. AGRIP-
in front of the body all the way back to Rome. Also, PINA THE ELDER, the vocal widow, used the entire affair to
Augustus seemed to be choosing someone else as heir. hurl accusations at Tiberius and at his mother, Empress
Despite giving Tiberius the tribunician power, the Livia. Ultimately Tiberius sacrificed his long-time sup-
emperor promoted his grandsons Gaius and Lucius. By 6 porter Piso but forever after hated the family of Germani-
B.C.E. Tiberius found this so unbearable that he fled cus, especially Agrippina the Elder.
Rome for his private retreat at Rhodes. Another misfor-
tune befell him in 12 B.C.E., when Augustus instructed As emperor, Tiberius proved faithful to his deified
him to divorce Agrippina and to marry his daughter predecessor, declaring that the acts of Augustus were law.
JULIA. Tiberius loved Agrippina desperately, and his rela- He certainly furthered the authority and the supremacy of
tionship with Julia deteriorated rapidly, contributing to the imperial house, but only after it became painfully
his dark moods. Tragedies struck the imperial family in clear that the Senate was incapable of wielding any true
the next few years as Gaius and Lucius both died. Sum- privileges or rights given to it. His mistrust of the sena-
moned back to Rome in 4 C.E., Tiberius was adopted by tors, coupled with his search for a loyal aide, led him into
Augustus, granted tribunician power once more (for 10 the arms of SEJANUS, the PREFECT OF THE PRAETORIAN
GUARD. Even during the rise and fall of this minister,
Tiberius remained devoted to his imperial chores, run-
ning the provinces with a firm but surprisingly effective
hand.

540 Tiberius
Claudius
Nero ing that history would judge him by comparison with his
successor, Tiberius decided that Gaius Caligula, an obvi-
A silver denarius of Tiberius, struck between 16 and 37 C.E. at ous lunatic, would be perfect, inflicting at the same time
Lugdunum (Courtesy Historical Coins, Inc.) lasting horrors upon the Romans. He thus enjoyed saying:
“I am nursing a viper for the Roman people!”
Much of his trouble stemmed from his inability to
communicate effectively. Almost an unwilling ruler and As it turned out, Caligula was the only survivor of
difficult to understand, it was little wonder that he had the entire reign who was available for the throne. One by
no patience with the flattering sycophants of Rome. His one all other claimants died or were murdered. Germani-
reign began well in terms of justice and power, for he cus died in 19, Drusus was probably poisoned by Sejanus
treated the Senate with respect and refused to allow any in 23, and Germanicus’s sons Drusus and Nero Caesar,
case of treason (maiestas). When one man was charged the brothers of Caligula, were also arrested and done
with impiety against the gods, he replied that the gods away with. Nero was exiled and died (like his mother) on
must defend their own good name. Moderation declined a distant rock, and Drusus endured many years of misery
as the years passed and as the weight of office increased. in a Roman dungeon before succumbing. Sejanus tried to
Informers (DELATORES) invaded the legal system, as accu- maneuver himself into the inheritance but was lured to
sations against persons high and low initiated a wave of his doom in 31 in a plot masterminded by Tiberius, who
treason trials and deaths. The main instigator of this pol- was probably awakened to the threat by the Lady Anto-
icy was Sejanus. Having worked his way into the nia. That left only Gaius and his own grandson, Tiberius
emperor’s trust, he convinced Tiberius that there were Gemellus. In his will he named both as heirs. Tiberius
plots everywhere, using the resulting fear to widen his Gemellus did not survive long.
own influence. The prefectship of the Guard became a
key administrative office, and the Guard was moved into The last years of Tiberius, from 31 until 37, were
the CASTRA PRAETORIA, a barracks in Rome. Tiberius put characterized by reigns of terror, as anyone associated
absolute faith in Sejanus, calling him his friend and assis- with Sejanus or anyone guilty of often imaginary crimes
tant; because of him, in 26, he could leave Rome once was executed. He died on March 16, 37, at the Villa of
and for all, taking up residence on Capri at the Villa Lucullus in Misenum. The cause of death was probably
Jovis. natural, although some reported that he was smothered
to death under a pillow by the Prefect Macro, on the
Tiberius was happy to leave Livia behind as well. She orders of Gaius Caligula. His tyrannies, especially at the
had guided his path to the throne, using every means, close of his reign, were closely scrutinized by Tacitus,
including murder to some, to secure his accession. He who viewed him with the jaundiced eye of the age of
hated her for it, and her constant interf e rence in his rule DOMITIAN, an emperor who studied Tiberius for clues on
made his leaving all the more desirable. Upon her death in how to rule. The historian Dio summed him up by saying
29 he was intent that the Senate should give her as few that he possessed many virtues and many vices.
honors as possible; promising to build her arch himself,
he never did it. Capri also allowed Tiberius to indulge Suggested Readings: Baker, G. P. Tiberius Caesar. New
himself, away from the prying eyes of the Romans. A man York: Barnes & Noble, 1967; Jonson, Ben. Sejanus His
with peculiar tastes, he has been portrayed as an old, dirty, Fall. New York: Hill and Wang, 1969; Levick, Barbara.
p e rv e rteddebaucher by many, a view perhaps exaggerated. Tiberius the Politician. London: Thames and Hudson,
Nevertheless, he shared some of his adventures in pornog- 1976; Marañón, Gregorio. Tiberius; a Study in Resentment.
raphy with GAIUS CALIGULA, who was like in pursuits and London: Hollis & Carter, 1956; Marsh, Frank Burr. The
appealed to Tiberius’s own bitter sense of posterity. Know- Reign of Tiberius. Cambridge, U.K.: W. Heffer and Sons,
1959; Suetonius. The Twelve Caesars. Translated and with
an introduction by Michael Grant. New York: Penguin,
1979; Tacitus, Cornelius. Empire and Emperors: Selections
from Tacitus’ Annals. Translated by Graham Tingay. New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1983; Velleius Patercu-
lus. The Caesarian and Augustan Narrative. Edited by A. J.
Woodman. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983;
Velleius Paterculus. The Tiberian Narrative. Edited by A.
J. Woodman. New York: Cambridge University Press,
1977.

Tiberius Claudius Nero (d. 33 B.C.E.) Praetor in 42
B.C.E., the first husband of Livia and the father of Emperor
Tiberius and Drusus (1) the Elder

Tiberius Claudius Nero came from a good family, enter- Tigellinus,G
 aius
Ofonius 541
ing the service of Julius CAESAR at the siege of Alexandria.
An ardent Republican, however, he proposed to the SEN- gance. Of obscure but wealthy descent, he apparently suf-
ATE in 44 that Caesar’s assassins be rewarded. In 43 or 42, fered as a result of the civil wars, especially in the land
he married Livia, daughter of the nobleman Marcus seizures and the redistributions of 41. Tibullus became a
Livius Drusus CLAUDIUS, who bore him two sons, client of the political figure Messalla Messallinus, a
Tiberius in 42 and Drusus in 39. An opponent of Octa- patronage that reversed his financial decline. Entering
vian (AUGUSTUS), Tiberius took part in the fighting in Messalla’s literary circle he was soon a friend of HORACE
Italy in 40, raising an unsuccessful slave revolt in CAMPA- and an associate of OVID. He probably accompanied Mes-
NIA to undermine Octavian’s position. Forced to flee the salla on his trip to Asia, falling ill at Corcyra. He may
country, he took his wife and son to Sicily and then to have been part of the retinue of Messalla during his Gallic
Marc ANTONY. According to the terms of the Treaty of proconsulship in 27 as well, recording his patron’s victory
Misenum in 39, he was able to return to Rome. This over the Aquitani. The output of Tibullus centered
proved unfortunate, for Octavian fell in love with Livia. mainly on elegies and panegyrics. There are two elegies
Tiberius soon divorced his wife and was so agreeable to to his mistress Delia and to the homosexual Marathus,
the union that he gave the bride away three months and six on Nemesis—all organized into two books. A
before the birth of Drusus. The butt of many jokes in third book contains earlier poems by Tibullus, as well as
Rome, he nevertheless received from Octavian the right six elegies, supposedly by the pen of the virtually
to raise his sons. He died in 33, his funeral oration deliv- unknown poet Lygdamus, and six more to the woman
ered by the nine-year-old Tiberius, who was to become writer Sulpicia. Thus the collection of poems from the
Augustus’s heir to the throne. circle of Messalla were added to the poet’s authentic
works. He also authored panegyrics to his patron, ending
Tiberius Julius Alexander (fl. first century C.E.) One with an epigram and an elegy.
of the most successful Jews in Roman imperial history
Born in Alexandria to wealthy Jewish parents, Tiberius Tigellinus, Gaius Ofonius (d. 68 C.E.) Prefect of the
was the nephew of PHILO. A fallen-away Jew, Tiberius Praetorian Guard from 62 to 68 and the most infamous ser-
rose far in the ranks of Roman government, becoming a vant of Emperor Nero
member of the Equestrians (EQUITES). Procurator of Although detailed information about him has not sur-
JUDAEA f rom around 46–48 C.E., he helped to extermi- vived, Tigellinus was born to a poor family, working his
nate local dissidents, including the sons of Judas the way into the services of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus
Galilean. Promoted to the staff of General Corbulo in and Marcus Vinicius, probably by having affairs with their
A rmenia in 63, he was made prefect of Egypt in 66, wives, AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER and Livilla, GAIUS CALI-
Emperor NERO apparently relying upon his Jewish back- GULA’s sister. He was exiled to Achaea, where he sold fish
ground and knowledge of the East. This experience was for a time in order to survive. He eventually returned to
soon tested, for ALEXANDRIA was the scene of consider- claim an inheritance from a forged will, successful in the
able unrest in 66. So violent did the rioting become that venture because of Agrippina. Living in Apulia, he then
the prefect called in two legions, and over 50,000 people became a horse trainer, and in this capacity met Nero.
died. Of note was his (extant) edict discussing the
p rovincial government, published under Galba. Tiberius Ingratiating himself with the young emperor,
Julius Alexander was a supporter of VESPASIAN and used Tigellinus was named commander of the VIGILES upon
his position as prefect of Egypt to convince the troops the death of Annaeus Serenus. Thus in 62, when the
there and in the Eastern provinces to support the Flavian Praetorian Prefect Burrus died, Nero turned to Tigellinus
cause. On July 1, 69, he administered to his own troops to be his replacement. Knowing that such a choice
the oath of allegiance for Vespasian. Subsequently he would be opposed, given Tigellinus’s lack of morality
aided TITUS in his campaign against the Jews and was or qualifications, Nero appointed as well the respected
p resent in 70 at the siege of Jerusalem. Unsuccessfully, Faenius RUFUS. True power in the Praetorians rested
he tried to have the Great TEMPLE OF JERUSALEM saved with Tigellinus, who shared in Nero ’s debaucheries.
f rom destruction. Despite this disagreement on policy, he Through the use of informers and agents the prefect
was given command of the Praetorian Guard, the climax spun a web of terror around Rome, exposing treasonous
of his career. activities and destroying the opponents of Nero. His
value to the emperor increased by his ruthless extirpa-
Tibullus, Albius (c. 54–19 B.C.E.) An Elegiac poet of tion of the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY in 65. This investiga-
the Augustan Age tion and subsequent massacre netted as well the other
Tibullus was a follower of the Alexandrine School but p refect, Rufus, who had been a member of the plot.
expressed himself with (as Quintilian wrote) dry ele- Tigellinus was now the second most important figure in
the empire. But even his spies could not prevent whole-
sale discontent in the provinces and in Rome, and in 68
he fell ill. His co-prefect, the quiet but ambitious

542 TigranesI
 heir, Artavasdes. Tigranes was unable to hold the tradi-
tionally factious Armenian court in check and found
Nymphidius SABINUS, assumed most of his duties, and himself deposed. Living in Rome, he was accused in 36 of
Tigellinus distanced himself as much as possible from some crime and put to death by Tiberius. The historian
Nero and past events. TACITUS recorded his demise, but did not include him in
the list of Armenian kings.
When Galba came to the throne late in 68, Tigellinus
was relieved as prefect, while the mob cried for his death. Tigranes V (fl. first century C.E.) King of Armenia from
But Titus VINIUS, an adviser to Galba, protected Tigelli- 60–62 C.E.
nus, repaying him for saving his daughter some years Following the successful operations of General Corbulo
before. OTHO, Galba’s swift successor, sought to appease (2) in Armenia against the deposed monarch TIRIDATES,
the Romans and so ordered Tigellinus to die. Upon NERO decided to return to the previously disastrous
receiving the death sentence at the spas of Sinuessa in system of placing client kings on the Armenian throne.
Latium-Campania, he enjoyed the favors of prostitutes His choice was Tigranes, nephew of TIGRANES IV, great-
and then slit his throat with a razor. The historian TACI- grandson of HEROD the Great and Archelaus of Cappado-
TUS accorded him particularly vicious treatment in both cia. Tigranes V was taken to his city and installed there
his Annals and the Histories. by Corbulo, who left a legionary detachment of 1,000
men at TIGRANOCERTA, with auxiliaries and cavalry. The
Tigranes I (d. c. 56 B.C.E.) “The Great,” king of Armenia new king possessed little influence over his subjects. Per-
from c. 90 to 56 B.C.E. haps driven by desperation to achieve some kind of suc-
Tigranes secured improvements in his country through cess, he launched an attack on the Parthian client state of
personal ambition and an alliance with Mithridates of Adiabene. It is unclear whether Nero or Corbulo gave
Pontus. He helped finish off the Seleucids in SYRIA, approval, but the campaign set off a wider conflict as
assuming mastery over a vast region, from the Euphrates Vologases, king of PARTHIA, invaded Armenia, besieging
to Antioch. His expansionism brought him into conflict Tigranes at his capital. Through the threat of Roman
with Rome, first with Lucullus in 69 and then with POM- countermeasures, the Parthians were convinced to with-
PEY THE GREAT in 66, when he was defeated. Tigranes sub- draw from Armenia. Tigranes had suffered an irretriev-
mitted to Pompey and was allowed to retain his domain able blow and fell from power in 62. Nero had to
as a client to Rome. He died sometime around 56. His recognize the claims of Tiridates.
importance in terms of imperial history was his act of
bringing the Romans to Armenia and hence into conflict Tigranocerta One of the capitals of ARMENIA (with
with PARTHIA. He was also the grandfather of Tigranes III. ARTAXATA); founded by King TIGRANES I to serve as the
center for imperial expansion in the early first century
Tigranes II (d. 6 B.C.E.) King of Armenia B.C.E. It may have been situated just north of Nisibis and
The son of King ARTAVASDES I and ruler from around 20 to east of Edessa in a valley between the mountains of
6 B.C.E., he was captured in 34 when Marc ANTONY over- Masius and Niphates. Because of the position of Tigra-
ran Armenia, he was taken to Rome, where he spent sev- nocerta relative to PARTHIA and MESOPOTAMIA, it was sus-
eral years as a hostage while his brother Artaxes regained ceptible to attack, and it fell to the Roman generals
the throne and ran the country with a cruel and despotic Lucullus in 69 B.C.E. and Corbulo in 60 C.E. That it was
hand. A pro-Roman element in the palace called for both large and powerful was seen in 61–62 C.E., when
AUGUSTUS to send Tigranes back to Armenia as a replace- Vologases unsuccessfully besieged TIGRANES V there. The
ment. In anticipation of the arrival of Tiberius with an city was rebuilt in the late fourth or early fifth century
army in 20 B.C.E., the courtiers murdered Artaxes. C.E. as Martyropolis.
Tigranes was crowned with the royal diadem by TIBERIUS
and remained as ruler until his death, leaving Armenia to Tigris One of the major rivers of the ancient world and,
a chaotic situation with ERATO and TIGRANES III. with its companion to the west, the EUPHRATES, an impor-
tant element in the development of MESOPOTAMIA. The
Tigranes III See ERATO. Tigris, which formed Mesopotamia’s eastern border,
flowed out of ARMENIA into Assyria and then down
Tigranes IV (d. 36 C.E.) King of Armenia through Babylonia until it reached the Persian Gulf. Like
Tigranes reigned c. 6–8; he was probably a grandson of the Euphrates, with which it converges as it nears the
HEROD THE GREAT through Alexander and his wife Gulf, the Tigris was a political dividing line in the Parthian
Glaphyra, daughter of Archelaus, king of CAPPADOCIA. and Persian empires. Numerous cities were situated either
One of Archelaus’s wives was probably connected to the on or near it, including Nisibis, Hatra, Apamea and one of
Armenian royal line, thus qualifying Tigranes, perhaps the Parthian capitals, Ctesiphon. Roman campaigns into
obliquely, for the succession. He was clearly not the first
choice of Emperor Augustus (that had been Gaius Cae-
sar’s Mede, Ariobarzanus), but he had died, as had his

Mesopotamia always took the Tigris into strategic account. Tiridates 543
Thus, when TRAJAN invaded Parthia in 115 C.E., he passed
down the river, captured Ctesiphon and continued marc h- The leading minister in the reign of Emperor GORDIAN III,
ing until he reached the Gulf. Such use of the Tigris was Timesitheus was the foremost administrator in the
meant to define it as the easternmost region of the Roman Roman Empire, whose Equestrian (EQUITES) career had
Empire; such occupation was shortlived, as HADRIAN soon been a series of important provincial postings. He was
reestablished the traditional frontier. The Tigris was part of especially adept at finances, with procuratorships in Gal-
the economy of the East, as caravans stopped along its lia Belgica, Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Germania Inferior,
banks and shipping, to a small degree, could pass north- Bithynia, Pontus, Paphlagonia, Gallia Aquitania, and Gal-
w a rdfor some distance into Babylonia. lia Lugdunensis. Thus, in 241, when Gordian III was
looking for a responsible imperial officer to serve as pre-
time The Roman day was divided into 12 hours of fect of the Guard, the choice was obvious. From the start
light and 12 hours of darkness. By the middle of the sec- Timesitheus proved more than equal to the task, assum-
ond century B.C.E., the Romans understood that the ing the operation of the entire government with Gordian’s
length of daylight varied throughout the year and also support, demonstrated in the emperor’s marriage to his
depended upon latitude. Midnight was counted as the daughter, TRANQUILLINA. Unlike other prefects in similar
sixth hour of the night, and noon the sixth hour of the circumstances, Timesitheus was not ambitious for the
day, with the first hour calculated at the start of sunrise throne. After working to improve the frontier defenses of
and the 12th hour as the hour before sunset. As hours AFRICA, including probably the construction of LIMES, the
were not of a fixed length, varying with seasons, the key prefect began to organize a war with Persia. He served as
measurements were midnight and noon. The term ante general in 243, inflicting defeats in SHAPUR I in Syria and
meridiem designated the time “before the middle of the Mesopotamia, including the capture of Nisibis. Further
day,” and post meridiem designated the time “after the campaigns were planned, but the prefect suddenly fell ill
middle of the day.” and died. Gordian named PHILIP I (the Arab) as the new
Praetorian prefect, a man of much greater political ambi-
One of the chief methods used for telling time tion.
was the sundial, the solarium (pl., solaria), which first
appeared in Rome around 263 B.C.E. as part of booty Tingis City in MAURETANIA just below the fretum gadi-
brought to Rome from Sicily during the Punic War. For tanum, or the Strait of Gibraltar. Tingis (Tangiers) was
nearly a century, the Romans remained ignorant of the said to have been founded by Phoenician traders and was
fact that the sundials needed to be calibrated for a spe- thus very old by the time its inhabitants chose to support
cific latitude and seasonal adjustments. Therefore, their Octavian (AUGUSTUS) in the civil wars of Rome. For their
sundial was telling Sicilian time rather than Roman. The loyalty, they were given Roman franchise before being
solarium also had the disadvantage of needing sunlight to attached to Hispania Baetica for provincial administra-
tell the time, so it was useless at night and on stormy tion. To aid in Romanization, however, veterans were sent
days. The most famous of the solaria of Rome was the there as colonists. Under Claudius, Tingis was transferred
Solar Clock of Augustus, erected in 9 B.C.E. by Emperor from Baetica to Mauretania where it became the capital of
Augustus in the Campus Martius. The solarium was Mauretania Tingitana, with the full title of colonia. Little
designed with the help of the mathematician Manilius. has survived of the original site, making it archaeologi-
Unfortunately, it was notoriously inaccurate, as was noted cally limited in value.
by PLINY THE ELDER.
Tiridates (fl. first century C.E.) Unsuccessful claimant to
In 159 B.C.E., the Romans began importing water the Parthian throne in 35–36 C.E.
clocks, clepsydrae, which told time by a regulated drip- Certainly a member of the ARSACID DYNASTY and pro b a-
ping of water. Variations of the clepsydra included very bly a grandson of PHRAATES IV, who had sent his sons to
elaborate mechanisms that could tell time for an entire Rome during the reign of AUGUSTUS (27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.).
24-hour period. The water clock was not especially accu- Tiridates was chosen by TIBERIUS as a reliable Roman
rate, but it did have the advantage of telling time at night. candidate for Parthian kingship and was sent as a rival
All Roman horologia, or clocks, sought to divide the day to ARTABANUS III. When Artabanus was compelled to
into equal parts, meaning that even if accurate, they ran flee Parthia for Scythia, Tiridates was convinced that
counter to the accepted division of the day into two the moment was right for his own advance, and by 36
times, night and day, with unequal hours depending he was crowned at Ctesiphon. He listened to the coun-
upon the time of year or the latitude. sel of the courtier ABDAGAESES, however, refusing to
march to the various Parthian provinces and clients to
See also CALENDAR. win their fealty. Artabanus soon recovered, organized
an army and expelled Tiridates, who had no stomach
Timesitheus, Gaius Furius Sabinus Aquila (d. 243 for war.
C.E.) Prefect of the Praetorian Guard from 241 to 243

544 Tiridateso
 f
Armenia his father. Tiridates remained in SYRIA, although his
ambitions were ended when a peace treaty was signed
Tiridates of Armenia (fl. mid-first century C.E.) King in 20.
from around 51–60 and from 63
The son of the Parthian King Vonones and brother of Tiridates III (d. 318 or 330 C.E.) King of Armenia (c.
VOLOGASES I and PACORUS, Tiridates and Pacorus both 287–318 or 330 C.E.) and the first Christian king of that
agreed to the accession of Vologases in 51, presumably in country
return for their own kingdoms. Pacorus received Media Tiridates was taken as a child to the Roman provinces
Atropatene and Tiridates took Armenia. Following the when Armenia was overrun by SHAPUR I a round 252.
murder of MITHRIDATES by RADAMISTUS in 51 and the lat- Subsequently raised by the Romans, he took part in the
ter’s seizure of Armenia, Vologases decided that the coun- campaigns against the GOTHS of Probus before being
try was ripe for retaking. Parthian troops swept into restored to the throne of Armenia in 287. Another Per-
Armenia, capturing both ARTAXATA and TIGRANOCERTA. sian onslaught (c. 296), led by Narses, ousted him
Radamistus departed hurriedly, only to return a year later, briefly until 298, when Emperor GALERIUS defeated the
when disease and a vicious winter forced first the Parthi- Persians. In 301, Gre g o ry the Illuminator (GREGORY OF
ans and then Tiridates himself to leave Armenia. ARMENIA) appeared at his court perf o rming miracles.
Radamistus could not keep his throne, however, and Tiri- Tiridates was immediately converted, transforming
dates, backed by Vologases, was soon back and stayed A rmenia into a Christian domain. He was murd e red
until 60. either in 318 or 330.

When NERO came to power, he was eager to establish Tiro, Marcus Tullius (fl. mid-first century B.C.E.)
policy with vigor wholly wanting in CLAUDIUS. Foreign Freedman and close friend of Cicero
(Parthian) occupation of Armenia was not to be tolerated Tiro lived for many years after the death of Cicero, work-
in his view, and he dispatched General CORBULO (2) to ing hard in that time to preserve his friend’s good name
the East in 55. Two years passed quietly as Corbulo made while developing his own literary reputation. Originally a
his preparations. In late 57, he entered Armenia and in slave in Cicero’s household, Tiro was given his freedom in
58, in conjunction with Roman clients in the region, he 54 B.C.E. and henceforth was indispensable to his former
reduced Tiridates’s position. The king opened negotia- master, reading and preparing Cicero’s multitudinous
tions but when these failed, Corbulo took and utterly de- manuscripts. After the murder of Cicero in 43, Tiro was
stroyed Artaxata. The following year saw the fall of the editor of his collected orations and letters, as well as
Tigranocerta, and in 60 Tiridates made a final, unsuccess- the author of a biography on him. The freedman
ful attack to reclaim his throne. From 60–62, TIGRANES V authored his own poetry, a grammatical work and the
ran the Armenians with increasing impotence. An incur- notae Tironianae, an early version of shorthand, using
sion of his into Adiabene allowed Vologases to return to abbreviations.
Armenia. Tigranes fell, departing from the scene and
allowing Tiridates to declare to Corbulo in 63 that he was Titiana, Flavia (fl. late second century C.E.) Wife of
willing to accept the diadem of rule from Nero, if need Emperor Pertinax
be. Thus, in 66 Tiridates journeyed to Rome, where he Titiana was the daughter of Flavius SULPICIANUS, the PRE-
was treated with respect and honored with massive festiv- FECT OF THE CITY during the auctioning of the Roman
ities. Relations were subsequently so calm that Nero gave Empire in 193. Flavia Titiana was reportedly adulterous,
him millions of sesterces and artisans to rebuild Artaxata, carrying on, for example, with a lute player. The historian
now renamed Neroneia (or Neronia). Dio called her an unchaste consort. This was probably
why the newly elevated emperor refused in 193 to give
Tiridates II (fl. first century B.C.E.) Parthian usurper her the title of AUGUSTA. Curiously, COINAGE and inscrip-
from c. 30–25 B.C.E. tions show her with that rank.
Tiridates tried unsuccessfully to unseat PHRAATES IV as
king of Parthia. He may have been an officer in the army Titius, Marcus (first century B.C.E.) Son of the one of
used to repulse Marc ANTONY’s invasions in 36 and may the victims of the triumviral proscriptions (see TRIUMVIRATE,
then have tried to fulfill his own ambitions, ousting SECOND)
Phraates in 31 but proving unable to hold the throne. Titius was noted for trapping and executing Sextus POM-
He was forced to flee to Octavian (AUGUSTUS) in 30, PEY in 36 B.C.E. After the murder of his father (c. 40),
receiving sanctuary but no supplies or logistical sup- Titius fled from Italy to GALLIA NARBONENSIS, where he
port. In dealing with Parthia, Augustus came to look organized a band of ships and followers. Captured by the
upon Tiridates as a useful tool in forcing Phraates to the Sextian officer, MENAS, Titius was spared because his men
b a rgaining table. Tiridates made another attempt at rule, carried on their shields the name of Sextus. Eventually
but was beaten again in 26. Running to Augustus he
b rought with him Phraates, the king’s son. Demands
that both be surrendered to Parthian justice were made,
and Augustus partially obliged, re t u rning the prince to

deserting Sextus for Marc ANTONY, Titius was charged Tivoli 545
with the task of hunting down the pirate in 36, after the
battle of NAULOCHUS. Sextus was found and put to death. in his father’s name. As consul seven times and as PRE-
Titius became a legate in the service of Antony but, with FECT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD, he earned a reputation
Plancus, departed in 32 for the party of Octavian (AUGUS- for ruthlessness, tyranny and political violence. Added to
TUS). Prior to the battle of Actium (31 B.C.E.), Titius com- this was the habit of throwing lavish parties for his
manded cavalry with Statilius TAURUS, defeating Antony’s friends and an affair with BERENICE, a Jewish princess.
horsemen and convincing Philadelphus, king of Paphla-
gonia, to join Octavian. Titius was later a trusted officer When Vespasian died in 79, the Romans were afraid
in the regime of Augustus, holding the post of governor that Titus’s joke would come true. He claimed that to pay
of SYRIA (c. 10–9 B.C.E.). His action in the death of Sextus for the financial needs of the state he would have to be a
Pompey was never forgiven by the Romans, and a mob second Nero. Roman anxiety was soon calmed and
once chased him out of a theater. replaced by admiration, for Titus as emperor offered no
faults for criticism. At every opportunity he gave public
Titus (41–81 C.E.) Emperor from 79–81 and the brother displays of his good nature. Gladiatorial games were held
of his successor, Domitian with other amusements to keep the Roman mobs happy
According to the historian SUETONIUS, Titus was feared in the face of stern but necessary economic policies. The
and hated at the time of his accession but soon earned highlight of his reign came with the opening of the
the loyalty and devotion of Rome through his goodness COLOSSEUM, known then as the Amphitheatrum Flavium.
and sound rule. He was born on December 30, 41, in a With the shows held there and the pogrom launched
slum section of Rome, the first son of VESPASIAN and against informers, Titus’s time on the throne was remem-
Flavia Domitilla. Because of his father he was educated in bered as stable, in spite of numerous, normally ominous
the palace of Emperor CLAUDIUS and later in that of NERO, natural disasters. Mount VESUVIUS erupted in 79, burying
becoming the closest of friends with BRITANNICUS, POMPEII, Stabiae, and HERCULANEUM. Titus hurried south
Claudius’s son. It was said that when Nero killed the to CAMPANIA, only to have a fire break out in Rome the
prince with poison, Titus was reclining at the same table next year. In the wake of the fire a plague descended
and actually drank some of the fatal brew, suffering severe upon Italy, one of the worst on record. Each calamity was
illness as a result. met with concern and generous remedial action. After
uttering that the fire “has ruined me,” he sold or stripped
Having survived the court, Titus embarked upon a imperial estates to hasten the recovery.
successful military career. A tribune in Britain and Ger-
many, he was made a quaestor in 65 and two years later a What would have happened in following years was
legate in command of a legion in PALESTINE, under the never known, for Titus was dead on September 1, 81. He
supervision of his father. The young general proved quite cried while at the games, for an unknown reason, took ill
able in the suppression of the Jewish uprising. Josephus and succumbed in the same house where Vespasian died
recorded that he tried, when possible, to avoid destruc- only two years before. Titus’s last words were that he was
tion and bloodshed. Vespasian sent his son on a trip to bitter about dying because he had only one terrible sin on
Rome to congratulate Galba on his accession, but when his conscience; the nature of that offense was never
Titus reached Corinth he heard of the new emperor’s known. Mourning was widespread and sincere, increas-
assassination in January 69 and returned to JUDAEA. ing over the next few months as the Romans came to
Vespasian was soon persuaded by his son and fellow of- know their new Emperor DOMITIAN. Suetonius admired
ficers in the East to march on Rome and seize the Titus, describing him as graceful and dignified but not
throne. The completion of the Jewish War was left to tall and having a paunch. His memory was superb, he
Titus, who showed great strategic sense and energy over read Greek and Latin and could play music.
the next year, culminating in the capture and destruction
of JERUSALEM and its great temple. Sources are at odds as Tivoli Town about 15 miles from Rome, on one of the
to Titus’s willingness to see the temple demolished, but, oldest inhabited sites in Italy (see LATIUM); also, the
guilty or innocent, it was an act that earned him eternal grandest villa ever constructed. Tivoli (also known as
condemnation and had a major influence on Jewish Tibur) is where Emperor HADRIAN constructed his huge
history. villa complex of the same name in the second cen-
tury C.E.
With Judaea pacified and his father now emperor,
Titus hurried home in 71, thus dispelling rumors that his The town was situated on a hill to give it a com-
excessive cultivation of praise following his triumph manding view of the nearby countryside. Flowing nearby
pointed to other ambitions. Vespasian heaped further was the Anio River, forming a waterfall. The city came
honors upon him, making it clear whom he desired for under Roman rule in 338 B.C.E. and was subsequently
his heir. Titus became his colleague, sharing his powers developed as a retreat from Rome for the upper classes. It
in every sense and even acting as the head of government was the beauty of Tibur and its relative proximity to
Rome that drew Hadrian there. Nobles and notables took
up residence as well, and HORACE had a small house
in Tibur. Emperor AURELIAN even decided that Queen

546 toga Togas were an ancient form of dress, dating far back
into Roman history. Before the creation of the sagum, or
ZENOBIA, whom he defeated in 271 C.E., should reside military uniform, the toga was worn into battle. As Rome
there in relative comfort. g rew as a military power, the garment found expression as
a symbol of peace. Essentially, a toga was a white woolen
An emperor of considerable ambition and vision, cloth, cut into a semicircular design of approximately five
Hadrian took one of the hills near Tibur and transformed y a rds long, four yards wide, varying upon the size of the
it, between 118 and 134, into his own retreat. It may wearer. A part of it was pressed into plaits and doubled
originally have been a villa owned by Empress Sabina, lengthwise so that one of the folds (called the sinus)
but by the time Hadrian was finished there was no simi- would wrap comfortably around the hip and chest while
larity to the older, Republican-style villa. Indeed, Tivoli allowing room enough to walk or move. The left shoulder
was the physical manifestation of Hadrian’s great love for was covered and the right shoulder remained free,
Hellenism. Throughout Tivoli could be found Greek ref- although by design, the right shoulder and head could be
erences in statuary, mosaics, and design. Where Greek c o v e redfor ceremonies, usually by pulling up the sinus.
influence was not obvious, other nations contributed,
such as Egypt (specifically, ALEXANDRIA) with an imita- There were special ways of wearing the toga, just as
tion of its Serapeum. there were special togas. For sacrifices and certain religious
c e remonies the cinctus Gabinus was arranged. Named after
Arguably the most beautiful place in the villa was the town of Gabii, the Gabian toga had the sinus drawn
the isolated Island Villa, a moated series of rooms and over the head but the portion draped over the left shoulder
suites, with bedrooms, a dining hall, and full facilities, was drawn around the body instead, to form a girdle by
including a bath. It was accessible by bridges but never tucking it around the waist. In this way both arms were
lost its sense of quiet seclusion, with its white columns free. Over time, the cinctus Gabinus appeared only at reli-
and continual breezes. Nearby was the so-called Poicile, gious observances, such as the opening of the Temple of
or peristyle courtyard. It was designed most likely along Janus, sacrifices or the groundbreaking for a new town.
the lines of the Greek dromos or exercise area so com-
mon in that country. There were columns along the entire Men wore the so-called toga virilis, also known as the
perimeter and rooms at one end for the staff. Situated, no toga pura or common toga. Often the wool that was used
doubt, just below were the private imperial suites where was made whiter by applying chalk. Such treated togas
Hadrian actually slept while visiting. Part of this sec- were named toga candida and were found worn by candi-
tion had a hippodrome, similar to the one found in dates seeking office. Dark-colored togas, the toga pulla or
Domitian’s Domus Flavia, although this track was far toga sordida, were worn by the lower classes or by others
more impressive. in time of mourning or when under severe stress, as at a
trial.
Hadrian ordered that two baths be built, the small
and the large. The smaller baths were perhaps for his own The toga praetexta was a toga with a distinctive pur-
use, displaying niceties in design that seemed to reflect ple stripe woven into the fabric, probably along the sinus.
the personal imperial touches. Such were wholly absent In the Republic it was the emblem of the curule magis-
in the larger baths, just to the south. These were more trates, CENSORS, dictators, and priests (when performing
conventional. To the east could be found the Piazza their religious duties). Later it was adopted by the emper-
d’Oro, another peristyle court topped with an unusual, ors. Children wore the toga praetexta: boys until they
eight-sided vault. Here again, with columns arranged in reached manhood and received the toga virilis; girls until
the fashion of a stoa, could be seen Hadrian’s fascination marriage, when they took the stola or matron’s dress.
with Hellenic style. Prostitutes and disgraced wives always wore the toga.

To the west of the piazza was a series of structures Finally, there was the toga picta or ornate toga. This
that were slightly removed from the main complex. The was a toga decorated with a red stripe and gold embroi-
Serapeum, modeled on the Alexandrian shrine, was a half- dery. Generals were adorned with it for triumphs, and
dome, decorated with glass and built into the hillside. CONSULS wore it upon entering office, as did magistrates
Stretching from it was the Canopus, a small canal-like when giving public games. The emperors, not surpris-
pool surrounded by statues with Grecian motifs (Ama- ingly, took to wearing it themselves and with them it
zons, for example). Also belonging to Tivoli were an remained.
Academy and a temple to Venus. Hadrian, according to
S p a rtianus, gave names to parts of the villa as he thought See also CLOTHING; DICTATOR; FESTIVALS; LUDI; PATRI-
appropriate, with references to parts of the empire. He had CIAN; PLEBEIANS; RELIGION; SENATE.
an Academy, Canopus, Tempe, Poicile, and Lyceum. There
was even a Hades, or an entrance to the land of the dead. Tome of Leo Important letter (Epistola, XXVIII) com-
posed by Pope (later St.) LEO I (r. 440–461) on June 13,
toga Allowed only to Romans, the toga became syn- 449, to Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople. While
onymous with the culture and society of Rome. It devel- directed specifically against the heresy of Eutyches, the
oped, as well, its own precise uses, official purposes, and tome established the significant Christological doctrine
popular nuances.

tradea
 ndc
 ommerce 547

concerning Christ’s two natures in one Person. Leo made Egypt Major: corn and grain
clear that Christ is one Person, but in him, permanently Minor: trade routes from East
united, unconfused, and distinct, are two natures, the Galatia
divine and the human. While each has its own faculties, Gallia (Tres Galliae) to West
they are performed entirely within the unity of the Person Major: none
of Christ. When Emperor Theodosius II (r. 408–450) Germania (Germany) Minor: none
convened the Council of Ephesus in August 449, Leo Hispania (Spain) Major: pottery; glassmaking;
expected that the tome would be read by his legates and
given approval by the participants. The council failed to Illyricum metallurgy; woodcraft; textiles
do this, restoring instead the monk Eutyches, thereby Italia (Italy) Minor: wheat; olives; fruits;
earning the name Latrocinium, or Robber Council, of
Ephesus, from the displeased pope. At the Council of Lycia and Pamphylia corn; oil; wine; cheeses; ham
Chalcedon (451), however, the orthodox party tri- Macedonia Major: none
umphed. The tome was given full recognition and was Minor: none
declared the church’s formal statement on the Incarna- Mauretania Major: gold; silver; copper;
tion, as the delegates at Chalcedon proclaimed that “the Moesia
voice of Peter had spoken through Leo.” tin; lead
Noricum Minor: wheat; olives; oil; fruits;
Trachalus, P. Galerius (fl. first century C.E.) Consul in Numidia
68, with Silus Italicus, an advocatus and rhetor Pannonia wine; livestock
Quintilian wrote of him that he had the finest voice and Raetia Major: trade routes along the
delivery that he had ever heard. Trachalus was a minor Sardinia
player in the events of 69 C.E., when he acted as political Sicilia (Sicily) Danube
adviser to OTHO, possibly writing some of his speeches. Major: metallurgy, pottery;
Although an obvious confidant of Otho, Trachalus was Syria
not attacked in the brief reign of VITELLIUS. His sister weapons
Galeria was married to Vitellius. Thrace Minor: olives
Major: timber
trade and commerce Minor: corn
Major: mining and timber
WITHIN THE ROMAN EMPIRE Minor: trade routes from East

Province Contribution to Commerce to West; agriculture; livestock
Major: olives and fruits
Achaea Major: olives Minor: marble; wine; livestock
Africa Minor: wine Major: trade along the Danube
Arabia Major: olives; corn; cereal; fruits
Asia Minor: textiles and Black Sea
Major: trade routes from East Minor: agriculture and mining
Bithynia Major: mining; iron
to West Major: corn and grains
Britannia Major: trade routes from East Minor: wine and livestock
Cappadocia Major: mining; iron; silver
Cilicia to West; cloth Minor: wild bison and boars
Minor: olives and corn Minor: agriculture
Cyprus Major: trade routes from East Major: corn and salt
Crete and Cyrenaica Minor: iron and silver
Dacia to West Major: wheat; corn; fruits;
Minor: agriculture; timber; iron
Major: gold; iron; silver; tin almonds
Minor: agriculture and livestock Minor: wine
Major: horses and livestock Major: trade routes from East
Minor: cereal and fruit
Major: timber to West
Minor: wheat; olives; fruit; Minor: grain; fruits; cloth;

wine glassmaking; dyes
Major: copper Major: trade along the Danube
Major: agriculture
Major: gold and silver and Black Sea
Minor: agriculture and mining

OUTSIDE THE EMPIRE

State Contribution to Commerce

African kingdoms slaves
Bosporus, grain; fish; hides; hemp

Kingdom of

548 Trajan

Commerce in action, from Trajan’s Column (Courtesy Fr. Felix nsey, Peter, Keith Hopkins, and C. R. Whittaker, eds.
Just, S.J.) Trade in the Ancient Economy. Berkeley: University of Cali-
fornia Press, 1983; Glodariu, Ioan. Dacian Trade with the
State Contribution to Commerce Hellenistic and Roman World. Translated by Nubar Ham-
China partumian. Oxford, U.K.: British Archaeological Reports,
India silk; incense; jewelry; perfumes; 1976; Greene, Kevin. The Archaeology of the Roman Econ-
spices omy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986;
Parthian Empire Hodge, Peter. Roman Trade and Travel. London: Longman,
Persian Empire spices; gems; ivory; perfumes; 1978; Love, John R. Antiquity and Capitalism: Max Weber
cotton; jewelry; incense; and the Sociological Foundations of Roman Civilization.
exotic animals London: Routledge, 1991; Rickman, Geoffrey. The Corn
Supply of Ancient Rome. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press,
minor trade goods and caravan 1980; Whittaker, C. R., ed. Pastoral Economies in Classical
routes to the East and West Antiquity. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Philological Soci-
ety, 1988.
minor trade goods and caravan
routes to the East and West Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Traianus) (c. 53–117 C.E.)
Emperor from 98–117 and the most militarily ambitious
See also COINAGE; ECONOMY; FARMING; PROVINCES; ruler of the Roman Empire
TRANSPORTATION; WEIGHTS AND MEASURES and under indi- The reign of Trajan was filled with some of the largest
vidual provinces for details on the industry and trade for wars in Rome’s history and characterized by the aggran-
each territory. dizement of Rome and its empire. Unfortunately, these
events were recorded in scant detail, for literary sources
Suggested Readings: Casson, Lionel. Ancient Trade and on Trajan did not survive, except for the account of the
Society. Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University Press, historian Dio. Only through COINAGE of the era, corre-
1984; Charlesworth, M. P. Trade-Routes and Commerce in spondence with PLINY and Pliny’s panegyric, and the
the Roman Empire. New York: Square Publishers Inc., grand arch of Trajan can evidence be found.
1979; D’Arms, John H. Commerce and Social Standing in
Ancient Rome. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Trajan was born to a family originally from Umbria
Press, 1981; D’Arms, John H. and Kopff, E. C., eds. The but settled in Hispania Baetica. His father, of the same
Seaborne Commerce of Ancient Rome. Rome: American name, was a successful senator, CONSUL and governor of
Academy in Rome, 1980; Duncan-Jones, Richard. Struc- Asia and SYRIA; his mother was Marcia, otherwise un-
ture and Scale in the Roman Economy. Cambridge, U.K.: known. With the status of his father as a useful base, Tra-
Cambridge University Press, 1990; Duncan-Jones, Ri- jan embarked upon his own career. A tribune with his
chard. The Economy of the Roman Empire: Quantitative parent while his father was governor of Syria, by the late
Studies. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 80s he was a legate in charge of a legion in Hispania Tar-
1982; Finley, M. I. The Ancient Economy. 2nd ed. London: raconensis, the VII Gemina. In 89, in response to the
Hogarth, 1985; Frank, Tenney, ed. An Economic Survey of summons of DOMITIAN, Trajan marched his cohorts
Ancient Rome. New York: Octagon Books, 1975; Frayn, toward Germania Superior, where Apronius SATURNINUS
Joan M. Sheep-rearing and the Wool Trade in Italy During had rebelled. Although he arrived too late to participate
the Roman Period. Liverpool, U.K.: F. Cairns, 1984; Gar- in Saturninus’s demise, the emperor was nevertheless
grateful; in 91, Trajan held a consulship. Nerva appar-
ently appointed him the governor of Germania Superior
in 96, and then, after the PRAETORIAN GUARD humiliated
the emperor, Trajan was suddenly adopted.

His adoption by the emperor probably stemmed
f rom his military reputation, support from the SENATE
and the real popularity that he enjoyed with the troops
of the legions. Quite possibly Trajan and his allies in
Rome applied enough pressure on the aged emperor
to have him named as heir. Nerva died in 98, and Tra-
jan was informed at Cologne by the young HADRIAN
that he now ruled the Roman world. To demonstrate
that the throne was his and to teach a lesson as to its
rights, he summoned Casperius Aelianus, PREFECT OF
THE PRAETORIAN GUARD, along with the leaders of the



550 Trajan’sM
 arket state, such as Achaea and Athens, he sent the CORREC-
TORES or administrators. One of his governors in Bithynia
group that had shamed Nerva. They were put to death, was PLINY THE YOUNGER. Military colonies were also
and Trajan entered Rome in pomp, with his austere wife established in those areas needing Romanization, espe-
PLOTINA. cially in Germania and along the Danube, in MOESIA.
Despite the reduction in taxes and his lengthy campaigns,
What followed was virtually incessant warfare, as Trajan found time and money to spend on public
Trajan sought to extend the limits of the empire in every works in the empire and in Rome. With the help of APOL-
direction. He began by finishing what he considered a LODORUS of Damascus he built the Forum of Trajan
previous failure; the unsatisfactory war with DACIA and its (FORUM TRAIANI), the Market of Trajan (TRAJAN’S MARKET)
King DECEBALUS. In two massive campaigns (101–102 and the Baths of Trajan. Roads were also repaired
and 105–106) Dacia was defeated and Decebalus driven throughout the provinces.
to suicide. When Dacia was declared an imperial
province, it represented a major Roman inroad into the Even as he made these popular gifts to the people,
region north of the DANUBE. At the same time, Cornelius his thoughts were returning to war. Parthia was still a
Palma led a Roman army into Arabia Petra, subduing the troubling enemy in the East and, much as he had done in
Nabataeans of Petra and reducing the economically Dacia, Trajan planned to do more than inflict a severe
wealthy kingdom to the status of a province. defeat upon them. Thus in 114, he invaded ARMENIA with
a huge army. The country fell quickly, and in 115 he
Back in Rome, Trajan celebrated his win over Dacia marched into Mesopotamia and captured the Parthian
and devoted a number of years almost solely to running capitol of Ctesiphon. This acquisition made western
the empire. As emperor he displayed a remarkable Parthia Roman territory, and Trajan declared Meso-
restraint in dealing with the Senate. He showed the body potamia part of the empire. He soon discovered that con-
great respect while presenting himself as the ideal ruler. quest was easier than holding a region filled with minor
Dio wrote of him in glowing terms, describing his sense kingdoms and hostile populations. When Mesopotamia
of justice, bravery, and simplicity of habits. He envied no rose in revolt, Roman authority was reinstated, but tenu-
one, paid no attention to slander and was so beloved by ously. Trajan tried to reduce the city of Hatra and was so
the Senate and the people that he often went to homes exhausted by the siege that he fell ill shortly thereafter.
without a guard. Other bad news reached him. The Jews in Cyrenaica,
Cyprus, Egypt and even in parts of JUDAEA had risen in
This cultivated image of honesty and compassion rebellion. Although suppressed, the uprising had left
was proven in more ways than by minor demonstrations thousands of dead and entire parts of provinces in ruins.
or speeches. Trajan increased the CONGIARIUM or free dis-
tribution of food and took further steps to ensure that the Trajan departed the East in 117, tired and ill. In Cili-
grain supply was maintained. One of his finest creations cia he suffered some kind of stroke in early August and
in the field of public service was the alimenta or special died. He had adopted Hadrian but may not have named
subsidy paid to the poor of Italy. For the provinces he him his successor. Whatever Trajan’s view might have
appointed governors who were reliable and could be been is not known, for Plotina and the Praetorian Prefect
trusted to deal honorably with the inhabitants. For those ATTIANUS made certain that Hadrian followed him to the
provinces or cities where finances were in a desperate throne. Hadrian did not believe in wars of expansion,
viewing them as too costly, thus undoing by policy and
A gold aureus of Trajan and Plotina, struck posthumously by inactivity Trajan’s life’s work. Nevertheless, Trajan had
under Antoninus Pius during the opening months of his reign, accomplished much to make Rome proud again, and
Summer 138 C.E., at Rome (Courtesy Historical Coins, Inc.) Hadrian, despite his differing viewpoint, was a worthy
successor.

Suggested Readings: Bennett, Julian. Trajan: Optimus
Princeps. Bloomington, Indiana: University Press, 1997;
Lepper, F. A. Trajan’s Parthian War. London: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1948.

Trajan’s Market Ingenious structure built by Emperor
TRAJAN sometime between 100 and 112 C.E.; located just
above the FORUM TRAIANI in Rome and designed by APOL-
LODORUS of Damascus, the great architect in the service of
the emperor. The Market of Trajan, called the mercatus
Traiani was a very large structure covering the side of the
Quirinal Hill. There were five levels of shops (tabernae)

and offices, including those for Trajan’s annona and ali- transportation 551
menta, or bureau of loans and subsidies. Architecturally,
the market was startlingly different from virtually every C.E.) to ensure communications throughout the imperial
other building in the city. Apollodorus used a simple world. A public transportation system, the cursus publicus
design, abstaining from the opulent facades of the time in used couriers (tabellarii) to carry messages along military
favor of concrete and plain brick. It was topped with a roads. They made speedy progress thanks to the different
vaulted hall and a concrete half-dome. stations (mansiones, mutationes, and stationes) posted
along the routes. There they could find fresh horses,
Tranquillina, Furia Sabina (fl. third century C.E.) food, and rest before continuing on to the next station.
Empress from 241 to 243 The cursus publicus was also used by soldiers on mis-
The wife of Emperor GORDIAN III, Tranquillina was the sions, government officials, and anyone granted a formal
daughter of the Praetorian Prefect TIMESITHEUS. Her mar- diploma (or imperial authorization).
riage to Gordian in 241 was an admission by the young
emperor of both the political indispensability of her As the average citizen did not have access or use of
father and her own suitability as empress. In 243, she suf- the cursus publicus, they were forced to manage as best
fered the double loss of her husband and father. Her own they could on their own. Most poor and typical citizens
fate is not recorded. made their journeys on foot on the Roman roads. Given
the rugged terrain and inevitable delays due to weather,
transportation The Roman Empire has long been the best one could hope to achieve on any given day was
credited with creating and maintaining for centuries a about 40 Roman miles.
highly developed, systematic, and relatively efficient
transportation system throughout its provinces. The suc- For someone with a load to carry on the journey,
cess of Roman ROADS, the MILESTONE system, and sea options included hiring someone to carry it for you on
power made it possible for most of the citizens of the the way, using a neck yoke (iugum), or using a pack ani-
empire to travel, both for purposes of need and even for mal. Wealthier travelers could also hire a litter (lectica),
leisure during times of peace and stability. Travel which would be carried by slaves or also by mules.
remained a difficult—and often dangerous—undertaking,
and most people journeyed during spring and summer Pack animals were probably the most common form
when the roads were in better shape and the threats of of transportation when there was also a load to be borne.
the snow or storms did not pose insuperable obstacles to Mules and donkeys were the most reliable pack animals;
land and sea travel. From the third century C.E. on, the horses were generally used only for riding and racing,
collapse of imperial dominance on the frontiers made being too expensive for heavy labor. Pack saddles were
leisure travel largely impractical, although the wealthy attached by ropes to the mule’s back, and trains of don-
could still afford the carts, horses, and guards to make keys were a common sight throughout the empire. The
the journey from Rome or Italy to the provinces in some legions also used mules in large numbers to transport
safety. equipment, food, and other supplies. Northern provinces,
such as Britannia, Germania, and those along the
The most obvious element in Roman transportation Danube, necessitated hardier animals. Typical animals
was the network of roads that connected Italy with all of were draft horses and ponies. In desert climates, camels
its provinces and the frontiers. First developed in the were an ideal pack animal. Mules, ponies, and also
early republic, the road system expanded swiftly with the camels were adopted by travelers as a perfectly suitable
empire, becoming a specific and important facet in means of transport.
Roman strategic plans for conquest and pacification.
Good roads ensured swift movement of the legions, easy It is known that Romans made extensive use of
communication between the cities and provinces, and wheeled vehicles, although few details have been pre-
ease of transport for merchants, travelers, and colonists. served. Literature provides few narrative explanations of
At the same time, great emphasis was placed by the the design or development of carts and wagons, and
Roman government on shipbuilding and the maintaining depictions, such as reliefs or paintings, offer few clues
of a large imperial fleet and commercial shipping to sup- about how the harnesses worked, how the axles were
ply Roman merchants with access by sea to Egypt, the configured, or how horses and other equines were shod.
Mediterranean coast, and the lands of the East. Typical horse shoes were designed to be fastened to the
mule’s foot by leather straps and were made of Sparta
LAND TRANSPORTATION grass (Solea sparta) or iron (Solea ferrae). The shoes were
naturally cumbersome, fell off easily, and made transport
On land, travel was accomplished in several ways: the slow and inconvenient. A better solution to shoeing
cursus publicus, on foot, on horseback, or in wheeled seems to have been the custom of guiding carts and wag-
vehicles. The cursus publicus was the imperial postal sys- ons on a parallel dirt track to the road. Movement along
tem organized first by Emperor Augustus (r. 27 B.C.E.–14 the softer terrain would have extended the life of the ani-
mals.

Traveling along the dirt tracks also no doubt was pre-
ferred to riding along the roads for passengers. It is
known that a typical cart was based on a Celtic design

552 Trapezus into Roman hands. Subsequently, it had a major role in
the development of the province of CAPPADOCIA. Trapezus
Mosaic of trading ships, from Ostia (Courtesy Fr. Felix was one of the connecting points between the Syrian
Just, S.J.) frontier and the Black Sea, and was an important eco-
nomic link for the seagoing commerce of the entire
and had no suspension. This would have made even a region. Trapezus replaced SINOPE as the leading port in
short trip physically demanding and extremely uncom- the eastern Black Sea, was the homeport for the classis
fortable. Pontica or Black Sea fleet of the Roman NAVY, and had a
sizable garrison. HADRIAN constructed a new harbor by
The noise and congestion that carts and wagons cre- enclosing it between moles to provide protection from
ated in cities led to the promulgation of the lex Julia attack and the weather. Such measure could not prevent
municipalis, part of the comprehensive set of laws under Trapezus from suffering terribly in the barbaric invasions
Julius Caesar in 59 B.C.E. The law made it illegal for of the mid-third century. During the reign of VALERIAN
wheeled traffic to be used in the daytime in Rome. The and Gallienus, the city fell to the GOTHS but was recap-
only exceptions to the law were those carts attached to tured. After repairs were made, the dock reopened and
public services, such as the rubbish sweepers and on hol- Trapezus regained its wealth; the city still flourished in
idays. the reign of Eastern Emperor JUSTINIAN in the sixth
century C.E.
SEA TRANSPORTATION
Despite the dangers of storms, shipwreck, and even treason See MAIESTAS.
piracy, the Romans made extensive use of sea travel. Such
was the competence and abundance of Roman sailors that Trebellenus, Rufus (d. 21 C.E.) Ex-praetor
by the first century C.E. it was a common boast that one In 19 C.E., Trebellenus was appointed by Emperor
could sail from Ostia (the chief port out of Rome) to TIBERIUS to act as a guardian to the children of COTYS,
Alexandria (the chief port of Egypt) in seven days. One of after that king of THRACE had been murdered by his
the most famous accounts of a journey at sea was pro- uncle, RHESCUPORIS. His administration of Thrace
vided by St. Paul in his Letter to the Ephesians. Arrested brought severe complaints from the inhabitants, includ-
for being a Christian and taken under escort from Pales- ing the charge that any crimes committed by Romans
tine to Rome for trial, Paul traveled by boat and was ship- went unpunished. In 21, he was condemned in Rome and
wrecked on the island of Malta. killed himself.

Virtually all shipping was oriented toward commerce Trebonianus Gallus, Gaius Vibius (c. 206–253 C.E.)
(or movement of troops by sea), and pure passenger SHIPS Emperor from 251 to 253 C.E.
were unknown. Most ships were thus configured with a Born to a family from Persia, he held a consulship in 245
maximum of space oriented toward cargoes. Passengers and the governorship of MOESIA in 250. He became one of
were taken on as extra cargo at the discretion of the cap- the most important generals of Trajanus Decius, working
tain and remained on deck. Shelter was usually a with the emperor to repel the GOTHS under their king
makeshift tent, and the passengers themselves had to pro- Kniva. In 251, however, Decius was defeated and slain at
vide their own food, although they had permission to fix Abrittus by the Goths. Gallus received the blame for sup-
meals in the galley. posedly permitting the catastrophe but was proclaimed
emperor by his troops anyway. He probably had nothing
Trapezus Also known as Trabezun or Trabzon; a Cap- to do with Decius’s defeat.
padocian city on the south coast of the BLACK SEA. Proba-
bly founded circa 8 B.C.E. as a trading colony, Trapezus From the start the new emperor tried to placate the
was a possession of the kingdom of PONTUS before falling various political currents of the Roman Empire. A new
treaty of peace was made with the Goths, designed to
reward them for not violating the frontiers, a very unpop-
ular admission of weakness. Freed from war, Gallus trav-
eled to Rome, where the SENATE was honored and respect
paid to Decius’s remaining family members. The dead
emperor’s youngest son, Hostilianus, was made AUGUS-
TUS, and the widow, Etruscilla, retained her title of
AUGUSTA.

Such attempts at unification failed because of the
unremitting catastrophe that gripped the world during
the brief years of Gallus’s reign. The Goths returned in

force, pouring over the borders and extending their tribune 553
marches all the way to Asia Minor, where they pillaged
and burned its beautiful cities. In the East, the Persians v i rtually every major revolt. But their factionalism was
under SHAPUR I seized ARMENIA and then devastated Anti- an aid to Rome, especially during the GALLIC WARS. In 54
och and SYRIA. To complicate things further, in 252, a B.C.E., Caesar was able to avert a rebellion by supporting
horrible plague swept through the provinces, killing Hos- the chief Vercingetorix over Indutiomarus. Unfortu-
tilianus and debilitating the legions. nately, a revolt did occur in 53 but was quickly sup-
pressed.
Gallus’s response was to revive the persecutions of
the Christians, pursued so actively by his predecessor. Under the occupation of Rome, the Treveri supplied
Begun in 253, the crises everywhere were too severe, and levies of auxiliaries to serve in the legions but continued
the legions put their trust in a new master, Marcus Aemil- to take part in movements against the Romans. In 21 C.E.,
ius AEMILIAN, a general on the DANUBE. He defeated the they joined Julius SACROVIR but in 68 refused to back VIN-
Goths and was hailed by his own troops as their savior. DEX in his attempt to begin a nationalistic Gallic revolu-
Aemilian marched on Italy, and Gallus’s men, avoiding a tion. As the rise of Vindex had helped Galba, the Treveri
massacre, murdered Gallus to pave the way for a new were punished for remaining loyal to NERO. As a conse-
man on the throne. quence, they received warmly the pro-VITELLIUS march of
the Rhine legions on Rome and then cheered Julius CLAS-
Trebonius, Gaius (d. 43 B.C.E.) Tribune of the Plebeians SICUS in his creation of the Imperiim Galliarum in 69.
in 55 B.C.E. Subsequently of reduced importance, their chief town,
Trebonius began as a QUAESTOR in 60, when he was Trevi or Treves, was taken by the Romans to serve as a
a supporter of the aristocratic party, but found greater leading city in Gallia Belgica—Augusta Trevirorum
opportunity for advancement with the members of the (Trier).
FIRST TRIUMVIRATE, Julius CAESAR, POMPEY THE GREAT,
and CRASSUS. As TRIBUNE in 55, he authored the lex Tre- tribune An important officer of the Roman state.
bonia and aided both Pompey and Crassus with com- Those tribunes who represented the PLEBEIANS were
mands in Spain and the East (for Crassus). Crassus was called the tribuni plebis or tribunes of the plebs, while in
soon destroyed at the battle of Carrhae by Parthia, the legions there were the tribuni militum or military tri-
and the triumvirate broke apart only a few years later. bunes.
F rom 55 to 50, he was a legate in the service of Julius
Caesar in the GALLIC WARS. With the outbreak of the TRIBUNI PLEBIS
CIVIL WAR (of the First Triumvirate) in 49, Trebonius
joined the cause of Caesar. He conducted with great suc- The tribunes of the Plebs were the elected, official repre-
cess the siege of Massilia and served as praetor urbanus sentatives of the Plebeian class and acted as the champi-
in 48. The following year he replaced Q. Cassius Longi- ons and protectors of all Plebeians against any possible
nus as the pro-praetor of Spain, where he proved unable oppression by the PATRICIANS or the CONSULS. The tri-
to prevent the Pompeians from reuniting. Nevertheless, bunes were first organized in the early fifth century
Caesar rewarded his loyalty in 45 with a consulship and B.C.E., chosen by the comitia curiata and later by the
the promise of the post of governor of Asia. Trebonius COMITIA TRIBUTA, probably after 471 B.C.E. Originally two
repaid this by joining the plot to murder Caesar in 44, in number, they eventually became five and then (c. 457)
actually taking part in the assassination. He then 10. The position of the tribune relative to the Republic
departed Rome and took up his duties in Asia. In 43, he grew considerably as the Plebeians assumed greater
was surprised by the infamous DOLABELLA, who killed power. While they were only magistrates in the fifth cen-
him in his bed at Smyrna, later hurling his head at Cae- tury B.C.E., so long as the oath taken to them by the Plebs
sar’s statue. Trebonius was also noted for his collection remained intact, the aggrandizement of their office was
of CICERO’s witty sayings and puns, published for his both inevitable and desirable. By using their office, the
friend in 47. tribunes kept in check competing officials of the Republic
and came to a position where they could oppose anyone
Treveri Also, Treviri; a large tribe in Gallia Belgica, except the dictators.
living to the east of the SUESSIONES and close to the
Rhine River. This proximity to the Germanic tribes By the first century B.C.E. it was widely recognized
made them, in the opinion of Julius CAESAR, the most that the tribune of the Plebs was, within Rome, the most
G e rman of the Gallic nations; they were also re p o rted to powerful position attainable. Although its rights and
be the bravest and most talented horsemen. Because of privileges, the TRIBUNICIA POTESTAS, extended only to the
their fierce independence, the Treveri were difficult city and its environs, there was a desire to wield it for
clients for Rome as they could be found in the thick of political advantage. SULLA (c. 80 B.C.E.) attempted to cur-
tail the tribunes, but his limitations were revoked some
30 years later. With the civil war, the weight of the tri-
buneship passed into the hands of Julius CAESAR in 48
B.C.E., without any definite time limit and without any
degree of restraint.

554 tribunicia
potestas safeguarded all Plebeians (and later everybody) from
excesses by the magistrates (excepting the dictators). The
In Caesar was thus established the idea of a perpetual right to enact compulsory measures, including arrests,
tribuneship. AUGUSTUS, beginning in 36 B.C.E., followed fines, imprisonment, and even death, was their to use.
suit but for him the key was not so much the actual post Troops could be levied, TRIBUTUM or taxes demanded, but
but its real strength, the tribunicia potestas. The emperor appeals to these orders could also be made. Their privilege
took the potestas for himself, separate from the office, as to veto certain enactments spread to allow them to curtail
part of his pledge to defend the people. His status in or even suspend activities of the SENATE.
Rome was thus largely derived from the prerogatives of
the potestas, which was marked each year by numerals. Officially, any proposals made by the tribunes had to
Actual tribunes continued to exist but shorn of their be approved by the Senate, but in time of crisis this legal
influences, elected by the SENATE. In order to make the technicality was ignored. The tribune was free to do this
weakened honor more appealing, Augustus made it a key because of his immunity from prosecution. Changes in
step in the senatorial career of a Plebeian, mandatory the law were also tolerated, and a place was provided for
before the praetorship. Tribunes continued to exist until the tribunes in the Curia during proceedings of the Sen-
the late fourth century C.E. ate. From this bench, called the subsellia, the tribune
used his auxilium to speak out in defense of his con-
TRIBUNI MILITUM stituency, if he felt the need. This capacity to interf e re in
senatorial deliberations led to an actual seat in the body,
Originally key military personnel in the legions of the a right to veto and, finally, the ability to summon the
Republic, the military tribunes had a reduced role in the Senate.
imperial legions. They were elected at first by the people,
later in conjunction with the CONSULS. Six were assigned It was not surprising that SULLA, in 80 B.C.E., took
each year to each legion but, as most field or combat steps to curtail the tribunicia potestas. But the tribunes
duties were handled by the centurions, the tribunes held survived Sulla’s machinations and were successful in
posts of an administrative nature. This reality of legionary restoring their status. In CAESAR and AUGUSTUS they
life was probably a reflection of the pool from which the encountered two more resilient manipulators. Augustus
tribunes were taken. Only very rarely was a centurion seized the tribunicia potestas, kept it forever as one of the
appointed to the tribuneship. Rather, most candidates keys to his omnipotence as PRINCEPS and then divorced it
came from the senatorial or Equestrian (EQUITES) rank, from the old tribuneship. Another important develop-
were young and had already served as staff member or ment was Augustus’s granting to Marcus Vipsanius AGRI-
aide-de-camp to a general or a commander-in-chief. PPA full authority to wield the potestas (c. 19–18 B.C.E.) in
Eager to embark upon a political career, they viewed the his name. The years of its being held were numbered so
tribuneship as a necessary first step in their advancement that dating was characterized by the inscriptions “trib.
to higher office. pot. II” or “trib. pot. III.” Elevating someone to hold the
tribunicia potestas was, in the imperial age, considered a
All tribunes wore a toga with a broad or narrow pur- clear indication of the decision of the emperor that this
ple stripe, depending upon their membership in the sena- individual would succeed to the throne.
torial or Equestrian class, but all bore an Equestrian ring.
From the time of Julius Caesar the tribunes ceased to Tributal Assembly See COMITIA TRIBUTA.
enjoy the senior positions in the legions because of the
rise of the legati or legates (see LEGATUS), who ran the tribute penny Nickname used to describe the poll tax
legions. During the imperial era this system was con- (tributum capitis) paid by residents of the provinces to
cretized; the tribunes did lead the legion on march, how- Rome, but especially the form of TRIBUTUM collected from
ever, and still held commands of power in the auxilia. the inhabitants of JUDAEA after provincialization in 6 C.E.
Their tax, for many years one DENARIUS, received the
See also EQUITES. name tribute penny.

tribunicia potestas The powers of the tribuni plebis, or See also COINAGE; TAXATION.
TRIBUNES of the PLEBEIANS. Tribunes were originally con-
sidered mere magistrates, elected by the Plebeians to tributum The tax collected by the Roman imperial gov-
defend them against the cruelties of the PATRICIANS or the ernment from the inhabitants of the provinces. Under the
CONSULS. They lacked any insignia of office and were not Republic, taxes were normally paid as a fixed sum
honored by the lictors. They did not have attendants (via- (STIPENDIUM) or a tithe (decumae). This system changed
tores). with the foundation of the empire, for the use of the CEN-
SUS made possible accurate estimates of the size of the
Ve ry quickly, however, the tribunes amassed vast population and hence the amount of tributum to be paid.
political powers, and the tribunicia potestas became the While there were exceptions, most notably in COLONIES,
strongest protection from tyranny in the Roman Republic.
According to the oath taken to them by the Plebeians, the
tribuni plebis were made sacrosanct, free from persecution
and prosecution in the fulfillment of their duties. They

in cities with the IUS ITALICUM and in Egypt, the two basic triumph 555
forms of imperial TAXATION were the poll tax (tributum
capitis) and the land tax (tributum solis). 35, Trio committed suicide, knowing that Tiberius would
inevitably have him put to death.
Trier (Augusta Treverorum) Once the capital city
of the Treveri but later developed into one of the leading Tripoli See OEA.
cities of Gallia Belgica. Trier was situated on the Moselle
River, just east of Germania Superior (modern Luxem- Tripolitania The eastern portion of the province of
bourg). Also known as Treves, it came under direct AFRICA; also called Tripolitana and Syrtica Regio, after the
Roman occupation probably in the reign of AUGUSTUS but two branches of the Syrtes River that cut through the
most likely did not receive full status as a colonia (see region. This was actually a very narrow strip of territory
COLONIES) until the time of CLAUDIUS. Strategically situ- between the coast and the domain of the hostile Gara-
ated to serve as a gateway for the distribution of Gallic mantes and the hot Sahara. Although fertile lands was
goods and services to the two provinces of Germania hard to find, development in Tripolitania was consider-
Inferior and Superior, Trier became noted in the first cen- able, with three main cities: Lepcis Magna, Oea (Tripoli),
tury C.E. for its cloth. Romanization was pronounced, and Sabratha.
and a school in the city taught Latin. Because of its
wealth and Roman flavoring, Rome decided to move to triumph Ancient celebration in Rome that gave honor
Trier a part of the central administration from Gallia Bel- to a victorious general; the highest honor attainable for
gica and the two Germanias. The finances of the an officer in the legions of the Republic, it could be won
provinces came under the control of a procurator who on land or sea, so long as certain requirements were met
had his offices in Trier. by the victor. Throughout the Republic there were precise
demands that had to be fulfilled. The battle celebrated
While the city eventually came to rival RHEIMS, the had to be won under the auspices of the general, not his
capital of Gallia Belgica, it was not until the third century lieutenants; thus an underling who won would not be
C.E. and the reforms of DIOCLETIAN that it became one of entitled to a triumph, but his superior would, even
the foremost metropolises of the West. Emperor CON- though the junior commander had clearly made the vic-
STANTIUS I CHLORUS, named a Caesar in the TETRARCHY, tory. Thousands of the enemy had to be killed in the bat-
chose Trier as the center of operations for his portion of tle, with only minor losses to the Romans, and the battle
the empire (Gallia, Hispania, and Britannia). had to be a legitimate one, not the result of a civil strug-
gle. Peace had to follow the battle, and only high magis-
Under Constantius and his son CONSTANTINE, Trier trates were allowed to be so honored.
was improved architecturally. Although the city already
had some interesting structures dating to the second cen- During the Late Republic these rules were broken.
tury C.E. including the Baths of St. Barbara, a forum and For example, POMPEY THE GREAT triumphed in 81 B.C.E.
an amphitheater, Constantius began work on the large despite having held no major office and being only 24.
basilica and imperial palace stru c t u re that occupied a Julius CAESAR’s triumphs after the civil wars in the
good part of the eastern region of the city. Constantine provinces (but not Pharsalus) were greeted with a sense of
completed these projects after 306, when he succeeded his distaste. Caesar was typical, however, of the deteriorated
father. He added his own touch with the sumptuous impe- Republic, for he celebrated his triumphs as a personal
rial baths, perhaps used only by the court. To this period possession. From the founding of the empire by AUGUS-
also belongs the Porta Nigra, the famous gates of Trier. TUS, only the emperors themselves received a triumph.
The reason for this, officially, was that the legates (legati
Trio, Fulcinius (d. 35 C.E.) One of the most disliked De- Augusti pro praetore) were viewed simply as the underlings
latores (informers) during the reign of Tiberius (14–37 C.E.) of the emperor. They were not given triumphs, as the aus-
Trio first gained prominence as an accuser of LIBO in 16 pices were with their masters. Instead, the legati were
C.E. and then as a leading attacker on Gnaeus Calpurnius recipients of the o rnamenta triumphalia. The last known
PISO in 19. After the suicide of Piso, Trio was promised general to triumph, who was not a member of the impe-
public office but was not made CONSUL until 31, probably rial family, was Cornelius BALBUS (2) in 21 B.C.E.
to allay the suspicions of the Praetorian Prefect SEJANUS,
who was his political patron. Trio’s colleague was the According to custom, the general who laid claim to a
more reliable P. Memmius Regulus who subsequently triumph did not enter the city upon returning to Rome
helped to destroy the ambitious Sejanus. Despite being a but gave his report to the SENATE in the Temple of Bel-
known client of Sejanus, Trio evaded death in 31 by lona. If it was satisfactory, a date was set for his jubilant
becoming a leading accuser of the fallen prefect’s support- entrance. The procession, strewn with flowers, began at
ers. He complained about Regulus, claiming that he did the CAMPUS MARTIUS, went through the Porta Triumphalis
not pursue the friends of Sejanus with enough vigor. In into the Circus Flaminius and then to the CIRCUS MAX-
IMUS and up the Via Sacra to the Capitol, where two
white bulls were sacrificed. The general was dressed in

556 Triumvirate,
First now in a position to embark upon the famed GALLIC
WARS, with the sanction of his colleagues. The senatorial
the robes of Jupiter Capitolinus, a purple tunic (the toga opposition was, for a time, bullied into silence. Patience
picta), with golden shoes and an ivory scepter with an and skill would be needed if the triumvirate were to be
eagle on the top. His hair was adorned with a laurel broken by an outside source.
branch. Riding in an ornate chariot with him was a pub-
lic slave, holding a golden crown of Jupiter and uttering While at Rome the politician CLODIUS PULCHER
in his ear: “Remember thou art only a mortal.” became the workhorse of the triumvirate; both Cicero
and Cato were removed from the scene by exile or by
See IMPERATOR; IMPERIUM; LEGATUS; ORNAMENTA; appointment to provincial positions (Cicero returned in
OVATIO. 57). By 56 the old antagonism between Crassus and Pom-
pey had arisen, as Caesar the mediator was absent in
Triumvirate, First Political union formed in 60 B.C.E. Gaul. Outbursts between them were aggravated by
by Julius CAESAR, POMPEY THE GREAT, and Marcus Licinius Cicero, who sought to break the triumvirate. He hoped to
CRASSUS (1); its rise and subsequent success in the forma- turn the members against one another, using Lucius
tion of government policy were mortal blows to the DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS (1), a candidate for the consul-
Roman Republic. By 60 B.C.E., all three were leading fig- ship in 55 who had promised to strip Caesar of his
ures in the Roman Republic but had suffered defeats or provinces. Caesar took immediate steps to solve the crisis
humiliations at the hands of the SENATE and its suspicious by convening the Conference of LUCA in April of 56. The
spokesmen, such as CATO UTICENSIS and CICERO. Caesar triumvirs reaffirmed their pact, and Cicero was so over-
had returned to Rome from his service in Spain in the come that he later served as spokesman for the triumvi-
hopes of celebrating a TRIUMPH and then serving his con- rate. Domitius Ahenobarbus was defeated in the consular
sulship. First, he encountered senatorial opposition to his elections, and Caesar’s position in Gaul was made secure
plans and had to sacrifice his triumph in order to ensure by the lex Pompeia Licinia, guaranteeing him continued
his election as CONSUL, discovering then that his col- command until the year 50.
league was the strange M. Calpurnius BIBULUS. As a fur-
ther act of cruelty, the Senate gave him the forests of Italy Crassus and Pompey both desired their own provin-
to manage, instead of the usual prominent provincial cial possessions, clearly to counterbalance what they saw
command. as Caesar’s real success in Gaul. By the terms of the lex
Trebonia, Pompey took Spain, with a vast army, and Cras-
Having been treated so poorly, Caesar determined to sus sought his fortune in the East. Two events, tragic and
check the intrigues of the Senate by finding powerful unforeseen, had the most profound effect upon the future
allies who had likewise suffered. He quickly found Pom- of the triumvirate. First, Julia died in 54, ending the era
pey. That famed and respected general had returned from of peaceful relations between Caesar and Pompey. Then,
the East and had been rebuffed in two of his projects, the Crassus was crushed and killed at the battle of CARRHAE,
ratification of his arrangements in the East and the grant- by the Parthians. The death of Crassus left Rome with
ing pensions of land to his veterans. Crassus had failed to only two triumvirs. The following years were filled with
have his tax rebate for the farmers passed and thus was Caesar’s completion of his conquest of Gaul, while Pom-
willing to listen to any reasonable offer. pey inched closer to the senatorial party. He avoided an
open breach with Caesar for as long as possible, but the
Caesar first enlisted Pompey with a promise of Senate’s determination that Caesar should surrender his
mutual support. In return for Pompey’s prestige, he guar- legions made war unavoidable. The triumvirate was over
anteed his own backing, including troops if needed. To as Caesar rode over the RUBICON.
seal the alliance, he wed his daughter JULIA (2) to Pom-
pey in 59. Crassus had long disliked Pompey but decided Triumvirate, Second Political alliance formed in 43
to join in order to have a hand in guiding the state and to B.C.E. among Octavian (AUGUSTUS), Marc ANTONY and
watch for his own interests. Thus was born the First Tri- Marcus Aemilius LEPIDUS (1). Following the battle of
umvirate, although its powers were only de facto and MUTINA in April of 43, Octavian understood that the
never received the full legal status enjoyed by the SECOND cause of Republicanism was not the way for him to
TRIUMVIRATE. Nevertheless, the triumvirs quickly became achieve power and thus arranged a meeting with the two
the foremost influence in the Republic. How effective the leading figures of the Caesarean cause, Antony and Lep-
triumvirate could be was seen in 59, when Caesar entered idus. They met at Bononia and, after several days of nego-
into the consulship. The land bill introduced by Caesar tiations, agreed to start a new triumvirate.
was forced through the Senate, satisfying Pompey’s veter-
ans. Pompey’s settlements in the East were ratified, and This alliance differed from the original triumvirate
Crassus’ farmers received their tax break. With his part- of Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar in 60 B.C.E. in that by
ners happy, Caesar asked for and got what he wanted v i rtue of the lex Titia of November 27, 43, the official
most, a command of his own in the provinces. Through and legal status of tresviri republicae constituende was
the lex Vatinia de Caesaris Provincia he became governor given to each, enabling them to make laws, issue de-
of Gallia Cisalpina and ILLYRICUM. A short time later, Gal-
lia Transalpina was added (by Pompey’s hand). He was

c rees, appoint governors, make wars, and act with pow- Tubero,Q
 uintus
Aelius 557
ers superior to that of any magistrate of Rome. Furt h e r,
each member possessed a specific territory: Antony held ing years as the butt of Octavian’s ill humor, becoming
Gallia Cisalpina and Transalpina; Lepidus had the Pontifex Maximus until his death in 13/12 B.C.E. As had
remainder of the Gallic lands and Nearer and Further happened with the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE, two men now
Spain, while Octavian received Africa, Sicily, and Sar- ruled Rome, a situation that could not last. With his title
dinia. Lepidus was to govern Italy, while Antony and of divus filius, or son of the divine Caesar, Octavian had
Octavian dealt with the immediate crisis of the LIBERA- the upper hand. He won the ultimate victories and
TORS (Caesar’s assassins) and the remnant of the Repub- became Augustus.
lican forces.
Trogus, Pompeius (fl. late first century B.C.E.) Histo-
A war with BRUTUS and CASSIUS was accompanied by rian of the early Augustan age (27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.)
the terrible episode of the proscriptions. The triumvirs Trogus was a contemporary of LIVY; authored the Histo-
had their lists of enemies, and many died. One of the first riae Philippicae, or Philippic Histories, in 44 volumes. He
was CICERO, Antony’s hated enemy, cut down and his came probably from GALLIA NARBONENSIS, and his father
hands nailed to the Rostra. Others fled from Italy, many may have been used as an interpreter by Julius Caesar in
seeking safety with Sextus POMPEY, son of POMPEY THE 54 B.C.E. It has been argued that Trogus relied almost
GREAT. At the battle of PHILIPPI in 42, Antony and Octa- exclusively on Greek sources for his work, especially
vian destroyed the Liberators and terminated the last Timagenes, the evidence being his concentration on other
hopes for the Republic in the Roman world. With the vic- states of the ancient world, such as MACEDONIA and
tory, Antony went to the forefront in the triumvirate, for PARTHIA. Ignored to a great degree was Rome, which
an ill Octavian had not yet made his presence felt, and could have been a result of using Greek sources. Other
Lepidus was suspected of ulterior motives and secret writers consulted by Trogus included Theopompus, Tim-
negotiations with Sextus Pompey. According to the aeus, Posidonius, and Polybius. Trogus’s history survived
arrangements resulting from the victory, Antony com- only through its table of contents and the abridgement
manded all of Gaul (including Gallia Cisalpina), Octavian made by Justin (M. Junianus Justinius), who lived per-
had Spain, Africa and Sardinia, while Lepidus was to be haps in the second or third century C.E.
granted Africa from Octavian, if he stayed loyal to the
cause. Troyes City in northern GALLIA, on the Seine River
about 90 miles southeast of Paris. Of little importance
Italy became neutral territory as a result, but in truth until the 10th century C.E., Troyes was converted to
it was in Rome that Octavian consolidated his power, as Christianity in the fourth century and figured in the leg-
Antony abandoned the West and took up residence in the endary feats of St. Lupus. ATTILA the Hun was marching
East. Strains developed quickly, not between Antony and on Troyes in 453 but left the inhabitants unmolested
Octavian but because Antony’s wife FULVIA and his when Lupus (or St. Loup), using the sheer power of his
brother Lucius viewed Octavian as the enemy. The PERU- will, convinced the Scourge of God (as Attila was called)
SINE WAR in 41 was the result, and Octavian proved tri- to move elsewhere.
umphant. Fulvia died in 40, making a reconciliation
between the triumvirs possible. The Treaty of BRUNDISIUM Tubero, Lucius Aelius (fl. mid-first century B.C.E.)
was signed soon after. Lepidus retained Africa, but every- Adherent of the New Academy
thing else was divided between Antony and Octavian. Tubero was an intimate friend and brother-in-law to
Antony chose the East, leaving Octavian the western CICERO. He served as a lieutenant to Q. Cicero in Asia
regions, and the contract was sealed with Antony’s mar- from around 61 to 58 B.C.E. and later joined the Pom-
riage to Octavian’s sister OCTAVIA (1). Sextus Pompey peians in the war against Julius CAESAR. Pardoned by Cae-
remained a threat, and a treaty signed at Misenum sar, he returned to Rome, where he pursued literary
granted him Corsica, Sicily, and Sardinia. In return he interests. His historical work may have been completed
ceased his piratic activities. Freed of this irritant, Antony by his son Quintus Aelius TUBERO.
launched operations against ARMENIA and PARTHIA, and
Octavian returned to war with Sextus. By 37 both needed Tubero, Quintus Aelius (fl. late first century B.C.E.)
the other. Antony required troops, and Octavian needed Minor literary figure
ships. Through the intervention of Octavia the two met Tubero was the son of Lucius Aelius TUBERO, and consid-
again, at TARENTUM, coming away barely satisfied with ered an excellent orator, historian, and writer on law. He
the extension of the lex Titia. was mentioned in the Digest but also authored a sizable
history, dating from Rome’s earliest days down to the
While Antony was being defeated by the Parthians CIVIL WAR between POMPEY THE GREAT and CAESAR. In that
and falling under Queen CLEOPATRA’s spell, Octavian war he joined his father in aiding Pompey’s cause but was
destroyed Sextus Pompey in 36 at NAULOCHUS. That vic- granted a pardon by the victorious Caesar.
tory brought about the destruction of Lepidus as well, for
he tried to stage a coup and failed, spending his remain-

558 Tullianum,
dungeons
of Turranius served from the time of AUGUSTUS until the
reign of CLAUDIUS. This long-serving praefectus annonae
Tullianum, dungeons of Dismal prison (carcer) at the was one of the first officials to take the oath of allegiance
base of the Capitoline Hill and just north of the FORUM to Emperor TIBERIUS in 14 C.E.; he weathered the reigns of
ROMANUM. According to legend, the dungeons were built Tiberius and GAIUS CALIGULA and, incredibly, was still at
by Servius Tullius as an addition to the c a rcer of Rome and his post in 48, aiding Claudius in the crisis caused by
always had an unpleasant reputation; they achieved a spe- MESSALLINA.
cial notoriety in the reign of TIBERIUS. Through the efficient
work of SEJANUS, the Prefect of the PRAETORIAN GUARD, Turrullius, Publius (fl. late first century B.C.E.) Sena-
many died cruelly in the Tullianum until, in 31 C.E., tor and one of the plotters against Julius Caesar
Sejanus was himself taken there and executed. He survived the proscriptions of the SECOND TRIUMVI-
RATE, probably through his friendship with Marc ANTONY.
Turbo, Quintus Marcius (fl. 117–138 C.E.) Prefect of Subsequently, he lived with Antony as a client, escaping
the Praetorian Guard the vengeance of Octavian (AUGUSTUS). In 30 B.C.E., when
Turbo was prefect throughout much of the reign of Octavian was in a position of advantage after the battle of
Emperor HADRIAN and one of the most trusted friends ACTIUM, Antony tried to appease him by sending to him
and political allies of the emperor. From Dalmatia origi- Turrullius. Octavian then put him to death to avenge
nally, Turbo became Hadrian’s friend early on and was no Caesar and to appease Asclepius, the god of medicine,
doubt accepted into the Equestrians (EQUITES) as a result whose groves on Kos had been desecrated by Turrullius
of this relationship, which also probably aided his rise in when he chopped down the trees to build Antony’s ships.
the military. Upon the accession of Hadrian in 117, Turbo
took command of the legions in the Eastern provinces, Tuscus, Caecina (fl. first century C.E.) Prefect of Egypt
with orders to liquidate the Jewish rebels. This he accom- during part of the reign of Nero
plished ruthlessly, pacifying Egypt, Palestine, and Cyre- Tuscus was removed from his post and banished for the
naica. Pleased, the emperor put him in charge of sole reason that he had used the baths in ALEXANDRIA.
Mauretania where he crushed a Moorish uprising. There The baths had been constructed for an intended visit of
followed a rare honor. Turbo was named as legate for Nero in 67 C.E.
DACIA and PANNONIA, a highly unusual posting for a
member of the Equestrian Order. He proved the perfect Twelve Tables The oldest Roman legal code (dating
man for the job, reorganizing Dacia along Hadrian’s per- from 451/450 B.C.E.) and the basis for all subsequent
sonal lines of imperial policy. As a reward for his loyalty development in Rome’s complex system of LAW. While
and success, Turbo was made prefect of the Praetorian the actual date of the Twelve Tables, among other ques-
Guard, succeeding the voluntarily retiring Attianus. tions, has not been verified, they were probably written
According to the historian Dio, Turbo was an excellent as a LEX ordered by the Comitia Centuriata and pub-
prefect, humble and hardworking throughout his term of lished on bronze in the FORUM ROMANUM. D e s t royed by
office. He spent virtually the entire day at the palace, Gallic invaders in 390 B.C.E., the Tables were subse-
laboring as well through the night. His response to quently known only in fragmented form. It can be de-
Hadrian when told to remain in bed when sick: “The Pre- duced, however, that they centered on numerous aspects
fect should die on his feet.” As was the case with many of law and were fundamental to Roman legalism, as evi-
friends of Hadrian, Turbo was persecuted as the ruler denced by the continued adherence of subsequent law to
grew old. Hadrian probably put him to death or com- the tenets supposedly laid down by the Tables. In time,
pelled him to take his own life. Roman law surpassed the codes of the Twelve Tables,
rendering them obsolete. Prior to the Twelve Tables,
Turin City known originally as Augusta Taurinorum; a knowledge of the law had been the exclusive privilege of
creation of the Augustan policy of colonization through- the PATRICIANS.
out the Roman world, it was located in the Po Valley of
Gallia Cisalpina and in the shadow of the Alps. Turin was Ty re Ancient metropolis built on the Mediterranean
a city of little consequence until 69 C.E., when the inhabi- coast of Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) and considered one
tants had to extinguish a blaze that burned down a large of the great ports of antiquity. Its period of grandeur ended
number of structures. The fire may have been caused by in 322 B.C.E., when it was sacked by Alexander the Great.
VITELLIUS’s legions, who were on the point of murdering Henceforth it was overshadowed by ALEXANDRIA. As a city
one another. Turin was rebuilt but figured only slightly in in the Roman province of SYRIA, Tyre was noted for its pur-
the events of succeeding centuries. As with other Roman ple dye. From HEROD THE GREAT the city received financial
colonies, its greatness lay in the future. aid, and CLAUDIUS gave it further assistance, after which it
became known officially as Claudiopolis, although Tyre
Turranius, Gaius (fl. first century C.E.) Prefect of the
Grain for Rome

remained the common usage. STRABO wrote that it was not Tyrrhenian
 Sea 559
a pleasant place in which to live.
superior, especially when compared to the dangerous
Tyrrhenian Sea Body of water roughly confined by Adriatic. The number of ports and landing sites was also
the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily and the west- greater, making navigation easier, and it offered accessible
ern coast of Italy; known as the Tyrrhenum Mare. inland waterways, including the Arno and the TIBER.
Colonists in Italy settled on the western side of the With the establishment of the Roman Empire, patrolling
peninsula because the Tyrrhenian offered many advan- and defending the Tyrrhenian Sea became the responsibil-
tages over the Adriatic on the east. First, it allowed for ity of the imperial NAVY. At first the fleet for the Western
economic ties with southern Gaul (GALLIA), Spain (HIS- Mediterranean was stationed at Forum Iulii, but later it
PANIA), and AFRICA. Second, its weather was normally was moved to MISENUM, on the western Italian coast near
Naples.

U

Ubii Germanic tribe living on the east bank of the rounded by Goths and became adept at their language.
Rhine. The Ubii had had good relations with Julius CAE- Educated at CONSTANTINOPLE, around 341 he was conse-
SAR, but in 37 B.C.E., unable to withstand the incessant crated a bishop by EUSEBIUS of Constantinople (formerly
conflicts with the neighboring Germans, they asked Mar- the bishop of NICOMEDIA.) He proselytized to the peoples
cus AGRIPPA for permission to settle on Roman lands. beyond the Roman Empire, eventually returning to the
Agrippa agreed, and the Ubii were transported over the Goths settled along the Danube. He translated the Bible
Rhine to the area around what was later called Civitas into Gothic, and he led the tribes into ARIANISM, a hereti-
Ubiorum. A colony founded there by Rome, Colonia cal Christian doctrine pursued by his converts for cen-
Agrippinensis (COLOGNE), contributed to the Romaniza- turies.
tion of the tribesmen, who took to naming themselves
the Agrippenses. Ulpia Traiana Also called Vetera or Xanten; one of
the colonies founded by TRAJAN within Germany. Ulpia
Uldin (d. c. 412 C.E.) Chieftain of the Huns beyond the Traiana was located on the Lower Rhine, approximately
Danube during the reign of Arcadius (394–408) and into 66 miles north of Cologne. During the reign of AU-
that of Theodosius II (c. 395–412) GUSTUS (27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.) it was used as a legionary
Uldin probably did not have total control of the Hunnic fortress, built first of wood and then of stone, in the
people. Uldin was first known to the imperial govern- mid-first century C.E. The entire station, its canabae or
ment in December 400, when he lopped off the head of a civilian settlements and much of the XV Primagenia
troublesome Roman minister, Gainas, and sent it to the Legion, was destroyed during the rebellion of CIVILIS
emperor as a gift. Five years later, the Huns contributed in 69–70 C.E. Following the uprising, a new fortress
troops, including their client Sciri, to the cause of the was erected along with new canabae, and the city took
MAGISTER MILITUM, STILICHO, against the Visigoths’ King on importance and increased in size, resulting in the
ALARIC. An invasion of MOESIA around 408 was repulsed, foundation of a colony by Trajan c. 98–105. Ulpia Tra-
with thousands of Uldin’s Germanic allies falling into iana had an amphitheater, baths, and various temples,
Roman hands. Uldin retreated. Upon his death around which absorbed the original civilian settlement. For
four years later, the Huns were divided into three great many years the site was the headquarters of the V and
camps. XXI legions.

Ulfila (Ulphila; Ulphilas) (c. 311–383 C.E.) Bishop of Ulpian (Domitius Ulpianus) (d. 228 C.E.) Prefect of
the Goths and one of the first Christian missionaries to the Praetorian Guard during the reign of Severus Alexander
preach to the barbarians and a leading jurist
Ulfila was descended from a Christian Cappadocian who Domitius Ulpianus was born in TYRE and received an
had been captured by the Goths, and he was born sur- education in LAW. He emerged as a brilliant legalist in

560

the time of the Severans, producing the bulk of his Ursicinus 561
writings between the years 211 and 217, in the reign of
CARACALLA. For some offense he was banished by ELAGA- urban cohorts (cohortes urbanes) The police
BALUS but was recalled by Severus Alexander, who force in the city of ROME, established by Emperor AUGUS-
appointed him magister libellorum. He was later ap- TUS (ruled 27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.) as part of his extensive pro-
pointed prefect of the grain (praefectus annonae) and, in gram of reorganization for the city. Within Rome, the
222, the Praetorian prefect. He was assassinated by his cohorts were outmatched in strength and in political
own troops in 228. Ulpian’s importance to Roman law power by the PRAETORIAN GUARD, also stationed in the
rested in his mammoth output. He authored nearly 300 capital but infrequently used in the suppression of unrest.
books which were the basis for a large part of the Code Throughout the imperial era the urban cohorts were,
of Justinian. A compiler and commentator, Ulpian wrote despite the presence of the Guards, responsible for main-
Ad Sabinum, a 51-volume treatise on private law; Ad dic- taining order. The three cohortes urbanae, each 1,000 men
tum, focusing on the edicts of the praetors, in 81 vol- strong, were under the command of tribunes answerable
umes; and the extant Regularum liber singularum, which to the PREFECT OF THE CITY (the praefectus urbi). They
survives in an abridged form composed in the fourth were stationed in a barracks upon the Viminal Hill until
century. the time of AURELIAN, who built them a new headquar-
ters, the Castra Urbana, in the CAMPUS MARTIUS. Service
ultor Latin for “avenger,” applied to the god MARS by for regular members of the three (later four) cohorts was
Octavian (AUGUSTUS) in 42 B.C.E., when he vowed to seek normally for 20 years, although pay and service condi-
vengeance upon the LIBERATORS for the assassination of tions were much better than in the legions. Tribunes
Julius CAESAR. Mars had a personal connection to the often served in the urban cohorts before holding a similar
family of the Julians, who claimed the god as the leg- post in the Praetorian Guard, while the prefect of the city
endary founder of their line. After fulfilling his vow, emerged as a major figure politically, even in the late
Octavian built the TEMPLE OF MARS ULTOR, or Mars the empire. Other urban cohorts were known outside of
Avenger, placing it prominently in the FORUM AUGUSTUM. Rome, for example in LUGDUNUM (Lyons) and in
It was dedicated in 28 B.C.E. CARTHAGE.

Umbria Region of Italy to the south of Gallia Cisalpina Urbicus, Lollius (d. after 139 C.E.) Consul in 138 C.E.
and roughly between Etruria and Picenum. Called and a successful governor of Britannia from 139–142
Ombrica by the Greeks, the region was the home of the An African by birth, Urbicus attained imperial favor as an
powerful Umbri, who controlled most of central Italy. officer during the reign of Hadrian, especially during the
The Umbri were defeated and reduced by the Etruscans, Jewish rebellion, 132–135. Later, he served as governor of
the Gauls and finally by Rome, in 307 B.C.E. Throughout Germania Inferior and as consul. In 139, Antoninus Pius
the Republic, Umbria was one of the northern borders of appointed him LEGATE in Britannia, where Urbicus faced
Italy with the Rubicon serving as the political demarca- an invasion of the province by the Brigantes from the
tion point. Under AUGUSTUS it was made a district of north, who poured through the Wall of Hadrian. In a
Italia. The Via Flaminia ran through its rough, mountain- swift campaign, he defeated the barbarians, and to
ous terrain. strengthen the borders of Roman Britain he constructed
the Wall of Antoninus Pius (or Antonine Wall), which
Ummidius Quadratus (Gaius Ummidius Durmius ran between the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde in
Quadratus) (d. 60 C.E.) Governor of Syria modern Scotland. After returning to Rome, he served as
Ummidius served during the period of great tension prefect of the city.
between ROME and the Parthians (c. 54–60 C.E.). He held
two consulships, the second probably during the reign of Urgulanilla, Plautia See CLAUDIUS.
CLAUDIUS (41–54 C.E.) and was governor of Syria in 51,
when a crisis in ARMENIA followed the murder of King Ursacinus See VALENS (BISHOP OF MURSA).
MITHRIDATES (1). Radamistus, the usurper, had murdered
Mithridates, and the ensuing involvement of Parthia’s Ursicinus (fl. mid-fourth century C.E.) Magister equi-
VOLOGASES I and TIRIDATES in Armenian affairs drew the tum from 349 to 359 and magister peditum from 359 to 360
Roman general CORBULO (2) to the scene. Ummidius and Ursicinus served during the reign of CONSTANTINE and
Corbulo disagreed over matters of policy in the East, but was appointed master of the cavalry in 349 by CONSTAN-
Ummidius retained his post until his death, when Cor- TIUS II, to help administer the East. He was summoned
bulo succeeded him. Ummidius also was present in from the Persian frontier to Antioch by GALLUS CAESAR to
JUDAEA in 52, where he worked to repair the terrible assist in treason trials. After the fall of Gallus in 354,
records of previous procurators there. Ursicinus was recalled by Constantius II, who sent him to
the West to crush the usurper SILVANUS; for a time he
remained in Gaul as a magister equitum in the Western

562 Usipetes a colony that predated nearby Carthage, with which Utica
was a logical ally. When ROME emerged as the ultimate
provinces. He returned to the East in 357 to face the Per- victor in the Punic Wars, Utica broke its alliance with
sian invasion. Although promoted to master of the Carthage and received from Rome extensive land grants
infantry in 359, he was unable to prevent the fall of in AFRICA. During the Roman CIVIL WAR the remnant of
Amida. The details of Ursicinus’s life have survived the Pompeians on the continent retreated to Utica follow-
mainly through the account of the historian AMMIANUS ing the battle of THAPSUS in 46 B.C.E.; and there CATO UTI-
MARCELLINUS, who served on his staff. CENSIS killed himself. After Africa was taken by Julius
CAESAR, Utica was made a provincial capital and a
Usipetes Germanic tribe closely associated with the MUNICIPIUM, probably by Statilius TAURUS around 34
Tencteri and occupying the region of modern Metz (in B.C.E. Although the provincial administration was moved
eastern France) in the first century B.C.E. Along with the by Emperor AUGUSTUS (ruled 27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.) to
Tencteri, they felt increasing pressure from the SUEBI, and Carthage, Utica was still one of the leading centers of the
were eventually pushed to the Rhine. This migration province. A request was made during the reign of
came at the expense of the Gallic tribes, especially the HADRIAN (117–138) for promotion to full status as a
Menapii and the TREVERI. The Usipetes battled with the colony, but it was not until the time of Septimius SEVERUS
Treveri in 55 B.C.E. until repulsed by Julius CAESAR. Again (ruled 193–211), a native, that Utica enjoyed colonial
on the move, in 16 B.C.E. they resided for a time in the privilege.
area north of the Lippe and east of the Rhine.

Utica Large city on the African coast just west of
CARTHAGE. Founded by Phoenician traders, Utica became

V

Vaballath (Lucius Julius Aurelius Septimius Vabal- valarshapat So-called “New City” in ARMENIA;
lathus Athenodorus) (fl. mid-third century C.E.) King founded in 163 C.E. by STATIUS PRISCUS as a replacement
of Palmyra for the ancient Armenian capital of ARTAXATA. Priscus had
The son of ODAENATH and Queen ZENOBIA, Vaballath was earlier marched into Armenia and reclaimed the country
ruler of his land from 266 to 272. Vaballath assumed his from the Parthians, who had invaded a year before. To
father’s title upon the latter’s death in 266, and may also terminate the endless political bickering within Artaxata,
have taken the title of corrector Orientis, or leading offi- he destroyed the city and founded Valarshapat some
cial of the East for the Roman Empire. Realistically, miles away.
Vaballath held little power, as his mother Zenobia was the
driving force behind Palmyra’s rise to leading state of the Valens (d. 350 C.E.) Bishop of Mursa and one of the most
Eastern provinces. He finally did take the rank of Augus- influential prelates of the Western Church
tus in 272, but he was deposed when captured by With URSACINUS, bishop of Singidunum, he was an impor-
Emperor AURELIAN a short time later. tant leader of the Arian movement in the fourth century.
Both prelates were pupils of ARIUS, joining together to
Vadomar (mid-fourth century C.E.) King of the Ala- fight the champion of Christian orthodoxy, ATHANASIUS.
manni who shared power with his brother Gundomadus Through much of the reign of Emperor CONSTANTIUS II
Together they launched attacks on Gaul but signed a (337–361 C.E.), they acted as the emperor’s spiritual advis-
peace treaty with Emperor CONSTANTIUS II in 356. When ers, opposing Athanasius at the councils of TYRE (335),
Gundomadus died shortly thereafter, elements of Vado- Arles (353), Milan (355), and Sirmium (357). Neverthe-
mar’s people took hostile actions in Gaul (c. 357); two less, Valens and his colleague swayed with the political
years later Constantius put these incursions to use by winds and often changed their views to correspond to the
encouraging Vadomar to make war upon Julian the fluctuating mind of Constantius or to make peace with
Apostate, whom the emperor did not trust. Another Constans, his brother, ruler of the West until his death in
peace was signed in 359, this time with Julian. In 361, 350. In Constantius, however, they found an ultimately
Vadomar entered and pillaged a part of Raetia. Julian’s reliable champion, working for him in the defense of
solution was to kidnap the barbarian ruler. Ironically, ARIANISM.
Vadomar emerged as one of the first Germans to be hired
by the emperors, for Emperor VALENS made him a gen- Valens, Fabius (d. 69 C.E.) Legate of the I Legion at
eral and sent him to recapture Nicaea from the usurper Bonn, in Germania Inferior, in 69 C.E.
P rocopius (356–366). He subsequently fought against Valens was a prime mover in the rise of VITELLIUS to the
the Persians but did not lose touch with his own people, throne. An older general, he was described by the histo-
his son Vithicab becoming king before being assassinated rian TACITUS (1) as both intelligent and enterprising.
in 368. When Galba was raised to the throne in late 68, Fabius

563

564 Valens,F
 lavius
Julius composed of the OSTROGOTHS and VISIGOTHS, had been
pushed into the Danubian frontier by the advancing HUNS.
Valens killed his own governor, Fonteius Capito, on sus- Valens allowed the barbarians to settle, but Roman cruelty
picion of his plotting against the new emperor, and then and manipulation caused war to erupt. The campaign of
kept an eye on L. VERGINIUS RUFUS, the governor in Ger- Adrianople began, a series of events culminating in the
mania Superior. For this loyalty, he was given no reward, disaster of a battle. Valens was killed, and a state of panic
and, feeling betrayed, he convinced his equally disillu- descended upon Constantinople.
sioned colleague CAECINA ALIENUS, commander of the IV
Legion in Germania Superior, to join him in the cause of Valens was a failure as an emperor, never equaling
Vitellius. Power and wealth could be gained if they were his brother. He differed with Valentinian in his religious
successful. policy as well, having been baptized an Arian. He perse-
cuted orthodox Christians, putting some of them to
On January 2, 69, Valens marched to Cologne, where death or exiling them. AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS described
he draped Vitellius with the purple robes of emperor. him as cruel, greedy, unjust, and ever eager to listen to
Soon, both provinces of Germany followed enthusiasti- informers.
cally as the march on Rome began. In the massive col-
umn that set out, Valens took the head of one, slashing Valentinian I (321–375 C.E.) Emperor in the West from
his way violently through Gaul, extorting large sums of 364 to 375
money from the towns and cities in return for not sta- Valentinian was the son of the Pannonian Gratianus the
tioning his troops there. In April, he linked with Caecina Elder, who emerged from peasantry to become a noted
and together they won the battle of BEDRIACUM, against general. Valentinian traveled with his father to AFRICA,
OTHO. They informed Vitellius of their triumph and rising through the ranks while receiving a surprisingly
entered Rome. extensive education. Although he could read and was a
painter, his main talents were in war, serving under the
CONSUL for 69, Valens continued to increase his emperors CONSTANTIUS II and JULIAN. Dismissed by the
wealth by plundering the property of returning exiles, latter in 362, and banished to Egypt because of his CHRIS-
turning what was left of popular opinion against his glut- TIANITY, he was recalled by Jovian in 363 and used to
tonous patron. A short time later, word arrived that VES- hold the allegiance of the troops in the Gallic provinces.
PASIAN had declared himself a claimant for the throne. He was also appointed commander of the SCUTARII.
Valens fell ill, and Caecina, already plotting the betrayal
of Vitellius, was put in charge of Italy’s defenses. When He was stationed at Ancyra in Asia Minor when, on
Caecina’s attempted defection was reported. Valens left February 25, 364, Jovian died. The army generals, delib-
Rome with a camp of followers and eunuchs. Strangely erating to find a successor, decided on Valentinian.
inactive, he chose not to proceed to the front but jour- Shortly after his elevation, he named as his colleague his
neyed to Gaul instead, to rally supporters of Vitellius. His brother VALENS, giving him total control of the East while
hopes ended swiftly with his capture by a Flavian detach- he retained the rule of the West. This separation of the
ment. At Urbinum he was executed, his head used as a Roman Empire set a precedent for the subsequent split-
symbol of the demise of the Vitellians. ting of the imperial realm and the inevitable estrange-
ment between the two spheres. His decision was proven
Valens, Flavius Julius (c. 328–378 C.E.) Emperor of astute in the short term, however, for frontier troubles
the East from 364 to 378 and barbarian crises dominated his entire reign. In 365,
Valens earned notoriety by suffering one of the worst the Alamanni poured over the Rhine but were destroyed
defeats in Roman history at the battle of ADRIANOPLE, on in battle by the MAGISTER MILITUM JOVINUS. Valentinian
August 9, 378, at the hands of the GOTHS. Valens was the then launched brutal counterattacks across the river, and
second son of Gratianus the Elder, founder of the Valen- a campaign was carried across the Channel in 367 to help
tinian house and brother of Emperor VALENTINIAN I. He relieve Britain from the threat of the Picts and the Sax-
was born around 328 and held various posts under Julian ons—followed by more years of bloodshed and labor to
and Jovian but found greater advancement under Valen- improve the borders.
tinian, who first made him a TRIBUNE and then promoted
him to full status as co-emperor or Augustus. To aid in protecting the Western provinces, Valen-
tinian rebuilt the fortifications along the entire Rhine,
Valens was given command of the East but lacked the while placing greater emphasis on the armed forces. Sol-
drive and skill of his brother. These deficiencies, com- diers were given the first places in imperial government,
bined with the unpopularity of Petronius, father of his and taxes, when necessary, were often harshly exacted to
wife, Albia Domnica, caused internal dissension and a pay for his wars and martial efforts. Petronius Probus was
rebellion. In 365 the usurper PROCOPIUS was proclaimed at unfortunately given a free hand, reigning as Valentinian’s
CONSTANTINOPLE but was defeated by Valens at NACOLEA agent in the West, with terror as his weapon. His excesses
the following year. After repulsing the Goths who had overshadowed the genuine concern the emperor had for
arrived to aid the usurper, Valens spent several years fight- his long-suffering subjects. Attempts were made to curtail
ing conspiracies in Constantinople, the Persians in
Mesopotamia and, once more, the Goths. This last enemy,

governmental abuse and religious toleration was pro- Valentinus 565
moted to ease the social strains between Christianity and
PAGANISM. Such decisions as increasing the powers of The last relatively stable ruler of the Western Empire and
provincial heads and promoting coarse generals to the the final member of the House of Valentinian to occupy
senatorial order, enraged the old members of the SENATE, the imperial throne, he was the son of Galla PLACIDIA and
who chafed at further reductions of their influence. Emperor CONSTANTIUS III. Galla was the half-sister of the
childless Emperor HONORIUS, who named Valentinian to
Hopes that the frontier would be stabilized were be his heir in 421. A bitter quarrel between Galla and
dashed in 374, when the SARMATIANS and Germans Honorius in 423 forced Valentinian and his mother to flee
breached the walls of the forts on the DANUBE. Valentinian to THEODOSIUS II in CONSTANTINOPLE, despite the lack of
marched to the scene, repulsed the invasion and made a recognition that Theodosius had given to Valentinian’s
vengeful raid over the river. The following year he claims. In 423, Honorius died and Theodosius was forced
received a delegation of the Quadi, becoming so angry at to accept Valentinian as the only candidate for the West-
their disrespectful attitude that he suffered a fit of ern throne in the face of JOHN THE USURPER. In 424,
apoplexy and died on November 17. The historian AMMI- Valentinian was crowned, while the Eastern generals,
ANUS MARCELLINUS thought little of him, reflecting the dis- Ardaburius and Aspar, captured Ravenna in 425 and exe-
taste of others. However, he left behind him a rejuvenated cuted John.
army, a sound bureaucracy and a competent son, GRATIAN.
Valentinian arrived in Italy in 425, taking up his
Valentinian II (371–392 C.E.) Emperor of the West from duties while the real power rested in the hands of his
375 to 392 mother, who acted as regent. Her authority was at first
One of the characteristically weak rulers who came to challenged and then, in 433, broken by the ambitious
occupy that throne, Flavius Valentinianus was the son of MAGISTER MILITUM AETIUS, who defeated Galla’s champion,
Emperor VALENTINIAN I and his second wife, Justina, and the magister Boniface. With Aetius in control of the
the half brother of GRATIAN. Born at TRIER, he was pro- imperial administration, Valentinian had little impact
claimed coemperor with Gratian four years later upon the upon policy but probably supported the failed attempt to
death of their father. The main instigator of his elevation subdue the VANDALS in AFRICA under their King GEISERIC.
was the MAGISTER MILITUM MEROBAUDES (1), ostensibly to Twice an army was sent against the Vandals, but both
prevent any political chaos, as Valentinian I died sud- were defeated, in part by Geiseric’s outstanding leader-
denly. Although Gratian accepted the demands of the ship and in part by Aetius’s jealousy of any rivals. By 442,
Danubian troops that his brother be made co-emperor, the West admitted defeat just in time to learn of a new
from the start it was clear that Valentinian would possess threat from the East, the HUNS. Angered by a planned
little political power. In 378, when Valens was killed at marriage to a Roman whom she disliked, Honoria, Valen-
the battle of ADRIANOPLE, Gratian nominated THEODOSIUS tinian’s sister, invited Attila the Hun to Italy to defend her
I to fill the vacant throne of the East, not Valentinian. honor in 450.
This was a good choice, for Gratian was himself
destroyed by the usurper Magnus MAXIMUS in 383. Attila’s demands for her hand were rejected, precipi-
tating the Huns’ invasion of the empire’s Gallic lands.
By a treaty among Magnus, Theodosius and Valen- Aetius won the great battle of CATALAUNIAN PLAIN in 452
tinian, the young emperor was allowed to reside in Italy, but refused to annihilate the Huns, allowing them to again
with influence at court passing to his mother Justina. menace Italy. Rome was saved by Pope Leo, and Attila
This arrangement was in force until 387, when Magnus died a short time later. Such seemingly divineinterv e n t i o n
invaded Italy, forcing Valentinian and his mother to flee could not prevent court conspiracies against Aetius. The
to Theodosius. After the fall of Magnus, Theodosius sent conspiracy led by PETRONIUS MAXIMUS and HERACLEUS THE
Valentinian II back to his throne; but Theodosius, who EUNUCH convinced Valentinian to remove his magister mil-
chose to remain in the West until 391, and then the mag- i t u m. This he did, personally murdering Aetius in Septem-
ister militum ARBOGAST, held true authority. Out of some ber 454. Unfortunately, another struggle erupted in the
strange belief that he could assume control of his own palace between Petronius and Heracleus, with Valentinian
destiny, Valentinian tried to replace Arbogast but was favoring the latter. Angered, Petronius engineered another
found dead on May 15, 392, quite possibly from suicide. assassination on March 15, 455, just after Valentinian’s
Valentinian had also been dominated by AMBROSE, the third decade of rule. He was killed by two one-time lieu-
formidable bishop of Milan, who pressured the emperor tenants of Aetius. The West was doomed.
into denying the petition of the SENATE to restore the
Altar of Victory, a bitter blow to PAGANISM. Valentinus (fl. second century C.E.) Gnostic theologian
and founder of the heretical sect of Valentinians
Valentinian III (c. 419–455 C.E.) Emperor of the West According to Epiphanius, St. Irenaeus, and other sources,
(425–455) Valentinus was a native of Egypt, born probably on the
coast. After studying in Alexandria, he journeyed to
Rome, where he resided from about 136 to 165, arriving
during the pontificate of Pope Hyginus (r. 136–140) and

566 Valeria,G
 aleria him, but finally she was caught and beheaded, perhaps in
315. According to the Christian writer Lactantius, Valeria
departing during that of Anicetus (r. 155–166). He was was a Christian, a fact unverified in any other account.
initially associated with the orthodox Christians of Rome
and, as written by TERTULLIAN (Adversus Valentinianos), Valerian (Publius Licinius Valerianus) (d. 260 C.E.)
he had aspirations of being elected bishop of Rome, “quia Emperor from 253 to 260
et ingenio poterat et eloquio” (“because of his intellectual A persecutor of Christians, Valerian was captured and
ability and eloquence”). Disappointed in this ambition, eventually killed by the Persians. Valerian was born late
he shifted away from orthodoxy and established himself in the second century C.E., and his early career is unclear,
as a heretical theologian. Most likely excommunicated, although he was probably a CONSUL in the reign of
he traveled to Cyprus, where he died. Few of his writings SEVERUS ALEXANDER (222–235 C.E.). He played a part in
are extant, but he is the reputed author of Evangelium the usurpation of Gordian I in AFRICA and was given a
Veritatis (Gospel of Truth), a curious fusion of New Testa- post in the administration of DECIUS (249–251), perhaps
ment writings with Gnostic doctrines, a Coptic version of because of their mutual dislike of CHRISTIANITY. By 253 he
which was discovered in 1946 at Nag Hammadi. His orig- was in command of the legions on the Rhine frontier,
inal theology was highly influential in shaping subse- receiving a plea to march to the aid of Emperor Treboni-
quent Gnostic thought, especially as it was elaborated by anus Gallus against AEMILIAN. Gallus was killed before
his disciples, the Valentinians, including Bardesanes, Her- Valerian could arrive. He was proclaimed emperor by
acleon, and Theodatus. his troops in Raetia. Aemilian’s army, not desiring a civil
war, murdered their master and swore allegiance to Vale-
Valentinus held that all things begin as emanations rian. The new emperor then proceeded to Rome, where
from the Bythos, or Primal Being. The first beings, called the SENATE accepted him and his son Gallienus as co-
the aeons, numbered 30, made up of 15 pairs, the syzy- emperors.
gies. As the result of the sin of Sophia, one of the youngest
aeons, the visible (i.e., the lower) world came into being. One of Valerian’s earliest policies was a purge of the
Her child was Demiurge, at times considered the God of Christians in the empire. His main problems, however,
the Old Testament. Humankind was the highest being of were to be found outside of the imperial borders. Barbar-
the lower world, and redemption brought a freedom of the ians poured over the DANUBE and across the Black Sea,
spiritual (higher) nature from servitude to the material bringing terror and devastation to the Balkans and parts
world. The mission of Christ and the Holy Spirit was to of Asia Minor. Valerian had already chosen to attack these
bring that redemption. Christologically, Valentinus crises by appointing Gallienus to control the West, while
believed that the aeon Christ united himself with the man he marched to the East to make war upon the GOTHS. A
Jesus so that mankind might learn of its great destiny, that plague weakened his legions, however, and word sud-
knowledge called gnosis. Such gnosis, however, was denly arrived from SYRIA that the Persians under SHAPUR I
attainable only by the pneumatics, or men of the spirit, had invaded ARMENIA, CAPPADOCIA, and the Syrian territo-
identified with the Valentinians. Christians and some ries, capturing Hatra, Doura, and even Antioch. The dan-
pagans were classified as psychics and were able by good ger posed by Shapur outweighed that of the Goths, and
deeds to reach a middle kingdom ruled by Demiurge. All Valerian set out for Mesopotamia with a depleted and
the others, deemed hylics (engrossed in matter) were exhausted army in 259. In late spring of 260, he fought
doomed to eternal damnation. A complex theological sys- the battle of EDESSA but soon fell into the hands of the
tem relying upon Christian, Pythagorean, and Platonic Persians. He was humiliated by Shapur, killed and report-
concepts, Valentinianism became divided into western and edly stuffed to be put on display in a Persian temple as a
eastern (Oriental) branches. Its influence has been noted trophy. The defeat and murder of a Roman emperor could
by scholars not only in broad Gnosticism but also in many not have come at a worse time for the empire.
heretical Christian movements such as Pelagianism.
Valerianus, Publius Licinius Cornelius (d. 258 C.E.)
Valeria, Galeria (d. 315 C.E.) Empress from 293 to 311 Little known and short-lived older son of Emperor Gallienus
The daughter of Emperor DIOCLETIAN, she married when Valerianus was, despite his young age, elevated around
the system of the TETRARCHY (co-emperors) was estab- 256 to the rank of Caesar, owing to the crises besetting
lished by her father, Galerius, the man appointed to be the empire. He was not a major participant in his father’s
Caesar to Diocletian. This union cemented the ties be- campaigns. SALONINUS, his younger brother, replaced
tween the emperor and his deputy. She eventually pos- him.
sessed the titles of AUGUSTA and Mater Castrorum, or
Mother of the Camp. Galerius died in 311, and Valeria Valerius Asiaticus, Decimus (d. 47 C.E.) Courtier in
was entrusted to the care of Licinius Licinianus; not the reigns of Gaius Caligula (37–41 C.E.) and Claudius
trusting him, she fled to MAXIMINUS DAIA, who wanted to (41–54 C.E.)
marry her. When she refused, he sent her in exile to
SYRIA. Upon the death of Maximinus in 313, her death
sentence was passed by Licinius. For a time she eluded

CONSUL during the reign of Gaius and again in 46 C.E., VarahranI
 567
Valerius was from Gallia Narbonensis. Valerius was a
client of Lady ANTONIA (1), and probably met eventual SUEBI and the ALANS. In recognition of their supremacy,
emperor Gaius under her roof. He was a close adviser to the imperial government invited the Vandals to live as a
Gaius, suffering severe insults at his hands but always federation in Spain, a status accepted by the mobile
managing to keep his head. In 41, he was jubilant at the clans.
assassination of Caligula, saying to a crowd afterward
that he wished he had been the doer of the deed. Known This imperial policy ended in 416, after a treaty with
to be wealthy and a superb athlete, Valerius purchased the advancing VISIGOTHS. King WALLIA of the Visigoths
the old gardens of Lucullus and beautified them to such then embarked upon a relentless war in Spain, smashing
an extent that they were famed throughout Rome. the Vandals, with the Suebi and Alans, in 416–418. At
Despite his friendship with Claudius, including journey- the conclusion of Wallia’s campaigns, the Visigoths
ing with him on the British campaign of 43, Valerius fell received parts of Gaul and the remnants of the states in
prey to the cruel greed of Empress MESSALLINA, who prob- Spain united under Gunderic, king of the Vandals and
ably desired his gardens. Condemned, he killed himself, Alans.
ordering that his body be burned on a pyre in the gar-
dens. Recognizing that they could not long survive in
Europe, the Vandals and Alans constructed ships and
See also GARDENS OF ASIATICUS. went in search of a new home. (ALARIC, king of the Visi-
goths, had hoped to do the same thing but died before his
Valerius Maximus (fl. early first century C.E.) Writer plans could come to fruition.) Within a year the Vandal
Valerius’s main work, Factorum et dictorum memorabilium ships had taken the Balearic Islands and discovered
libri (The Book of Memorable Deeds and Words), was dedi- Roman Africa on the horizon. In 428, Geiseric came to
cated to TIBERIUS and published after 31 C.E. Valerius was power, exerting a most profound effect upon his people
of unknown origin but probably of modest means. and upon the entire empire. For nearly 50 years, until his
Through Sextus Pompeius (CONSUL in 14 C.E.) and by death in 477, this half-brother of Gunderic made the Van-
base flattery of Tiberius, he was able to survive the harsh dals a proud, organized power in the Mediterranean. In
reign. His Factorum was a compilation of historical events 429, he received an invitation from the MAGISTER MILITUM,
shallowly researched and written in an ostentatious style; BONIFACE, to enter Africa; he swept into the region, bring-
nine books survived (there may have been more) ing the Alans and Suebi in his train. His initial goal was
although other works of Valerius may have been mis- Mauretania, and his troops destroyed everything in their
taken as part of this work by later compilers. In the work, path, despite the efforts of the Romans to halt him. Africa
Valerius lauded Tiberius and included an attack on the fell and the Vandal kingdom there was established, By
fallen prefect SEJANUS, thus dating the work to after 31. 439, Geiseric was in possession of CARTHAGE, where he
made his capital. Old families in the region were liqui-
Vandals One of the most powerful and successful of dated or stripped of their privileges, and the Christians
the Germanic tribes; not only ravaged the Western Em- suffered terrible privations.
pire but also established their own kingdom in AFRICA.
Further, the Vandals produced GEISERIC, arguably the The Vandal kingdom of Africa prospered, and in 455
greatest barbarian king who ever battled ROME. Geiseric even invaded Italy, sacking Rome while his fleets
made war on much of the Mediterranean. Corsica, the
The Vandals (also called Vandilii) originally occu- Italian coast, Sardinia, and Sicily all felt the terror of his
pied a position along the Baltic coast of nort h e rn Ger- forces. Geiseric outlived the Western Empire by one year,
many but chose to migrate south, settling in the area of while his kingdom was sustained until 535, when the
modern Hungary in the mid-second century C.E. This famed Byzantine general, Belisarius, destroyed the Van-
region, just to the north of the MARCOMANNI, became dals and annexed their lands to the Byzantine Empire.
known as Vandalici Montes, and from there the Vandals The best source on the later Vandals is De Bello Vandalico,
launched punitive expeditions along much of the or The Vandal War, by PROCOPIUS.
DANUBE, reaching as far east as DACIA and PANNONIA and
as far south as RAETIA and Italy. The Rhine frontiers, nor- Varahran I (d. 276 C.E.) King of Persia, ruling from 273
mally impregnable to the barbarians, were ready to be to 276
b reached at the start of the fifth century, and in 406 the Also called Vahram I, he was the son of SHAPUR I and the
Vandals joined with other Germanic peoples in crossing brother of Hormazd I Ardashir (the successor to Shapur
the river, passing through Germania and entering Gaul. in 272), Varahran succeeded when the heir died. Little is
After three years of fighting, they surrendered to pre s- known of his early years, except that he served as gover-
sures from others and moved into Spain, where they nor of Khorassan, one of the important steps for obtain-
became somewhat divided, sharing the region with the ing the Persian throne. He ruled briefly, noted only for
reversing the policy of Shapur toward Mani and
MANICHAEISM; Mani was put to death after having enjoyed
imperial favor. Varahran II followed his father to the
throne in 276.

568 Varahran
II made Vardanes the sole ruler, with Gotarzes serving as
his chief ally and client king. Internal troubles continued,
Varahran II (d. 293 C.E.) King of Persia, ruling from 276 as Gotarzes, again supported by some of the Parthian
to 293 nobles, made one last attempt at the throne. Vardanes
Also known as Vahram II, he was governor of Khorassan gained a victory but was assassinated, in 45 or 47, and
before succeeding to the throne. As a monarch, Varahran Gotarzes was triumphant.
was involved in frequent struggles with both the Roman
Empire and his own brother Hormazd (or Hormizd). Varius Rufus, Lucius (fl. first century B.C.E.) Poet
When war broke out with the Roman Empire in 283, Varius supported first Julius CAESAR and then Octavian
Emperor Carus proved victorious over Varahran, captur- (AUGUSTUS), composing epic poems in their honor, and
ing Ctesiphon and Seleucia and subjugating Mesopotamia. was also a friend of both HORACE and VIRGIL. Rufus joined
The subsequent peace terms forced the Persian to surre n- Plotius Tucca in editing the Aeneid after Virgil’s death.
der formally ARMENIA and Mesopotamia, and he may have Rufus’s two greatest works were On Death, an Epicurean-
lost more had Carus not dropped dead in the summer of influenced poem reflecting the teachings of Philodemos,
283. All thoughts of recovering the lost terr i t o ry were put and the tragedy Thyestes, performed around 29 B.C.E.
aside as Hormazd, then governor of Khorassan, began a
revolt. Bitter fighting was necessary before order could be Varro, Marcus Terentius (116–27 B.C.E.) soldier, edi-
restored. To ensure stability, the king placed his own tor, and librarian
son, Varahran III, as ruler of the Sacae, who had aided Varro was born at Reate in the Sabine country, or possibly
Hormazd. in ROME, receiving an excellent education from such
instructors as L. Aelius Stilo and the noted scholar ANTI-
Varahran III (d. c. 293 C.E.) King of Persia for only one OCHUS OF ASCALON. Reaching the rank of PRAETOR, he
year saw service in ILLYRICUM before becoming a partisan of
Varahran succeeded his father, Varahran II, in 293. He POMPEY THE GREAT. As one of Pompey’s officers he fought
had earlier served as king of the Sacae after the revolt of in the Spanish region against the pirates, earning the
his uncle Hormazd (c. 283–284) had been crushed. His corona rostrata, or crown of victory. In 49 B.C.E., he
powers were merely gubernatorial, but that training made rejoined Pompey, this time against CAESAR. His field was
him ostensibly ready for the Persian throne. Unfortu- once more Spain, but he failed miserably.
nately, he was unprepared for the uprising of his great-
uncle NARSES, who ousted him from power, probably after Varro was pardoned by Caesar, who returned him to
only four months. public favor and appointed him chief librarian in 47.
With the assassination of Caesar in 44, Varro suffered
Varahran V (fl. early fifth century C.E.) King of Persia politically, as Marc ANTONY placed his name on the list of
The son of YAZDAGIRD I, he ruled from 420 to 439, in a proscriptions in 43. He fled from ROME but lost his house
reign notable for persecution of Christians and for a tem- and had his library plundered. Octavian’s (AUGUSTUS) tri-
porary breakdown in relations with the Roman Empire. umph permitted him to return to Rome, and his last years
As an ardent Zoroastrian, Varahran allowed the Chris- were spent writing and studying. His vast output on a
tians in his domain to be purged ruthlessly, combining great number of topics earned him the title “most learned
this activity with hostility toward Roman merchants. A of Romans.”
war broke out in 421, and General Ardaburius gained a
Roman victory over the Persians. Negotiations followed Varro’s works encompassed a depth of knowledge—
but were broken by a sudden attack on the Romans that science, history, literature, grammar, law, music, medicine,
failed miserably. Peace was made in 422 and would last agriculture—although little has survived. He probably
for nearly a century. The Christian persecution was eased authored over 600 books, but only 55 are known today,
as Varahran spent the rest of his life battling with barbar- either through fragments or titles. Of these, but two, Res
ian peoples who were threatening the eastern regions of Rusticae and De Lingua Latina (On the Latin language),
his realm. are partially extant. The Res Rusticae (Agriculture) sur-
vived intact in three books containing his studies of
Vardanes (d. 45 or 47 C.E.) Ruler of the Parthian Empire agriculture, livestock breeding, and the animals that pop-
Vardanes’s authority was contested from 38 to 45/47. ulated farms. While clever and imaginative, the study is
Sometime before 40 (probably in 38), Artabanus II died, intensely organized. De Lingua Latina was composed of 25
and his successor was Vardanes, one of his sons. Another books; books 5 and 6 are complete, and 7 to 10 are
son, Gotarzes II, rose up with allies at court and ousted incomplete. Dedicated at first to the Quaestor Septimius,
his brother. Gotarzes’s cruel reign was brought to an end it was, from book 5, written in honor of CICERO and was
in 42, and Vardanes returned, only to face a second rebel- published before 43 B.C.E. Other efforts by Varro that were
lion as his brother gathered an army from less loyal lost include a social history, portraits of famous Romans
provinces. Bloodshed was averted by a reconciliation that and Greeks, a compilation of all areas essential to study,

and the 41 volumes of Antiquitates (Antiquities), dedi- VaticanH
 ill 569
cated to Caesar; books 1 to 25 centered on humanity,
while the last 16 were concerned with divine affairs. The Varus to develop the region without war. The people of
Antiquitates was dated to 47 B.C.E. the territory were not prepared to accept his program,
and Arminius and the CHERUSCI, joined by other allies,
Varus, Alfenus (fl. mid-first century C.E.) Prefect of the trapped Varus in the Teutoburg Forest of northwest Ger-
Praetorian Guard in the reign of Vitellius (69 C.E.) many, annihilating the XVII, XVIII and XIX legions. In
Varus was serving in the Rhine legion as prefect of the the battle, which lasted three days, the Romans fought
camp (a senior post as centurion) in 69, when the troops bravely, but Varus, sensing doom, killed himself. When
helped place Vitellius on the throne. He distinguished Augustus heard of the disaster, he tore his clothes and
himself in the campaign by restoring discipline to the screamed: “Varus, bring back my legions!” Varus was
often unruly cohorts and fought well at the first battle of thus blamed for the collapse of imperial policy in Ger-
BEDRIACUM against OTHO. Thus, when Publilius Sabinus, many, and no further attempts were made to subdue the
the Praetorian prefect, fell from favor, Vitellius appointed Germanic peoples beyond the Rhine.
Varus as his replacement, eventually naming Julius
Priscus as his colleague. Later in that year the legions See GERMANIA.
favoring VESPASIAN marched on ROME, and Vitellius sent
his prefects to the north of Italy to organize defenses. At Vasio Town (now Vaison-la-Romaine) in GALLIA NAR-
Narnia they allowed their troops to surrender, fleeing BONENSIS near Avignon, situated east of the Rhone River
themselves to Rome as the Flavians advanced. Varus par- and to the north of Massilia. Vasio was originally a small
ticipated in the fight for the capitol but could not prevent site, but around 20 B.C.E., in conjunction with the impe-
its fall. He was spared by Vespasian. rial policy of development, a new community was started
nearby. Subsequently, Vasio mirrored Gallia Narbonensis
Varus, Arrius (fl. mid-first century C.E.) Prefect of the in the adoption of Roman architecture and lifestyle, soon
Praetorian Guard for a brief time in 69–70 C.E. boasting a theater and a basilica, as well as numerous
A long-time soldier, Varus was noticed under CORBULO Roman houses. Archaeologically it has been of great value
(2) in ARMENIA but gained a post as a senior centurion in offering examples of housing in the first century C.E.,
through Emperor NERO, reportedly for maligning the especially the state of the Gallic villa.
character of his superior. In 69, he was serving with the
legions at the DANUBE and joined in the cause of VES- Vatican Hill The Mons Vaticanus and its surrounding
PASIAN, with Antonius Primus. In the subsequent cam- area, the Campus Vaticanus. The most western of the
paign, Varus was a leading, if not impetuous figure, HILLS OF ROME is located across the TIBER and was at first
heading an ill-advised cavalry charge in the early stages of relatively unimportant. Under the emperors, however, a
the second battle of BEDRIACUM. After the fall of ROME, number of structures were founded upon or near it.
Varus was considered an important officer who could not HADRIAN’s mausoleum, now called Castel Sant’ Angelo,
be ignored by Mucianus, Vespasian’s official representa- was constructed just to its east, and GAIUS CALIGULA
tive in the city. A praetorship was given to him, as well as began a private stadium there, called the Circus Gai, that
the prefectship of the reconstituted Praetorian Guard. was finished by NERO. It became known as the Circus Gai
Once Mucianus was in firm control, however, Varus was et Neronis or as the Circus Neronis. He also created the
edged out and given the post of prefect of the grain. He Horti Neroni, the Gardens of Nero. According to tradi-
may have been put to death during the reign of DOMITIAN, tion, CHRISTIANITY endured one of its blackest hours in 64
in vengeance for his betrayal of Corbulo. Domitian had C.E., when Nero used the Circus Gai to massacre Chris-
married Corbulo’s daughter, Domitia Longina. tians. With a reputation for martyrdom, Vatican Hill was
sealed forever as a place of great importance by the
Varus, Publius Quinctilius (d. 9 C.E.) Consul in 13 upside-down crucifixion of St. PETER in that same year.
B.C.E. and one of the most famous generals in Roman history
Varus suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the Ger- A shrine was established by the Roman Christians
man chief ARMINIUS in the TEUTOBURG FOREST. Varus sometime in the second century C.E. to mark the tomb of
came form a noble family, improving his station by mar- St. Peter, thus designating the center of what would later
rying Augustus’s great-niece. In 6 C.E., he was appointed become the papal Vatican, headquarters of Catholic
governor of SYRIA and sent two legions into JUDAEA to Christianity. In 326, CONSTANTINE the Great made his
quell local unrest after the territory was converted to a patronage of the faith obvious by erecting a large, five-
province. By 9 C.E., it was the belief of AUGUSTUS that the aisled basilica there, over the shrine of St. Peter. Around
vast region of Germania beyond the Rhine was ripe for this original structure the Vatican grew, although the pon-
Romanization and provincialization, and he hoped to use tiffs of Rome actually resided in the Lateran Palace. Con-
stantine’s basilica did not survive the Renaissance, for
Pope Julius II found the structural damage beyond repair
and built a new one. For an idea of the original architec-
ture, Constantine’s other creation, St. Paul’s Outside the

570 Vatinius ably a Christian, holding some post in government. His
book called for a return to classical training in war while
Walls, is a prime example. Archaeological work continues presenting the traditional methods of drilling, legionary
today, as the area below the Vatican is being excavated, at organization, and tactics. While he wrote distinctly as an
the site deemed the tomb of St. Peter. amateur, he did use numerous sources, including Celsus,
SALLUST, and Frontinus. Vegetius may also have authored
Vatinius (fl. mid-first century C.E.) Deformed courtier a veterinary work, MULOMEDICINA, attributed to a con-
during the reign of Nero (54–68 C.E.) temporary named P. Vegetius.
He came from Beneventum and was called a cobbler by the
satirist Juvenal, possibly because of family connections to See LEGIONS.
that profession. He was allowed to remain a fixture of
palace life because of his dreadful appearance, while Veiento, Fabricius (Aulus Didius Gallus Fabricius
u n d e rneath he harbored ambition and cunning. Vatinius Veiento) (fl. first century C.E.) Thrice Consul under the
ingratiated himself with Nero and was soon accusing vari- Flavians (in the 80s C.E.)
ous people of crimes, emerging as one of the more hated In 62, he had been expelled from Italy by NERO for slan-
DELATORES of Nero’s reign. His nose provided the name for dering the gods and their priests, but he apparently
a kind of jug with a strangely shaped spout. returned with VESPASIAN’s accession. According to the
satirist Juvenal, he had a reputation in DOMITIAN’s time as
Vatinius, Publius (fl. first century B.C.E.) Consul in 47 one of the DELATORES (informers).
B.C.E. and a servant of the First Triumvirate in the last days
of the Republic Veii One of the great Etruscan cities, possibly the capi-
Vatinius was utterly detested by CICERO, who considered tal of the so-called Etruscan Confederation that was con-
him corrupt and villainous. After serving as QUAESTOR in temporaneous with the early development of Rome. The
63 B.C.E., he was a TRIBUNE of the Plebs in 59, more or inhabitants, called the Veientes, were bitter enemies of
less selling himself to Julius CAESAR (then a consul) and the Romans, with whom they struggled for centuries.
to his colleagues in the First Triumvirate, POMPEY THE Finally, in 396 B.C.E., the city was captured by the Roman
GREAT and CRASSUS (1). He spearheaded any legislation dictator Camillus. Virtually destroyed after a siege, it was
they desired, most importantly the acceptance in the SEN- left unrepaired until the reign of AUGUSTUS (27 B.C.E.–14
ATE of Pompey’s arrangements for the East and Caesar’s C.E.), when the site, close to ROME, was declared a colony.
command in Gallia Cisalpina and ILLYRICUM. The latter Veii was never able to prosper, however, and was in a
legislation, called the lex Vatinia de Caesaris Provincia, state of irretrievable decline by the middle of the second
made possible Caesar’s GALLIC WARS and subsequent century C.E.
supremacy over the Roman state. Despite appearing in
court in 65 against two of Cicero’s friends (for which he See also COLONIES; ETRURIA; ITALIA.
was attacked by the famed orator), Vatinius was defended
by Cicero in 54 against a charge of having bribed his way Velius Longus (fl. c. 100 C.E.) Grammarian from the
into the praetorship of 55. time of Trajan (98–117 C.E.)
Velius was noted mainly for his precise and well orga-
Vatinius was also loyal to Caesar in military venture s , nized treatise, De Orthographia. He was considered one of
serving as a legate in the closing stages of the Gallic Wars the major grammatical writers in the late first and early
and then during the CIVIL WAR against Pompey and the second centuries C.E.
Senate. As a general, Vatinius showed a certain imagina-
tion and energy in defending Brundisium from the Pom- Velleius Paterculus, Gaius (fl. early first century C.E.)
peians. He also won a naval engagement nearBrundisium, Minor writer of history
even though his fleet was only an improvised gathering of Born in Campania around 19 B.C.E., he entered the
ships. For this triumph and his devotion, he was made legions and fought in PANNONIA and GERMANIA under
consul in 47. Caesar then appointed him governor of TIBERIUS (c. 4–5 C.E.), he began to idolize Tiberius and his
Illyricum, with three legions. His task was to defeat the principate. In 7 C.E., he became a QUAESTOR and in 15 a
Illyrians, which he accomplished, fighting and conducting PRAETOR, serving with his brother. His death, after 30
wearying campaigns. He was still legate in Illyricum after C.E., was most likely connected to the end of Lucius
the assassination of Caesar in 44. He opposed the LIBERA- Aelius SEJANUS, who fell from power in 31, a man whom
TORS, but, being unpopular with his own troops, could Paterculus had constantly lauded. Paterculus composed
not prevent their desertion to BRUTUS in 42. his Historiae Romanae over a relatively short period of
time. Dedicated to his friend, M. VINICIUS, the history
Vegetius Renatus, Flavius (fl. later fourth century examined the development of Rome from the first Greek
C.E.) Military writer settlers to his own time. Book 1 was a mere outline, cov-
In his treatise Epitoma de rei militaris, Vegetius bemoaned ering from Romulus to the fall of CARTHAGE in 146 B.C.E.
the decline of Rome’s capacity for war. Vegetius was prob-

Book 2 went into more detail as the narrative reached Venus 571
Velleius’s era. He followed the Annalists in general style
but inserted his own reflections and interests. Literature, tinian in the sixth century. Following the destruction of
therefore, was covered extensively, focusing on Latin and Aquileia in 452, many survivors of the siege took refuge
Greek. Here he displayed considerable knowledge. He in the nearby islands and lagoons. Such a retreat had
lacked, however, objectivity and perspective. Tiberius was existed at least since the time of Alaric, early in the fifth
presented as the ultimate monarch, the grand culmina- century, and perhaps even earlier. After a time these set-
tion of Roman political evolution. tlements became united, and Venice was established.

Suggested Readings: Velleius Paterculus. The Caesarian Ventidius, Publius (d. c. 38 B.C.E.) Consul in 43 B.C.E.
and Augustan Narrative. Edited by A. J. Woodman. New and a general during Parthian War
York: Cambridge University Press, 1983; Velleius Patercu- Ventidius came from a common lineage and was sub-
lus. The Tiberian Narrative. Edited by A. J. Woodman. jected to cruel jokes about his origins; he had to live
New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977. down the reputation of having been a muleteer, probably
as a supplier to the LEGIONS. In time, he became a sup-
Veneti A powerful seagoing people who inhabited the porter of Julius CAESAR, who was not afraid of using tal-
coastal areas of what was, in the first century B.C.E., ented but undistinguished soldiers. Through Caesar, he
A rmorica (northwestern Gaul, modern Morbihan in Brit- entered the SENATE.
tany). The Veneti were described by Julius CAESAR in his
Gallic Wars as the foremost sailors in the region, conduct- After Caesar’s assassination in 44 B.C.E., Ventidius
ing extensive trade with Britain. Their knowledge of the held a praetorship and a consulship in 43, replacing
sea, combined with access to the few suitable harbors Octavian (AUGUSTUS) later that year in the second office.
along the coast, gave them a virtual monopoly in trade, He levied three legions in preparation for the coming war,
especially with the British tribes. The Veneti opposed aiding Antony after the battle of MUTINA in 43 and later
Roman occupation of Armorica in 56 B.C.E., posing serious participating in the PERUSINE WAR. Promoted to procon-
strategic and tactical problems for the legions of Caesar. sul, Ventidius was dispatched to the East in 39 to deal
After trying unsuccessfully to pin them down, Caesar with the Parthian invasion of SYRIA and PALESTINE. In 39,
allowed his captain, Decimus Brutus, to engage the Veneti the general defeat of Quintus LABIENUS (an ally of
offshore. With Caesar himself looking on, Brutus de- CASSIUS) and his Parthian army, along with the destruc-
stroyed the proud seamen, and the tribe was soon subju- tion of the Parthian Prince PACORUS, brought him fame.
gated. Deprived of their traditional means of life, the Ventidius killed Pacorus in battle and evicted the enemy
Veneti took up agriculture, surviving well into the fifth from Roman territory. MARC ANTONY soon replaced him
century C.E., when their land was suddenly flooded with (perhaps out of jealousy or on the suspicion of corrup-
British migrants who had fled the isles and the chaos there . tion), and Ventidius returned to ROME to a TRIUMPH. He
died soon after and was given a lavish public funeral.
Venetia District of northern Italy; originally a part of
GALLIA CISALPINA but later the tenth region of the Augus- Venus Roman goddess of love; an old deity to the Ital-
tan division of Italy. Venetia was delineated by the Athesis ians and quite unimportant in ROME until the influence of
River on the west, the Alps to the north, the Timarus the Greeks was felt. From that point, Venus took on the
River to the east and the Adriatic to the south. The major characteristics of Aphrodite, her Greek counterpart, and
cities were AQUILEIA and PADUA (Patavium); later, Venetia in that form she came to Rome, via the Punic War with
(Venice) was founded there as well (see below). The orig- CARTHAGE. Romans were entranced by a temple in honor
inal inhabitants of Venetia were a people called the Veneti of Venus on Mount Eryx in Sicily, when it fell to them in
(not the Veneti of Gaul), who were not Italian or Celtic 217 B.C.E. She was called Venus Eurcina and was brought
but probably of Illyrian stock. Always peaceful, they into Rome after the SIBYLLINE BOOKS granted approval to
detested the Celts, Etruscans, and Gauls, eventually ally- the establishment of her cult. She assumed a number of
ing themselves with ROME for protection, an alliance incarnations in Rome. As Venus Verticordia, she changed
never broken. They profited from their inclusion among the human heart. As Venus Genetrix, her most popular
the Roman possessions in northern Italy and received full form, she was part of a legend that Aeneas was the son of
citizenship in 49 B.C.E. Considerable prosperity was Venus and Mars. Thus Julius CAESAR and Octavian
enjoyed until the MARCOMANNIC WARS (c. 166–180 C.E.), (AUGUSTUS), who both claimed descent from Aeneas’s line
when the region was overrun; in the fifth century, (via the gens Julia), held Venus Genetrix in great esteem
Aquileia was destroyed by ATTILA the Hun. and allowed the goddess to be a part of the IMPERIAL CULT
and the Roman state religion. Temples to the goddess
The city of Venetia (Venice), was founded in the fifth were common throughout Rome. Julius Caesar made the
century C.E., but did not take shape until the reign of Jus- Temple of Venus Genetrix the focus of his FORUM CAE-
SARIS, while HADRIAN (c. 135) dedicated the Temple of
Venus in Rome near the COLOSSEUM.

572 Veranus,
Quintus

See also GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME; RELIGION;
VINALIA.

Veranus, Quintus (fl. first century C.E.) Consul in 49 A statue in honor of Vercingetorix, at Alise-Sainte-Reine,
C.E. France (Hulton/Getty Archive)
A successful imperial officer, he was used as an effective
founder of provinces. He first gained imperial attention in Verginius Rufus, Lucius (d. 97 C.E.) Consul in 63, 69,
CAPPADOCIA in 18 C.E., when he was sent as a legate to and 97 C.E. and governor of Germania Superior
organize the land under the administration of ROME. His As the head of a German province, Rufus was confronted
steps for provincialization included a reduction of the with the uprising of the Gallic rebel VINDEX and marched
royal tribute (TRIBUTUM) taxes, to make Rome more pop- immediately to suppress him. This he accomplished at
ular. Two years later he was back in Rome, spearheading Vesontio, reportedly mourning the suicide of the rebel.
the prosecution of Gnaeus Calpurnius PISO for the death Although his victory and prime location could have made
of GERMANICUS; he served as a major figure in the popular him a rival for the throne, he chose instead to support
condemnation of Piso, for which he was enrolled in a Galba. Rufus received little consideration from the new
priesthood. In 41, after the murder of Gaius CALIGULA, emperor, finding OTHO a more gracious patron. Through-
Veranus was part of the senatorial deputation sent to out the remainder of his career he was hailed for his
CLAUDIUS. The emperor appointed him first legate of patriotic act of not seizing the crown in 68. NERVA had
LYCIA in 43, where he spent five years pacifying the coun- him serve as consul in 97, and on his tombstone was a
try and introducing Roman rule. Probably because of his laudatory epitaph. He was eulogized by the historian TAC-
previous provincial work, he was chosen by NERO as gov- ITUS (1). Rufus also had literary aspirations. A friend to
ernor of Britain in 58, the replacement for Didius Gallus. PLINY THE YOUNGER, he wrote erotic poetry.
After a bitter campaign there, he died and was succeeded
by C. Suetonius Paulinus. Verina, Aelia (d. 484 C.E.) Augusta from 457 to 474 and
the wife of Emperor Leo I
Vercingetorix (d. 46 B.C.E.) Most famous of the Gallic Verina married Leo sometime before his accession in
chieftains and an opponent of Julius Caesar in the Gallic 457. Throughout his reign she supported her brother
Wars BASILISCUS, helping to have him appointed to the impor-
Vercingetorix was the son of Celtillus, a leader of the tant command of the Eastern forces against GEISERIC in
major Gallic tribe of the AVERNI who was put to death by 468, a debacle that weakened the Eastern Empire and
his own people for being overly ambitious. Vercingetorix v i rtually sealed the doom of the West. Verina had three
declared in 52 B.C.E. his intent to rebel against Rome. children by Leo; daughters Ariadne and Leontia, and a
Soon all the Averni and their confederates joined him, son, Leo, who died in 463 after only five months. Ari-
and he was elected commanding general. When other adne was wed to Leo I’s heir, ZENO, and Verina thus
Gauls responded, Caesar found himself facing a major became his mother-in-law. After Leo’s death in 474,
crisis.

Vercingetorix was aware of the dangers of fighting
Caesar in the field, as the defeat inflicted upon him at
Noviodonum proved. He adopted a more conservative
military policy, which included laying waste everything
that the Romans might need and making guerrilla
attacks. The bulk of the Gauls retired to the large fortress
of AVARICUM, where Rome’s legions would have to strug-
gle with both the enemy fire and stout walls. Although
Avaricum was lost, this strategy proved valuable to the
Gauls at GERGOVIA. Hoping to inflict a crushing blow,
Vercingetorix accepted battle, and this time Caesar routed
the tribes, driving them to ALESIA. Caesar opted for a
siege, engulfing the city in Roman lines. His people starv-
ing, Vercingetorix watched helplessly as his allies were
beaten in every attempt to penetrate the Roman siege and
bring relief. With no other choice the Gallic chief surren-
dered. Taken to Rome, he lived another five years only to
march in Caesar’s triumph in 46. Then he was murdered
in the Dungeons of TULLIANUM.

Verina led a conspiracy to depose Zeno in favor of her Verus,L
 ucius 573
lover Patricius, but was then superseded by her brother,
who took the throne. He fell from power in 476, and then as a civilian town. This early prosperity was abort e d
Zeno returned. Verina remained adamant in her opposi- in 61, with the revolt of BOUDICCA. A c c o rding to the
tion to him, and aided General Illus in his rebellion in historian TACITUS (1), it was sacked and destroyed. In
483–484. She died during a siege in 484 and was buried the rebuilding of the site, the original plan was probably
in CONSTANTINOPLE. duplicated, although improvements in the quality of
the architecture bear witness to the success of the com-
Verona A leading city in northern Italy, at the base of munity, even though it did not possess the rank of
the Alps on the Via Postuma, north of Mantua and west colony. Archaeological excavations have revealed much,
of PADUA (Patavium). Founded in antiquity, Verona including the use of stone for houses after the mid-
became the leading city of the local Cenomani but second century C.E. The city eventually possessed a the-
inevitably passed into Roman hands. With the surname ater, temples, centers of business, houses, and two gates,
“Augusta,” Verona was made a colony in the first century called the London and Chester. After the third cen-
C.E., serving as an economic center whose success can be tury C.E., there was a long period of decline, interrupted
seen in surviving structures that include an amphitheater by works begun in the later years of the Roman oc-
dating to the first century C.E. CATALLUS was from Verona. cupation.

The city figured in the strategies of the Flavians dur- Verus, Lucius (Lucius Aelius Aurelius Com-
ing the civil war of 69 C.E. Its capture was a blow to the modus) (130–169 C.E.) Coemperor with Marcus Aurelius
Vitellian cause and netted the legions of Antonius Primus from 161 to 169
great booty. In military terms, Verona gave access to the Born Lucius Ceionius Commodus, he was the son of
Brenner Pass over the Alps and thus was a key site in the Lucius AELIUS CAESAR, the adopted heir of HADRIAN. His
defense of Italy from attack from the north. father died in 137, and ANTONINUS PIUS was adopted as
heir. As part of Hadrian’s attempt to ensure stability in
A conflict was fought there, probably in 402 or 403 the succession, Antoninus Pius took into his house both
C.E., between the VISIGOTH army of King ALARIC and the Marcus Aurelius and Lucius. Ve rus served as QUAESTOR
MAGISTER MILITUM of the West, STILICHO. Details of the in 153 and CONSUL in 154, and, in 161, with Marcus.
actual battle are wanting, but what is clear is that Stili- Antoninus died in 161, and Marcus was proclaimed
cho, reinforced by his barbarian auxiliaries, fought Alaric emperor and quickly declared that he wanted a col-
at Verona, inflicting yet another reverse upon the Visi- league. With the new name of Lucius Aurelius Verus, or
goths. Alaric was nearly captured and might have been Lucius Ve rus, he became the political equal of Marcus
annihilated, but Stilicho once more stayed his hand, as he A u relius—but was never able to overcome the widely
had after his victory at POLLENTIA in 402. The sources are held view that he enjoyed a life of rest and re c reation. He
not clear as to why the general allowed Alaric to with- c e rtainly was not the equal of Marcus Aurelius in terms
draw again, although the writer Claudian blamed the of intellect, a fact particularly visible in his conduct of
unreliability of Stilicho’s Alan levies. As it was, the Visi- military operations.
goths limped out of Italy, and Alaric was resourceful
enough to recover once more. Crises had been building for many years on the fron-
tiers, and in 162 they erupted. Verus assumed command
Vertumnus A Roman god, probably of the changing of the legions in the East, in response to an attack by
seasons; his name was based on the Latin verto, or VOLOGASES III of Parthia upon ARMENIA, the placement of
change. The deity was especially honored by the country- a Parthian client on the throne, and the defeat of the
folk of Italy as the patron of fruits. As a result, he was Roman General SEVERIANUS at Elegeia. After months of
always depicted as holding fruits in one hand, or in his delay, he finally arrived in SYRIA with badly needed rein-
lap, with a pruning knife in the other hand. Despite being forcements. Allowing his generals a free hand, most
only a very minor deity, he was considered the consort of importantly Statius Priscus and Gaius Avidius CASSIUS,
POMONA and had a chapel on the Aventine Hill. Verus laid claim to the title of Armeniacus in 163, with
credit for the severe defeats inflicted upon the Parthians
Verulamium Town in the province of Britain (BRITAN- in 165–166. Verus returned in triumph to ROME in 166,
NIA), some miles north of LONDON (Londinium). Ve ru- where he and Marcus celebrated their positions of
lamium (St. Albans) served as the chief city of the Fathers of the Country (Pater Patriae). The joy was short-
Catuvellauni prior to the Roman conquest of the isles, lived, for barbarian incursions began in conjunction with
and was built late in the first century B.C.E. by the tribal a terrible plague brought back from the East by the
leader Tasciovanus near the Ver River. Following the fall legions. In winter 168, both emperors were at AQUILEIA.
of Britain in 43 C.E., the site underwent swift develop- In the spring, Verus was at Altinum, where he suffered
ment as a military post for the advancing legions and some kind of seizure and died. The body was entombed
in the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome, as rumors began
that he had been poisoned. Such stories were probably

574 Verus,
M.
Annius

untrue. However, despite his marriage to Marcus’s daugh-
ter LUCILLA, in 164, the passing of Verus was not entirely
unwelcome, for in the future his presence could have
become troublesome to imperial unity.

Verus, M. Annius (d. after 126 C.E.) Consul under
Domitian and in 121 and 126; grandfather of Marcus Aure-
lius
A highly successful political figure, Marcus Annius Verus
enrolled in the Patrician class with the sponsorship of
Vespasian and Titus and was later prefect of the city. His
son of the same name had embarked upon a similar
career but died while still a praetor. Thus, Verus’s grand-
son Marcus passed into his care and received the educa-
tion that led to his remarkable character and intellect.

Verus, P. Martius (second century C.E.) Governor of Emperor Vespasian (Hulton/Getty Archive)
Cappadocia in the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161–180 C.E.)
Verus was respected by the historian Dio, who stated that imperial freedman NARCISSUS. After a consulship in 51,
he not only could destroy an opponent but could also Vespasian entered a period of unhappiness, as AGRIPPINA
outwit enemies and anticipate their moves, preferring THE YOUNGER hated anyone who had ever been a friend of
negotiations where he could rely upon his innate charm. the now-fallen Narcissus. The new Emperor Nero proved
In 164, he was sent to ARMENIA as a replacement for highly unpredictable as well. A reputation for compe-
Statius Priscus and helped pacify the region, setting up a tence probably brought Vespasian to the post of procon-
reliable client on the throne and serving Emperor Lucius sul of AFRICA in 63, but his expenses were so severe that
VERUS loyally as a legate in the East. In 175, he was still at he went into virtual bankruptcy. Refusing to succumb to
his post when word arrived of the revolt of Avidius the larceny typical of provincial administrators, Vespasian
CASSIUS, the governor of SYRIA. Verus immediately had to mortgage his home to his brother and take up the
informed Marcus Aurelius and was instrumental in profession of selling mules, earning him the nickname
crushing all resistance to the imperial government fol- “the Mule Driver.”
lowing Cassius’s death. Throughout Syria he made his
presence felt, running the province until the emperor Back in Rome in 66, he was a member of Nero’s
arrived in person. Appointed the governor of Syria by court, where he committed the outrage of falling asleep
Marcus, Verus avoided all possible pogroms by burning during one of the emperor’s recitals while on a tour of
most of Cassius’s correspondence, as had Lappius MAX- Achaea. He was dismissed for being boorish and fled to a
IMUS during the revolt of SATURNINUS in the reign of small town to await the inevitable death sentence.
DOMITIAN (81–96 C.E.). Instead, he was given command of the legions in PALES-
TINE in February 67, the rank of governor of JUDAEA, and
Vespasian (Titus Flavius Vespasianus) (9–79 C.E.) the task of suppressing the revolt of the Jews. Vespasian
Emperor from 69 to 79 did not disappoint Rome. With his son TITUS at his side,
The restorer of Rome’s stability after the reign of NERO he crushed the Jewish Rebellion and was preparing to lay
and the chaos of the civil war of 69 C.E. Vespasian was a siege to the TEMPLE OF JERUSALEM in 68 when word came
member of the old family of the Flavii, or Flavians, from that Nero had fallen and had been replaced by Galba.
the Sabine country. He was born at Reate to a knight, Vespasian sent Titus toward Rome to offer loyalty to the
Flavius Sabinus, and the daughter of a knight, Vespasia new emperor, but Titus stopped at Corinth when he
Polla. Vespasian, however, was slow to apply for the heard that Galba had already been slain (in January 69).
advantages of membership in the Equestrians (EQUITES) New Emperor OTHO was soon destroyed by VITELLIUS.
and also slow in taking advantage of his uncle’s member- Prompted by his son Titus, the governor of SYRIA
ship in the SENATE. (Licinius MUCIANUS) and the prefect of Egypt (Tiberius
Alexander), Vespasian allowed himself to be proclaimed
His formal career began in 40 with a praetorship, fol-
lowed by a position with the legions in Britain during the
campaign of 43. There he won the ornamenta triumphalia;
as the historian SUETONIUS recorded, he fought 30 battles,
conquered two tribes and captured an island. His rise in
imperial favor was furthered by the intercession of the

emperor. In the fall of 70, he arrived in Rome where Vesta 575
Mucianus had held the reins of power in his absence. So which Aeneas had brought the sacred fire of Troy and the
began the actual reign of Vespasian, although he counted PENATES or household gods. As the goddess of the sacred
the days of his rule from July 1, 69, when the legions in fire, Vesta was honored in the homes of ROME and also by
the East saluted him as their imperial master. the state. Every house had its own hearth, where meals
were eaten; thus she had a hand in the day-to-day exis-
From the start the Flavian regime celebrated the tence of the Roman people. This idea was reinforced by
notion that, through Vespasian, peace and tranquillity the presence of an eternal flame in the TEMPLE OF VESTA,
had been restored to the Roman world. This claim was where the praetors, CONSULS and DICTATORS made sacri-
justified and paraded on imperial COINAGE and in the fices before embarking on their offices.
construction of the vast TEMPLE OF PEACE in the Forum of
Vespasian. Equally, a stable succession was guaranteed Worship of Vesta was detailed and highly ceremonial.
because of Titus and DOMITIAN, his sons. Titus emerged On March 1, the flame at the temple in Rome was
as his most valuable assistant and later as his colleague, renewed along with the sacred laurel tree, which shaded
sharing in all of his imperial duties. While seemingly the hearth. If the fire went out for some reason, there was
instituting a fair and even-handed style of government, great concern on the part of the VESTAL VIRGINS who
Vespasian did much to reshape the very nature of the attended it. They faced a charge of negligence and would
imperial system, assuming the powers of CENSOR in 73 be punished; the flame was rekindled by a burning-glass
(as had Emperor CLAUDIUS) to appoint new members to or by the ancient method of igniting a piece of bark from
the long-depleted Senate and to give it a more interna- a fruit tree and using that to relight the temple flame. On
tional flavor. Senators arrived from all over Italy and from June 9 was the Vestalia, when the women of Rome
the provinces. Territories in the East were annexed, and walked barefoot to Vesta’s temple and asked for the con-
the provinces, as needed, were reorganized; thus, Com- tinued blessings of the goddess with special sacrifices. A
magene and Armenia Minor were occupied in 72. few days later, on the 15th, the temple was cleansed and
purified. The dirt amassed by the cleaning was stored in a
Neither the palace nor the Senate could forget where locked area so that no one could steal it. The first part of
Vespasian’s true power base rested, with the legions who the day was considered nefastus or inauspicious. The
put him on the throne. Rewards were given to the troops priestess of Juno could not comb her hair to avoid bad
who had aided him, but steps were taken to prevent any
bloody struggles as in 69. Legions were stationed farther The Temple of Vesta (Courtesy Fr. Felix Just, S.J.)
away from each other, and their numbers kept constant at
28. Wherever possible, the soldiers were kept busy—not
an easy task, given the overall quiet on the borders. Oper-
ations were launched, however, including entry into the
Agri Decumates along the Rhine-Danube axis. In Britain,
Wales was subjugated, and the governors continued to
imprint Roman culture throughout the realm. The work
of the General AGRICOLA was outstanding.

Perhaps more than any other emperor, Vespasian was
practical and good-natured. In his fight with Roman
philosophers, especially DEMETRIUS THE CYNIC and HEL-
VIDIUS PRISCUS the Stoic, he was pushed to the fullest
extent of his patience before taking retributive action. He
laughed out loud at the flattering suggestion that Her-
cules was the founder of his family. Audiences were rarely
held in the palace, as he preferred the GARDENS OF SAL-
LUST, where anyone could speak with him. SUETONIUS
noted that his early poverty made him greedy, but had to
admit that he was generally very generous. He died on
June 23, 79, after a bout with fever and dysentery. It was
reported that his last words were: “Oh my! I think I am
turning into a god!”

See also ART AND ARCHITECTURE; COLOSSEUM.

Vesta Important Roman goddess of the hearth; identi-
fied with the Greek deity Hestia. According to tradition,
Vesta’s cult was introduced to the Romans by King Numa,
who brought it to Rome from Lavinium, the same site to

576 Vestal
Virgins the pontifex maximus. They also offered daily sacrifices,
luck. There were also daily purification rites. Vesta was a said prayers and participated in the festivals of the god-
part of the Roman pantheon until 382 C.E., when dess and those of the deity BONA DEA. Vestals always wore
Emperor GRATIAN abolished her and closed her temple. white, with a headband called the infula that was deco-
Vestal Virgins Priestesses of Rome dedicated to the rated with ribbons (vitae) and covered with a veil at the
service of the goddess Vesta; important figures in Roman time of sacrifice. Aside from the distinctive dress, there
cultic worship, they bore many responsibilities but were many other privileges and powers. They had a lictor
enjoyed numerous benefits, the greatest of which was a with them everywhere, had special seats at all public
place of high honor. The Vestals dated probably to the events and never took oaths, as their words were consid-
earliest days of the worship of Vesta. There were origi- ered sacred. The Vestals could also save a criminal if they
nally two such Virgins, who served for five years. The met the accused on the way to prison or execution, and
number increased to four, then six, and the period of ser- they granted immunity from all attack to anyone with
vice extended to 30 years. Prospective members of the them. They also handled secret documents and wills.
order were chosen by lot by the PONTIFEX MAXIMUS and Equally, their code of behavior had to remain above
had to be between six and ten years old; girls from free reproach. Even the slightest offense warranted censure
but not necessarily Patrician families. Immediately upon from the pontifex maximus or the chief vestal, the Virgo
being named, the candidate left the authority of parents Vestalis Maxima. For violating chastity the punishment
and became a child of Vesta. Entry into her new home, was death by live burial, and the lover involved was exe-
the Atrium of Vesta, near the goddess’ temple, was fol- cuted with rods. The most famous cases were in 83 C.E.
lowed by the shaving of her hair and the reception of the and 213 C.E. In the first incident, Emperor DOMITIAN
attire of the Vestals. The next 10 years were spent in slaughtered the Vestals for breaking their vows, using
training, then 10 in service and a final 10 in preparing some form of execution other than burial alive. Emperor
successors. CARACALLA had four Vestals die for being impure,
although he had raped one of them himself. At the end of
The primary duty of a Vestal Virgin was to care for 30 years, any retired Vestal was allowed to marry. This
the eternal hearth of Vesta. The flame could not be was a rare occurrence, however, because it was deemed
allowed to die. If it did, punishments were meted out by inauspicious to wed a former Vestal.

A Vestal Virgin (Courtesy Fr. Felix Just, S.J.) See also TEMPLE OF VESTA; CRESCENTIA, CANNUTIA;
ELAGABALUS; LAETA; CLODIA; RUFINA, POMPONIA; SEVERA,
AURELIA.

Vesuvius Also called Vesvus or Vesvius; the most
famous volcano in the Roman world, located on the coast
of CAMPANIA near the towns of POMPEII, HERCULANEUM,
and Neapolis. Long considered dormant, the volcano
served as a refuge for slaves during the revolt of Spartacus
in the late 70s B.C.E. On February 5, 63 C.E., the first
tremors of its reawakening were felt with earthquakes
that caused extensive damage to Pompeii and Hercula-
neum and slight breakage at Naples. This small convul-
sion was only a preliminary to the disastrous eruption on
August 24, 79 C.E. Spewing tufa, ash, stones, and mud,
the volcano completely covered the surrounding cities,
sealing them for centuries. PLINY THE ELDER lost his life
trying to make scientific observations of the volcano.
Although the blast in 79 was the most famous one, there
were others in 202, 472, and 512.

Vetranio (d. 356 C.E.) Magister peditum in Illyricum
under Emperor Constantius II
Constantius faced a severe crisis with the risk of losing
both his Western and Eastern domains, his sister Con-
stantia persuaded the veteran General Vetranio to pro-
claim himself emperor with the help of his troops. His
sudden rebellion was certainly accomplished with the

consent of Constantius, for it disrupted MAGNENTIUS’s viae 577
political momentum while allowing the emperor to reor-
ganize his own position. After artificial negotiations, Via Aemilia One of the most interesting roads in
Vetranio journeyed to Naissus and abdicated in favor of northern Italy. extending from Placentia, where it
the Emperor of the East. Constantius then went on to joined with the Via Postumia, to Ariminum, where
defeat Magnentius while Vetranio, already old, retired to it met the Via Flaminia. As it passed through
Prusa in Bithynia and lived for another six years. much of Gallia Cisalpina, including Mutina and
Forum Gallorum, it was a key element in the
Vetus, Lucius Antistius (fl. 55 C.E.) Consul and one of Romanization of the territory. With mountains to
the victims of the reign of Nero (54–68 C.E.) the southwest and the Adriatic in the east, any
When Vetus was governor of Germania Inferior in 58, his advance into the heart of Italy invariably used this
plans for the connection of the Saone and Moselle rivers highway. It was built in 187 B.C.E. by Marcus
by a canal were destroyed by Aelius Gracilis, the legate of Aemilius Lepidus and was repaired by AUGUSTUS
Gallia Belgica. Gracilis wanted to keep Vetus from gain- and later by TRAJAN. The Via Aemilia figured in
ing the favor of the Gallic people by claiming that the several campaigns: Mutina in 43 B.C.E., the Civil
canal would endanger the safety of the empire. Vetus’s War of 69 C.E. and the advance of CONSTANTINE
personal life was marked with tragedy, for his son-in-law the Great in 312 C.E. against Maxentius.
was RUBELLIUS PLAUTUS, who was forced to commit sui-
cide in 62. The remaining family, including Vetus, his Via Annia Another via in northern Italy, con-
mother-in-law Sextia and daughter, Antistia Pollitta, were structed by T. Annius Luscus, probably in 153
considered hated enemies of Nero. Vetus was charged B.C.E. Essential to Roman interests, it connected
with some crime by a freedman and, knowing his ulti- Bononia (on the Via Aemilia) to Aquileia and the
mate fate, took his own life, joined by his two relatives. provinces of the Danube River. Padua (Patavium)
They were condemned to death posthumously. Nero was on its route.
mockingly decreed that they could choose their manner
of suicide. Via Appia Probably the most famous road in the
Roman Empire, the main art e ryin southern Italy. It
vexillarii Special units in the imperial LEGIONS that ran from Rome to Brundisium, through the districts
were comprised of veterans who opted to remain in ser- of Latium, Campania, Samnium, and Calabria.
vice after their full term. Under the conditions laid down, Some of the more important cities on its route were
probably during the reign of AUGUSTUS (27 B.C.E.–14 Capua, Beneventum, Casilinum, and Venusia. Built
C.E.), the vexillarii served for four more years, with originally in 312 B.C.E. by Appius Claudius Caecus,
lighter work and more privileges. In each legion the vexil- the censor, it went only from Rome to Capua. By
larii were placed under the command of a curator vetera- the mid-third century B.C.E. it had been lengthened
norum and belonged to a special force recognizable from all the way to Brundisium and was paved by the
its symbol, a standard or vexillum. In 14 C.E., following end of the second century B.C.E.
the death of Augustus, the mutinous soldiers of the Pan-
nonian legions counted among their number many vexil- Via Aurelia Actually two highways, the Via Aurelia
larii who were unhappy about not receiving the promised was also called the Via Aurelia Vetus (Old Via
rights and bonuses. A u relia) and the Via Aurelia Nova (New Via
A u relia). The road stretched from Rome to Coas
vexillationes See LEGIONS. on the coast and was probably built in the third
century B.C.E., many years before the Via Aurelia
viae Highways constructed by the Romans to connect Nova of 109 B.C.E. This extension carried trans-
virtually every corner of the empire. While the trans- portation.
portation network throughout the provinces was
extremely impressive, it was in Italy that the most famous Via Cassia A key road in central Italy that went
viae were built. Through them ROME was able to extend from Rome to Arrentium, connecting the Eternal
its influence over the entire peninsula, ensuring rapid City to the Via Flaminia Minor and thence to
movement for the LEGIONS or CURSUS PUBLICUS (the Impe- Bononia over the Apennines. Its date of construc-
rial Post), improved administration and commercial tion has been put to the middle of the second cen-
development. What follows is a list of those viae that tury B.C.E., perhaps 154 B.C.E. Over time the name
were important throughout the imperial era for Italy. Vir- Via Flaminia Minor was used for it, and the via
tually all were established during the early years of stretched from Rome to Florentia (Florence) and
Roman history or in the Republican era. even beyond.

Via Domitiana Road built by Emperor DOMITIAN in
95 C.E. with the object of improving the way
through Campania. Essentially it was an off-
branch of the Via Appia, traveling from the via to
Volturnum and then to Cumae and Puteoli, two
centers in Campania. The estates along the Cam-
panian coast could thus be reached more easily.

578 viae but details have been elusive. It may have been
built in the late third century B.C.E. to connect Ben-
The Appian Way (Hulton/Getty Archive) eventum with Brundisium along a more northerly
route than the Via Appia. What relation it might
Via Flaminia Indispensable highway cutting its have had with the later Via Traiana is unclear.
way across the mountainous regions of central Via Popillia Coastal route in northern Italy that
Italy, through the districts of Etruria and Umbria. connected Arminum to Aquileia by way of the Via
It began in Rome and then went north to Inter- Annia. Unlike the other roads, the founding date
amna before turning northeast and ending at of the via is for certain, 132 B.C.E. by the CONSUL P.
Ariminum on the Adriatic coast, where it linked Popillius.
up with the Via Aemilia. More so than the Via Via Postumia A highway at the far north of Italy,
Cassia, the Via Flaminia was a lifeline from Rome roughly along the Po River and the Alps, connect-
to northern Italy, and its upkeep was a matter of ing the western and eastern ends of Gallia
great concern to the empire. Cisalpina, from Genua (Genoa) to Aquileia. No
entrance into Italy from the north was possible
Via Flaminia Minor See Via Cassia. without passing over it. Along the road were Pla-
Via Latina Road that traversed the area to the centia, Cremona, Verona, and Opitergium. Ad-
vancing armies, hoping to march down the Via
southeast of Rome and east of the Via Appia. It Aemilia, had to go across the Via Postumia. For
was apparently well traveled and used by those that reason, in 69 C.E. two battles were fought
hoping to avoid the Via Appia for as long as possi- near the junction to the west of Cremona, at
ble or for anyone going into Samnium. The Via BEDRIACUM. It was built in 142 B.C.E. by Sp. Postu-
Latina was extremely old, its date of origin mius Albinus, with an eye on strengthening the
unclear. A new or repaired road went along the Roman presence in Gallia Cisalpina.
same route from Rome to Casinum (Cassino) just Via Sacra Not so much a road as an institution and,
north of Capua and the Via Appia. This new ver- one of the most important, roads in the Roman
sion was built around 127 B.C.E. and was known Empire. Along its path from the FORUM ROMANUM
as the Via Latina Nova. to the Palatine Hill, the Velia or outlying part of
Via Minucia An older road that has been the subject the Palatine, and the Via Appia, leading out of the
of considerable debate. It was mentioned by CICERO city, were magnificent temples and grand struc-
tures. The Capitoline Hill looked down from
above the Basilica Julia and the Forum. To the
southwest was the Palatine and, over the years,
other great forums to the northeast. In the time of
the Flavians, the COLOSSEUM was built at the east-
ern edge of the via as it turned into the Via Appia.

The Sacred Way was so named for the obvi-
ous number of sacred buildings and for the rites
celebrated with processions on its pavement. TRI-
UMPHS passed from the CAMPUS MARTIUS to the
CIRCUS MAXIMUS, around the Palatine and up the
Sacred Way to the capitol. The road was one of
the few thoroughfares in Rome to be called a via.
Via Salaria One of the roads leading away from
Rome, through the northeastern route to Reate
and beyond. Its name suggests an ancient connec-
tion with the salt trade. Eventually two branches
were made out of Reate, one to the north through
Asculum to Castrum Turnetinum, and the other to
the southeast, through Amiternum to Hadria.
Both ended on the Adriatic. The small Via Caecilia
extended from the south addition to Castrum
Novum.
Via Aemilia Scauri Technically, an extension of
the Via Aurelia Nova, journeying north from