Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire - 667 pages.

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Nabataeans An ancient Arabian people who occupied legion conquered the Nabataeans, and the kingdom
an extensive part of Palestine, stretching through north- became the province of Arabia Petraea.
ern ARABIA into areas on both sides of the Red Sea and
north to eastern IDUMAEA and the Dead Sea. The capital Nacolea Phrygian town that was the site of a military
of the Nabataeans (or Nabataei) was the stone city of engagement fought on May 26, 366 C.E., between
PETRA. Founded in the fourth century B.C.E., Petra even- Emperor VALENS and the usurper PROCOPIUS. In 365 Pro-
tually served as a major trade center. Caravans from the copius, a relative of the newly deceased emperor Julian
Mediterranean ports moved through the city to the Far and a commander of Julian’s forces in Persia, was pro-
East, and the Nabataeans based their wealth on trade in claimed emperor at Constantinople, while the Eastern
Arabian incense and myrrh, Indian spices, and silk and emperor Valens was away in Bithynia, heading for Anti-
other textiles from China. In turn, their kings started vast och. Initial successes gained Procopius not only thou-
expansion programs along the Red Sea and into JUDAEA sands of deserters from the cause of Valens but also
and SYRIA. The advance southward was highly successful, control of the Bosporus. Valens could only await rein-
as most of the Red Sea coast fell into their hands. Cam- forcements but was given a major boost by the arrival of
paigns against Judaea proved both expensive and fruit- the MAGISTER EQUITUM, ARBITIO, who had deserted Pro-
less. King Aretas II was prevented by the priest-king copius. His defection initiated the wholesale collapse of
Jannaeus Alexander from acquiring land in that domain Procopius’s support. The usurper’s generals deserted, and
and in Gaza, although Aretas III, in 85 B.C.E., temporarily at Nacolea virtually the entire army of Procopius refused
held Damascus. The inevitable collision with Rome came to carry on the fight. Valens thus proved victorious. Pro-
in 65 B.C.E., when Aretas III was induced by a minister, copius fled, only to be betrayed again and slain.
ANTIPATER OF IDUMAEA, to invade Judaea and support the
claim of HYRCANUS for the Jewish throne against Hyr- Namatianus, Rutilius Claudius (fl. late fourth and
canus’s brother, ARISTOBULUS. Aretas marched into the early fifth centuries C.E.) One of the last classical Roman
area to besiege Aristobulus at Jerusalem. Pompey’s lieu- poets
tenant, Aemilius Scaurus, forced Aretas to give up the Namatianus witnessed wholesale carnage in Italy during
siege, and the Nabataeans, unwilling to engage the armies the invasion of the Visigoths (c. 410–412), and these
of Rome, retired. A formal treaty was signed later Gothic attacks, including the sack of Rome in 410, left a
between the Romans and Petra, and Nabataea was recog- deep impression upon him. Namatianus was the son of
nized as a reliable client. The Nabataeans gave slight Lachanius, a Gallic imperial officer, possibly the governor
resistance to the prefect of Egypt, Aelius GALLUS, in his of Tuscany and Umbria. Born at Toulouse, he received an
attempted conquest of Arabia and supplied troops for excellent education in classical literature and rhetoric.
Roman use. When Gaius Caesar traveled to the East for During the reign of Honorius, he held the posts of MAGIS-
Augustus (c 1 B.C.E.) he reminded them of their obliga- TER OFFICIORUM in 412 and of praefectus urbis (prefect of
tions. In 106 C.E., under Trajan, Cornelius Palma and his

380

the city) for Rome, sometime during 414. His valuable Nasamones 381
work, De Reditu Suo (On His Return) survives. Composed
around 416 or 417, this long elegiac poem covered his as Claudius’s next wife, against the claims of LOLLIA
journey from Rome to Gaul to visit his devastated estates PAULINA and AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER. When Claudius
there. Very detailed, more so than the similar works of married Agrippina, Narcissus was naturally a target of her
Ovid and Horace, De reditu suo described clearly life at enmity. Agrippina poisoned Claudius in 54, when Narcis-
the time and is a defense of Paganism, sprinkled with sus had fallen ill and retired to the waters of Sinessa to
personal attacks against ascetic Christianity, the Jews, and recover there. Nero succeeded Claudius, and Narcissus
Stilicho, who had burned the Sibylline Books. Nama- was immediately imprisoned, where he died by his own
tianus was a lucid writer of considerable literary merit. hand after suffering the cruelest of conditions.

Narbo Now Narbonne, a small, wine producing town, Narcissus (2) (d. 193 C.E.) Slayer of Emperor Com-
but once the capital of GALLIA NARBONENSIS and one of modus in 192 C.E.
the busiest ports in the northwestern Mediterranean. The plot of Aemilius LAETUS, ECLECTUS, and MARCIA to
Narbo was already very old when the Romans arrived murder the emperor included lacing his dinner with poi-
there in the second century B.C.E. It had served as the son. It failed to kill him, however, for Commodus vom-
local Celtic capital, and its position on the Atax (Aude) ited up most of the food. The conspirators summoned a
River gave it excellent potential for economic growth. young, powerful athlete, Narcissus, who was sent into the
Romans were interested both in its navigable river and in imperial apartment, where he strangled the weakened
its strategic location along the main route of communica- ruler in the bath. In the following year, Septimius Severus
tions between Rome and Spain. Thus, in 118 B.C.E., threw Narcissus to the wild beasts.
Quintus Martius founded Colonia Narbo Martius, the
first colonial possession of Roman origin in Gallia Narbo- Narses (Narseh) (d. 302 C.E.) King of Persia from 293
nensis. Further colonization was made by Julius Caesar, to 302 C.E.
who gave land grants to his legion veterans. Narbo Narses was the son of the great Persian king SHAPUR I
became the provincial capital as well as center of the and great-uncle of VARAHRAN III, who came to the throne
IMPERIAL CULT. This preeminence was expanded even fur- in 293. After a reign of only four months, Varahran was
ther by the patronage of Emperor Claudius. The city pos- deposed by Narses during an insurrection. Narses then
sessed a forum, amphitheater, capital, and altars for the assumed total power and restored the Persian Empire ’s
propagation of the cult of Roma et Augustus. In the mid- martial and political vitality, mounting an attack on
dle of the second century C.E., a fire devastated most of Roman territories in the East. In 296, he invaded Syria,
Narbo’s buildings, and Nemausus (Nîmes) became the requiring the immediate presence of Emperor Galerius,
provincial capital. Narbo’s decline is confirmed by the who was summoned by Diocletian from the Balkans to
scarcity of its archaeological remains, especially when deal with the crisis. Galerius repulsed the Persians
compared with Nîmes, and by the silt that accumulated f rom the Syrian interior but was then drawn into a battle
in its port. It was besieged by Theodoric in 436 and cap- and defeated by Narses’s troops at Callinicus. Galerius
tured in 462 by the Visigoths, then besieged by Childe- made a stunning recovery, crushing the Persians in 298
bert and his Franks in the 530s. in one engagement, capturing Ctesiphon as well as a
huge treasury and the wives and children of the king.
Narbonensis See GALLIA NARBONENSIS. Unable to carry on the war. Narses accepted a treaty,
which was a humiliation for Persia. Armenia was
Narcissus (1) (d. c. 54 C.E.) Important freedman in the acknowledged as a Roman territory, parts of the Tigris
reign of Claudius (five small districts) were also ceded to Rome and
Narcissus held the post of AB EPISTULIS, or secretary for Mesopotamia was given up. Nisibis became a trading
correspondence, but wielded influence well beyond his center for the two states, as a result. In re t u rn, Narses
office. In the early years of Claudius’s reign (c. 42–43), he received his captured family. This loss had a major
joined with the Empress Messallina and other FREEDMEN impact on subsequent relations between the two em-
in establishing a tyranny over the palace and all of Rome. pires, while Galerius used his triumph to increase his
Claudius put to death many victims on their word. Nar- own political ambitions. Narses died in 302, followed on
cissus was also sent to exhort the troops of PLAUTIUS, the the throne by his son, Hormazd II.
governor of Pannonia, to launch their invasion of Britain
in 43. See also SASSANID DYNASTY.

Messallina alienated Narcissus, and by 48 he had Nasamones Tribe in Numidia that revolted against
convinced the emperor to put her to death for her adul- Rome in 85–86 C.E. because of unfair taxation. They
teries. Following her execution he supported Aelia Patina slaughtered every tax collector they could find; the
defeated governor of Numidia, Flaccus, retreated, aban-
doning his own camp. Celebrating their triumph, the

382 Nasidius,Q
 . navy The fleets built and troops trained by the Romans
in order to maintain their world dominance. Unlike the
Nasamones became drunk on Flaccus’s wine and were Etruscans, the Romans were not a great seafaring people
massacred. Few survived, even of the women and chil- and maintained an aversion to such activities right until
dren. According to Dio, Domitian proudly declared: “I the last years of the empire. For this reason the develop-
have ended the existence of the Nasamones.” ment of the navy was delayed in favor of the LEGIONS
until the emergence of Rome as a legitimate world power
Nasidius, Q. (fl. first century B.C.E.) Admiral command- necessitated a naval program.
ing vessels in the fleet of Marc Antony in 31 B.C.E.
Nasidius was defeated in an encounter with AGRIPPA dur- The Punic Wars with Carthage, fought as much at
ing the early maneuverings preceding the battle of sea as on land, gave Rome a chance to dominate the
ACTIUM. His failure in battle, combined with the defection Mediterranean, an opportunity it nearly lost because of
of Gnaeus DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS (2) and the incompe- its ignorance in maritime areas and because the remain-
tence of other officers, made Antony highly suspicious of ing navies of Greece were vastly superior in craftsman-
his entire command during this crucial campaign. ship and skill. But the conquest of Greece, Asia Minor,
and ultimately most of the East, put at Rome’s disposal
Natalis, Antonius (d. after 65 C.E.) Member of the Piso- the extensive shipyards, sailors, and vessels of many for-
nian Conspiracy in 65 C.E. against Nero eign fleets. These acquisitions were particularly impor-
When the first word of the plot to assassinate the tant in the first century B.C.E., when pirates were preying
emperor was uncovered, Natalis and his comrade Flavius on commerce throughout the Mediterranean. These brig-
SCAEVINUS were summoned for questioning. Interrogation ands sailed in all seasons and kidnapped high-ranking
shattered their resolve, and Natalis began to pour out persons, sank one consular fleet and received tribute
names and accusations, indicting Piso, Seneca, and oth- from coastal cities. By 67 B.C.E., the pirates from Cilicia
ers. Nero relied upon Natalis’s testimony to force Seneca, had become too dangerous. Pompey was granted an
his one-time tutor and guardian, to kill himself. Natalis extraordinary command to clear them from the sea lanes.
was spared, eventually being released with a full pardon, He discovered more than 1,000 such pirate ships roaming
while his colleagues died. over vast regions, but pressed into service every available
vessel from the Greeks and supplemented these with
Naulochus Roman naval station on the northeast fleets from the Republic. With strategic genius, Pompey
coast of Sicily, whose waters saw the final engagement crushed the Cilicians in only three months (Spring 67)
between the fleets of Octavian (AUGUSTUS), led by his and returned home in triumph.
admiral AGRIPPA and the vessels of Sextus POMPEY. The
battle at Naulochus (also called Mylae) was fought on Henceforth the Romans depended heavily upon ves-
September 3, 36 B.C.E., and ended the ambitions of Pom- sels built by Greeks or other foreigners and manned by
pey, clearing the way for the final confrontation between them as well. The role of such fleets in the Civil Wars at
Octavian and Marc ANTONY. From 40 to 46 B.C.E., Octa- the end of the Republic was absolutely critical. Caesar
vian and Sextus had been fighting a war of varying inten- used his own fleets to transport his reliable legions from
sity for control of the Mediterranean sea lanes, Sardinia, Italy to the theater of operations against Pompey in
Corsica, and Sicily. By the start of 36, the focus was on Illyricum and then sailed after his vanquished foe to
Sicily, and both sides fought on land and sea for Egypt, where again fleets contested control of the harbor
supremacy. Octavian, gaining the upper hand, trapped of ALEXANDRIA.
Pompey in the northeastern section of the island with his
infantry. Relying, however, upon his able fleet, on Naval engagements were even more important in the
September 3, he assembled all available vessels and gave years to come. Sextus Pompey commanded a large pirate
charge to Agrippa just off the Sicilian coast. The exact fleet that briefly brought even Octavian to the bargaining
number of men and ships involved is unclear. Pompey table (see MISENUM, CONFERENCE OF). Octavian (AUGUS-
probably had more than 200 ships, against a like number TUS) turned to his ever reliable Marcus Agrippa and
for Agrippa. While the legions on both sides watched together they shaped an excellent navy, armed with
from shore, their navies grappled. Agrippa’s invention, the HARPAX. They destroyed Sextus at
Naulochus in 36 B.C.E. and then proved their superiority
Naulochus was a closely matched battle, but the over Antony and his Greek-Egyptian ships at Actium in
invention of Agrippa, the HARPAX, proved lethal to the 31 B.C.E. As was the case with the post–Civil War legions,
Pompeian ships. By the end of the day, Sextus’s fleet was Augustus had to reform and reorganize the hundreds of
aflame or captured. Twenty-eight of his best vessels were ships left over from the years of conflict. He incorporated
sunk, and only 17 escaped. Demoralized, his land forces most of them into the Imperial Navy.
were cut to pieces by the jubilant forces of Octavian. Sex-
tus changed into traveling clothes, fled Sicily and turned The tradition against sea travel continued under the
to the mercy of Marc Antony. emperors. Rome’s navel arm was placed under the super-
vision of the army, and service terms were for 26 years, a
period longer than the auxiliaries’. Sailors completing

their service, however, were rewarded with citizenship Nedao 383
and with an impressive looking DIPLOMATA. These seamen
led a hard life, with the exception of the lucky few who Pontica was driven from the sea by the water-
were stationed in Rome and given the task of handling borne invasions of the Goths in that area.
the velarium or canvas awnings in the COLOSSEUM. The Syria The long, Mediterranean coastline of Asia
structure of the naval service continued to be Greek, with Minor and the northeast corner of the Mediter-
various commands and organization that have remained ranean at Cappadocia and Syria. Included in their
unclear. Each ship had a captain (a triearch), with a staff, jurisdiction was Cilicia, previously the home of
headed by a beneficiarius, a centurion and his own aides. the dreaded pirates. The fleet bore the name Clas-
A grouping of vessels formed a squadron under the con- sis Syriaca.
trol of a navarch, probably. This rank was the top post Alexandria Egypt was, arguably, the most impor-
attainable through promotion, for the fleets were under tant province in the Roman Empire. Its grain sup-
prefects (praefecti) from the Equestrian Order (EQUITES). ply and strategic location had to be safeguarded.
From the reign of Claudius until the time of Vespasian The seagoing responsibility was entrusted to the
there was a habit of appointing freedmen to the prefec- Classis Alexandrina (or Classis Augusta Alexand-
tures. Initially considered a relatively unimportant post- rina). It also sailed the waters of eastern Africa.
ing, by the second century C.E. the office of prefect of a Britain Although the Classis Britannica was as-
fleet, especially that at Misenum, the headquarters of the signed to roam the coasts of Britain, its ships were
Roman imperial navy, was very prestigious. Individual docked at the port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne) on
fleets were distributed throughout the ports of the the Channel coast of the Continent. When not
empire, as they were needed, but each so-called classis helping in the subjugation of the British tribes or
had a home port and an area of patrol. in defending the provinces there from assault by
the northern tribes, the Classis Britannica joined
Misenum The port at Misenum replaced the one at in the watch on the northern coasts of Gaul. Agri-
Forum Julii (Forum Iulii) as the center for protec- cola, in his time as governor of Britain (78–85
tion of the Western Mediterranean. Its ships C.E.), probably used this fleet in his circumnaviga-
patrolled the waters around Spain, Gallia Narbo- tion of the isles.
nensis, Sardinia, Capri, Corsica, the Balearic Germania The waterways of the Rhine River were
Islands, Sicily, and the Italian coast in the West. the province of the Classis Germanica, based at
the port facilities of Cologne. It sailed from the
Ravenna-Aquileia Shipping to the Adriatic was of southern edges of Germania Superior to Germania
concern to Rome because its waters connected Inferior and the dangerous waters at the mouth of
Italy with the Illyrian coast and the Aegean. Piracy the North Sea.
also occurred on this coast, mainly due to the
superb sailors of Liburnia. By the third century C.E., the lack of priority given to
the navy came back to haunt the empire. Ships and the
Pannonia One of the two fleets stationed on the quality of navigational skills had deteriorated to such an
Danube River, the Classis Pannonica, watched the extent that the Black Sea was lost for a time to barbarian
waterways of the Danubian frontier and probably vessels. In the fourth century, the fleets were placed
helped in the campaigns fought on both sides of under the MAGISTER MILITUM of Italy in the West and
the river. Its sister was the Classis Moesica. ceased to have any organization in the East. The old ports
fell into disuse, and any skillful enemy could develop a
Moesia Farther east and downriver from Pannonia rival naval force, as happened in the fifth century when
was the Classis Moesica, and its area of operation Geiseric and the Vandal kingdom of Africa laid claim to
was the Lower Danube from the start of Moesia stretches of the Mediterranean. The debacle of the
Superior until the river emptied into the Black attempted sea invasion of Africa by Leo I in 468 proved
Sea. The ships of the Classis Moesica were used in that the old Roman Imperial Navy no longer existed.
campaigns against Dacia and the barbarians who
perennially threatened the Danube frontier near See also MARINES; SHIPS.
Thrace. Depleted by the fifth century, the
squadrons were markedly improved by the Prefect Nedao River in Pannonia near which a vast engage-
Anthemius and subsequently served as one of the ment was fought in 454 C.E. between the Huns and an
first defenses of Constantinople. alliance of GOTHS, Gepidae, ALANS, HERULI, and many oth-
ers, to decide the fate of the Huns in Europe. Following
Black Sea The Black Sea squadrons guarded the the death of ATTILA in 453, the Hunnic Empire was torn
Roman shipping there, especially the grain ships apart from within by his feuding sons, each demanding
from the Caucasus. Most of the vessels were taken an equal share in the dead king’s inheritance of tyranny.
from the old Thracian fleet and became the Classis When rumor of this internal division was circulated
Pontica, which operated out of Nicomedia or among the numerous barbarian kingdoms long enslaved
Trapezus. In the third century, C.E., the Classis

384 Nemausus

by the Huns, an alliance was formed. At its head was
Ardaric, the king of the Gepidae, a small Germanic tribe,
but he was joined by the armies of the Goths, Rugi,
Alans, Heruli, Hermunduri and a host of unhappy chief-
doms. They combined their forces and gave battle. Not
surprisingly, even in disarray the Huns presented a fear-
some challenge, and the ensuing struggle at Nedao was
bloody. To the astonishment of the Huns, however,
Attila’s most beloved son, Ellac, was slain. His brothers
suffered a terrible defeat, scattering in numerous direc-
tions, their domains lost forever.

Nemausus City (modern-day Nîmes) in GALLIA NAR- The Maison-Carrée, in Nemausus (Nîmes), France
BONENSIS that eventually succeeded Narbo (Narbonne) as (Hulton/Getty Archive)
the capital of the province. West of the Rhine River,
between Massilia (Marseilles) and Narbo, it served as the Augusta. He came from Carthage, and exhibited a fluidity
chief community of the Gallic Arecomici until their con- of style and an ease of diction. Of the three didactic
quest by the Romans in the first century B.C.E. Extensive poems of Nemesianus, On Fishing, On Seamanship, and
Roman settlement was initiated by Augustus in 28 B.C.E. On Hunting (mentioned by Vopiscus), only the third, On
when he made it a colonia, settling veterans of his Egyp- Hunting (or Cynegetica) is extant, and of that a mere 325
tian campaign there. Subsequently, the city symbol was a lines. The Cynegetica was written sometime after the
crocodile chained to a palm tree. As part of the intense death of Carus in 284 but before the demise of his two
program of Romanization in Gallia Narbonensis, Augus- sons, for Nemesianus promised Carus and Numerian a
tus made certain that Nemausus received the finest archi- poem on their achievements. Also attributed to him were
tectural creations of the time, as is evident from the four bucolic or pastoral poems. He mirrored in poetic
superb archaeological finds in the region. craftsmanship the works of Calpurnius, and the four
were often included with his seven. A comparison was
Marcus Agrippa supervised the construction of the inevitable, just as the Cynegetica was examined in terms
famous Pont du Gard sometime between 20 and 16 B.C.E. of Grattius’s own effort in hunting.
to supply the water needs of the inhabitants. This aque-
duct was part of a water system for the entire city. Inside Nemesius (fl. early fifth century C.E.) Bishop of Emesa,
Nemausus were two other major structures. The and a notable Christian philosopher
amphitheater, designed by the noted architect T. Crispius Nothing of his life survived except for knowledge of his
Reburrus, held over 20,000 spectators and had such a position and his influential treatise, in Greek, On Man’s
quality of workmanship that the present residents of Nature. This book attempted to reconcile the tenets of
Nîmes still use it for various entertainments. Another Christianity with Platonism and was used by Christian
Augustan-era building, erected possibly by Agrippa, was theologians in the Middle Ages. It was, at times, confused
the Maison Carrée, or the “Square House.” Placed atop a with a work by Gregory of Nyssa.
raised platform, the Maison was a temple devoted to the
IMPERIAL CULT of Roma et Augustus. Architecturally it Neoplatonism Influential intellectual movement that
relied upon Corinthian columns. Outside of Nemausus, revived the philosophy of Platonism while injecting it
aside from the aqueducts, there were other interesting with elements of the greatest philosophies of the Roman
projects. Baths, a theater, and a temple to Diana were all
positioned near a natural spring, guarded by a watch-
tower on the overlooking hill. In the middle of the sec-
ond century C.E., Narbo, the provincial capital, suffered a
terrible fire that destroyed most of its buildings and
wrecked its economy. Nemausus became the new seat of
local administration, a status that it would enjoy for the
remainder of the imperial epoch.

Nemesianus (Marcus Aurelius Nemesianus Olym-
pius) (fl. late third century C.E.) Bucolic and didactic poet
Nemesianus gained considerable fame for his works,
including a reference in the history of Carus, Carinus,
and Numerian by Vopiscus, appearing in the Historia

Empire. Beginning in the third century C.E., Neoplaton- Ne
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 385
ism was the single most important ideology of organized
paganism in the Western world. Neoplatonism’s sub- Neoplatonism was absorbed in many respects into
stance and shape were, in large measure, created by the Christian dogma. Church theologians found it useful in
remarkable philosopher PLOTINUS. Through his works, uniting creed and philosophy. The two once-contrary sys-
especially the Enneads, the entire movement was given a tems were intertwined. Some Neoplatonists, of course,
basis of logical development. From this and the efforts of steadfastly refused to accept Christianity. They persisted,
other notable thinkers, such as Ammonius Saccas, POR- most notably in Athens, until 529, when the schools were
PHYRY, and Atticus, a diffusion of ideas took place. Neo- finally closed. Platonism lived on in the East (Alexandria)
platonism became fashionable as a philosophy of the until the time of the Arabs, and even then, as in the West,
pagan intellectual, both because of its organization and found fertile ground.
its inherent speculative flexibility.
See also HYPATIA; MAGIC.
In essence, Neoplatonism combined Numenius’s
Pythagoreanism, Stoicism, the Peripatetic School, and Suggested Readings: Berchman, Robert M. From Philo to
extensive parts of mysticism, the occult and the pro- Origen: Middle Platonism in Transition. Chico, Calif.:
found. Fused with such ingredients, Neoplatonism took Scholars Press, 1984; Gregory, John. The Neoplatonists: A
many forms, depending upon the academic institution Reader. London: Routledge, 1999; Kenney, John Peter.
one visited. Plotinus stressed the rejection of Aristotle Mystical Monotheism: a Study in Ancient Platonic Theology.
while insisting that contemplation (mysticism) and Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1991;
thought could lead to the understanding of the infinite Lloyd, A. C. The Anatomy of Neoplatonism. Oxford, U.K.:
and hence to a total recognition of reality. His student Clarendon Press, 1990.
Porphyry took a different path. He accepted Aristotle but
centered himself in a more theurgic-spiritual system. For Neo-Pythagoreanism A philosophical and pseudo-
him asceticism and spirituality led to truth. He bitterly mystical revival of the old Pythagorean school. Neo-
differed with Christianity, imprinting this attitude on the Pythagoreans combined traditional Pythagorean philoso-
schools at Pergamum, Athens, and in the East. phy with a mixture of numerous other schools, including
Stoicism and Platonism, and then injected the entire idea
Mysticism found its champion in IAMBLICHUS. This with a form of mystical revelation of an Orphic nature.
follower of Porphyry developed fully the Neo- Neo-Pythagoreanism seems to have been centered on
Pythagorean side of Neoplatonism. He studied sacred intellectual speculation concerning a number of topics,
numbers, analyzed polytheism, and laid out an elaborate normally occult but ranging from hidden meanings to
gallery of spiritual hierarchies for demons, angels and numbers, to magical rituals and formulas, to the propaga-
spirits. His metaphysics impacted upon Athenian- tion of legends that Pythagoras originated as part of a pro-
centered Neoplatonism, although the theurgists of Perga- found system of belief.
mum, Neo-Pythagorean by outlook, adhered faithfully to
Iamblichus as well. JULIAN THE APOSTATE fell under the Begun around the second century B.C.E. by philoso-
spell of the Pergamum philosophers. Meanwhile, in phers in Alexandria and Rome, the movement found fer-
Alexandria, because of Hierocles, there could be found tile ground among well-educated sophisticates who were
the more conservative voices of philosophy. They pur- looking for a kind of spiritual release. There was no set
sued the study of Aristotle and would find a common doctrine, and no two Neo-Pythagoreans would see an
ground with the Christians of Alexandria. Ammonius issue in exactly the same way, for each brought their own
eventually became a half-hearted convert to the Christian experiences and academic backgrounds. Two notable
Church, and many Christian intellectuals joined the members were APOLLONIUS OF TYANA and Nigidius FIGU-
school. Thus there occurred the initial union of Christ LUS. Apollonius was known for his visions (including the
and Platonism that would so deeply influence Christian death of Domitian) and for his ability to heal the sick. His
philosophy. miracles caused many pagans to offer him up as a rival to
Christ during the period of struggle between organized
In Athens the Neoplatonists still detested Christianity, PAGANISM and CHRISTIANITY. Figulus was important
its authors attacking it whenever possible; one such was because of his interest in all occults matters, thus imprint-
PROCLUS in the fifth century. Proclus stood at the zenith of ing on the revived Pythagoreanism a taste for the obscure .
Athenian Neoplatonism. In his numerous treatises on Pla-
tonism he brilliantly examined Neoplatonism and NEO- Both figures were cited by the other major school,
PYTHAGOREANISM, both in terms of how he saw them NEOPLATONISM, and the impact that Neo-Pythagoreanism
function and from the perspective of pure scholasticism. had on paganism, especially Neoplatonism, was consid-
His codification of Iamblichus’s hierarchies was incorpo- erable. Although absorbed by the Neoplatonists in the
rated into the theology of later religions. Even Jewish third century C.E., Neo-Pythagoreanism left as its legacy
mystical thought profited from this effort (possibly in a fascination with the secret and the arcane. Witness
Kabbalism and in the Sefer Yezira), as did Christianity. MAXIMUS OF EPHESUS who taught Emperor JULIAN to
appreciate magic and theurg y. Furt h e r, the movement
influenced Christianity through GNOSTICISM, the loose

386 Nepos,C
 ornelius Dalmatia, and on May 9, 480, was murdered by two
retainers near Salonae, possibly with the complicity of
theology so much a part of the writings of CLEMENT OF Glycerius. As Nepos had the blessing of Zeno, it is possi-
ALEXANDRIA. ble to argue that he, not Romulus Augustulus, was the last
Roman emperor in the West.
Nepos, Cornelius (c. 100–24 B.C.E.) Prolific and eclec-
tic writer Nepos, Platorius (fl. early first century C.E.) Prominent
B o rn in Gallia Cisalpina, Nepos was a contemporary of magistrate (consul in 119 C.E.) during the reigns of Trajan
some of Rome’s finest intellects. Cicero, Atticus, and his (98–117 C.E.) and Hadrian (117–138 C.E.)
fellow Gaul, Catallus, were considered his friends, but Of the senatorial class, Nepos served as governor of a
they seemed to hold little professional regard for him. He number of provinces but was most noted for his achieve-
was not included in Quintilian’s list of notable historians, ment while in Britain (c. 122–127) when he constructed
and his few surviving works appear to justify this absence the WALL OF HADRIAN. For many years he enjoyed the
of adulation. Nepos attempted various literary forms, friendship and devotion of Hadrian, but, as was the case
including erotic poems, a chronology (Chronica), and a with many others in the imperial circle, by the last years
five-book treatise on morality, Exempla. These were all of Hadrian’s rule Nepos was counted as a bitter enemy.
lost, although he probably used Va rro as his model for the
Chronica. Three other efforts remain partially extant: Nepotianus, Julius (d. 350 C.E.) Usurper in Rome in
biographies of Cato the Elder and Atticus, and one book June 350
of his 16-part study of Lives of Famous Men (De Viris Illus- Nepotianus was the son of EUTROPIA, the sister of CON-
tribus). The biographies, better written than the Famous STANTINE THE GREAT. With the help of the city’s gladiators,
Men, possibly contained many others, such as Cicero. His the opponents of the future emperor MAGNENTIUS ele-
De Viris Illustribus tried to compare the lives of famous vated Nepotianus to the rank of Augustus. He was unable
Romans with their historical parallels in Greece, much as to secure the necessary popular support and was mur-
PLUTARCH would later do. The one extant book covers for- dered by Magnentius’s soldiers at the end of June. Mag-
eign generals and is disorganized, erro r-filled and lacking nentius claimed the throne.
in sophisticated style or diction. There has been a ques-
tion as to its authorship, but the similarity with the Cato Neptune God of the sea; originally, a minor Roman
and Atticus biographies is such that most collections com- divinity whose powers were related to fresh water. When
bine them under the authorship of Cornelius Nepos. Greek influence became pronounced in Rome, Neptune
became associated with the far more powerful deity Posei-
Nepos, Julius (d. 480 C.E.) Emperor of the West from don. The place of Neptune in Rome’s list of deities was
473 to 475; in exile circa 477 to 480 C.E. always hampered by the Roman’s traditional fear of seafar-
Nepos was the son of a MAGISTER MILITUM, Nepotianus, ing; but Poseidon’s numerous attributes allowed them to
while his mother was the sister of the semi-independent worship Neptune in other ways. As the god was said to be
magister militum of Dalmatia, MARCELLINUS. As Marcelli- drawn over the waves in a chariot pulled by horses with
nus’s heir, Nepos assumed the office of magister in Dalma- brazen hoofs and golden manes, he served as an eques-
tia, eventually marrying the niece of Aelia Verina, wife of trian patron who conveyed skill in managing horses and
LEO I, the emperor of the East. By virtue of his title and his watched over horse races. The festival of Neptune (Neptu-
marriage in 473 Leo proclaimed him emperor of the West nalia) was held every July 23. The celebration was based
and sent him to Italy, where he deposed the unrecognized on his early identity and was thus designed to ensure the
Emperor GLYCERIUS, forcibly removing him to the episco- continued flow of much-needed water. Ceremonies were
pal seat of Salonae. He gained the support of the Senate by held intents(umbrae) made out of tree branches. His tem-
June 474, but could do little to prevent the king of the ple stood in the CAMPUS MARTIUS.
Visigoths, EURIC, f rom declaring independence from impe-
rial influence in his Gallic domains. This crisis resulted in See also GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME.
the loss of most of Gaul. Meanwhile, Nepos’s own magis-
ter militum, ORESTES, a one-time secretary to Attila the Nero (Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus) (37–68 C.E.)
Hun, relied upon the loyalty of his troops to elevate his Emperor from 54 to 68
son ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS to the throne. With the Senate B o rn in December 37 at Antium, the son of AGRIPPINA THE
unwilling to help, Nepos fled from Ravenna to his estates YOUNGER and Gnaeus DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS (2). His
in Dalmatia. Romulus Augustulus was himself deposed by childhood was very unstable. His family was banished by
ODOACER, the barbarian master of Italy, and Nepospressed the emperor GAIUS GALIGULA around 39, and his father
his rightful claim to rule the West before Leo’s successor, died when he was only three. Caligula seized the entire
ZENO. Elevated to the patricianate by Zeno, Odoacer family fortune, and the young boy spent many years in
agreed to Nepos’s return to Ravenna but never took steps poverty. Agrippina raised him with the help of Domitia
to bring it about. For the next few years Nepos waited in

Lepida, his aunt. His tutors were re p o rtedly a dancer and a Nero 387
barber. When Claudius succeeded Gaius Caligula as
emperor in 41, Agrippina was returned to Rome, and her CORBULO, campaigned brilliantly; through his efforts the
estate was re t u rned to her. In 49, following the fall and East was stabilized. Nero’s reaction to the triumphs of
execution of Empress MESSALLINA, Claudius marr i e d Corbulo was characteristic. He called him to Greece in 67
Agrippina, and the boy’s position was changed. Agrippina and ordered him to commit suicide.
had already arranged for him to have excellent instru c-
tors, but now he was tutored by the famous SENECA THE Nero had become megalomaniacal and his illness
ELDER. Betrothed to OCTAVIA, Claudius’s daughter, Nero found expression in despotism and in sensual and artistic
was also adopted officially in 50, becoming the probable obsessions. He traveled to Greece solely because it was the
heir to the throne, over Claudius’s son BRITANNICUS who home of the culture that he adored. Poetry, singing, games,
was younger and suffered the disadvantage of having the painting, sculpture, were all cultivated to excess, vying
unlamented Messallina as his mother. Henceforth the with orgies, parties, and feasts. With the help of Tigellinus,
young Lucius Domitius was known as Nero Claudius the briefly suppressed class of informers, the DELATORES,
Drusus Germanicus. Having assured herself the title of was revived, and many were arrested and executed or
Augusta, and her son the throne, Agrippina murdered exiled. The Senate, originally pleased with Nero’s promises
Claudius in October 54. Nero, with the help of the PRE- of a restoration of senatorial privileges, now viewed him
FECT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD, BURRUS, was accepted by with growing antipathy and distrust. The Romans wearied
the Guard and became emperor. of being locked in theaters and forced to listen to Nero’s
interminable verses or songs, and the fire of 64 C.E. was
The initial period of his reign was characterized by symbolic of municipal chaos. In the aftermath, such con-
the supremacy of his mother, both in the palace and in the s t ruction as the huge DOMUS AUREA (the GOLDEN HOUSE
realm of politics. This mastery was challenged covertly by OF NERO) drained the finances of the empire.
the alliance of Burrus and Seneca, who worked against her
by playing on Nero’s highly impressionable nature. By 55, Finally, in 65, the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY was formed,
he was leaning toward his advisers, and the eclipse of centered around Gaius Calpurnius PISO and involving
Agrippina was visible first in the murder of Britannicus numerous noblemen, senators, and others. Tigellinus
and then in her disappearance from the imperial coinage, increased his standing with Nero when he ferreted out
which had previously borne her image as well as that of the conspirators; the lists of the executed grew each day.
Nero. With Agrippina removed from the palace in 55, Bur- Among the victims were Seneca, LUCAN, and THRASEA
rus and Seneca administered the empire successfully. Sue- PAETUS.
tonius writes that there were many achievements in
re f o rming the public abuses. Nero even made liberal pro- While the murders continued, Nero went to Greece.
posals such as the abolition of many taxes; such ideas, A food shortage and ensuing unrest brought him back to
impractical or potentially dangerous, demonstrated his Rome in early 68. However, he failed to recognize the
lack of fitness to rule. When Nero turned to a life of total danger that he was in at the time and did nothing to
excess, seeking luxury and debauchery, Burrus and Seneca change his lifestyle. In March, VINDEX, the governor of
attempted to limit his adventures by directing him into Gallia Lugdunensis, rose up against Nero. He was
affairs of a private nature. Such was the case with ACTE, crushed by the Rhine legions, but soon other provinces
who became his mistress. Nero found his advisers’ inhibit- were demanding Nero’s removal. With Tigellinus ill, Nero
ing influences unbearable, as were the wiles of his mother lost his will and did nothing to stop the growing rebel-
to regain her influence, and in 59 murdered her. This per- lion. Giving up hope, the emperor committed suicide
sonal decline was exacerbated by the death of Burrus in with the help of his secretary, Epaphroditus, on June 9,
62, re p o rtedly from a throat tumor, although the prefect 68. Suetonius writes that, dying, he uttered the words:
believed that Nero had poisoned him. “What an artist dies with me!” His legacy was an empire
torn apart by civil war and a city that would vilify his
Burrus’s successors were Faenius RUFUS and the ruth- name. His reign was heavily documented by the histori-
lessly ambitious TIGELLINUS. Well-suited to Nero’s ans Dio, Suetonius, and Tacitus.
appetites, Tigellinus gained the greatest power in the
court. Seneca, deprived of Burrus as an ally, retired to pri- Suggested Readings: Charles-Picard, Gilbert. Augustus
vate life. It was a testament to the efforts of Burrus, and Nero. Translated by Len Ortzen. New York: Thomas Y.
Seneca and Roman institutions that the government func- Crowell, 1968; Grant, Michael. Nero. London, Weidenfeld
tioned as long as it did on an even level. In 61, BOUDICCA, & Nicolson, 1970; Griffin, Miriam T. Nero: The End of a
the queen of Britain’s Iceni, revolted against imperial Dynasty. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985;
tyranny. Suetonius Paulinus, Britain’s governor, defeated Holland, Richard. Nero: The Man Behind the Myth. Stroud,
her, but only after serious damage had been done to U.K.: Sutton, 2000; Shotter, David. Nero. London: Rout-
Roman possessions in the isles. Meanwhile, an attempt ledge, 1997; Suetonius The Twelve Caesars. Translated and
was made to regain Armenia, where the great general, with an introduction by Michael Grant. New York: Pen-
guin, 1979; Tacitus, Cornelius. Empire and Emperors:
Selections from Tacitus’ Annals. Translated by Graham Ti n-
gay. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983; ———.

388 Nero,
wiveso
 f N e rva enjoyed the favor of his predecessors, from Nero to
Vespasian, and proved instrumental in establishing the
Annales. Edited by Henry Furneaux. Oxford, U.K.: Clare n- policy of succession that maintained the stability of the
don Press, 1965; ———. The Histories. New York: Pen- Roman Empire throughout most of the second century
guin, 1989; Walbank, F. W. Selected Papers: Studies in C.E. B o rn at Narvia in Umbria, his family was old and hon-
Greek and Roman History and Historiography. New York: orable, his grandfather (of the same name) having been a
Cambridge University Press, 1985; Warmington, B. H. friend of Emperor Tiberius, a curator aquarum and a noted
Nero: Reality and Legend. New York: Norton, 1970; Wood- legal expert. Growing up in a respected household, Nerv a
man, A. J., ed. Velleius Paterculus. The Tiberian Narrative. became a lawyer but gained advancement in the court of
New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977. Nero because of his verse and his help in suppressing the
PISONIAN CONSPIRACY of 65. Nerva also enjoyed the favor
Nero, wives of Nero married three times, but of the stern Vespasian, who named him his fellow consul
throughout each marriage he was involved in numerous in 71. He shared another consulship in 90, with Emperor
affairs with women and with men. In 53 C.E., he wed Domitian. When Domitian later consulted astrologers to
OCTAVIA (2), the daughter of Claudius, whom he later determine who might succeed him, and Nerva was pro-
banished to Pandateria. During that time he fell in love posed, he took no action, thinking that Nerva was already
with a freedwoman, ACTE, who was the only lover to v e ryold and unlikely to outlive him. In fact, Domitian was
remain loyal to him, even though she was replaced in his assassinated in 96, and Nerva may have been involved. He
affections by POPPAEA. Poppaea was instrumental in the was immediately offered the throne.
murder of Octavia in 62, and Nero took her as his wife.
Three years later, however, while she was pregnant with As a choice for emperor, he possessed a good con-
his child, he kicked her to death. Statilia MESSALLINA first s e rvative nature and promised to deal fairly with the
served as one of Nero’s mistresses, but he married her in Senate, including a pledge never to put any member of
66; a gifted survivor, she outlived Nero. To this list must that body to death. Nerva kept his oath, but his reign
be added the Vestal Virgin Rubria; SPORUS, his freedman; was wracked by two mutinies. In 97, a nobleman, Gaius
and DORYPHORUS. Nero wed both Sporus and Doryphorus Calpurnius Crassus Frugi Licinianus, made an attempt
in a mock ceremony. Doryphorus looked exactly like at a coup but failed; Nerva refused to order his death.
Nero’s mother, Agrippina. It was also rumored that Nero The second, more dangerous uprising was led by the
had an affair with his mother. Praetorian Guard. Nerva had attempted to placate the
legions and the Guard with favors and donativa follow-
Nero, Julius Caesar (6–31 C.E.) Son of Germanicus and ing Domitian’s death, as Domitian had been very popular
Agrippina the Elder among them. The Guard forced him to remove their two
Nero was given high honors by Emperor Tiberius at an prefects, NORBANUS and Petronius Secundus, and in their
early age, much to Rome’s pleasure, for it pleased the place Nerva named Casperius AELIANUS. Aelianus led the
mob to see a child of Germanicus gain prominence. In Praetorians in an attack on the palace, demanding the
20, he already held a seat as a magistrate and received execution of the plotters against Domitian. Nerva bared
advancement to the priesthood. That same year he mar- his own neck, but the soldiers only laughed. Friends and
ried JULIA (5), daughter of Tiberius’s son DRUSUS (3). associates were then killed, and Nerva had to thank his
After Drusus’s death, Nero was considered next in line for Guard for serving justice. This humiliation broke his
the throne. By 23, however, the destruction of Agrippina, will, and shortly thereafter he announced that he had
her sons and the entire party of Germanicus was being adopted TRAJAN, the governor of Germania Superior, as
pursued actively by the Praetorian prefect SEJANUS. his heir. In January 98, Nerva died. His brief reign was
Slowly, Nero was trapped by Sejanus and stripped of the characterized by excellent relations with the Senate,
support of Tiberius, who was convinced that Nero stood attention to the completion of Domitian’s projects, vast
as a threat to his reign. In 29, Tiberius denounced both spending of sums on securing the public goodwill and a
Nero and his mother. The Senate condemned him as a pronounced attempt to increase civilian dislike for
public enemy, and he was sent to the isle of Pontia, where Domitian. Most important, Nerva initiated the system of
he either killed himself or died at the hands of his guards adopting heirs to ensure the succession of the best possi-
sometime before the fall of Sejanus in 31. His bones were ble candidates.
returned to Rome in 37 by order of his brother, the new
emperor GAIUS CALIGULA. Nero’s brother DRUSUS (2) was Nervii One of the largest and most warlike tribes of
also undone by Sejanus. Gallia Belgica, prior to Julius Caesar’s GALLIC WARS. Cae-
sar described the harsh lifestyle of the Nervii. They
Nerseh (King of Persia) See NARSES. would allow no traders to enter their territory and wine
and luxuries were forbidden out of fear that the fierce
Nerva, Marcus Cocceius (30–98 C.E.) Emperor from martial spirit of the clans would be weakened. When the
96 to 98 Romans entered Gallia Belgica in 57 B.C.E., the Nervii

refused to surrender. As their territory extended roughly Nicaea,
Councilo
 f 389
from the Sabis (Sambre) River, it became a focus for Cae-
sar’s strategy of conquest. In the subsequent battle of the in 361. A year later he held a consulship with Claudius
SABIS, he routed the Nervii, slaughtering the bulk of their MAMERTINUS and was a member of the Commission of
warriors. The remainder sued for peace, only to join in Chalcedon. During Julian’s Persian Campaign (363)
the rebellions of 54 B.C.E. and 52 B.C.E. Following the Nevitta commanded the Roman right wing. After the
siege and battle of ALESIA in 52, the Nervii were pacified, death of Julian later in the year, he participated in the
eventually contributing six cohorts of auxiliaries to the debate to find a successor but was dismissed either by
defense of the province. Jovian or by Valentinian.

Nestor, Julianus (d. 218 C.E.) Prefect of the Praetorian Nicaea Large city located in the province of BITHYNIA,
Guard (with Ulpius Julianus) during the brief reign of just east of the Ascania Lake and about 65 miles from
Macrinus (217–218 C.E.) Constantinople. It was built originally by the great king
Nestor and Julianus had previously served together as the of Asia, Antigonus, as “Antigonea.” The name Nicaea
heads of the dreaded FRUMENTARII, the imperial secret came into use after King Lysimachus honored the inhabi-
service agents. Their appointments to the prefectship of tants with his wife’s name. Known for its beauty and fer-
the Guard outraged much of the Roman establishment in tility, Nicaea enjoyed the favor of both the original rulers
the East, contributing to the revolt of the legions in Syria. of Bithynia and their successors, the Romans. Under the
When Macrinus fell in 218, Nestor was put to death by imperial administration, the city was a source of concern
ELAGABALUS. to various governors, including PLINY THE YOUNGER dur-
ing the reign of Trajan (98–117 C.E.), because of its eco-
Nestorius (d. after 436 C.E.) Bishop of Constantinople, nomic mismanagement and provincial disorganization.
patriarch from 428 to 431 Part of the problem rested in the bitter feud that raged for
Nestorius came from Syria, entering a monastery in Anti- centuries between Nicaea and NICOMEDIA, the provincial
och, where he studied the doctrines of Theodore of Mop- headquarters for the legate—a position that Nicaea’s city
suestia. Having fully absorbed that popular religious council tried increasingly to secure. Toward the later
teachers’ beliefs, Nestorius earned a name for himself as years of the Roman Empire, this effort seems to have
a brilliant orator and in 428 was chosen by Empero r brought success. Constantine the Great held his famous
THEODOSIUS II to fill the vacant see of Constantinople. A council there in 325 (see below), and Julian constructed
short time later the hotly contested heresy of Nestorian- for his own use a grand palace. Nicaea’s most famous citi-
ism was born. Nestorius preached that the term zen was the historian DIO.
Theotokos (Mother of God) was improperly used in rela-
tion to the Vi rgin Mary, for it implied that Christ had but Nicaea, battle of Engagement fought in north-western
one nature, as both God and Man. According to him, Asia Minor, probably in early 194 C.E., between the
Christ had two separate and distinct natures and Mary armies of Septimius SEVERUS and PESCENNIUS NIGER, both
was thus only the mother of the Jesus incarnated as Man. claimants to the throne. Following the battle of CYZICUS
His ideas were immediately attacked by the Orthodox in 193, the Severan forces were able to secure a solid
Christians, in particular by CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA, who position in BITHYNIA. Niger, anxious to deny them any
joined the anti-Nestorian group, seeing an opportunity further advance, moved his troops into the neighborhood
to advance his own see over that of Constantinople. In of Nicaea, now his headquarters. NICOMEDIA, the long-
August 430, Pope Celestine held a council in Rome to time rival to Nicaea, opened its gates to Severus. The two
hear both sides of the controversy. His decision favored combatants grappled in the narrow passes between
Cyril and the orthodox group, and later in the year Nicaea and Ascania. Niger was on hand while Severus left
Nestorius was condemned, a pronouncement reaffirmed command of his legions to his reliable general, Candidus.
by the Council of Ephesus in June 431. Under intense Fighting raged for many hours as fortunes swung back
pressure, Theodosius removed Nestorius from his post. and forth. Finally, through the personal courage of Can-
Returning to his monastery at Antioch, Nestorius was didus, the Severans gained the upper hand and drove
banished in 436 to the deserts of Egypt, where he died Niger from the field. Niger ordered retreat to Nicaea
years later. before withdrawing farther into Asia Minor.

Nevitta, Flavius (fl. fourth century C.E.) Germanic See also ISSUS.
officer
Nevitta served in the army of CONSTANTIUS II in 358, tak- Nicaea, Council of A council convened by Emperor
ing part in the defeat of the Juthungi in Raetia. JULIAN Constantine the Great (d. 337 C.E.) in 325 with the prin-
found Nevitta useful, appointing him MAGISTER EQUITUM cipal aim of resolving the Arian Controversy, the heresy
that questioned the full divinity of Jesus Christ. Recog-
nizing that Arianism had created a major storm in the
Eastern Roman Empire, Constantine decided not to leave

390 Nice Nicene Creed The creed or establishment of doctrine
for all Christianity as issued by the Council of NICAEA in
the matter in the hands of local church councils but to 325 C.E. The Nicene Creed reflected both the triumph of
summon bishops from around the empire. While advice Christian orthodoxy at the council and the personal
was probably given by Hosius, bishop of Córdoba (Cor- desires of Constantine the Great. Its substance was the
dova), Constantine was most responsible for organizing source of considerable debate throughout the proceed-
the council, including the generous gesture of granting ings, as the orthodox delegates and those supporting the
free transportation for the bishops who were attending. cause of ARIANISM differed as to the exact nature of
The site chosen was the imperial summer palace at Christ. EUSEBIUS OF NICOMEDIA proposed one draft, only
Nicaea, on the Bosporus, in Bithynia. It was attended by to have it rejected as being too Arian. After much discus-
more than 300 bishops, although the names of only 220 sion a final draft was composed, very similar in style to
are known. The main Western representatives, besides the Baptismal Creed of Jerusalem, and containing the all-
Hosius, were the bishops of Milan, Dijon, and Carthage important Greek word Homoousion (one substance),
and the two papal delegates representing Pope Sylvester I meaning that Christ and the Father were one—a direct
(r. 314–335). The traditionally accepted date for the start blow to Arian doctrine. As further reproof of Arianism
of the council was May 20, 325. It went on until the end special anathemas were included specifically against
of August. The president was probably Bishop Hosius, Arianists.
although some historians argue that it may have been
Eustathius, bishop of Antioch. Nicolaus of Damascus (fl. first century B.C.E.) Writer,
diplomat, and teacher of Greek descent
After a brief opening statement by Constantine, the Nicolaus entered the service of Queen CLEOPATRA of
council fathers set to work. It would appear that a creed of Egypt, becoming tutor of her children; he eventually
Arian disposition was proposed by Eusebius of Nicomedia joined the court of HEROD THE GREAT. The king made him
and rejected. Eusebius of Caesarea then offered his own. chief secretary and traveling spokesman for the Judaean
With the insertion of the term homoousios (of one sub- realm. In his capacity as a diplomat, Nicolaus journeyed
stance) this was adopted, although it was not the creed to Rome where he met Emperor Augustus on numerous
finally promulgated. Only two bishops, Theonas of Mar- occasions. AGRIPPA also received him. In 14 B.C.E. Nico-
marica and Secundus of Ptolemais, refused to subscribe to laus pleaded successfully before Agrippa at Ephesus,
the final document, the Nicene Creed and its anti-Arian achieving an improved status for Jews in Asia Minor,
anathemas, and both were deposed. The council then though he was unable to obtain the same for the Jews of
dealt with other pressing topics, including a resolution of Cyrene. Nicolaus was a prolific writer. JOSEPHUS relied
the Melitian Schism, the fixing of the date of Easter for the heavily upon his Universal History (in 144 books) for his
churches in the East and West (thus ending the Paschal own Jewish Antiquities. The work, while highly moralistic,
Controversy), and the readmission of the Novatianists and contained much useful information. Other books
Paulinians (followers of Paul of Samosata) to the church. included a biography on the youth and training of Augus-
Privileges were also accorded to the sees of Alexandria, tus and an autobiography. Some of these works have been
Antioch, and Jerusalem. While the council was supposed preserved in fragments.
to bring a close to the Arian Controversy, this hope proved
fleeting; the crisis would continue throughout the fourt h Nicomedia Provincial capital of BITHYNIA on the Gulf
century. Unfortunately, the acta of the council are lost. of Marmara, about 60 miles from Constantinople; one of
The only extant documents are the 20 canons it issued, the most important metropolises in Asia Minor. Nicome-
the creed, and the synodal letter. dia was founded by King Nicomedes I of Bithynia around
264 B.C.E. Its position of prominence was undiminished
Nice Mediterranean seaport along the western coast of when the Romans assumed control of the region in 74
Liguria. It was founded in the fourth century B.C.E. by B.C.E., and the Nicomedians could boast of having both
Greek colonists from Massilia (Marseilles), who defeated the seat of the governor and the center of Roman influ-
the local Gallic tribe for possession of the area. In honor ence situated within their walls. The concilium, the
of their triumph they named the community Nikea (or provincial assembly, convened at Nicomedia, and in 29
Nicaea) after Nike, their goddess of victory. As a colony B.C.E. Emperor Augustus approved the erection of the
of Massilia, Nice was under that city’s jurisdiction until temple to hold the service of the IMPERIAL CULT. Nicome-
the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey. When Mas- dia possessed numerous advantages that aided its claim
silia was defeated and conquered by Caesar in 49 B.C.E., to supremacy. It was located directly on the main trade
losing its right to territorial possessions, Nice was freed routes from East to West, running through Bithynia, and
of its fealty to its Greek founders. Roman occupation fos- the area around the city was very fertile. The harbor on
tered extensive development in the hills behind old Nice. the Propontis helped link it to the maritime commerce in
Archaeological remains include baths, an amphitheater,
and a temple of Apollo. During the imperial era Nice was
one of the leading centers of the mountainous region of
the Maritime Alps.

the BLACK SEA and in the Mediterranean, and the Roman Nile,b
 attle
of
the 391
navy maintained its fleet in the harbor. A proposal was
made to dig a canal from the sea to a lake farther inland, tration of that financially troubled province. By the time
but the plan was never fulfilled. Nicomedia earned the of the succession of Hadrian in 117, Nigrinus com-
jealousy of other cities in Bithynia, most notably its manded considerable political respect and was seen as
southern neighbor, NICAEA, which lobbied successfully to both a leading general and possible heir should the new
have the governors moved there from Nicomedia. This emperor die. It came as a considerable surprise, then, that
old and bitter rivalry caused Nicomedia to support Septi- in the summer of 118 Nigrinus and three others in the
mius SEVERUS in 193 C.E. against PESCENNIUS NIGER, who court were put to death for conspiring against Hadrian.
had Nicaea’s backing. Niger lost his bid for the throne, This course of action was probably caused by Nigrinus’s
and by the early third century C.E., Nicomedia’s favored opposition to Hadrian’s imperial policy, as well as his
status was evident. Diocletian chose it as his headquarters long-standing friendship with Trajan. He was also father-
in the East. Archaeologically, very little remains of his in-law to Lucius Aelius.
numerous constructions, partially because of the disasters
visited upon the city over the years. In 258 C.E., the Nile For countless centuries the Nile River has flowed
Goths poured into Bithynia and Nicomedia was captured from the heart of Africa through ETHIOPIA and EGYPT into
and sacked. Earthquakes were also common, the worst the Mediterranean. When the Romans came to occupy
striking on August 24, 358 C.E. Nicomedia also suffered Egypt, they relied heavily upon Egyptian agriculture,
from the ineptitude of financial managers. So severe was aided in the main by the annual flood of the Nile. It was
the problem that Trajan appointed special legates to reor- widely believed that the source of the Nile was to be
ganize the entire administration of Nicomedia and other found in the Atlas Mountains in MAURETANIA, the water
cities in the province. One of the legates, PLINY THE traveling underground before emerging in Sudan, and
YOUNGER, attempted to construct a series of aqueducts. this view was echoed by Dio. Nero, with an eye toward
Like the canal, the aqueducts were never finished. conquering ETHIOPIA, sent an expedition of the Praetorian
Guard up the river in the fall of 61 C.E. They journeyed
Nicopolis (1) In Epirus, the “City of Victory” built by extensively through Ethiopia, collecting a wealth of infor-
Emperor Augustus in 31 B.C.E. to celebrate his defeat of mation. Their progress was exceptional, all the way to the
Antony and Cleopatra at nearby ACTIUM. Nicopolis was White Nile, but because of the marshlands there they
opposite Actium on the Gulf of Ambracia and served as could proceed no farther. The journey home took some
his headquarters prior to the climactic engagement just off time, for they did not reach Rome until around 63, hav-
the coast. Originally a small Greek community, it was ing failed to find the source of the mighty river. That was
expanded along Greek cultural lines at Augustus’s order. A said to have been discovered in the early second century
p e rmanent memorial of triumph was also created, the ludi C.E., when the Greek Diogenes traveled into the heart of
Actiaci, or Actian games, held every four years. To popu- Africa and discovered two lakes, each fed by snow-
late his new community, Augustus encouraged immi- capped ranges, the “Mountains of the Moon.”
grants from Aetolia and elsewhere. He envisioned using
Nicopolis as an important administrative center for the Nile, battle of the The final engagement in Julius
impoverished province of Epirus. People from all over CAESAR’s pacification of Egypt, fought in February of 47
southern Epirus were moved to Nicopolis, including vil- B.C.E. between the forces of Caesar and his ally MITHRI-
lages from Ambracia and Anactorium. Within a short time DATES OF PERGAMUM against those of King Ptolemy XIII.
the city served as an important model of Hellenic life. When Ptolemy learned that Mithridates had reached the
Nile Delta, the young ruler immediately dispatched an
Nicopolis (2) In Moesia; a Danube River city created army to prevent the general’s union with the besieged
by order of Emperor Trajan in his attempt to colonize and Romans at ALEXANDRIA. Mithridates easily defeated the
civilize the province and, like Marcianopolis, to inject Egyptian Dioscorides’s attack, sending a messenger to
Hellenic culture into the region. Nicopolis figured in the Caesar that he should come quickly. Ptolemy sent more
Gothic Wars during the third century C.E. troops downriver while watching from Alexandria for the
Romans, who he knew would be on the march. Caesar,
Nigrinus, Gaius Avidius (d. 118 C.E.) A member of the however, sailed around any possible Egyptian sorties,
wealthy and influential Avidius family who held several joining Mithridates before Ptolemy could react. Both
posts during the reign of Trajan (97–117) sides now had around 20,000 men each. Caesar pushed
Nigrinus was a tribune in 105, consul in 110, and a gov- forward against the demoralized Egyptians, routing all
ernor in Dacia not long after that region was conquered. who dared oppose him. The legions destroyed an enemy
As a legate in Achaea, Nigrinus probably participated in fort, and after heavy fighting stormed the king’s camp.
Trajan’s attempt to reorganize and stabilize the adminis- Thousands fled, including Ptolemy, who reportedly
drowned when his ship capsized. Egypt was now in the
hands of Julius Caesar.

392 Nisibis apparently removed from his post by the new ruler shortly
after the accession, being superseded by Casperius
Nisibis A strategically important city in Mesopotamia, AELIANUS. When the Praetorian Guard revolted, insisting
between the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates that the assassins of Domitian be handed over for execu-
rivers. Nisibis was for many centuries the capital of the tion, Norbanus may have been among the numerous off i-
district of Mygdonia, situated on the Mygdonius River. cials slain, but there is no record of his death.
Few cities were so bitterly involved in the conflicts
between Rome and the empires of PARTHIA and PERSIA. Noricum Roman province south of the DANUBE River
Any advance into Mesopotamia from Armenia would aim and situated to the north of Italy, between RAETIA and
for the occupation of Nisibis to allow a further attack PANNONIA. It was instrumental in the defense of Italy and
against the Tigris or south into Mesopotamia and the suffered heavily in the barbarian invasions of the fifth
Euphrates satrapies. In his campaign against Parthia, century. This mountainous, green and beautiful land was
Emperor Trajan captured Nisibis in 114 but then lost it in the home of a large number of Celtic tribes, who over-
the revolt of 116 that killed his general Maximus Santra. whelmed the Illyrian peoples of the area sometime
The reliable Moor, Lusius Quietus, was unleashed, and he between the third and first centuries B.C.E. The greatest of
retook Nisibis as well as EDESSA. Emperor Septimius the Celtic communities was that of the Taurisci, who
Severus suppressed an uprising of the Osroene in 194 and became known as the Norici, from their capital at Noreia.
created a colony at Nisibis, providing it with a procurator. A confederation of tribes who issued their own coinage,
Upon his return in 198, Severus decreed MESOPOTAMIA a they supported Julius Caesar in his war against Pompey
province, with Nisibis as its capital and the seat of an in 49 B.C.E.
Equestrian prefect who controlled two legions.
The strategic value of Noricum became obvious to
Throughout the third century C.E., Nisibis was buf- Emperor Augustus, who saw the need to create a strong
feted back and forth as Rome and Persia struggled against border along the Danube. Since its position so close to
one another. Following the crushing defeat of King NARSES Italy did not recommend it as a client kingdom, starting
in 298, at the hands of Emperor Galerius, Nisibis enjoyed in 35 B.C.E. pressure was mounted on the Norici to accept
a monopoly as the trading center between the two realms. Roman supremacy, with direct Senatorial or proconsular
In 363, Julian launched an unsuccessful Persian expedi- government there. Unlike other parts of the empire, the
tion; his successor Jovian accepted a humiliating peace inhabitants of Noricum accepted their fate. In 16 B.C.E., P.
with SHAPUR II. Nisibis became Persian once again. Silius Nerva, governor of ILLYRICUM, annexed the entire
country, and Noricum became a province. At first Rome
nominatio Process used by the emperor in the early probably used a praefectus civitatum to run the local
years of the empire to decide whether or not a candidate administration, but eventually a procurator was sent out.
was worthy of election to a given office. Augustus and Early Roman occupation was centered on the installation
Tiberius both examined potential magistrates, and the and imprinting of Italian culture on the province. In this
receiving of the nominatio from the emperor was con- they were wholly successful. The local tribes were broken
sidered of the greatest help in being elected. With the apart and, as in Gaul, the Celtic sociopolitical structure of
nominatio very often came the commendatio, or the rec- the civitates was rooted out. Despite opposition from the
ommendation of the ruler, as well. The entire process Norici, Noreia was destroyed. In its place were created
became meaningless in 14 C.E. when Tiberius nominated highly Italianized cities, later municipia, whose residents
only 12 candidates for the 12 vacancies in the praetor- were drawn primarily from the provincial population.
ships. He left no choice for the voters and nullified the Urbanization proceeded so smoothly that colonization
ability of the comitia to choose another candidate. More was unnecessary.
important, he transferred the elections from the comitia
to the Senate, terminating active democracy in Rome. Over time, Noricum became a province with two dif-
ferent cultural patterns. Near the Danube, life was less
Nones The fifth or seventh day of each Roman month, developed because of the presence of Rome’s armies,
depending upon its number of days. Each Nones fell while behind the frontier the proximity of Italy was very
exactly nine days before the IDES, and by tradition was evident. With Italian ways so ingrained, the province
used to list the coming festivals. There were, as a conse- became an example, if not a spearhead, of Romanization
quence, very few holidays prior to the Nones. in Pannonia and elsewhere. The drive to Romanize the
rest of the Danubian line would meet with varying
See also CALENDAR. degrees of success compared with Noricum. Under initial
administrations the provincial seat was at Virunum, a
Norbanus (d. 96 C.E.?) Prefect of the Praetorian Guard MUNICIPIUM. As a result of the MARCOMANNIC WARS, a per-
Norbanus served as prefect with Petronius Secundus dur- manent garrison was stationed in the province. Its legate
ing the reign of DOMITIAN and was a member of the con- became the new governor, running all affairs from the
spiracy to murder the emperor in 96 C.E. He may have had city of Ovilava, while the procurator remained at
a say in the choice of Nerva as the next emperor but was

Virunum. Ovilava enjoyed municipal status and in the numerals,R
 oman 393
reign of Caracalla was promoted to a colonia. Diocletian
later divided Noricum along the civilian and military Probably a convert to Christianity, Novatian served as a
lines that had long existed, creating Noricum Ripense in presbyter in Rome and was the author of an orthodox
the north and Noricum Mediterraneum in the south. treatise on the nature of the Trinity. A rigorist in matters
of readmission for lapsed Christians, he came to oppose
Economically, Noricum was blessed with a rich natu- vigorously the policy of the church in allowing those
ral supply of iron ore. The Alpes Noricae ran through Christians who had denied their faith to repent and
much of the province, its many peaks holding vast return to the fold, particularly after the harsh persecu-
deposits, and Noric swords were among the finest avail- tions of Emperor Decius (r. 249–251). When, in 251, St.
able. Citizens of Noricum served in the legions and for Cornelius was elected as successor to Pope later St.
many years helped fill the ranks of the Praetorian Guard ; Fabian, Novatian allowed himself to be elected bishop of
Noricum joined Spain, Macedonia, and Italy as a recruiting Rome as a rival, making him the first of the antipopes.
center for the guard. Noricum was overwhelmed in the Condemned by Cornelius and a synod of Rome, Novatian
general invasion by Germanic tribes in the fifth century. died during the persecution of Emperor Valerian (r.
253–260). Novatian’s followers persisted, however, in
notarii The imperial corps of notaries, the secretaries their belief that those who had fallen from the faith
and stenographers of the government and army in the should never be allowed to repent because their sin was
later years of the Roman Empire. The notarii w e re under unpardonable in the eyes of God. Formally condemned
the control of a chief (primicerius notarioru m). These by the Council of Nicaea in 325, the Novatianists sur-
officers maintained the entire corps, handling pro m o- vived into the fifth century.
tions and transfers. Each member of the notarii was
assigned to the palace, a Praetorian prefecture or the Nuceria An old Italian colony situated just east of
army. Those belonging to the central bureaucracy (the POMPEII; reportedly conquered by Hannibal during the
palace or a prefecture) were known as tribuni et notarii, Punic Wars. In 59 C.E., its inhabitants and those of Pom-
while those working for generals were called domestici et peii were attending a gladiator show held by Livineius
notarii, although they held no military rank. The most Regulus (who was expelled from the Senate) in Pompeii.
important task of the notarii was the keeping of the A disagreement between the two groups erupted into vio-
minutes of the CONSISTORIUM or imperial council. lence, and soon they were stoning one another and then
Because of their familiarity with the workings of the dueling with swords. The outnumbered Nucerians were
state, and ability to keep secrets, the notarii stood as a slaughtered. Nero ordered a full investigation when word
ready pool for potential holders of high government reached Rome, and Pompeii was forbidden as a result to
offices. They were used frequently on missions requiring hold any entertainment for the next 10 years; Livineius
delicate negotiations. Julian tried unsuccessfully to limit and the promoters were exiled.
their numbers.
See also FIDENAE.
See also CIVIL SERVICE; SCRINII.
numerals, Roman The Roman numeral system was
Notitia Dignitatum A listing of the most important based upon a basic series of seven signs that could then
imperial officers in the Eastern and Western empires, be used in combination, repetition, or slight modification
compiled sometime after 395 C.E. The Notitia Dignitatum to create other numerals. The seven basic numbers were:
is of great value historically because of its thorough pre-
sentation of the many officeholders in the huge bureau- I 1
cracy of the late empire. It examined each office, starting V 5
with that of the Praetorian prefect, working its way down X 10
the ranks of the provincial governors. With each entry L 50
was provided an account of the duties of the offices, the C 100
subordinate staff and, where applicable, any military I⊃ or D 500
units at their disposal. The insignia of each office was or M 1,000
also depicted. In all likelihood, the Notitia that was pre-
served was for use in the West, as the bulk of the infor- The D in 500 was often written with a middle bar, but
mation was on Western officials, while that of the East it is now used as a basic D. M is also commonly used for
contained fewer specifics. The original of the Notitia was 1,000 today, but it was rarely used by the Romans. Its pri-
lost, the surviving copy was made in 1551. mary use was as an abbreviation of the words mille and
milia, with as the ac tual figure. C was the most likely an
Novatian (d. c. 257–258 C.E.) Theologian, presbyter, and a b b reviation of the word centum, while V was most likely
founder of the schismatic sect of Novatianism chosen to represent the five fingers of the hand. X repre-
sented the joining of two hands (or the union of V and V).

394 numerals,
Roman

Using these seven symbols, the Romans were able to 30 XXX triginta
40 XL quadraginta
create other numbers, normally through a process of 50 L quinquaginta
60 LX sexaginta
adding numbers (e.g., VI for 6, II for 2, and XXII for 22) 70 septuaginta
80 LXX octoginta
or subtracting numbers (e.g., IV for 4, XL for 40, XC for 90 LXXX nonaginta
100 XC centum
90). The Romans apparently preferred to add numbers 200 C ducenti
300 trecenti
rather than subtract, but both methods were employed. To 400 CC quadringenti
500 CCC quingenti
create a larger number, a smaller number was attached to 600 CCCC sescenti
700 I⊃ or D septingenti
the right of the larger number, reading from left to right. A 800 I ⊃C octingenti
900 I ⊃CC nongenti
smaller number was created by adding a smaller number 1000 I ⊃CCC mille
10,000 I ⊃CCCC decem milia
to the left of the larger number, thereby making it clear ⊂ I⊃ or M
CC I⊃⊃
that there is a subtraction of value. Both methods could

appear in the same number, such as CCXLIV (244).

In order to calculate and represent larger numbers, in

the late Republic a superscript bar was adopted to indi-

cate that a number should be multiplied by 1,000. For

aesve⏐Xn−−⏐ltaorgdeernontuem1e,0ra0l0s,,0l0a0te.rAal lines were employed, such,
medial bar was employed as

well, to prevent possible confusion between ordinal and

cardinal numbers. The symbol for the denarius thus was

written as ✻ to denote that it was worth X asses.

A cursive form of Roman writing brought about a ROMAN ORDINAL NUMBERS

number of minor variations in the forms of numbers. first primus, -a, -um
second secundus, -a, -um
Most variations could be recognized easily, but some third tertius, -a, -um
fourth quartus
eccentric versions could be almost entirely indecipher- fifth quintus
sixth sextus
able. Compounding the difficulty of reading numbers seventh septimus
eighth octavus
was the fact that Roman numeral usage was not always ninth nonus
tenth decimus
consistent, and variations could be found all over the eleventh undecimus
twelfth duodecimus
empire. There is also the notable absence of zero in the thirteenth tertius decimus
fourteenth quartus decimus
Roman numbering system. The zero was not added to fifteenth quintus decimus
sixteenth sextus decimus
the numerical system of the West until the adoption dur- seventeenth septimus decimus
eighteenth duodevicesimus
ing the Middle Ages of the Arabic numbering system. nineteenth undevicesimus
twentieth vicesimus
Scholars in Baghdad introduced the zero around 800, twenty-first unus et vicesimus
thirtieth tricesimus
adopting for their own use the Hindu numbers, with the fortieth quadragesimus
fiftieth quinquagesimus
symbol 0. sixtieth sexagesimus
seventieth septuagesimus
ROMAN CARDINAL NUMERALS eightieth octogesimus
ninetieth nonagesimus
1I unus hundredth centesimus

2 II duo

3 III tres

4 IV or IIII quattuor

5V quinque

6 VI sex

7 VII septem

8 VIII octo

9 IX novem

10 X decem

11 XI undecim

12 XII duodecim

13 XIII tredecim

14 XIV quattuordecim

15 XV quindecim

16 XVI sedecim

17 XVII septendecim NUMERAL ADVERBS

18 XVIII duodeviginti once
twice
19 XIX undeviginti semel
bis
20 XX viginti

three times ter Numidia 395
four times quater
five times quinquies ably had murdered his father). Either because he had failed
six times sexies in the field or had found war distasteful, Numerian term i-
seven times septies nated the expedition and started for home. While on the
eight times octies march he fell ill, complaining that his eyes hurt. Near
nine times novies Nicomedia he rested, away from the view of his troops,
ten times decies while only Aper had access to him. Finally, when the
eleven times undecies stench coming from his tent was unbearable, the soldiers
twelve times duodecies entered and discovered Numerian long dead and pro-
thirteen times terdecies nounced Aper the murderer. A young officer, DIOCLETIAN,
twenty times vicies was proclaimed emperor by the troops and slew Aper.
one hundred times centies
Numerianus (fl. c. 200 C.E.) The so-called School Mas-
Note: Numeral adverbs ending in -es have an alternative ter General
form in -ens. An individual of dubious reality, Numerianus was sup-
posedly a teacher of letters in Rome in 196 C.E. Accord-
DISTRIBUTIVES singuli ing to Dio, hearing that CLODIUS ALBINUS, governor of
bini Britain, had crossed into the Gallic provinces against Sep-
one each terni timus Severus, Numerianus traveled to Gaul and estab-
two each quaterni lished himself as a rebel leader by claiming to be a
three each quini senator. Through Numerianus’s skill and daring, Albinus’s
four each seni units were defeated in small engagements. Numerianus
five each septeni stole 70 millions sesterces for the Severans. When
six each octoni Severus next met Numerianus, the schoolteacher asked
seven each noveni for nothing, living out his days in the country with an
eight each deni allowance that was pressed upon him by the emperor.
nine each undeni
ten each duodeni Numidia Roman province situated between MAURETA-
eleven each terni deni NIA to the west and AFRICA to the east. It was the last ter-
twelve each viceni ritory in the western regions of the Roman Empire to be
thirteen each centeni converted into a province. Numidia was the home of the
twenty each African nomads, or Numidae, a herding people of Berber
one hundred each extraction who were eventually divided into two major
tribes: the Massylians and the Masaesylians. Small chief-
numeri Term used to describe any formation of barbar- doms were common until the time of Masinissa (c. 221
ians serving in the Roman LEGIONS whose nature was so B.C.E.), when all of Numidia’s tribes were united.
un-Roman as to prevent its classification among the aux-
ilia, or auxiliaries. These troops, known after the start of Roman interest in the terr i t o ry had existed after the
the second century C.E., might have included elements of destruction of CARTHAGE. In 106 B.C.E., the Numidian ruler
wild tribes living along the Danube or in Germania. In Jugurtha was crushed in the Jugurthine War, and Numidia
the late empire, numeri came to signify any body of sol- fell under Rome’s political control, although client kings
diers, losing its reference to barbarian origins. were left on their thrones, including Hiempsal (106–60
B.C.E.) and JUBA I (60–46 B.C.E.). This latter monarch
Numerian (Marcus Aurelius Numerius Numeri- joined the cause of POMPEY THE GREAT in 49 B.C.E., serving
anus) (d. 284) Emperor from 283 to 284 as his most loyal supporter in Africa. He defeated Caesar’s
Numerian was the son of Emperor CARUS and the younger representative in Africa, Gaius Gurio, and then helped
brother of CARINUS. He was advanced to the imperial METELLUS SCIPIO during the campaign against Caesar in
power in stages behind Carinus and thus received the rank 47–46 B.C.E. Juba was routed at the battle of THAPSUS in 46
of Caesar in 282, a short time after Carinus was invested. and died immediately after, his realm being taken over by
In 283 Numerian set out with his father on his campaign Caesar, who established the colony of Africa Nova.
against the Persians, while Carinus remained in the West.
When Carus died quite suddenly, Numerian and his In 30 B.C.E., Augustus installed upon the throne
brother succeeded to the throne as corulers. Initially JUBA II, the son of Juba I and one of the most learned
Numerian carried on the war against Persia with the ambi- men in the world. He remained in Numidia for only five
tious PREFECT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD, APER (who pro b- years, for Augustus desired the more strategically placed
kingdom for Rome. Juba moved to Mauretania in 25,
while Numidia was reunited with Africa Proconsularis.
Numidia remained part of the senatorial province,

396 nummus
 castrensis interior and connected the colonies with Africa’s major
ports at Carthage and Hadrumetum. Numidia’s wealth
headed by a proconsul with one legion. Local troubles was based on agriculture and livestock, including olives,
f l a red during the reign of Tiberius, with tribal uprisings cereals, wine, and cattle. Septimius Severus named Numi-
and the serious revolt of TACFARINAS. So successful was dia an independent province, with a capital at Cirta (later
this brigand that in 20 C.E. the emperor sent out a legion renamed Constantine) in the most abundant part of the
f rom Pannonia to Numidia, placed first under the com- country. Along the southern frontier of Numidia, one of
mand of BLAESUS and then DOLABELLA, who finally killed the more fluid boundaries of the Roman Empire, a series
Tacfarinas in 22. While the legion was removed from of fortifications and posts was built, an African version of
Africa, another legion stayed, the only legion on the the limes used on the Rhine and the Danube, to protect it
continent except for the forces stationed in Egypt. from constant threats riding out of the desert.
Emperor Gaius Caligula decreed that a proconsul should
not command such troops and moved them from deep nummus castrensis Literally, “coinage of the camps”; a
in Africa Proconsularis to the Numidian frontier. They special kind of Roman coin issued by a general to pay his
p a t rolled the loose bord e r, keeping an eye on the wild troops while on campaign. The name was derived from
tribes. the tradition of handing the money out in the castra, or
military camp, of the legions.
The presence of the cohorts allowed a highly success-
ful program of Romanization as they constructed roads See also COINAGE.
and helped to build a military colony at THAMUGADI. The
roads allowed greater economic development within the

O

Obodas (d. 9 B.C.E.) King of Nabataea in the later years Though Octavia bore the stigma of having the infamous
of the first century B.C.E. Empress MESSALLINA as her mother, she was deeply loved
The successor of King Malachus, Obodas inherited a by her father. She was betrothed in 49 to L. Junius
country absorbed into the Roman Empire. In 25 B.C.E., Silanus, a nobleman and a relative of Augustus, but he
Obodas aided Aelius Gallus in his attempted conquest of was ousted from the Senate as a result of palace intrigue.
Arabia by sending a force of 1,000 men to act as auxil- In 49, she was betrothed to Nero, son of Agrippina the
iaries. His demise may have been the result of poison, Younger, Claudius’s new wife, and they were wed in 53.
administered by his vizier. After Nero succeeded Claudius as emperor, he quickly
grew tired of Octavia. By 55 they were estranged, as Nero
Octavia (d. 11 B.C.E.) Sister of Octavian (Augustus) and pursued the freedwoman ACTE. He maintained the mar-
one of the most popular women in Roman history riage for a time because of the legitimacy that Octavia
Octavia was the daughter of OCTAVIUS and Atia, the lent to his corrupt rule, but in 62 Nero divorced Octavia,
mother of Octavian. At an early age she married the CON- claiming she was barren, to marry POPPAEA. The outraged
SUL (50 B.C.E.) Gaius Marcellus, by whom she had three Roman mob forced her return. This was only a brief
children: a son, MARCELLUS, and two daughters. This respite, for soon charges of treason were made against
union was endangered by Julius Caesar’s offering her to her, and Octavia was exiled to the island of Pandateria,
POMPEY THE GREAT as a political unifier and then termi- where, later in the year, she was cruelly murdered and
nated by her husband’s death sometime around 40 B.C.E. her head delivered to Poppaea.
To cement the alliance between Octavian and Marc
ANTONY, Octavia wed the general in 40 and bore him two Octavian See AUGUSTUS.
daughters, the two Antonias, before Marc Antony became
enamored of CLEOPATRA. In 32 B.C.E. he renounced the Octavius, Gaius (fl. first century B.C.E.) Father of
marriage completely. Octavia, very much respected by Emperor Augustus
Rome, was seen as a victim of Antony’s ambition. After According to the cynical remarks of Marc ANTONY, Gaius
Antony’s defeat and death, Octavia remained loyal to his Octavius’s own father may have been a moneychanger.
memory. She cared for all of his children, her own and Certainly he was born into wealth, using it to launch a
those of his previous wife FULVIA and of Cleopatra. She very successful public career. After serving as a PRAETOR,
lived as a Roman matron, much aggrieved by the death of he became the governor of Macedonia, where as chief
her son Marcellus in 23 B.C.E. administrator he earned the praise of Cicero and proved
more than capable. Before 63 B.C.E., he returned home
Octavia, Claudia (c. 41–c. 62 C.E.) Empress of Rome where further political offices were open to him, but he
from 54 to 62; the wife of Nero and the daughter of Claudius died before reaching the consulship. Gaius was married
twice, first to Aucharia (producing a daughter) and then

397

398 Odaenath Nepos be allowed to return. This was never granted, and
when Nepos died in 480, Odoacer took over his holdings
to Atia, daughter of JULIA (1), sister of Julius Caesar. The in Dalmatia as well. Although Constantinople supposedly
two children from that union were Octavian (AUGUSTUS) headed the vast imperial domain, in reality the West was
and OCTAVIA (1). no longer a part of the Roman Empire. Odoacer was slain
by the Ostrogoths in 493.
Odaenath (d. 266 C.E.) King of Palmyra from 260
to 266 Oea (Tripoli) One of the leading coastal cities of Tr i-
Odaenath was an excellent general and diplomat who politania in Africa; situated west of Lepcis Magna, in mod-
used the desperate position of Rome to widen Palmyra’s ern Libya. Despite its position of importance in Africa, little
role in the East. As a prince of Palmyra, he had initially has survived of it archaeologically, except for the Arch of
looked to establish an alliance with the Persians under Marcus Aurelius. Built in 163 C.E., the Arch was architec-
SHAPUR I, but was disappointed. In the disastrous mid- turally notable because of the dome that covered the top.
third century, with crises on every frontier, the hard-
pressed Emperor Gallienus welcomed any aid that Olba A small client state in CILICIA. Olba was part of
Odaenath might offer Rome. The Palmyrene king first the network of kingdoms used by the Romans in the
avenged the defeat and death of the Roman general, Vale- early part of Cilicia’s provincial history. It was annexed in
rian, by smashing Shapur in battle. When he killed the 72 C.E. by Vespasian, who renamed the main city of Olba
Roman usurper Quietus in 261, he became the foremost (or Olbia) as Diocaesarea.
commander of Rome in the Eastern provinces. Having
thus proven his worth to Gallienus, Odaenath received Ollius, T. (fl. mid-first century C.E.) Father of Sabina
the title dux Romanorum and corrector totius Orientus, Poppaea
granting him broad governmental powers. With every A friend and client of the PREFECT OF THE PRAETORIAN
available Roman soldier he marched against Persia, cap- GUARD, Sejanus, Ollius held the office of QUAESTOR. He
tured Nisibis and Carrhae, swept through Mesopotamia was a victim of that association, dying before he could
to the very gates of Ctesiphon, the Persian capital, and attain higher office. For that reason Poppaea assumed the
brought Shapur to his knees. By 264 Odaenath controlled name of her grandfather, rather than of her father.
the entire East, from Cilicia to the Egyptian border,
including Mesopotamia, while Gallienus was struggling Olybrius (d. 472 C.E.) Emperor of the West in 472 C.E.
to preserve the West. A fight for Syria and other territo- and descendant of the noble house of the Anicii
ries of the East was probably inevitable. In 266, Odaenath Olybrius added to his political potential by marrying
was murdered, perhaps by a Roman official appalled at Placidia, the daughter of Valentinian III. At the same time
the rise of the Palmyrenes. His death created a vacuum he was connected to the family of Geiseric, king of the
that was filled by his wife ZENOBIA. Vandals in Africa, for Placidia’s sister Eudocia had wed
Geiseric’s son Huneric. Geiseric thus favored Olybrius as
Odoacer (d. 493 C.E.) A Germanic king, responsible in a possible ruler of the Western Empire. Leo I, at Con-
476 C.E. for the end of the Roman Empire in the West stantinople, did not trust Olybrius at all.
Odoacer was a chieftain of a contingent of Sciri (Heruli)
in the armies of the PATRICIAN and MAGISTER MILITUM, In an attempt to have Olybrius murdered, Leo sent
ORESTES, who in 475 ousted Emperor Julius Nepos from him to Rome where Emperor Anthemius was feuding bit-
the Western throne in favor of his son, ROMULUS AUGUS- terly with the MAGISTER MILITUM RICIMER. According to
TULUS. The basis of the power of Orestes was, as always, the writer John Malalas, Leo wrote to Anthemius to have
the Germanic hosts. They mutinied in 476 over their Olybrius put to death. Unfortunately, Ricimer learned of
desire to settle permanently in Italy, a possibility that hor- the plot and elevated Olybrius to the throne. Anthemius
rified Orestes. The soldiers found a leader, Odoacer, pro- was beheaded in July 472. Leo refused to recognize the
claimed him their king (rex) and murdered Orestes. claims of Olybrius but did not take any action at first.
Romulus was deposed but allowed to live in Campania. Ricimer died, followed by Olybrius in November, suppos-
edly of dropsy.
Odoacer was determined to end the process of
putting politically impotent monarchs in charge of the Olybrius, Quintus Clodius Hermogenianus (fourth
West. He declared himself king of the Germans but then century C.E.) Praetorian prefect of various parts of the
immediately requested official recognition from Con- Roman Empire from 378 to 379
stantinople for his position as magister militum. In effect, Olybrius was a Christian and a member of the noble
the West and the East were to be governed from Con- family of the Anicii. He became governor in Campania
stantinople as one empire, though his domination would and then in Africa in 361 and held the urban prefect-
be unquestioned. His claim was challenged by Julius ship from 369 to 370. It was during the reign of VALENS
Nepos, the former emperor; Emperor Zeno decided that
Odoacer should receive the patricianate while asking that

that Olybrius was promoted to the office of PRAETORIAN Oribasius 399
PREFECT of Illyricum, probably succeeding the influen-
tial Ausonius. Emperor GRATIAN, in 379, transferred him logical sequence and delivery of words, was highly
to the prefectship of the Orient. Although he was reput- regarded by Roman society. Training to become proficient
edly cruel and hard, Gratian appreciated his military in oratory took many years. Similar to a doctor’s medical
abilities. education, a prospective speaker would attach himself to
a noted orator, who would teach by example. Schools of
Olympiodorus of Thebes (d. after 425 C.E.) Egyptian oratory forced students to deliver speeches on matters
historian from the city of Thebes of pure fiction; CICERO, in Brutus, detailed such a course
Although few of the details of his life have survived, of instruction.
Olympiodorus was known as a poet and journeyer, and
was sent in 412 to deal diplomatically with the Hunnic During the Republic, oratory was more skilled and
chief Donatus. In all probability he then traveled to the important than during the empire. As the historian Taci-
West, as his extant history was centered on the events tus mentioned in his Dialogue, the cause for this may
befalling the western provinces. This work, recording the have been the need for a Republican politician to estab-
years 407–425, served as a source for such subsequent lish his career on the basis of his words, whereas in the
chroniclers as Sozomen and Zosimus. empire one was more depended upon the goodwill of
the occupant of the throne. Whatever the cause, from the
Oppian (fl. late second century C.E.) Poet time of Augustus onward, oratory suffered a decline in
Oppian’s authorship of Greek hexameter poems has been elegance. Advocati, or lawyers, still practiced for a time,
the subject of considerable debate. One or perhaps both but most of the great speeches were made by the emper-
of his poems, Cynegetica and Halieutica, were written ors themselves, or were panegyrics by grateful courtiers
either by Oppian of Cilicia or by a namesake from Syria. or were made to propose changes in legislation. The last
Halieutica was on fishing, while the Cynegetica was on great orator in the Roman Empire was the fourth-century
hunting, and supposedly was so pleasing to Emperor rhetorician, Libanius.
Caracalla that he awarded the poet one gold piece for
every verse. See also ADVOCATUS.

Oppius, Gaius (fl. mid-first century B.C.E.) One of the Orbiana, Barbia See BARBIA ORBIANA.
closest friends of Julius Caesar
With Cornelius Balbus, Oppius managed Caesar’s per- Orestes (d.c. 476 C.E.) Magister militum, Patrician, and
sonal affairs. After the dictator’s assassination in 44 B.C.E., the father of Emperor Romulus Augustulus
he joined the cause of Octavian (AUGUSTUS). Oppius Orestes came originally from Pannonia, entering the ser-
came from the Equestrians (EQUITES) and probably had a vice of Attila the Hun as a secretary. Using the influence of
role in the completion of Caesar’s writings on his many his position he achieved the patricianate under Julius
campaigns. Books that Oppius wrote included biogra- NEPOS, who named Orestes a magister militum in 475.
phies of Caesar, mentioned by Plutarch and Suetonius, of Deciding to usurp the throne for his son, Orestes gathere d
Cassius, no doubt a hostile account, and of Scipio an army and marched on Ravenna, forcing Nepos to flee
Africanus. For Octavian, and to clear the name of Caesar, to Dalmatia. Romulus was thus given the purple, but his
Oppius also published a study denying that Ptolemy Cae- father soon encountered trouble with his German troops.
sar (Caesarion) had been the son of Caesar. The barbarians wished to settle permanently in Italy, a
desire that Orestes opposed. Unwilling to accept such an
Ops (goddess of the harvest) A Roman deity of fer- answer, the Germans chose ODOACER as their king and
tility, creative forces, and earthly energies. Ops was the attacked Orestes at Placentia, putting him to death.
wife of the god Saturn, and her festival was held on two
days, the Opalia on December 19 and the Opiconsivia on Orgetorix (fl. first century C.E.) Chieftain of the Hel-
August 25. It was said that she could be invoked by sit- vetii; in 61 B.C.E.
ting on the ground and touching the earth with the hand. Orgetorix convinced his people that they should leave
their territory in Helvetia to settle in the less populous
Orange See ARAUSIO. regions of Gaul. Challenged for the authority of the Hel-
vetii, he fled and soon committed suicide. Orgetorix was
oratory One of the most important fields of study in nevertheless responsible for the attempted migration of
Rome. The art of speaking with skill, manipulating the the Helvetians that resulted in their wholesale slaughter
emotions of listeners, and attaining victory because of the by Julius CAESAR.

Oribasius (c. 320–400 C.E.) Famous and influential
writer and physician
Oribasius came from Pergamum and studied medicine at
Alexandria. Among his instructors was Zeno of Cyprus.

400 Oriens preach in their churches. Origen accepted their request,
despite being a layman, an action that angered Bishop St.
After practicing in Asia Minor, he entered the service of Demetrius of Alexandria, who ordered him to return to
Julian the Apostate. As Julian’s private physician, Oriba- Alexandria. On another visit to Palestine around 230, he
sius accompanied him to Gaul in 355, and as a friend and was ordained a priest by the bishops of Jerusalem and
fellow pagan, he was a participant in the movement to Caesarea. Demetrius, even more angry and feeling that
have Julian elevated to the throne in 361. Holding a place his rights had been violated, held two synods. Origen was
of high honor in Julian’s reign, Oribasius continued to act exiled from Alexandria and commanded not to exercise
as the imperial physician. He was with Julian during the his priestly duties. Given sanctuary at Caesarea, he
Persian campaign in 363, and when the ruler died in that opened another school in 231 and added to his already
same year he was at his bedside. There followed a period considerable reputation through his writing and instruc-
of banishment and disgrace, but Oribasius was eventually tion. Sometime in 250, however, he was arrested during
recalled by Emperor Valens, who restored his lost prop- the Decian persecution. Imprisoned and tortured, he was
erty and status. He resumed his practice, married a shattered physically and never recovered his health after
wealthy woman, had four children, and died sometime his release in 251. He died a few years later at Tyre.
around 400.
Origen was the author of a vast corpus of writings.
As a writer, Oribasius authored works on both Unfortunately, few of his works have survived, extant
MEDICINE and his friend Julian. Among his extensive mostly in fragments or generally unreliable Latin transla-
medical books were a non-extant examination of Galen, tions from the original Greek. His scriptural writings
and the collectiones medicae, a vast array of writings by include numerous commentaries of the Old and New Tes-
medical specialists through the ages; 25 books from the taments and the Hexapla (or sixfold Bible), which was
collectiones have survived, while fragments of the others used by St. Jerome in his creation of the Vulgate, the Latin
were preserved in such volumes as the Synopsis ad translation of the Bible used by the Roman Catholic
Eustathium, Ad Eunapium, and Oribasius’s own epitomes. Church. Other works are Contra Celsum (Against Celsus),
Most of his literary effort was at the request of Julian, and an apology against the pagan cynic Celsus; Exhortation to
for Eunapius he composed an account of Julian’s Persian Martyrdom, a plea to his friends to remain firm in the faith
campaign. during the persecutions; and perhaps his most important
book, First Principles (c. 225), an effort to compile a com-
Oriens Diocese created by the reforms of Emperor prehensive manual on dogmatic theology, one of the first
Diocletian; it included Egypt and most of the East. The in the history of the Christian Church. It is known today
provinces included in Oriens were: Pamphylia, Isauria, only in two Greek fragments and an unreliable Latin ver-
Cilicia, Mesopotamia, Coele-Syria, Phoenice, Libanensis, sion translated by Tyrannius Rufinus (d. 410). This man-
Palaestina, Aegyptos, Herculia, Arabia, Thebais, Aegyptus ual became the focus of the Origenist controversy.
Iovia, Libya Superior, Libya Inferior, and Cyprus.
Origen was accused by St. Jerome and others of cer-
Origen (Origenes Adamantius) (c. 185–254 C.E.) tain heretical tendencies. Others defended him, however,
Influential teacher, theologian, exegete, and writer and the majority of the Eastern bishops considered him a
Origen was born probably in Egypt, perhaps Alexandria, defender of the faith. His name nevertheless became
to Christian parents. His father, St. Leonidas, taught him attached to a doctrinal system, Origenism, incorporating
the faith and made him memorize passages from the various unorthodox elements of his teaching. Widely
Scriptures. Further education came under the famed read in the years after his death, Origen attracted many
teacher Clement of Alexandria, head of the Catechetical adherents who propagated some of his more adventurous
School of Alexandria. Around the time of his father’s theological speculations (including his notions on the
death, who was martyred around 202, Origen succeeded pre-existence of souls), ultimately causing the Origenist
Clement as director of the school, since Clement had controversy of the fourth century. The chief enemy of
been forced into exile by the Romans. He remained in the Origenism was St. Jerome, who helped secure the con-
post for some 20 years, even after the end of the persecu- demnation of Origen’s radical teachings by Pope Anasta-
tion. He taught philosophy, Scripture, and theology but at sius I in 400. Elements of Origenism endured into the
the same time improved his own knowledge of pagan sixth century.
philosophy by attending lectures by the noted philoso-
pher Ammonius Saccas, founder of the school of Neopla- Origenes (fl. third century C.E.) A third-century Neo-
tonism. Origen also adopted a strict asceticism, castrating platonic philosopher often confused with the Christian
himself in an extreme interpretation of a passage in theologian ORIGEN. Both Origen and Origenes were stu-
Matthew (19:12). dents of Ammonius Saccas in Alexandria, but Origen died
in 254, while Origenes continued writing for many years.
In 212, he traveled to Rome and then to various He authored two works on NEOPLATONISM in Greek.
places in Greece, Palestine, and Arabia. While in Pales-
tine, Origen was invited by several local bishops to

ornamenta Two kinds of special rank conferred upon Osroene 401
praiseworthy individuals. Ornamenta were presented to
victorious generals by the grateful people of Rome. (Only inflicted upon him by Emperor Trajan. From the start,
emperors could receive the TRIUMPH.) Ornamenta were Oroses attempted to oppose the supremacy of Rome in
also insignias of status given by the emperor, with the the East. Shortly after his accession (c. 110) he replaced
consent of the Senate to indicate a position in the magis- the new monarch of Armenia, Axidares, with another
terial system of Rome. These ornamenta could include the claimant, Parthamasiris. As Axidares had the support of
offices of AEDILE, QUAESTOR, and PRAETOR, as well as oth- Rome, Trajan viewed this action as an invitation to war
ers. and in 313 embarked upon a massive campaign against
Parthia. In a brilliantly waged series of operations, Trajan
Orodes II (d. 38 B.C.E.) King of the Parthian Empire crushed Oroses’s armies, pushed deep into his realm and
from around 57 to 56 and 55 to 38 B.C.E. captured CTESIPHON, his capital. Having lost the city, his
Orodes was the son of Phraates III and brother of Mithri- actual throne and his daughter, Oroses had little strength
dates III. In 57 he and his brother murdered their father, to oppose Trajan’s direct annexation of Armenia and
and Orodes, being older than Mithridates, became the Mesopotamia.
ruler of Parthia. Mithridates then instigated a coup and
seized power. Orodes gained the aid of the gifted General Oroses was handicapped severely in his struggle with
SURENAS and recaptured the throne. His brother fled to Trajan by serious troubles in his own client states.
the Romans, but returned to Parthia and attempted a Satrapies all over the Parthian Empire challenged his
counterrevolution. Mithridates’s failure culminated in 54 direct authority, contributing to his failure against the
with his being trapped at Seleucia and eventually mur- Romans, while occupying his remaining years with
dered. alarms and the need for suppressive measures, thus
depriving him of the ability to mount a counterattack
Despite having attained total domination of the against Trajan.
Parthian Empire, Orodes was seen by the triumvir Marcus
Licinius CRASSUS (1) as an easy conquest. Thus, in 53, See ARSACID DYNASTY.
Crassus embarked upon his doomed Parthian Campaign.
While Orodes made war on Armenia, the defense of Orosius, Paulus (fl. fifth century C.E.) Christian histo-
Mesopotamia was entrusted to Surenas. Crassus was anni- rian and opponent of Paganism
hilated at the battle of Carrhae, as Orodes took credit for Orosius came from Spain, perhaps Tarraco. An ardent
the worst defeat ever inflicted upon the Roman legions to Christian, he served as presbyter in Lusitania before flee-
that time. To complete his triumph, and at the same time ing to Africa to escape the invasion of the Vandals (c.
to remove any potential rivals, Orodes executed Surenas. 410). This journey to Africa brought him into contact
with St. AUGUSTINE, who became a major influence on
Over the next years of his reign, Orodes came to rely Orosius, prompting him to join in the fight for Christian
upon one of his sons, Pacorus, as his most trusted lieu- orthodoxy and to compose his large history of Christian-
tenant. The prince was entrusted with most of the ity. Orosius wrote two treatises against the heretical
Parthian operations against Rome, including the disas- church movements of Pelagianism and Priscillianism. Far
trous battle in 38 in which Pacorus was slain. The loss of more important was his Historiae adversus Paganos (His-
this son broke Orodes’s heart. A short time later, Phraates tory against the pagans). In this polemic, Orosius chroni-
IV, another son, murdered him and took the kingdom as cled the evolution of Christianity from Adam to 417 C.E.,
his own. missing no opportunity to ridicule and condemn all
forms of paganism. He used as his sources Eusebius, Livy,
See also ARSACID DYNASTY. the Old and New Testaments, Tacitus and others,
although the number of references was not as great as he
Orodes III (d. 7 C.E.) King of Parthia from around 4 or 6 claimed. The hand of Augustine was evident in all of the
to 7 C.E. and a particularly unpopular ruler passages, an association that lent both Orosius and his
A member of the royal household, Orodes murdered King work an undeserved credence.
PHRAATACES and took the throne, but his reign lasted only
a few years. A court intrigue arranged his murder. Orodes See also PELAGIUS; PRISCILLIAN.
was known to be cruel, tyrannical, and paranoid in his
relationships. Osiris Egyptian god of the dead and one of the most
prominent deities of the ancient Egyptian pantheon. Like
See also ARSACID DYNASTY. his divine wife, the goddess Isis, Osiris fascinated both
the Greeks and the Romans and developed a considerable
Oroses (d. 122 C.E.) King of Parthia from around 110 to cult following.
122 C.E.
Oroses’s reign was marked by a terrible civil disorder See also RELIGION.
among the local vassals and by the crushing defeat
Osroene A strategically vital state situated in northern
Mesopotamia, near Syria and Armenia. Osroene (also,

402 Ostia sumptuous Baths of Neptune. There were eventually 18
baths. As many families moved to Ostia, insulae became
Osrhoene) began as a small kingdom sometime in the quite common, replacing the DOMUS as the principal form
second century B.C.E. but fell under the domination of of housing.
the Parthians. It was included in the list of Parthian vas-
sals and served as a defensive buttress against Rome from Ostia’s greatest prosperity came in the age of the
the first century C.E. As Rome and Parthia (and later Per- Antonines (late second century C.E.). Puteoli had faded
sia) struggled for regional supremacy, Osroene became a as the favorite harbor, and vast amounts of goods entered
battleground, especially its strong fortress-capital of Rome from Ostia as a result. However, soon after the
Edessa. The status of the realm changed late in the third zenith came the decline. After the restorative initiatives of
century C.E. after the victories of Lucius Verus and Avid- the Severans, Ostia began to slip in proportion to the
ius Cassius. Henceforth Osroene was answerable to increasing economic chaos of the Roman Empire. Most of
Rome, falling under attack in the third century and again the workers moved away, especially to Portus. That com-
at a later time by the Persians. peting site first received independence from Ostia and
then, in 314, was granted Ostia’s old municipal rights.
Ostia The port of Rome, situated at the mouth of the
Tiber some 16 miles from the Eternal City. For many cen- Religiously, Ostia enjoyed the patronage of Vulcan
turies Ostia protected the western shore of the Tiber and but also attracted Mithras, Isis and, in the early third cen-
served as a gateway for vital grain supplies for Rome. tury, Christianity. Not even the presence of a bishop,
Ostia was probably founded as a defensive maritime however, could prevent the steady deterioration of the
colony by Ancus Marcius, sometime in the fourth century city. By the fifth century it was utterly defenseless, and
B.C.E. As the Gallic tribes still ravaged the Italian coast after a time the surrounding region was contaminated
and Greek fleets threatened, a colonia at the mouth of the with malaria. In 1938, a massive archaeological program
Tiber was essential (see COLONIES). Throughout the suc- was launched. Most of the old Ostia was excavated, and
ceeding years Ostia’s value increased as a naval base, in work is ongoing in other sections. Ostia, even more than
the Punic Wars with Carthage and as a commercial center Pompeii, was a reflection of Rome’s style and tastes. Thus
for the arrival of goods from Spain. Early in the first cen- it is invaluable from a historical perspective.
tury B.C.E., in the struggle between Marius and Sulla, the
Marians captured and pillaged the town. Sulla put up Ostrogoths The GOTHS who penetrated into the
new walls around all of Ostia. Roman Empire in the third century eventually split into
two groups, the VISIGOTHS (the Western Goths) and the
By the start of the Roman Empire, problems had Ostrogoths (the Eastern Goths). Their destinies, though
developed in the harbor. The natural port of the river was at times parallel, were from the fourth century quite dis-
now inadequate, too much shipping crowded the harbor tinct. The Ostrogoths faded from the Roman view for
and silt was developing. Julius Caesar had hoped to cre- much of the fourth century, as they focused their atten-
ate a better harbor but did not live long enough to com- tions on carving out a vast empire from the Don River to
plete the project. Augustus (ruled 27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.) the Dneister, and from the Black Sea to the inner
improved the city with numerous constructions, and stretches of the Ukraine. This was their land, ruled by a
Gaius Caligula (ruled 37–41 C.E.) built a proper aque- king and his organized nobility. The greatest Ostrogoth
duct. It was Claudius who desired a great harbor. Despite king was Ermanarich, who routed all competing tribes.
the opposition of his advisers, the emperor, in 42 C.E.,
sponsored a massive engineering project three miles Around 370 C.E., however, there descended upon the
northwest of Ostia—a canal connecting the new harbor West the scourge of the HUNS. The Ostrogoths kept them
to the Tiber and then to the city. Two moles with an inge- at bay at first, but were eventually annihilated in battle.
nious lighthouse marked the dimensions of the new port Ermanarich fell, and the Ostrogoths surrendered, one of
facilities. Claudius’s vision was not matched by reality, for the largest of the Western nations to submit to the Huns.
the harbor proved insufficient and unsafe. A storm in 62 Large numbers of them, under Alatheus and Saphrax,
destroyed 200 important corn ships while they were in requested permission from Emperor Valens around 377
dock. Puteoli remained the harbor of choice for captains. to settle in the Danubian region, which was free of Hun-
nic domination. They were refused but crossed the
Trajan (rule 98–117 C.E.) made extensive changes in Danube anyway. Both kings joined with the Gothic chief,
the Ostian harbor, building a hexagonal foundation Fritigern, in Valens’s destruction at the battle of ADRI-
within the old site and ensuring the erection of other ANOPLE in 378. Having achieved total victory over the
structures both inside and on the perimeters. The names Romans, the Ostrogoths joined with the Alans in a mas-
Portus Romanus, Portus Augusti, and finally Portus were sive invasion of PANNONIA. Gratian, recognizing the
used for the port town. Ostia, meanwhile, profited hand- slaughter that would be necessary to subdue the barbar-
somely from the new efforts, as the entire city was rebuilt ians, allowed them to settle in MOESIA Superior and Pan-
and expanded. In the reign of Hadrian even more changes nonia. There they remained, falling under the control of
took place. Large granaries were established, as were mar- the Huns once more (c. 477) as Attila ravaged the
kets, a barracks for a detachment of VIGILES, and the

Danube. In 454 they no doubt shared in the defeat of the Ovid 403
Huns at the battle of NEDAO. Subsequently, the Ostro-
goths were a dangerous force waiting for a gifted leader. the Othonians gained the advantage. Heeding the advice
He came in the person of Theodoric the Great. of his brother Lucius Titianus and the Praetorian Prefect
Licinius Proculus, he gave battle at BEDRIACUM in the
Otho, Lucius Salvius Titianus (fl. first century C.E.) middle of April. He was routed and killed himself on
Brother of Emperor Otho April 16. Most historians, especially Tacitus, viewed him
Lucius Otho proved more of a hindrance to the Othonian as a reprehensible and profligate figure. He was the sec-
cause in 69 C.E. than a support. Lucius remained in Rome ond of four emperors in 69 C.E.
when Otho marched against VITELLIUS in northern Italy.
Facing a crisis, Otho sent for him in early April and ovatio A minor kind of triumph given to a victorious
appointed him a general. With the PREFECT OF THE PRAE- general who, for whatever reason, could not claim a
TORIAN GUARD, Licinius PROCULUS, Lucius ill-advisedly smashing defeat of an enemy. It mirrored a regular TRI-
supported an immediate engagement with the Vitellian UMPH or ORNAMENTA in every way except that the victor
legions. The resulting battle of BEDRIACUM was a disaster, could not wear a laurel wreath or ride in a chariot. He
and the emperor was forced to commit suicide. Lucius wore myrtle and either walked or rode on horseback. The
was pardoned by Vitellius for what the historian Tacitus expense of the festivities was also smaller. Ovatios were
called his love of his brother, and his incompetence. accorded to Octavian (AUGUSTUS) and Marc ANTONY in 40
B.C.E., and Octavian received others in 36 and 20 B.C.E.
Otho, Marcus Salvius (32–69 C.E.) Emperor from Jan- DRUSUS the Elder received one in 11 B.C.E., and Aulus
uary 15 to April 16, 69 C.E. Plautius one in 47 C.E., while GAIUS CALIGULA refused an
Otho was born to a family of relative newcomers to polit- ovatio in 39 C.E.
ical power, elevated to the Equestrian class by Augustus
and to the Patrician class by Claudius. He early on Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso) (43 B.C.E.–17/18 C.E.)
acquired a reputation for wildness, using an affair with One of the best-known poets of Rome
one of the courtiers of Nero to insinuate himself into a Ovid was famed both for the fluency of his composition
position of favor with that emperor, sharing in Nero’s and his voluminous output. Born at Sulmo in the Apen-
orgies and eccentricities. The two divided as Otho fell in nines, the son of an Equestrian who desired that his off-
love with POPPAEA, whom he eventually married. Nero, spring pursue a public career, Ovid received the finest
too, fell under her spell and in 58, desiring to take her as education possible. At Rome Ovid was schooled in
his mistress, the ruler gave Otho the governorship of His- rhetoric and law, developing a preference for poetry. After
pania Lusitania. Poppaea did not accompany her husband finishing his studies at Athens he held posts in the
to his new post, their marriage was annulled and Nero decemviri and the centumviri but turned away from such a
made her his empress in 62. Three years later he kicked public life to become a poet. Unlike most of the poets of
her to death. Otho never forgave him for this, mourning his time, Ovid was eminently successful. He was able to
the loss of Poppaea for the rest of his life. benefit from his reputation, frequenting the best social
circles, and was an associate of such writers as TIBULLUS,
As head of Lusitania, Otho displayed surprising mod- PROPERTIUS, HORACE, and Cornelius GALLUS.
eration and common sense. In 68, he joined the cause of
the imperial claimant GALBA, traveling with him to Rome. In 8 C.E., Ovid was mysteriously exiled. The cause
Once there he helped to win the support of the Roman of the banishment was never fully explained. He was at
establishment, while currying favor with the PRAETORIAN the height of his career, a fact that probably contributed
GUARD. Considering himself Galba’s heir, he was crushed to his exile. Ovid had written his Ars Amatoria (Art of
and embittered by the naming of PISO LICINIANUS as heir. Love) a round 2 B.C.E., exactly the time of the depart u re
Using his long-time connections in the city, as well as his f rom Rome of JULIA (3), Augustus’s profligate daughter.
friends in the Guard, Otho headed the conspiracy that A book on love would hardly have pleased Augustus at
murdered Galba on January 15 and elevated him to the that time. Later, Ovid apparently committed some
throne. Otho was accepted by the Senate as emperor, but offense to the imperial family. In 8 C.E., while visiting
word arrived that VITELLIUS, the governor of Germania Elba, the decree of Augustus reached him. He was to
Inferior, had revolted with the legions of the Rhine. Vitel- live out his life in Tomi, a small frontier community on
lius outnumbered Otho by many legions, despite the the Black Sea, near Constanza in modern Rumania.
widespread support for the Othonian cause. Unwilling to F rom 9 until his death in 17 or 18 C.E., Ovid spent his
wait for help, Otho launched a campaign against Vitel- life writing. He described his existence as harsh and
lius, who was already marching on Italy. Sending Annius primitive, even though people treated him with great
GALLUS and SPURINNA to the Po in March of 69, Otho kindness in exile. His pleas for forgiveness went unan-
remained in Rome. In the early stages of the campaign swered by Augustus and TIBERIUS. Whether in exile or
not, the sheer output of Ovid remained vast. He com-
posed mainly in the elegiac style and was influenced by

404 Ovid Tristia (Sadness) letters, contained in five books,
the Alexandrine school. As a poet he wrote with wit, addressed to various persons and dating from 8 to
appreciation of beauty, nature, and art, and integrated 12 C.E. Ovid was able to write to a few individuals
brilliantly his extensive learning into the chosen literary while in exile, such as Augustus, Livia and his
f o rm. His works were: stepdaughter Perilla, but most of the names were
not included because they had to be protected
Amores love poetry, written in five books and pub- from association with him. The whole is a power-
lished around 16 B.C.E. ful plea for justice.

Ars Amatoria (Art of Love) in three books, one of Epistulae ex Ponto (Letters from the Black Sea)
his best and most popular works, which defined more epistles in four books, this time from 12 to
love as a field of study and research, with the poet 13 C.E., sent openly. Like Tristia, the correspon-
acting as instructor. A crafted imitation of the dence begged for help and pardon.
study books of the times, especially the Ars gram-
matica; c. 2 B.C.E. Fasti (The calendar) an intriguing work on the
Roman calendar, including data on legends, rituals
Epistulae Heroidum (Letters of the heroines) 15 and astronomical changes. Only six months of
fictitious letters from mythological heroines to Fasti have survived.
their lovers who had abandoned them. Also called
simply Heroides and very well received. Ibis a curse laid upon someone who was acting
against him in Rome. Composed at Tomi, the
Remedia amoris (Cures for love) an effort pub- book was based on a similar poem by Calli-
lished after the Ars instructing readers how to machus.
escape the bonds of love; c. 1 C.E.
Halieutica only 130 hexameters have survived of
Metamorphoses written in hexameter form. The Ovid’s poem on fish. The work, based on the
Metamorphoses, composed of 15 books, was a author’s study of fish in the Black Sea, was known
compilation of individual stories, both Greek and to PLINY THE ELDER.
Roman, showing the transformation from chaos to
order, from the Creation until the time of Julius Nux (Nut tree) one of Ovid’s later poems, Nux alle-
Caesar’s elevation to divine status. gorically presented the pitiful plight of a tree sub-
jected to abuse by passers-by, who throw stones.
The poet Ovid. (Hulton/Getty Archive)
The last two were perhaps not by Ovid. There were
other minor works that were either lost completely
or survived only as fragments in the creations of other
writers.

Suggested Readings: Kennedy, Eberhard, ed. Roman
Poetry & Prose. Selections from Caesar, Virgil, Livy and
Ovid. Cambridge: University Press, 1959; Ovid. Ovid in
Love: Ovid’s Amores. Translated by Guy Lee. New York: St.
Martin’s Press, 2000; ———. Fasti. Book IV. Edited by
Elaine Fantham. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University
Press, 1998; ———. The Art of Love, and Other Poems.
Translated by J. H. Mozley. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1979; ———. Metamorphoses. Book
XIII. Edited by Neil Hopkinson. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 2000; ———. Ovid in English. Edited by
Christopher Martin. New York: Penguin Books, 1998; —
——. Ovid in Six Volumes. Translated by Grant Shower-
man. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1986–1988; ———. The Love Poems. Translated by A. D.
Melville. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998; Taylor,
A. B., ed. Shakespeare’s Ovid: The Metamorphoses in the
Plays and Poems. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University
Press, 2001.

P

Pacatianus, Titus Claudius Marinus (d.c. 249 C.E.) dict, and John Cassian. Pachomius is revered by the East-
Usurper in the reign of Philip the Arab (c. 248–249) e rn and Western Churches as well as by the Coptic
Probably of the senatorial class and an officer on the Church.
Danube frontier. Pacatianus lost the support of the
legions in Moesia and Pannonia and was killed shortly Pacorus (d. 38 B.C.E.) Son of King Orodes I of Parthia
after declaring himself. The prince displayed genuine talent in both politics and
war and by 41 B.C.E. was probably the joint ruler of the
Pacatus, Latinus Drepanius (fl. late fourth century) domain, acting as general in all major Parthian opera-
One of the most gifted rhetoricians of the late empire tions. Quintus LABIENUS, son of the famed aide to Caesar,
Like his friend and older colleague, Ausonius, Pacatus arrived in Parthia around 41 and persuaded Orodes to
came from Gaul. He served as proconsul of Africa in 390 send an invasion force into Syria. Labienus and Pacorus
and as comes rerum privatarum under Theodosius I were to direct the attack. Pacorus swept into southern
around 393. His panegyric on Theodosius, delivered Palestine, installed the claimant Antigonus on the Jewish
before the Senate in Rome in 389, displayed a classical throne and planned to make his occupation of Syria per-
upbringing, a blend of Christianity and paganism, and a manent. Marc Antony sent General P. Ventidius to the
sense of legend and history. East, and he defeated Labienus and then campaigned
against Pacorus. In 38, Pacorus assembled his army,
Pachomius (d. 346 C.E.) Egyptian saint and founder of attacking Ventidius on Mount Gindarus. The heavy cav-
Christian cenobitic, or communal, monasticism alry, the cataphract, of Parthia fell before Rome’s orga-
Born near Thebes, Egypt, Pachomius was raised a pagan nized legions. Pacorus was killed in battle, and the
and served in the Roman legions in North Africa. After Parthians retreated to the Euphrates. His death was a
leaving the legions in 313, he was converted to Christian- severe blow to Orodes, who died only a short time later,
ity, withdrawing into the desert near Thebes. There he murdered by another son, Phraates IV.
lived for a time as a disciple of the noted hermit Palemon
(or Palaemon). He then established a community of monks Pacorus II (d. 114 C.E.) King of Parthia from around 79
on the Nile at Tabenissi, in the Thebaid, which soon to 114
attracted many followers. Pachomius drew up a rule for Successor to his father, Vologases I, Pacorus may have
the monks that called for a life of work and prayer. It was removed the little-known Artabanus IV. The reign of
the first such rule in the history of monasticism and was to Pacorus was notable for an increase in tensions between
prove so remarkable and flexible that by the time of his Parthia and Rome. Contact was probably established with
death Pachomius had founded more than 10 monasteries the Dacian monarch, Decebalus, in the hopes of under-
for both men and women. His rule, further, was to have a mining influence both in the East and along the Danube.
major influence on such innovators as St. Basil, St. Bene- Pacorus certainly interfered with Roman policy in Arme-

405

406 Paetina,
Aelia oning of the cause of Christianity, the war of the faiths
seemed over.
nia. This intervention made war inevitable, although he
did not live to see it. He was followed by his brother Constantine made a deliberate choice in Christianiz-
Oroses. ing the Roman Empire. He refused, though, to destroy
the pagans, as they had tried to do with the Christians in
Paetina, Aelia See CLAUDIUS. the past. Rather, he promoted the precepts of the Chris-
tian Church, making it preferable socially. As virtually the
Paetus, Lucius Caesennius (fl. first century C.E.) entire imperial establishment, from the farmers in the
Consul in 61 C.E. and a disastrously incompetent legate provinces to the governors and the Praetorian prefects
Paetus had the misfortune of having his faults made even was pagan, Constantine allowed time and the fanaticism
more obvious by his brilliant savior, CORBULO (2). In 62, of Christian leaders to do their work.
Nero appointed him the legate of Armenia, where he was
to relieve Corbulo of some of his burdens. When, later in The few laws that had been passed during the reign
that year, the Parthians of Vologases I made trouble in of Constantine against pagan activities were followed and
A rmenia, he gathered his available legions (the IV and extended by his sons, especially CONSTANTIUS II. Sacrifices
XII) and set out at once. His marches were fruitless, his were stopped and, supposedly, all places of pagan wor-
plans ill-conceived. Within months he was forced to ship were to be closed. Such laws, however, were often
retreat, abandoning the East to Corbulo, who completed lamely enforced. Thus, when JULIAN THE APOSTATE rein-
Rome’s dealings with Parthia. Upon Paetus’s return to stated paganism in 361, the old traditions were easily
Rome, Nero told him that a pardon was immediately revived. JOVIAN ended this policy in 363, but the temples
forthcoming, for any general so easily frightened would remained open.
surely die from prolonged anxiety. Because of Paetus’s
experience in the Syrian provinces, Vespasian (c. 70) In the second half of the fourth century, emperors
made him governor of Syria. In that capacity he con- such as Gratian, Valentinian II and especially Theodosius
quered Commagene in 72/3, making it a Roman province. the Great acted with ruthlessness in the suppression of
He thus made up for his terrible losses of the past. the temporal trappings of paganism. Gratian stopped
using the title PONTIFEX MAXIMUS (senior priest of Roman
paganism Polytheism, the worship of more than one religion), ceased subsidies to the Roman cults and dra-
god, was the reigning form of worship in the ancient matically decreed that the pagan statue of VICTORY be
world, remaining so throughout the Republic and Roman removed from the Senate. The appeal to Valentinian II to
Empire until its overthrow by CHRISTIANITY. For the restore it was defeated by the formidable AMBROSE, bishop
Roman government, organized paganism was essential for of Milan. SYMMACHUS, the gifted orator and philosopher
two reasons: first, it helped to ensure the continued bless- who delivered the appeal, emerged as the foremost
ings, protection, and patronage of the gods for the spokesman for the old ways. Theodosius then appointed
empire. Second, it offered a means by which vast popula- CYNEGIUS, his Praetorian prefect of the East, with the task
tions in the provinces could be brought under Rome’s of closing any temple where sacrifices had been made.
influence. Aside from the Roman IMPERIAL CULT, there This decision inflamed clerics and Christians throughout
were the very old Delphic Oracles and the gods and god- the East to root out all symbols of paganism. In Alexan-
desses of the East, including Mithras, Isis, Osiris, and dria, for instance the famed Serapeum was ruined by a
Asclepius. These other cults became part of what was group of monks under the patriarch of Alexandria,
known to Christendom as paganism. THEOPHILUS, in 389 or 391. At the prodding of Ambrose,
Theodosius, in 391–392, passed harsh and far-reaching
Christianity presented a fundamental challenge to laws aimed at ending organized paganism entirely. It was
pagan beliefs. It called for a rejection of the old gods, treasonous to make sacrifices of any kind, all idols were
preached views contrary to the designs of the imperial removed and fines were levied on all temple visitations.
government and seemed to Roman officials to be anti-
social. The bitter hatred evinced between pagans and The final gasp of large-scale paganism came in 392,
Christians became so intense that reconciliation was when the usurper EUGENIUS, supported by the MAGISTER
impossible. When Christianity began to propagate, it MILITUM ARBOGAST, declared that the old gods were to be
faced more opposition from JUDAISM than from officials worshiped once more. Victory was returned to the Senate
of the Roman state, who viewed the new cult as an house and, with the banners of Hercules leading the way,
o ffshoot of the Jewish religion. Slowly, paganism per- Eugenius and Arbogast set off in 394 to battle with Theo-
ceived the threat from Christian doctrines. There fol- dosius. On September 5–6, 394, the cause of paganism
lowed two centuries of varyingly intense persecutions was destroyed at FRIGIDUS. Theodosius instructed the
and extermination programs, culminating in 3/2 C.E. in Senate to have Victory removed once more.
the EDICT OF MILAN, granting religious freedom in the
empire. With CONSTANTINE THE GREAT and his champi- Over the next century the Oracle at Delphi was
closed, Mysteries of all kinds were ended and pagan tem-
ples often converted into Christian buildings. Some
pagan movements were more easily absorbed into the

Christian community, especially NEOPLATONISM, while Palladius 407
paganism lingered for many years in secret.
was a derivation of the Hebrew word for the Philistines,
See also DIOCLETIAN; GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME; although the Roman term for the actual kingdom of the
MAGIC; NEO-PYTHAGOREANISM; PHILOSOPHY; PRIESTHOOD; Jews was JUDAEA. Throughout the years of Rome’s occu-
RELIGION. pation of Palestine the region rarely ceased to be trouble-
some. As a result of the massive Jewish rebellion of
Suggested Readings: Benko, Stephen. Pagan Rome and the 132–135 C.E., Hadrian changed the name of the province
Early Christians. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, of Judaea to Syria-Palaestina, or just Palaestina. By the
1984; Dowden, Ken. Religion and the Romans. London: early fourth century, Palestine was one of the provinces of
Bristol Classical Press, 1995; Dumézil, Georges. Archaic the diocese of the Oriens.
Roman Religion. Translated by Philip Krapp. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996; Ferguson, John. Palatine Hill See HILLS OF ROME.
Greek and Roman Religion: A Source Book. Park Ridge, N.J.:
Noyes Press, 1980; ———. The Religions of the Roman Palatini The name generally applied to all members of
Empire. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982; Fish- the imperial court during the later years of the Roman
wick, Duncan. The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies Empire. The title palatini came to signify a special branch
in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman of the government as well. Palatini were agents of the
Empire. New York: E. J. Brill, 1987; Fox, Robin Lane. comites largitionum and the comes rei privatae, who jour-
Pagans and Christians. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988; neyed to the provinces to collect taxes. Their powers and
Glover, T. R. The Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman influence increased during the fourth and fifth centuries
Empire. Boston: Beacon Press, 1960; Henig, Martin and C.E. to the extent that an attempt by Valentinian II in 440
Anthony King, eds. Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman to curtail their often extortionate activities met with total
Empire. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Committee for failure.
Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, 1986; ———. Reli-
gion in Roman Britain. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984; Pales A minor deity in the IMPERIAL CULT. Pales was the
Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. Continuity and Change in Roman protector of flocks and shepherds. His festival, the Palilia,
Religion. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979; Henig, was held on April 21 of each year. Its staging and his
Martin, and Anthony King, eds. Pagan Gods and Shrines of worship were directed by the Flamen Palatualis.
the Roman Empire. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Com-
mittee for Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, 1986; Lyt- See also FLAMENS; GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME.
telton, Margaret, and We rner Forman. The Romans, Their
Gods and Their Beliefs. London: Orbis, 1984; MacMullen, Palfurius Sura (fl. late first century C.E.) An orator
Ramsay. Paganism in the Roman Empire. New Haven, expelled from the Senate sometime during the reign of Ves-
Conn.: Yale University Press, 1981; North, J. A. Roman pasian
Religion. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2000; Becoming a Stoic, Palfurius nevertheless retained his
Smith, John Holland. The Death of Classical Paganism. New exceptional gifts for speechmaking and won the competi-
York: Scribner, 1976; Turcan, Robert. The Cults of the tion of Jupiter Capitolinus during the time of Emperor
Roman Empire. Translated by Antonia Nevill. Cambridge, Domitian. The crowd called for his full pardon, but the
Mass.: Blackwell, 1996; Wa rdman, Alan. Religion and State- emperor would not hear of it. Palfurius subsequently was
craft Among the Romans. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer- feared as a dangerous delator (informer).
sity Press, 1982; Watson, Alan. The State, Law, and Religion:
Pagan Rome. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992. See also DELATORES.

Palaemon, Quintus Remmius (fl. first century C.E.) Palladas (fl. fourth century C.E.) Reviver of epigram-
A teacher and writer matic poetry
Palaemon came originally from Vicenza to Rome, where A Greek schoolmaster living in Alexandria, Palladas was
he made for himself a very successful career as an also a pagan and felt increasing pressure and hostility
instructor, claiming as his pupils such notables as QUIN- from the new, ascendant Christianity toward PAGANISM.
TILIAN and Persius. He was also the author of a (lost) He may have retired in the face of anti-pagan campaigns.
study on grammar, Ars grammatica. Widely used in its As a poet he composed epigrams of intense bitterness.
day, the A r s became part of the works of the writers Many of his nearly 150 works were included in the Greek
CHARISIUS and PLINY THE ELDER. Palaemon also included Anthology.
examples from Virgil and Horace.
Palladius (c. 365–425 C.E.) Bishop of Helenopolis and
Palaestina (Palestine) Name given by the Greeks historian
and Romans to the entire region inhabited by the Jews. It Palladius came probably from Galatia, becoming a
monk in Egypt and Palestine. In 400 he was forced to
leave Egypt by THEOPHILUS, patriarch of Alexandria, and

408 Palladius,
Rutilius
Taurus
Aemilianus Palma Frontonianus, Aulus Cornelius (d. 117 C.E.)
Consul in 99 and 109 C.E. and governor of Syria under
journey to Constantinople where the Christian leader Emperor Trajan, starting in 105
JOHN CHRYSOSTOM made him bishop of Helenopolis in Palma Frontonianus began the conquest of Arabia Petrae
Bithynia. Palladius henceforth served as the greatest sup- when he arrived in Syria. Using the VI Ferrata Legion,
porter of Chrysostom, traveling to Italy in 405 for him Palma easily subdued the entire region from around 105
and accepting exile to Egypt for continuing to back the to 106. Upon his return to Rome in 108, Trajan granted
patriarch. For six years Palladius remained in Egypt, using him a triumphal insignia, a statue in the Forum of
the time to write his Dialogus de Vita S. Joannis Chrysos- Augustus and his second consulship, in 109. Considered
tomi (Dialogue on the Life of John Chrysostom), a defense of very reliable by Trajan, Palma enjoyed imperial goodwill
his friend. Allowed to return to Asia Minor in 412, he throughout the remainder of his reign. But he was an
began work (c. 419) on his famous Lausiac History. Dedi- opponent of Hadrian, and when Trajan was succeeded by
cated to Lausus, chamberlain in the court of Theodosius him in 117, Palma was put to death on the charge of con-
II, the history was a detailed account of monasticism in spiring to assassinate the emperor. Hadrian claimed to
the early fifth century, derived from experience and writ- have no knowledge of the order of execution.
ten with genuine sincerity. It was finished in 420.
Palmyra “City of Palm Trees,” situated between Syria
Palladius, Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus (fl. late and Mesopotamia on an oasis in the Syrian Desert.
fourth and perhaps early fifth century C.E.) Writer on According to legend, Solomon was the first to build a
agriculture city there, calling it Tadmor. The Greeks translated the
Palladius probably came from Gaul but owned estates in Aramaic into “Palmyra.” From the second century
Sardinia and Italy. Little has survived of his life, except B.C.E., Palmyra increasingly laid claim to the caravan
that his knowledge of husbandry was vast. He was the trade between East and West, serving as an obvious rest-
author of an extensive treatise on agriculture, the Opus ing place for traders. Using the resulting wealth, the
agriculturae. Written in 14 books, the work contained Palmyrenes stretched their area of control throughout
an introduction followed by 12 sections, one for each much of Syria. Roman interests were normally centered
month of the year, and an appendix. Book 14 centered on on the city’s economic value, prompting an urge for
trees and was dedicated to “Pasiphilus” in elegiac style. political control. Marc Antony made a punitive expedi-
Palladius wrote in a very straightforward style, without tion that proved only preparatory to the arrival of Ger-
pretension. Although relying upon years of personal expe- manicus in 17 C.E.
rience, he also used as his sources Columella, Gargilius
Martialis, and others. Henceforth, Palmyra was tied with Roman interests,
especially against Parthia and, later, Persia. A Roman
Pallas, Marcus Antonius (d. 62 C.E.) Influential freed- colony was established under Emperor Septimius Seve-
man in the service of Antonia (1), her son Emperor rus (ruled 193–211 C.E.), but a certain degree of auton-
Claudius, and his successor Nero omy was apparently allowed. Thus, the ruling family
Pallas was originally a member of Antonia’s household there emerged as major players in the defense of the
and was so trusted that he carried her letter to Tiberius Roman Empire in the third century C.E. Under King
warning the emperor against the prefect SEJANUS and ODAENATH and Queen ZENOBIA, Palmyra came to rule a
became a member of the court of Claudius, holding the domain stretching from Syria to Egypt. This period of
position of A RATIONIBUS (financial minister). His position greatness was short-lived. Aurelian, in 273, crushed its
in the government increased greatly with his alliance armies and captured the city itself. Palmyra never recov-
with AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER. Perhaps her lover, he advo- ered.
cated very strongly that Claudius marry her instead of the
other candidates whom he was considering after the exe- Culturally, Palmyra was a blend of Aramaic, Hellenic,
cution of Empress Messallina in 48 C.E. Once successful, and Parthian. Other influences inevitably left an impres-
he then supported the adoption of Nero to solidify the sion, as there were caravans from Arabia, China, India,
political base of both Agrippina and himself. and the Roman world. Both in culture and in architecture
the zenith of Palmyra came in the second century C.E.,
When Nero came to the throne, however, Pallas’s for- when Hadrian and the Antonines gave the metropolis
tunes took a downward turn. As was the case with his their full support. Wealth also accumulated after 137 C.E.,
patroness, Pallas was slowly removed from places of when duties were levied upon all imported goods. Most
power. Pallas was known to be arrogant and unpopular. of the surviving buildings were constructed around that
In 52 C.E. the Senate gave him an ORNAMENTA and money, time and are impressive even after excavation. Most beau-
but he accepted only the honors. He possessed at the tiful was the Temple of Bel, dating to the first century C.E.
time some 300 million sesterces. Nero forced him to Other remains include columns, temples, arches, and co-
resign his post and, in 62, put him to death because of his lonnaded streets.
vast riches. He was buried on the Via Tiburtina. FELIX, the
procurator of Judaea, was his brother. See also TRADE AND COMMERCE.

Pammachius (d. c. 409 C.E.) Roman senator and friend Pannonia 409
of St. Jerome
Following the death of his wife, Paulina, in 397, Pam- Olympic festival. Latin panegyrics possibly originated
machius, a devoted Christian, began to wear religious from the laudatio funebris (funeral eulogy) for famous
garb and embark on works of charity. Among his note- persons. Another type of address was the epitaphion
worthy acts were the construction of a hospice in Porto, (funeral oration) for heroes or great figures.
at the mouth of the Tiber, in conjunction with St. Fabiola
and the founding of the Church of Sts. John and Paul It became custom for newly elected consuls to
(although this may have been started by his father). St. deliver a public thanks (gratiarum acto) to the gods and
Jerome dedicated a number of works to Pammachius. the emperor. Emperor Augustus (ruled 27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.)
Pammachius, however, complained at times about required this oration through a senatus consultum. The
Jerome’s vituperative style, especially Jerome’s book foremost Roman panegyricist of the imperial age was
against Jovinian St. Augustine also thanked Pammachius PLINY THE YOUNGER whose nomination to the consulship
for a letter to the Africans, in which he called upon them by Emperor Trajan in 100 C.E. prompted a gratiarum acto
to oppose Donatism. that was preserved in the ancient collection of speeches,
the XII Panegyric Latini. In the collection, Pliny was con-
Pamphylia See LYCIA-PAMPHYLIA. sidered the model for subsequent orators. It was accepted
practice from the third to the fifth century for panegyri-
Pamphylius of Caesarea (d. 309 C.E.) Martyr and cists to flatter their imperial patrons. Other notable prac-
writer titioners of the form were: Claudius Mamertinus,
Pamphylius much admired ORIGEN and was highly Nazarius, Ausonius, Ennodius, Pacatus, and Eumenius.
respected by EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA. Probably born in During the second century C.E., the Greek Aelius Aris-
Berytus, Pamphylius studied at Alexandria and finally tides delivered a panegyric on Emperor Marcus Aurelius.
settled in Caesarea. There he was ordained a priest and
established a noted school for the study of theology. Pannonia One of Rome’s most important provinces
Aside from his work copying the Scriptures, Pamphylius along the Danube, eventually divided into separate
was devoted to transcribing and defending the works of provinces: Inferior and Superior. The province linked the
Origen. Eusebius, for example, possessed numerous com- Danubian frontier with ILLYRICUM, and NORICUM with
mentaries on Origen that had been compiled by Pam- MOESIA. As was true of most of the lands on the Danube,
phylius; Pamphylius also composed an Apology for Origen Pannonia was the home of a varied people, including
in five books (Eusebius added a sixth volume). The Apol- Celts and Thracians, but the main racial stock was Illyr-
ogy has only one book that is extant, in a Latin version ian, especially in the east and in the south. Dio Cassius, a
made by Rufinus of Aquileia. The magnificent library col- historian and a governor in Pannonia Superior, wrote that
lected by Pamphylius at Caesarea survived at least until the inhabitants were very brave, bloodthirsty, and high
the seventh century but was probably destroyed by the spirited. Some scholars say their name was derived from
Muslims when they captured Caesarea in 638. Pam- the habit, peculiar to the region, of cutting up old clothes
phylius himself, was arrested in 307 as part of the perse- and sewing the strips together, with the resulting apparel
cution of the Christian faith in the Roman Empire. He called pannus, or patch.
was martyred by beheading in February 309.
First Roman contact came in the late second century
Pandateria Tiny island just off the Campanian coast in B.C.E., although long-term Roman policy did not include
the Bay of Naples. Now called Vandotena, Pandateria was Pannonia until the time of Octavian (AUGUSTUS). In 35
the site of several banishments in the early years of the B.C.E., he launched a punitive expedition against the Pan-
Roman Empire. In 2 B.C.E., Augustus exiled his infamous nonians with the aim of subduing some of the local
daughter JULIA (3) there, where she remained for five tribes, planting a Roman presence and giving necessary
years. AGRIPPINA THE ELDER was also sent to Pandateria, training to his troops in preparation for the inevitable war
as was OCTAVIA (2), daughter of Claudius and wife of with Marc Antony. The sortie proved far more difficult
Nero. Emperor Domitian used the island as a cruel resi- than was imagined, and Octavian realized that any return
dence for Flavia DOMITILLA (3). would have to be in force. In 13 B.C.E., Marcus Vinicius
was dispatched by Augustus to conquer Pannonia. He
See also CAPRI. was joined in 12 by Marcus Agrippa, who was followed
by Tiberius. The eventual emperor marched across the
panegyric A laudatory address given in praise of the country, reducing the Pannonians tribe by tribe. An
gods and the emperor; another means of flattering the uprising in 11 was quickly suppressed, and the entire
ruler. The panegyric began in ancient Greece as a speech area seemed so under control by 8 that Tiberius departed,
delivered to general assembly (a panegyris), such as the replaced by Sextus Appuleius. The calm was deceiving.
Beginning in 6 C.E., three years of bitter fighting saw the
Pannonians, under BATO, throw off their allegiances to
Rome, setting much of Pannonia and Illyricum in flames.
Tiberius returned with a slow, methodical, and highly

410 PansaC
 aetronianus,
Gaius
Vibius ually troubled parts of the trans-Danube, Pannonia Infe-
rior was the starting point for elements of the Roman
successful strategy that brought all of the territory once army in any major operation against the Dacians. One of
more under the Roman standard. Initially it was planned its important cities was Sirmium.
to place Pannonia under the control of Illyricum, a view
that was shattered by the rebellion. Thus, a new province Pansa Caetronianus, Gaius Vibius (d. 43 B.C.E.)
was created to administer the Pannonian section of the Consul in 43 B.C.E. and tribune in 51 B.C.E.
Danube. A legate was in charge until the reign of Trajan During the civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey,
(98–117 C.E.), when two provinces were decreed (circa he joined the cause of the Caesareans (see CIVIL WAR,
103), Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior. FIRST TRIUMVIRATE). After Caesar’s assassination, however,
he became one of the leading proponents for the return of
Throughout the first century C.E., Pannonia was sub- the Republic, and was elected consul in 43, with HIRTIUS.
jected to rigorous Romanization, principally through the The two took command of the senatorial legions, march-
presence of the legions, their camps and the eventual sur- ing north to engage Marc Antony, now an enemy of the
rounding communities, the canabae. Colonies of veterans Senate. On April 14, 43 B.C.E., the two forces collided at
were created to ensure the spread of the Latin language the battle of FORUM GALLORUM. Although the Senate
and culture. Typical of these frontier provinces, Pannonia proved victorious, Pansa was wounded and died a few
assumed a dual nature. Near the more civilized Noricum, days later.
Illyricum and Italy, the degree of Romanization was more
pronounced. Those wilder zones right on the Danube, Pantaenus (d. c. 190 C.E.) Christian theologian and the
where military life was harder and contact with the trans- first known head of the catechetical school of Alexandria
Danubian barbarians unavoidable, were less Romanized. He probably came from Sicily but was a convert to Chris-
This dichotomy was largely solved by Emperor Hadrian tianity, traveling extensively, perhaps even to India.
(ruled 117–138 C.E.), who promoted such centers as Car- Among his greatest students was CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA.
nuntum and Aquincum to full municipal standing.
Added wealth promoted increased participation in impe- Pantheon One of the greatest architectural achieve-
rial life and affairs. ments masterpieces in Roman history; Marcus Agrippa
constructed the original Pantheon in 27 B.C.E., to serve
Economically, Pannonia was never particularly pro s- as a temple to all of the gods of Rome. The site was in
perous. With dense forests and harsh mountains, it could the CAMPUS MARTIUS, but it was decided at the start of
boast little agriculture. Grape quality was low, meaning its Hadrian’s reign (c. 117 C.E.) to replace it with a new and
wines would not sell, and its only lucrative industry was better edifice. The result was a vast improvement.
in acquiring wild animals, boars, bison, and bears for the
entertainers and circus organizers of Rome. Natural min- Under the guidance of Hadrian, the new Pantheon
eral production was another matter, for Pannonian mines was built from 118 to 125, on the same site as that of
produced iron and silver, but it was inferior to competi- Agrippa’s old structure. As was the habit of Hadrian, he
tors’ supplies from Moesia and Dacia. Pannonia, however, refused to lay claim to the Pantheon, preferring to have
could boast the largest collection of legions in the entire an inscription carved on the porch giving credit to Mar-
theater. Strategically, the two provinces were at the cross- cus Agrippa. Further repairs or minor adjustments were
roads of the Danube. Flowing past VINDOBONA, the mighty made by Septimius Severus and Caracalla in the early
Danube turned abruptly south just north of Aquincum, third century C.E. Agrippa’s Pantheon would have fit very
pouring into the Drave River. Troops were needed to comfortably in the temple of Hadrian’s time. The cupola’s
watch the entire border. The corridor between the Danube diameter measures the same as its height from the floor,
and the easterly Theiss River was a collecting place for forming half of a perfect sphere. Designed to reflect the
barbarian peoples, including the IAZYGES. few sources of light admitted to the building, the dome or
rotunda was a marvel, the largest built by ancient meth-
PANNONIA SUPERIOR ods. Made of solid concrete, the dome was originally cov-
ered with drawings, each being highlighted at various
The larger of the two Pannonian provinces, occupying times of the day in the shifting light. Visitors’ eyes were
the west from Carnuntum to Aquincum. Administra- inevitably drawn upward to the circular aperture at the
tively, Pannonia Superior was better organized than its crown of the dome.
sister province, possessing at its capital the main seat of
government for the legate, who was, realistically, the Ironically, the Pantheon survived only because it was
commander of Upper and Lower Pannonia. Carnuntum, perfectly suited to serve as a Christian church. Pope Boni-
his center, possessed theaters, an amphitheater, a basilica, face IV in 609 C.E. received it as a gift from a Byzantine
and a forum. emperor. Henceforth it was the Church of Santa Maria dei
Martiri.
PANNONIA INFERIOR

Smaller than Pannonia Superior, this province adminis-
tered the river and its islands from, roughly, Aquincum
(modern Budapest) to Moesia Superior. Fronting perpet-

papacy 411

The interior of the Pantheon (Hulton/Getty Archive)

papacy The office of the bishops of ROME, the most Urban I (Saint) 222–230
important church office in the Christian world. Basing Pontianus (Saint) 230–235
their claim to power upon the position of St. Peter, the Anterus (Saint) 235–236
bishops of Rome claimed supremacy over Christendom. Fabian (Saint) 236–250
Cornelius (Saint) 251–253
THE PAPACY (THE BISHOPS OF ROME) Lucius I (Saint) 253–254
64–483 C.E. Stephen I (Saint) 254–257
Sixtus II (Saint) 257–258
Bishop of Rome Reign (Year C.E.) Dionysius (Saint) 259–268
Peter (Saint) 64 or 65 Felix I (Saint) 269–274
Linus (Saint) 67(?) Eutychian (Saint) 275–283
Anacletus (Saint) 76(?) Gaius (Saint) 283–296
Clement I (Saint) 88 Marcellinus (Saint) 296–304
Evaristus (Saint) 97 or 99 See vacant 304–308
Alexander I (Saint) Marcellus I (Saint) 308–309
Sixtus I (Saint) 105 or 109 Eusebius (Saint) 309 (or 310)
Telesphorus (Saint) 115 or 119 Miltiades (Saint) 311–314
Hyginus (Saint) Sylvester I (Saint) 314–335
Pius I (Saint) 125(?) Mark (Saint)
Anicetus (Saint) 136 or 138 Julius I (Saint) 336
Soter (Saint) 140 or 142 Liberius(Saint) 337–352
Eleutherius (Saint) Damasus I (Saint) 352–366
Victor I (Saint) 155 Siricius (Saint) 366–384
Zephyrinus (Saint) 166(?) Anastasius I (Saint) 384–399
Calixtus I (Saint) 399–401
175
189
199
217(?)

412 Papak

THE PAPACY (THE BISHOPS OF ROME) Paphlagonia Region of ASIA MINOR along the south
64–483 C.E. (continued) shore of the BLACK SEA, bordering on Bithynia, Pontus,
Phrygia, and Galatia. Traditionally a kingdom, Paphlago-
Innocent I (Saint) 401–417 nia passed into Roman control around 1 C.E. and became
Zosimus (Saint) 417–418 attached to the province of Galatia. There followed the
Boniface I (Saint) 418–422 usual introduction of Roman colonists, and by the second
Celestine I (Saint) 422–432 century C.E. the long-standing capital of the region, Gan-
Sixtus III (Saint) 432–440 gra, was replaced by Pompeiopolis. Built further north,
Leo I the Great (Saint) 440–461 just above the Amnias River, the new capital was not only
Hilary (Saint) 461–468 more suited to the tastes of the Roman settlers but also
Simplicius (Saint) 468–483 was better situated to share in the extensive economic
prosperity of the Black Sea. Paphlagonia was affected by
St. Peter, designated as the “Rock” upon which the the major reforms of Emperor Diocletian in the late third
church of Christ would be built, was mart y red in Rome, century C.E.) It was reorganized into an individual
which attracted the first Christian proselytizers, who province and attached to the diocese of Pontus.
viewed the city not only as the capital of the world but
also as the core of organized PAGANISM. Just as the Chris- Papinian (Aemilius Papinianus) (c. 150–211 C.E.)
tians adopted the organization of the Roman Empire in Jurist, prefect of the praetorian guard and a close adviser to
establishing their own hierarchy and internal structure, Emperor Septimius Severus
so did Rome emerge as their official headquarters. It Papinian was an important legalist who left a lasting
was the seat of a bishop, a metropolitan (in control of impression on Roman law. He was born in Syria, probably
the bishops of Italy) and the see for the bishop in charge at Edessa, entering imperial service perhaps as the magis-
of Italy itself. More important, by the second century ter libellorum, or head of petitions. Working as a legal
C.E., it was considered a more powerful see than that of assistant to Marcus Aurelius’s Praetorian prefects, Pap-
any other city in the world. Other sites of antiquity, such inian made himself indispensable. By the time of Septim-
as ALEXANDRIA and JERUSALEM, even ANTIOCH, had suf- ius Severus, he was greatly respected, and in 205,
f e red misfortune and decay. There thus existed practical following the murder of the prefect Plautianus, the
and historical reasons for the supremacy of the see of emperor named him one of his two new commanders for
Rome. the Praetorian Guard. He thus became, as well, vice-presi-
dent of the CONSILIUM PRINCIPIS and the preeminent legal
In the second century C.E., IRENAEUS, bishop of Lyon, expert in the court of Severus. Journeying with the
argued for Rome’s primacy in his defense of Christian emperor to Britain, Papinian was present when the aged
orthodoxy. Councils throughout the fourth and fifth cen- emperor died in 211. Following the murder of Geta by his
turies confirmed the role that Rome would play in the brother Caracalla, Papinian was dismissed from his posts
Christianizing of the Roman Empire. The final steps were by the new, sole ruler. One year later, Caracalla allowed
taken by a pope, whose legal mind and influence with the the Praetorians to kill Papinian, commenting only that the
emperors ensured the aggrandizement of the papacy: LEO actual killers should have used an axe instead of a sword.
THE GREAT, who claimed the rights of St. Peter’s heir. He
stretched the outright authority of his see to encompass Papinian was the author of many legal works. His
the entire West, gained further concessions from Emperor most important were 37 books on Quaestiones and 19
Valentinian III, and then achieved lasting fame for him- books of Responsa. Justinian in the sixth century C.E.
self and his office by persuading Attila the Hun to depart incorporated much of his output into his own collection.
from Rome. As a writer, Papinian was noted for his exactness of word-
ing and his own remarkable fluidity of composition.
Papak (d. before 208 C.E.) (Pabhagh) Ruler of a small
client state in the Parthian Empire during the first years of Papius Mutilus, Marcus (fl. early first century C.E.)
the third century C.E. Consul in 9 C.E. with Quintus Poppaeus Secundus
Papak headed a minor kingdom in the province of Persis, Papius Mutilus and Secundus were responsible for draft-
while the real power in that region rested with Gochihr, a ing the famed marriage law of Augustus, to which they
member of the Basrangi at Stakhr. Through the marriage lent their names; lex Papia Poppaea (see LEX). Ironically,
of his father Sassan to a princess of Basrangi, Papak estab- both of them were unmarried and childless.
lished a claim to the throne. He murdered Gochihr and
became king of Persis. His two sons were SHAPUR and Parcae The Roman name for the three fates, who were
ARDASHIR. Upon Papak’s death Shapur succeeded him, Clotho, Lathesis, and Atropos. Clotho spun the fate,
only to die himself in 208. Ardashir followed, conquering Lachesis chose one for each person, and Atropos deter-
all of PARTHIA and establishing the SASSANID DYNASTY of mined the fate that no one could avoid.
PERSIA.

Paris (fl. mid-first century) Famous pantomime actor in Pa
 r
 t
 h
 i
 a
 413
the reign of Nero
Paris was a freedman in the house of DOMITIA, Nero’s aunt, emperor in 96 C.E. He was greatly favored by Domitian,
who became a favorite of the emperor and would entert a i n who allowed him to wear a sword, perhaps in honor
him. In 55 C.E., hoping to use this position to destroy her of Pathenius’s experiences as a gladiator. It was Part h e-
enemy Agrippina, Domitia had Paris play a part in an elab- nius who sent in Stephanus to end Domitian’s life, and
orate plot to bring charges against the Augusta. Although he probably had a role in elevating Nerva to the throne.
the scheme failed and many were banished or executed, In 97, Parthenius was handed over for execution when
Paris was spared. Nero declared Paris free-born in 56, the Praetorian Guard forced Emperor Nerva to have
making it possible for him to demand the return of the the conspirators in Domitian’s assassination brought to
sum paid to Domitia to end his slavery. Henceforth a free justice.
man, the actor remained in the good graces of Nero until
67. The emperor then asked to be instructed in the art of Parthia A small region of the East, southwest of the
acting. When the monarch failed to master that craft, he Caspian Sea and north of the Persian Gulf, that became an
ordered Paris put to death because his ability surpassed empire, stretching from Syria to India. The Parthians were
that of the emperor. See also THEATER. actually a nomadic people called the Parni and were
related to the fierce Dahae who had fought Alexander the
Another actor of the same name achieved prominence G reat. Like the Dahae, the Parni were at first subject to
in the late first century C.E. during the reign of Domitian the Persians, later falling under the power of the Seleu-
(81–96 C.E.). Empress Domitia Longina fell in love with cids. Internal organization seemed to coalesce in the third
the performer, and Domitian murdered him in the middle century B.C.E., allowing them to strike out and seize vast
of the street. When mourning Romans brought flowers to s t retches of land in PERSIA, at the expense of their Seleucid
the spot, he ordered that they too should die. overlords. They came to occupy the region called Part h a v a
or Parthia. Dating from 247 B.C.E., their kings established
Parthamasiris of Armenia (fl. second century C.E.) themselves as the heirs of the defunct Seleucids.
Son of Pacorus II of Parthia and nephew of Pacorus’s succes-
sor in 114 C.E., Oroses Parthia was an amalgam of territories and minor
Parthamasiris was nominated by Oroses to be the next states, all beholden to the Arsacid dynasty, ruling from
ruler of ARMENIA, whose monarch, Exedares, had per- CTESIPHON and ECBATANA. Politically, the Arsacids drew
formed miserably and was, according to Oroses, a disap- their power from the noble families of the Pahlavi. The
pointment to both Rome and Parthia. Accordingly, Oroses nobles, in turn, wielded administrative rights, such as
deposed him and placed the diadem of Armenian the appointment of governors and contributions to the
sovereignty upon Parthamasiris’s head. Emperor Trajan, armies. In actual government, the Parthians relied upon
however, had other plans for Armenia. Advancing with the readily available system of the Seleucids, meaning
his army against Parthia, he received Parthamasiris, who that they were heavily influenced by the Greeks. Two
hoped to retain his new throne. Trajan listened to his councils made major decisions. The first was a board of
request but then rejected him, declaring that Armenia advisers, the so-called Magi (from the ancient clan of
was now Rome’s to govern. Parthamasiris was sent home Magus), and the other was composed of the nobility. Any
to Parthia as Trajan embarked upon his war. The prince new king of Parthia was chosen by them, a freedom of
disappeared mysteriously on the way home. decision making that often resulted in the most qualified
heir, not necessarily the oldest son, being crowned. This
Parthamaspates of Parthia (fl. early second century system was handicapped by corruption and internal
C.E.) Son of the Parthian general Sanatruces decay, intrigues, murder, and ambition, all of which un-
A nobleman, Parthamaspates was probably a claimant to dermined the dynastic stability of the Arsacids. This dete-
the Parthian throne during the war between Parthia and rioration was offset only temporarily by the rise of a fresh
Trajan (c. 114–117 C.E.). According to the historian John line, c. 10 C.E., from Atropatene.
Malalas, Parthamaspates was bribed by Trajan to desert his
father in return for rewards. Accepting, the young man It was a major but unavoidable flaw in the Parthian
was made ruler of the Roman-backed government of system that its nobles and vassals were allowed such a
P a rthia, established in 116 at Ctesiphon by Trajan’s decree. free hand in their own rule. The aristocracy, it was hoped,
P a rthamaspates was neither strong nor popular. He was would always be reliable, but even the family of the
rejected by his own people and fell from power in 117. Surens formed an eastern domain, the Indo-Parthian
kingdom. To the south, furthermore, were to be found
Parthenius (d. 97 C.E.) Chamberlain of Domitian the kingdoms of the Characene, Elymais, and especially
Called Satur or Saturinus by the historian Suetonius. the Persis. The latter, under the Sassanids, were victori-
Parthenius became a leader in the plot to murder the ous in 226 C.E. over the weakened Parthians.

Culturally, the Parthians brought little to the throne
aside from excellent military skills and a willingness to
adopt facets of other social systems. Despite speaking the

414 Patavium ticed by the Parni nobles. Each made an impact on
Parthian art.
Coins from the Parthian Empire (Courtesy Warren Esty)
Patavium Important town (present-day Padua) in
Parthian Pahlavi dialect, the Arsacids relied upon Greek northern Italy, situated above the Adige River, along the
as a useful means of organizing the empire and connect- major traffic route from Mutina to Aquileia. Originally
ing it to the outside world. Thus, councils, titles, litera- founded by colonists from the Venetii, under the Romans
ture, philosophy of rule, and bureaucracy were all Patavium emerged as one of the most successful commer-
Hellenic, though superficially, leaving them susceptible to cial centers in Italy. It was especially noted for its wool
foreign influences, both from the East and the West. manufacturing and was a major factor in northern Italy’s
Greek practices of warfare, such as the phalanx, bodies of economic recovery in the late third century C.E. Patavium
infantry, or balanced attacks of foot and horse were aban- was also the birthplace of the writer LIVY.
doned in the face of the realities of Parthian strength and
geographical necessities. The cavalry became the basis of Paternus, Tarrutenius (late second century C.E.) Pre-
the Parthian military might. They used the heavy cat- fect of the praetorian guard from 180 to 182; was also a
aphract, fast horse archers and other types of mailed legalist, writer and general
horsemen. In their early wars with Rome, this strategy Paternus served as AB EPISTULIS LATINIS (secretary for
worked perfectly, as was obvious at CARRHAE against Latin correspondence) under Emperor Marcus Aurelius,
Crassus in 53 B.C.E. Wars with Roman legions, however, working as an envoy to the Cotini tribe in 169–170;
soon proved costly and disastrous. In war the Romans around 179–180 he won a victory in the MARCOMMANIC
faced few equals, and Parthia could not match the finan- WARS.
cial and industrial resources of the Roman provinces.
Praetorian prefect for Commodus during the first
Economically, the Parthians relied upon trade as their years of that emperor’s reign, Paternus faced political
mainstay of expansion. They successfully moved the lines opposition from his coprefect, Tigidius Perennis,
of communication from the Far East to the West through appointed in 180. Perennis was victorious, for in 182
their lands. Caravans traveled from China and India Commodus removed Paternus from his post, granting
across the Indo-Parthian kingdom to Ecbatana and then him the status of an ex-consul. A short time after that,
to distribution centers such as HATRA, DOURA, PETRA, and however, Commodus charged him with participation in a
ANTIOCH. conspiracy and put him to death. Paternus was the
author of De re militari, a treatise on military laws used
While trade brought prosperity, the Parthians con- by Vegetius in the fourth century.
tributed few cultural innovations. They had brought their
own gods with them, nurtured by their Magi; these Pater Patriae “Father of the Country,” an honor
deities, becoming eclipsed by Mazdaism, were adopted by bestowed only upon the most important or worthy figures
the Arsacids as a popular gesture. Religious tolerance was in Rome. Although the title carried no actual political
an important policy of the Parthians, and in Persia the power, it was of lasting prestige. Cicero, following the
ancient faith of the Zoroastrians was still alive, waiting Catiline Affair in 63 B.C.E., was the first to be granted the
for the day when it could flower and return. Artistically name Pater Patriae by a grateful Senate. Subsequently it
there were perhaps three streams of influence in Parthia; was given to some, but not to all, emperors. In 2 B.C.E.,
the Hellenic, an Iranian style and the crude form prac- Augustus became Father of the Country in recognition of
his role both as architect of the Roman Empire and heir to
Julius Caesar, who had borne the rank himself. The coins
of Augustus bore the inscription “CAESAR AUGUSTUS
DIVI F. PATER PATRIAE.” Unable to compete with his pre-
decessor, Tiberius steadfastly refused the title. Emperors
Gaius Caligula and Claudius initially declined but later
accepted it. Nero followed their example. Other holders of
the title were Vespasian, Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian.

patria potestas Legal term denoting the rights and
powers of the male head of Roman families. Such a head
of household possessed all rights to oversee or examine
the affairs of his sons and daughters and was able to ban-
ish them, send them to another family, even murder them
(for just cause). When placed under the care of another

paterfamilias, or head of a household, such offspring were Patricius 415
considered real property, as were estates or slaves.
With the patriarch of Jerusalem was the patriarch of
As autocratic as the patria potestas seemed, it was Constantinople. After Constantine built himself the
limited both by custom and, later, by imperial law. Cruel grand New Rome at Byzantium, the bishop of Heraclea
treatment or executions were generally determined by a amassed increasing prestige. He not only served the reli-
family council. Further, the patria potestas could be gious needs of the Eastern Empires but also stretched his
ended at will by a father through emancipatio, or the influence into Thrace and Asia Minor, at the expense of
granting of complete freedom to a son or an unmarried the Roman and Antioch patriarchies. Bitter feuding
daughter. If a daughter married, she passed into the erupted as the popes worked to curb such a development.
familia of her husband. Other means of breaking the They were handicapped by the disorder of the West, how-
power of a patria potestas were the joining of a priest- ever, and in 381 the Council of Constantinople took the
hood, the Flamen Dialis or the sisterhood, the Vestal Vir- important step of giving recognition to the bishop of
gins. The patria’s power ended with his death. With the Constantinople. In 451, at the Council of Chalcedon,
dawning of the Roman Empire, the arbitrary position of Constantinople received its own patriarchal status with
the Roman father was altered, as murder was considered total jurisdiction over Asia Minor and Thrace. The popes
unacceptable punishment. Nevertheless, some elements refused to accept this development, remaining firm in
remained, such as exposure or the deliberate killing of a their position until the 13th century.
retarded child. Even this practice was declared illegal in
374 C.E., but continued. Patricians The noble class of Rome, the patricii,
formed the highest social stratum in the Republic and,
See also MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE. until the third century C.E., in the Roman Empire. Their
origins were obscure, although the name probably was
patriarch Within the Christian Church, the bishop derived from pater (father). By the fifth century B.C.E.
who held special rights and powers by heading the most they were the most important social class, wielding politi-
important sees or designated areas. It was inevitable that cal power, shaping Rome’s religious destiny and marrying
Christianity would evolve into a highly structured entity only among themselves. By the end of the Republic, the
with a clear hierarchy. Existing within the Roman Empire Patricians were declining in prestige and numbers. Inter-
and spreading universally, such an organization was not marriage was reducing the size of the class, and the emer-
only convenient but logical. Just as the empire had major gence of greater opportunities for the Plebeians led many
cities in the East and West, so did the church. Patricians to renounce their status through the transitio
ad plebem. So diminished had their ranks become that
Initially, there were three patriarchs: at Rome in the both Caesar and Augustus took steps to increase the size
West and at Antioch and Alexandria in the East. Rome’s of the patricianate through the lex Cassia and the lex Sae-
bishop had numerous titles, for he was the head of the nia respectively.
diocese of Rome, chief prelate for Italy and leader of the
Italian bishops. He was also the patriarch of the West and In the fourth century, however, there was a rebirth of
ultimately the pontiff of the entire Christian world (see the term patricius, for Constantine used it as an honorary
PAPACY). As pontiff, he was above the patriarchs in the title, devoid of any governmental duties. It was bestowed
East but their equal as a patriarch. Nevertheless, his patri- very sparingly upon high officials of the state who had
archal authority was vast. The entire West, specifically distinguished themselves. Later, only former consuls, pre-
the prefectures of Diocletian’s provincial reform—Italy, fects and members of the magistri were eligible. In the
Gaul, and Illyricum—were his domain. fifth century, barbarian holders of the rank MAGISTER MILI-
TUM craved the hallowed position of Patrician as well.
Alexandria and Antioch divided the East (Diocletian’s Despite the popularity of the rank, it was the rare magister
Orientis) between them. Egypt and Africa belonged to the who could hold on to total power while enjoying both,
patriarch of Alexandria, while Syria and later Asia Minor and some emperors tried to force their master of soldiers
passed under the control of Antioch. This system was to retire after being inducted into the Patricianate. A few
certified with the blessings of CONSTANTINE the Great at notable Patricians of the late Roman Empire were Ricimer,
the Council of Nicaea in 325 C.E. None could foresee the Orestes, Felix, and, ironically, Odoacer.
changes that would take place over the succeeding years.
See also SOCIAL CLASSES.
At the Council of Nicaea, the bishop of Jerusalem,
officially under the bishop of Caesarea, was given a place Patricius (d. after 471 C.E.) Son of the fifth-century mag-
of honor in recognition of Jerusalem’s sacred status in ister militum Aspar
Christian history. The see was still subject to Caesarea, Patricius played a part in his father’s attempts to as-
but from then on the prelates of Jerusalem lobbied to sume total control of the Eastern Empire. Emperor LEO I
have the city elevated to the rank of a patriarchy. For over had promised Aspar to elevate Patricius to the rank of
a century they were unsuccessful, but then Juvenal of Caesar. Using the absence from Thrace of Leo’s Isaurian
Jerusalem (422–458) used his political skills at the Coun-
cil of Chalcedon in 451 to achieve his dream.

416 Patrick superiors as a result of Patrick’s announced intentions:
He planned not simply to act as bishop to the Christian
lieutenant, Zeno, in 469–470. Aspar pressed the emperor community but to labor as a missionary. He expressed
to fulfill his promise. Opposition from the orthodox grave doubts about his fitness and his skills. In Ireland,
church in Constantinople was immediate, for Patricius however, he worked with zeal and a spiritual devotion to
was an Arian. The thought of him as a possible heir to his cause. He enjoyed tremendous success in the field,
the throne was to them horrifying. Their fears were bringing into the Christian fold many chieftains and
increased a short time later when Patricius married Leo’s kings, the class so crucial to Christianity’s flourishing.
youngest daughter, Leontia. By 471, Leo was ready to His work was naturally fraught with danger, as many
annihilate the entire family of Aspar. Zeno returned to kings were openly hostile, one casting him into chains.
Constantinople to orchestrate the murders. Aspar and his The Confessio was penned as a defense of his work in the
other son, Ardaburius, were slain by eunuchs, and Patri- isle and as a defense against charges that he had sought
cius was severely wounded. Surprisingly, he recovered the office of bishop purely for political and personal
but had his marriage to Leontia annulled. gain.

Patrick (Patricius) (fl. early fourth century C.E.) Pop- Patruinus, Valerius (d. 211 C.E.) Co-prefect of the
ular saint, credited with the conversion of Ireland (Hibernia) praetorian guard
in the fifth century C.E. Patruinus served as prefect with Papinian and Laetus dur-
Patrick is largely a legendary figure, known in direct his- ing the reign of Caracalla. In 211, he was murdered at the
torical documentation through only two sources: his Con- same time as Papinian by members of the Guard, and his
fessio (Confession), a kind of autobiography composed in body was dragged through the streets.
simple Latin, and Epistola ad milites Corotici (Letter to the
soldiers of Coroticus), an address composed to a British Paulina, Domitia (d. before 130 C.E.) Sister of Emperor
chieftain to complain about the poor treatment of Irish Hadrian
captives. There is also a considerable body of legend and Married to the consul SERVIANUS. Hadrian was ridiculed
tradition. after her death, for he waited a long time before paying
her honors.
Patrick was probably the son of a Christian decurion
in Britain, born perhaps near modern Bristol. Leading a Paulina, Pompeia (d. after 65 C.E.) Wife of Seneca
comfortable but religiously superficial life, he committed Paulina wished to join her husband in death when he was
some unrevealed sin (by his own testament) that would compelled by Emperor Nero to commit suicide in 65.
come to hurt him politically in later years. At the age of Although Seneca dearly loved her, he had to agree to her
16, he was taken captive by Irish marauders, who were request out of fear of the treatment that might be given to
raiding into Britain, and was transported to Ireland. Sold her after his death. They thus had their veins opened at
into slavery, he worked for six years as a shepherd. Dur- the same time. Upon hearing of the attempt, Nero com-
ing this period he was converted to a deep, spiritual manded that Paulina be saved. Her arms were wrapped,
Christianity and, after hearing a voice telling him to and she lived a number of years, serving as the caretaker
depart, he escaped to the Irish coast. There he secured of Seneca’s memory. It was said that she never regained a
passage aboard a ship, sailing away from captivity. After a robust natural coloring, remaining always pale.
number of largely unknown and highly debated adven-
tures, Patrick returned home. Paulinus of Nola (Meropius Pontius Paulinus) (c.
353–431 C.E.) Bishop of Nola and a Christian poet
After spending some time back in Britain, Patrick Born at Bordeaux to a wealthy senatorial family, his edu-
had a dream in which a figure, Victoricus, delivered him cation was excellent, including a period of study under
a letter headed “The voice of the Irish.” In the dream he Ausonius. A long and successful career seemed before
heard the Irish calling to him, one version telling of his him. He was a consul in Rome in 378 and governor of
hearing the children of the Wood of Voclut; not just the Cisalpina in 381. It came as a surprise to his associates
living children but those of future generations. From this when, in 390, he was baptized by St. Delphinus in Bor-
point, Patrick was utterly devoted to bringing Christian- deaux. With his wife Therasia, Paulinus adopted an
ity to the Irish. Said by tradition to have been ordained ascetic way of life, giving away his fortune. In 394 he was
by Germanus of Auxerre, Patrick was possibly consid- ordained a priest and in 409 made bishop of Nola, a town
ered a bishop when sent to Ireland to care for the small in Campania. As a prelate he was in constant touch with
but growing Christian community there. It is conceiv- some of the most notable Christian figures of his time,
able that the sin of his youth forced the seniors who including AMBROSE, AUGUSTINE, and MARTIN OF TOURS.
decided upon the appointment to choose another. This When not writing letters, Paulinus was composing
other was Palladius who had been sent to Britain a few
years before to root out the heresy of PELAGIANISM. Palla-
dius’s mission lasted only one year (431–32). His
untimely death resulted in Patrick’s succession to the
episcopacy. There was, perhaps, some concern among his

poetry. He excelled as a writer. For Emperor Theodosius Paulus 417
I’s victory over Eugenius in 394, he penned a panegyric
and also wrote several pagan poetical epistles. Upon his were also entitled to salvation did much to ensure the
conversion to Christianity he became a leading pet of widespread propagation of Christianity.
Christendom, on a par with Prudentius. Most of his
poems were devoted to the martyr Felix, while others In many of his travels, terrible upheavals took place.
dealt with psalms, prayers, and John the Baptist. At Jerusalem a mob nearly killed him, and only his
Roman citizenship kept him from suffering torture at the
Paullus, Lucius Aemilius (d. 8 C.E.) Consul in 1 C.E. hands of the Roman authorities. Inevitably, official action
and husband to Augustus’s granddaughter, Julia (4) was taken by the Sanhedrin, the Jewish council, but
Both Paullus and his wife were disappointments to the through the brilliance of his legal mind he was able to
emperor, he for engaging in a conspiracy against the defeat their accusations. An assassination plot compelled
throne, and she for following in the footsteps of her scan- the local head of Rome’s troops to send him to trial before
dalous mother. In 8 C.E., Paullus was executed, and Julia the procurator, Felix, at Caesarea. This was probably
was banished. Their daughter Lepida was thus unable to around 57, but the proceedings were not begun until 59
wed Claudius but did marry M. Silanus. and then under the new procurator, Festus. Again, using
his status as a citizen of Rome, Paul appealed to Caesar.
Paul of Samosata (fl. third century C.E.) Bishop of After meeting with Herod Agrippa, Paul set sail for Rome
Antioch in the middle of the third century and a noted heretic but was shipwrecked at Malta. Finally reaching the capi-
He came from Samosata and entered the service of Zeno- tal, he spent two years in confinement. After that the
bia, queen of Palmyra, probably as a government official. details in various sources become unclear. Traditionally,
Immensely wealthy, he was named to the see of Antioch he made further expeditions to Spain and may even have
around 260. As a bishop his views were greeted by Chris- returned to Ephesus, Macedonia, and Achaea. Arrested
tian orthodoxy as heretical, most notably his support of once more, Paul served as a demonstration of how seri-
Monarchianism, the belief that there was a unity of God, ously the Romans took the Christian sect at the time.
the Word, and Wisdom, and that Jesus Christ was truly Taken into custody near Troas, he was transferred to
human, in the tradition of the Hebrew prophets. At sev- Rome and, between 65 and 67, beheaded in the Neronian
eral synods in Antioch Paul was condemned but persecution. His remains were buried on the road to
remained in power through the influence of Zenobia. Ostia.
Finally, in 268 or 270, he was forced to step down.
Paul was instrumental in organizing the young
Paul of Tarsus (St. Paul) (d. 65–67 C.E.) Apostle of Christian Church. Through his writings, preaching and
the Gentiles and the figure largely responsible for bringing strength of example, he elevated what could have been a
the Christian message to the Roman Empire minor and obscure sect of Judaism into a legitimate reli-
Paul was born a Roman citizen at Tarsus in Cilicia, the gious entity. Theologically, his letters and all preserved
son of a Jew belonging to the tribe of Benjamin. Known writings made possible the formulation of Christian intel-
originally as Saul, he was educated thoroughly, learning lectual tenets over the succeeding centuries.
Greek as well as Pharisaic Judaism, with a full apprecia-
tion of law and scripture. Being well learned, Paul Paulus, Julius (fl. third century C.E.) Prefect of the
opposed the Christian religion as a minor sect and praetorian guard under Emperor Severus Alexander and a
assisted in the persecution of early Christians, most leading jurist
notably St. Stephen, who was stoned to death. Following Like his eventual superior, PAPINIAN, Paulus was a student
his conversion on the road to Damascus, Paul was bap- of the legalist Scaevola Cirvinius, becoming a lawyer and
tized by Ananias and traveled to Arabia, returning three then an assistant to Papinian. He held a seat on the consil-
years later to Damascus and then to Jerusalem. After ini- ium principis of the rulers Severus and Caracalla, also serv-
tial doubts, he was accepted by Barnabas, emerging as the ing as MAGISTER MEMORIAE. Elagabalus banished him, but
most eloquent speaker in the ranks of Christ’s followers. Severus Alexander needed his services, appointing him
Praetorian prefect with ULPIAN. Paulus wrote more than
The next years were filled with his great journeys in 300 books on Roman LAW. Most centered on the codes
Asia Minor, Macedonia, Cyprus, and Achaea. In each of and were known for their excellent style, brevity, and ease
these areas he found converts among the Gentiles but of reading. Large portions were used by Justinian.
encountered stiff opposition from pagans, Jews, and Jew-
ish converts to Christianity. The latter especially dis- Paulus (Catena) (fl. fourth century C.E.) Member of
agreed with the inclusion of uncircumcised Gentiles in the Notarii, or imperial secretaries
the growing church. Paul’s success in convincing St. Paulus was a native of Spain who came to the attention of
Peter, St. James, and others at Jerusalem that the Gentiles Emperor CONSTANTIUS II. The emperor found him a mer-
ciless, ruthless, and utterly reliable investigator in cases
of treason or conspiracy. Called Catena, or “chain,”
Paulus used highly inventive means of torture and inter-
rogation. In 353, he was sent to Britain to hunt for

418 Pausanias Pelagia (fl. fifth century C.E.) Second wife of the magis-
ter militum, Boniface
supporters of Magnentius. The following year he was Boniface was solidifying his hold over Africa around 427
busy questioning suspects in the affair of Gallus Caesar. when he married Pelagia. Because of her Arian beliefs, his
Constantius sent him to watch over Julian in 358 and alliance with orthodox Christians was injured, and he
then turned him loose in the East, to examine charges of suffered an even worse blow when Pelagia induced him
treason in Egypt. Obviously hated, Paulus was con- to allow his daughter to be baptized into the Arian creed.
demned by a commission and burned alive in 361/2. Having isolated such notables as St. AUGUSTINE, Boniface’s
position in Africa deteriorated.
Pausanias (fl. mid-second century C.E.) Geographer
and traveler Pelagianism A Christian heretical movement begun in
A Greek from Lydia, he was familiar with much of the the fifth century C.E. by Pelagius, a lay monk from
Roman world, including the East, Egypt, and Rome, but Britain, but possibly of Irish descent, who traveled to
wrote extensively on Greece. Rome early in the fifth century. Settling there, he acquired
a reputation for devotion while gaining a small group of
Pax Pax was originally considered the goddess of followers who appreciated his views on morality. Around
peace, with worshipers in Rome and in Athens; the Via 410, during the Visigoth invasion of Italy by Alaric,
Sacra, begun by Claudius and finished by Vespasian, was Pelagius fled from Rome to Africa. After meeting with St.
her temple, in a figurative sense. Her visage and at- Augustine, he moved on to Palestine, while Augustus
tributes (olive crown, two right hands joined, or a bull) attacked him for what he considered to be heretical opin-
were used by the emperors, especially on coinage, to ions. Soon other church officials joined in the assault,
declare that peace had come to the Roman world. From and at the synods of Jerusalem and Diospolis (Lydda), in
the time of Augustus (the Pax Augusta beginning with 415, Pelagius had to clear himself of censure, only to
his victory at the battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E.) most have both Augustine and Jerome step up their campaigns
rulers claimed such a peace. with De natura et Gratia (On Birth and Grace) and Dialogi
adversus Pelagianos (Dialogue against Pelagianism), res-
The Pax Romana, a term that denoted a period pectively. Councils in Africa condemned him in 416, a
of peace within the Roman Empire, was a very real and judgment later upheld by popes Innocent I and Zosimus.
powerful sentiment. Rome’s greatness stemmed from its Pelagius faded from public life after the final condemna-
ability to maintain peace throughout a world that had tion of 418. He probably died in Palestine.
never known a cessation of hostilities. Peoples every-
where gave their devotion to the Roman Empire because Pelagianism taught that humanity was not subject to
in return they could live without fear of wars and death. predestination toward sin. Salvation was possible through
The development of all that was successful in the an individual’s actions and was not wholly dependent
provinces—trade, culture, agriculture, architecture, and upon divine grace. Man was responsible ultimately for his
even local forms of nationalism—were possible through actions. This belief ran counter to the very heart of St.
the vision of Augustus and, infrequently, its fulfillment. Augustine’s thinking and much of Christian orthodoxy.
Unlike other heretical movements, Pelagianism did not
Pedius, Quintus (cf. 43 B.C.E.) Grandnephew (or per- find any widespread support after Pelagius’s defeats. Car-
haps nephew) of Julius Caesar ried on by a small group of theologians, by the sixth cen-
Pedius was the son of an Equestrian (EQUITES), probably tury it had all but disappeared.
the grandson of JULIA (1), Caesar’s sister. He entered into
the service of his uncle, attaining the rank of legate Pelagius See PELAGIANISM.
(LEGATUS) during the GALLIC WARS (c. 56 B.C.E.). At the
outbreak of the CIVIL WAR, FIRST TRIUMVIRATE in 49, he Penates The household gods of the Romans. The
joined the cause of Caesar, holding a praetorship the fol- Penates served publicly as divinities of protection, while
lowing year. In 46, he and Q. Fabius Maximus headed in their private nature they helped each household or
Caesar’s legions in Spain. He was an officer at the battle of family. Their name probably came from penus, or pro v i-
MUNDA in 45, earning great praise from Caesar. The dicta- sions, hence their images were kept in the heart of the
tor included him in his will in 44, and Pedius received home, and a hearth was always kept lit in their honor.
one-eighth of his uncle’s vast fortune. Octavian (AUGUS- The Penates were similar to the LARES, except the Lares
TUS), Caesar’s true heir, first convinced him to turn over domestici were actually family members, while the Penates
his share of the inheritance, then rewarded him with a were gods who watched over the family. The Penates
consulship in 43 and control of Rome during Octavian’s originally had a shrine along the Velia, but it was sacri-
absence while forming the Second Triumvirate. When ficed for the Basilica Nova. A temple was dedicated to
word spread that the triumvirs had their own proscrip- them sometime in the early fourth century C.E., probably
tion lists, a panic erupted, and Pedius died while trying
to pacify the city.

in the time of Maxentius. It was circular and was situated periploi 419
on the Sacred Way.
Commodus and was put to death a short time later on
See also GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME. charges of conspiracy. Perennis now held command of
the Praetorians by himself, and he emerged as the chief
Peponila (d. 79 C.E.) Wife of the Gallic rebel leader instrument of Commodus’s autocratic style of rule, com-
Julius Sabinus ing to run virtually the entire empire. Carefully he fed
When her husband was defeated in 70 C.E., she went into Commodus’s habits but tried to curb some of his most
hiding with him for nine years, bearing two children. In extreme appetites. His methods and the amassing of vast
79 they were both captured. Taken to Rome, she begged wealth earned him the hatred of both the Senate and
Vespasian to spare her children, but they were put to the court. Chief among his opponents was the chamber-
death with their parents. lain Cleander. Through his plottings, Perennis was de-
nounced and executed by imperial order. Accounts vary
Peraea One of the districts of Palestine, situated east of at to the exact nature of Perennis’s fall. The historian Dio
the Jordan River and the Dead Sea and stretching from wrote that troops from Britain’s legions were used to kill
Machaerus to Pella in Decapolis. While not one of the him, while Herodian gave a long account of Perennis and
most beautiful areas of JUDAEA, the Peraeans boasted a his own self-wrought destruction.
plentiful supply of water and the capacity to grow virtu-
ally every kind of crop. Its importance, of course, lay in Pergamum Leading city of the Roman province of
its strategic position. To the south was Arabia, and to the ASIA; in a district of MYSIA called Teuthrania, on the
east was Nabataea. Any serious Nabataean advance on Caicus River, a few miles inland from the Aegean Sea.
Jerusalem had to go through Peraea. Probably founded sometime in the fourth century B.C.E.,
it blossomed in the third century under the Attalid kings,
Percennius (fl. early first century C.E.) Soldier in the who put the kingdom of Pergamum on a social and eco-
legions of Pannonia who was largely responsible for their nomic par with Macedonia, Egypt, and Seleucia. The
mutiny in 14 C.E. importance of Pergamum increased when the Romans
Once connected to the theater, he supposedly delivered gave to King Eumenes II (in 190 B.C.E.) control of Mysia,
an oration that convinced his fellow legionaries to revolt Lydia, Lycaonia, Phrygia, Pamphylia, and Pisidia. For
after the death of Emperor Augustus. When the mutiny some time the city was a rival of Alexandria. It was the
fell apart, with the arrival of Drusus, Percennius was put seat of the Roman consul of Asia but, in keeping with the
to death. city’s intense rivalry with EPHESUS, that center received
both the provincial procurator and the treasury. The
peregrini The term used to denote foreigners, those metropolis of Pergamum, however, wielded considerable
not included in the Latin franchise. According to Roman power, both because of its political history and its indus-
law the peregrini were given unfavorable status for most tries. As with Massilia, Pergamum had possession of the
often their communities were conquered or occupied, entire surrounding area. Further, with its silver mines,
and it was up to the local administration in a province to parchment production (called charta Pergamena), agricul-
determine how they would be treated. Cases involving ture and textiles, Pergamum was a major player in Roman
the peregrini were normally handled by the praetor pere- commerce. Its buildings were improved in the second
grinus, a PRAETOR chosen specifically to preside over for- century C.E. by both Trajan and Hadrian.
eigners. It was always the hope of the peregrini to have
their lot improved. They thus adopted Roman ways and Pergamum figured prominently in the religion of the
replaced their own laws with those of Rome. Foreign Roman Empire. Under the Attalids, there was an altar of
troops sent to the Eternal City to be stationed there were Zeus, and Asclepius was worshiped there in the Ascle-
barracked in the so-called CASTRA PEREGRINI or “camp of pium. In 29 B.C.E., Emperor Augustus gave permission
the foreigners.” for the inhabitants of the city to build a temple in honor
of Roma et Augustus; Pergamum thus became the first
Perennis, Sextus Tigidius (fl. late second century site in the East for the IMPERIAL CULT, starting in 19 B.C.E.
C.E.) Prefect of the praetorian guard from 180 to 185, under In Christian history, Pergamum was counted as one of the
Emperor Commodus Seven Churches of Revelation, where Satan dwelt.
Perennis was of Italian birth, a member of the Equestri-
ans (EQUITES) and apparently enjoyed a long, distin- See also ARISTIDES.
guished military career. He was named to the prefectship
of the Guard with Tarutenius PATERNUS around 180, but periploi The records of ocean voyages that served as
then overshadowed his colleague in prestige and influ- manuals or guides to navigation for future travelers. A
ence. In 182, Paternus was removed from his post by periplus was customarily a circumnavigation of an en-
closed body of water, such as the Black Sea or the Me-
diterranean, although it could also apply to any navigation
of a known coast, or even the explorations of previously

420 Peroz day was spent on toiletries, and much effort was given by
both genders to personal appearance. There was a vast
uncharted waters. The periploi were intended to give difference in the personal habits and appearance between
details that might be useful to sailors, similar to the the upper classes and the poor or working classes. In
itinerarium, which was made a guide to travelers on land. both cases, however, there was a fondness for BATHS and
bathing that extended across the classes. It is not surpris-
Among the best known of the periploi were the ing, then, that Romans possessed a wide variety of toi-
Periplus of the Euxine, the Periplus Maris Erythraei, letries, cosmetics, and beauty aids. The quality of the
Periplus of the Outer Sea, and Stadiasmus Maris Magni. personal items depended upon the status and the
The Periplus of the Euxine [or Black] Sea was written resources of the individual.
around 132 C.E. by Arrian and was addressed to Emperor
Hadrian in the form of a letter. The Periplus Maris Ery- A patrician woman regularly awoke and applied a
thraei (Periplus of the Erythraen Sea) was compiled in skin paste of flour and milk that was washed off with per-
the first century C.E. by an unknown Greek merchant and fumed water. This was followed by an oral hygiene pro-
describes trips along the coastal waters from Egypt to gram that involved brushing the teeth and rinsing the
India and along the East African coast; it includes exten- mouth. There was a premium placed by the upper classes
sive details that would be useful for ship captains and on white teeth, especially on the part of young eligible
merchants. The Periplus of the Outer Sea was compiled women. Archaeological remains indicate that a typical
around 400 C.E., in Greek, by Marcian of Heraclea Pon- well-to-do matron had a wide variety of toilet instru-
tica. He describes the waters beyond the Mediterranean, ments, including tweezers, combs, toothpicks, and
including the Indian and Atlantic Oceans. The Stadiasmus razors. There were also face powders, perfumes, lipsticks,
Maris Magni survives only in fragments. It was written and forms of makeup. Strigils were also applied, to
probably in the second half of the third century C.E. and remove dead skin and makeup. Cosmetics were often
provides details of the Mediterranean, including dis- made of charcoal and saffron, while chalk powder was
tances, sailing directions, and descriptions of specific har- applied to whiten the skin. Romans used mirrors made of
bors. polished metals, such as bronze and silver. Most mirrors
were of the hand-held variety, but larger, full-size mirrors
Peroz (d. 484 C.E.) King of Persia from 459 to 484 were not uncommon.
Peroz enjoyed good relations with Emperor ZENO, whose
ambassador EUSEBIUS was attached to the Persian imperial A reflection of the Roman concern for appearance
court. He was killed in battle with the Huns. was an acute interest in hairstyle and hair care. The most
obvious source of information on varying hairstyles is
Persia The land that gave birth to the Sassanids (see the abundance of sculpture, especially from the first and
SASSANID DYNASTY) whose conquered the Parthians in 226 second centuries C.E. Specific hairstyles varied across the
C.E.; originally known as Persis. It was located along the empire, and unlike the Greeks, there was no classic style
Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea, bordering Parthia, the of presenting hair, with fashionable trends becoming
Indo-Parthian kingdoms and the kingdom of Elymais. dominant in some periods and fading in others. Hair
Under the Parthians it was granted a considerable care was a priority to the wealthy, with a full head of
amount of autonomy, allowing for the internal develop- healthy hair considered a sign of good fortune. Hair col-
ment that brought about the Sassanids. ors also passed through fashion trends, with blonde
becoming popular during the empire. This color was
Persians and Athenians The names taken by two achieved by hair dyes. There were thus efforts to pro-
gladiatorial squads who fought in a mock naval engage- mote hair growth using assorted ointments, such as ani-
ment in the Saeptia in 2 B.C.E. Their battle was part of the mal fat (from bears and sheep). Another remedy for hair
massive Circensian games managed by Gaius and Lucius. loss involved applying a cream made from pepper and
As of old, the Athenians won. c rushed rat’s heads.

See also LUDI. As these methods failed, Romans of both sexes took
to wearing wigs, even though writers, such as Ovid,
Persius Flaccus, Aulus (34–62 C.E.) Satirist during the enjoyed poking fun at those forced to wear them. Blonde
age of Nero wigs were popular, made from the hair of Germans cap-
Persius was greatly influenced by Horace and stood as a tured in the campaigns along the frontier or trimmed
friend of Lucan. In his lifetime Flaccus achieved little from the golden locks of slave girls. Black hair for wigs
fame with his work, but his satires, especially his exposi- was also trimmed from slaves across the provinces, or
tions on Stoicism, gained him posthumous respect. was sometimes imported from as far away as India.

See also SATIRE. Roman men traditionally wore beards, but this cus-
tom changed from the time of Scipio Africanus (d. 184/3
personal appearance For those with sufficient B.C.E.) in the early second century B.C.E. As that famed
wealth, need, and slaves, a great deal of time during each general was always clean shaven, Romans followed his

lead. Beards came back into fashion from the time of Perusine
War 421
Hadrian (r. 117–38). That emperor wore a long and ele-
gant beard, but he adopted it in order to hide a facial Laetus, who had watched, went home when he saw a
blemish. It was custom for a young man to save the hairs spear being thrown into Pertinax. The emperor’s head
shaved for the first time and place them in an ornate box. was cut off, paraded through the streets and discarded, as
Men of the lower classes normally kept beards, as shaving the Guard set about auctioning off the empire to the
was expensive, requiring access to sharp razors on a regu- highest bidder. The reign of Pertinax lasted only 87 days
lar basis and someone, usually a slave, to perform the (January–March 193). Although considered very imperial
shaving. in appearance, he declined the Senate’s offer to raise up
his wife to the rank of Augusta and did not give his son
Prosperous Roman men frequented barber shops, the position of Caesar.
especially if they did not have a slave to assist them. Such
shops were numerous in Rome, although the quality of Pertinax, Publius Helvius (2) (d. c. 211 C.E.) Son of
the shave varied greatly, as was noted by Martial. He Emperor Pertinax (1)
wrote of the threat to life and limb posed by the barber Publius was proposed as holder of the rank of Caesar
Antiochus, who inflicted scars upon the chin of the poet. until his father refused him the honor. He survived the
As a rule, most razors did not remain sharp for very long assassination of Pertinax in 193 C.E. and was allowed to
and caused nicks and cuts and often left the kinds of live by Emperor Didius Julianus. Septimius Severus
scars mentioned by Martial. declared Pertinax a god, and the son held the post of
CONSUL in the early part of Caracalla’s reign. Unfortu-
Pertinax, Publius Helvius (1) (126–193 C.E.) Em- nately, Caracalla cared little for him. He was put to death
peror in 193 for making a joke about the murder of GETA.
The son of a Ligurian freedman, Helvius Successus, Perti-
nax became a teacher but soon entered the army, where Perusine War Brief conflict fought in 41 B.C.E.
he commanded cohorts in Syria. He also held the same between Octavian (AUGUSTUS) and Lucius ANTONIUS and
post in Britain and Moesia, and in 168 was given a procu- FULVIA, Marc Antony’s brother and wife. While Antony
ratorship in Italy and another in Dacia. Marcus Aurelius was away in the East, Lucius and Fulvia came to view the
found him useful and appointed him head of troops in party of Octavian as too popular and dangerous.
Pannonia, where he participated in the MARCOMANNIC Although Antony and Octavian were equal triumvirs,
WARS. As preparation for further promotion, Pertinax was Octavian was amassing political power in Rome and Italy
elevated to the senatorial class and served as PRAETOR. with his settlement of legionary veterans on granted
Around 171 he was legate in Raetia and was a consul in tracts of land. Feeling that Antony’s honor and future
174 or 175. Further offices included governorships in were at stake, Lucius initiated hostilities in Italy, aided
Syria, Moesia Inferior and Superior, and in Dacia. soon by Fulvia and her chamberlain, Manius.

Commodus, Marcus’s successor, stripped Pertinax of When a reconciliation failed, war erupted. With
his status in 182 because of possible connections to con- some six legions, Lucius opposed Octavian and his lieu-
spiracies. Such was his reputation, however, that the ruler tenant, AGRIPPA. Where Marc Antony stood in all of this
sent him to Britain in 185 to deal with troublesome was unclear to his supporters. For that reason, Munatius
legions. He remained there for two years and was named Plancus, Antony’s general in Italy, neglected to involve
proconsul of Africa in 188. A second consulship came in himself, convincing Antony’s other officers to do the
192. He was PREFECT OF THE CITY in 192 but probably same. Lucius thus found himself alone. Chased to Perusia
had no part in the assassination of Commodus. Neverthe- (modern Perugia), northeast of Rome, between the Via
less, with the help of the Praetorian prefect LAETUS, he Flaminia and Via Cassia, Lucius was surrounded and
traveled to the CASTRA PRAETORIA, where he secured the besieged. After months of unsuccessful breakout attempts
blessings of the Guard with the promise of a DONATIVUM and dwindling food supplies, he surrendered to Octavian
and was elevated to the throne. Pertinax enjoyed as well in February 40. Octavian treated him with kindness, not
the full support of the Senate, which was only too glad to wishing to antagonize Antony. Fulvia, meanwhile, sailed
have one of their own adorned with the purple. from Italy to Athens. No soldiers were executed, and
Octavian sought to restore peace to the Italian region.
He attempted to stabilize the imperial economy, Only Perusia was burned and pillaged to serve as a lesson
nearly ruined by Commodus, while selling off some of to other towns.
the dead emperor’s most valued possessions. Unfortu-
nately, this fiscal conservatism turned the Praetorian Antony probably did not want any war with Octavian
Guard against him; he paid only half the sum that he had and so was upset to hear of the Perusine struggle; the let-
guaranteed them. Their dislike was accentuated by Lae- ters informing him were delayed because of the winter
tus, who had regretted his support of Pertinax because weather. He was angry with Fulvia, and his subsequent
the new emperor had proven himself highly independent. treatment of her hastened her death in 40 and made pos-
Soldiers burst into the palace when spirits ran high, and sible the TREATY OF BRUNDISIUM.

422 Pescennius Niger Gentile Cornelius to join his circle, PAUL rebuked him for
allowing the Jewish community of Christians to turn
Pescennius Niger (Gaius Pescennius Niger Justus) away Gentile converts. Of lasting importance to CHRIS-
(c. 135–193 C.E.) Consul, general, governor of Syria, and TIANITY was Peter’s early identification as the bishop of
in 193 one of the rival claimants for the imperial throne ROME. Not only did he apparently head the Roman
Pescennius was born to an Equestrian family in Italy. His Church, but also his martyrdom (sometime during the
successful military career was capped by a smashing vic- Neronian Persecution, probably 64 C.E.) established for-
tory over the Sarmatians in Dacia in 183. For this he was ever the supremacy of Rome over the entire Christian
awarded by Emperor Commodus with elevation to the hierarchy. Peter, it was said, refused to die in the same
senatorial class and a consulship in 190 or 191. Niger manner as Christ. He was thus crucified upside down.
was then appointed governor of Syria by Commodus, Virtually the entire New Testament was his biography,
possibly through the influence of someone in the palace, especially Gospels of Matthew and John, as well as the
for as the historian Dio stated, Niger was not a man of Acts of the Apostles.
keen intelligence. As governor, Niger spent huge sums
earning the goodwill of the Syrians. See also PAPACY.

In the summer of 193, when news arrived of the Peter of Alexandria (d. 311 C.E.) Bishop of Alexandria
murder of Emperor Pertinax and the rise of DIDIUS from 300 to 311
JULIANUS, who had purchased the throne, Niger accepted Peter survived the persecutions of Emperor Diocletian
the acclaim of his troops. His position was excellent; he and became head of the Christian community in Alexan-
commanded all nine legions of the East and the support dria. He faced, however, the very important question of
of the provinces and BYZANTIUM. Victory would have been what to do with those Christians who had forsaken their
assured had he not faced Septimius SEVERUS and the Pan- faith because of the persecutions. The requirements that
nonian legions. Severus gathered together an army and he devised were viewed by many, especially MELITIUS, as
advanced on Asia Minor. After a series of small engage- being far too lenient. The controversy was far from
ments, all of Niger’s trans-Bosporus holdings were either resolved in 306, when Peter had to flee his see in the face
lost or besieged, as was the case with Byzantium. Severus of murderous repression. From his place of exile in the
then crossed over into Bithynia. Niger entrusted the desert he continued to write to his flock, only to have
fighting to his reliable general, Aemilianus, but was Melitius assume control over the Alexandrian Christians.
routed at CYZICUS. A short time later, perhaps at the start Peter returned in 311, during the brief respite, but was
of 194, Niger’s troops were again defeated, at NICAEA. caught and martyred at Alexandria.

Niger withdrew into Syria only to learn that the Petra Capital city of ARABIA Petraea; the administrative
backing of the provinces was deteriorating. The host of and commercial center for the NABATAEANS. Petra was
Severus continued its march through Asia Minor. Desper- founded sometime in the fourth century B.C.E. by the
ate for a victory, Niger gave battle at Issus. The Severans, then nomadic people of Nabataea. Located in the Edom
commanded by Publius Cornelius ANULLINUS (praefectus Mountains, between the Dead Sea and the Red Sea, its
urbi 196 C.E.,), were initially hard pressed in battle but many buildings were accessible only by crossing through
eventually gained the upper hand. With the engagement sharp, rocky passes, and the city itself was positioned in
lost, Niger fled to Antioch, then toward Parthia and sanc- an easily defended and virtually inaccessible gorge, called
tuary across the Euphrates. Anullinus took Antioch, and Siq. Today, Petra is in Jordan.
Niger was captured. Severus put him to death, and his
head was put on a stick and paraded before his horrified From the start, Petra served as an important cog in
adherents at Byzantium. Dio summed up his life by say- the trade relations not only of the Nabataean Kingdom
ing that he “was notable for doing nothing either good or but also of the entire East. Caravans from all over the
bad, so that one could neither praise nor blame him.” world entered its markets, spread out beneath the stun-
ning sandstone walls. Merchants from India and Arabia,
Peter (St. Peter) (d. 64 C.E.?) Apostle of Christ and the with silks and perfumes, used Petra as a launching point
unquestioned leader of the early Christian Church for massive distribution to the Roman world. As its great-
Peter, the “Rock” was chosen by Christ to serve as the est wealth was in the first century C.E., most of the pre-
foundation of the church. His early life was fully docu- served structures in Petra date from that time. Some, of
mented and commonly known, especially his recognition course, were built in earlier eras, displaying a Ptolemaic
of Jesus as the Christ. Although he possessed many influence, but Deir, the most famous of the buildings, was
faults, Peter held the Apostles together after the Crucifix- from the mid-first century. This tomb relied upon a
ion and Ascension of Christ. Peter was henceforth the facade of dramatically placed columns, pilasters, and
primary speaker for the Apostles, appearing before the floors, which inspire visitors with awe and an impression
Sanhedrin with John. Equally, he exhibited the greatest of vastness.
gifts of miraculous healing, so much so that even his
shadow was enough to cure the ill. While he allowed the

Ironically, the riches of Petra were a contributing fac- PetroniusM
 aximus 423
tor in Emperor Trajan’s decision to send A. Cornelius
Palma with troops to annex all of the Nabataean domain admitted into the inner circle of Nero, becoming the
in 106 C.E. Petra was replaced as the first city of the emperor’s authority on art and culture, with the title
region by Bostra, where the VI Ferrata legion and the arbiter elegantiae. As proconsul of Africa and then as con-
legate of the new province of Arabia Petraea were sta- sul he displayed utmost vigor, an active nature that he
tioned. The title metropolis was eventually granted; but brought to the pursuit of luxury. His favored position
from Roman occupation in 106, the city would never with Nero earned him the enmity of the perfect of the
again recover its grandeur. Any hopes of resurrecting its Praetorian Guard, TIGELLINUS, who convinced the
economic vitality were ended in the third century with emperor to have Petronius condemned to death in 66. In
the rise of the city of PALMYRA. a most elegant fashion, Petronius killed himself, but only
after composing a letter to Nero detailing the ruler’s
Petreius, Marcus (d. 46 B.C.E.) Supporter of Pompey embarrassing orgies and affairs. Petronius died with the
the Great during the civil war with Julius Caesar same flair that he used successfully in life.
A noted soldier, Petreius was responsible for the final
annihilation of Catiline’s forces in 62 B.C.E., in which sup- Tacitus made no mention of any literary ability on
posedly 3,000 supporters of the conspirator were massa- the part of Gaius Petronius. For such a historian, how-
cred. In 59 he helped CATO UTICENSIS oppose Caesar’s ever, the content of the noted work could have been con-
agrarian laws, rising from his seat in the Senate and sidered beneath contempt and thus ignored. The name
declaring that he would rather be with Cato in prison Arbiter (Judge) was rare and can be linked to both the
than in the same Senate chamber with Caesar. This bold writer and the courtier.
move shamed Caesar into releasing Cato.
The Satyricon was an account of debauchery and out-
Ten years later, Petreius threw in with the Pompeians rageous behavior, written in 16 books (Satyricon libri).
when the war erupted. He traveled to Spain, where he Only fragments are extant, of which the Banquet of Tri-
and Afranius were commanders of Pompey’s legions malchio survived almost intact. Technically, Petronius
there. Caesar chose Spain as his initial target and with wrote Menippean satire, using an interwoven verse and
five legions defeated and captured Petreius and Afranius prose, while manipulating elements of the Milesian
at ILERDA in 49. Typical of Caesar, Petreius was forgiven. Fables, mainly short stories, into the work. He possessed
He refused to retire, but united instead with Pompey’s such a masterful touch that in the Cena Trimalchionis he
forces in Africa. included superb examples of his era’s Vulgar Latin, mak-
ing the novel of great importance to subsequent gram-
From October 47 to February 46, Petreius was a marians. In essence, the story is about Encolpius and
leading general of the Pompeians in the THAPSUS Cam- Giton, two youths who find love and adventure in south-
paign, with Labienus, King Juba I and Scipio. With Labi- ern Italy. It is satirical, biting, and comical, despite the
enus he very nearly defeated Caesar near Ruspina, only to fact that Petronius often abandoned a coherent plot for
share in the failure of the Pompeians at Thapsus. It was the sake of inventiveness or imagination.
said that he and Juba killed each other rather than face
capture. Petronius Turpilianus, Publius (fl. first century C.E.)
Consul in 19 C.E. and very nearly the last victim of the reign
Petronius (fl. first century C.E.) Controversial figure in of Gaius Caligula (37–41 C.E.)
Rome during the reign of Emperor Nero (54–68) Petronius came from a senatorial family, eventually serv i n g
While well-known to history, Petronius may have been as proconsul of Africa (29–c. 35) and legate of Syria
two different people: a courtier in Nero’s imperial court (39–42). As governor of Syria he received orders from
and Petronius Arbiter, a famous author best known for Emperor Gaius Caligula in 41 to erect a statue of the
writingtheSatyricon. While it is possible that the two may monarch in the Great TEMPLE OF JERUSALEM. Torn between
have been distinct, many scholars are of the opinion that his loyalty to the emperor and his fear of a Jewish upris-
they were one and the same. Based upon Tacitus’s descrip- ing, he hesitated, while pleading the case of the religious
tion of Petronius and also on his chief work, the Satyricon, rights of the Jews. Infuriated, Caligula ordered that he kill
with one of its surviving fragments, the Cena Trimalchionis himself. The decree mercifully was made null by the
(Banquet of Trimalchio), the preponderance of evidence emperor’s assassination in Rome. Petronius was also the
does seem to point to Petronius being one person. co-author of the lex Junia Petronia, with M. Junius Silanus.

Gaius Petronius (or “Titus,” according to Pliny the Petronius Arbiter See PETRONIUS.
Elder) was famed during the reign of Nero for his indo-
lence and supreme mastery of good taste and pleasure. Petronius Maximus (396–455 C.E.) Successor in the
He specialized in eccentricity and abandon while present- Western Empire to Valentinian III in 455
ing an air of simplicity. For these characteristics he was From obscure origins, but a gifted officer in the imperial
government of the West, Petronius held positions as

424 Petronius
Turpilianus,
Publius A freedman, Phaedrus probably came from Thrace or
Macedonia, specifically Pieria. He lived in Rome while
tribune, notarius, and comes sacrarum largitionum, all still young and secured the patronage of Augustus. His
prior to 420. Sometime in that year he was appointed first two works on fables were published during the reign
prefect for the city of Rome. A consul twice, once with of Tiberius but prior to 31 C.E. As Sejanus appears to
Theodosius II, Petronius then held the Praetorian prefect- have been the instrument in some persecution of Phae-
ship in Italy two times, in 435 and 439. By 445 he was a drus, the freedman found relief in the fall PREFECT OF THE
Patrician. With Valentinian’s murder, no male heir was PRAETORIAN GUARD in 31. Books 3–5 came out later, no
readily available to take the throne. Other choices were doubt in the time of Gaius Caligula. He relied upon
considered, but Petronius, with his wealth and offices, iambic senarii in his fables, adding stories or anecdotes
seemed the logical choice to receive the purple. But about himself or the times. His composition was fluent,
Licinia EUDOXIA, Valentinian’s widow, intensely disliked delightful, and never verbose. Five books are extant in
Petronius, holding him responsible for her husband’s incomplete form. Few ancient authors made mention of
death. Finding her forced marriage to Petronius unbear- him, considering him to be a minor contributor to the lit-
able, she appealed for aid from GEISERIC, king of the Van- erature of the time.
dals in Africa. Only too happy to meddle in the affairs of
the West, Geiseric sailed to Italy. Petronius tried to flee Phaon (fl. first century C.E.) Freedmen of the emperor
from Rome. His bodyguard deserted and the emperor was Nero
attacked by a mob. Supposedly he died in a shower of Phaon played a part in Nero’s last days in 68 C.E. When
stones, although he may have been hung instead. He had the emperor has fallen from power and fled from Rome,
reigned from March 17 to May 31. Geiseric pillaged Phaon offered the use of his own private villa and estates
Rome. outside the city to which Nero agreed. It was Phaon,
however, who sent Nero the letter informing him that the
Petronius Turpilianus, Publius (d. c. 68 C.E.) Gover- Senate had condemned him to death. Horrified at the
nor of Britain in 61–62 C.E. prospect of dying by torture, Nero killed himself.
Petronius had served as consul in 61 before heading to
Britain where he advocated a more peaceful policy than Pharasmanes (first century C.E.) King of Iberia (modern
the one pursued by his predecessor. Back in Rome in 63, Kartli, Georgia)
he held a position as curator aquarum for the city and The son of Mithridates of Iberia and brother of Mithri-
played a role in the massacre that ended the PISONIAN dates of ARMENIA. Pharasmanes succeeded his father on
CONSPIRACY. For his loyalty to Nero he received a tri- the throne of Iberia sometime before 35 C.E. and was
umphal insignia in 65. Three years later, Nero ordered induced to help his brother secure the throne of Armenia.
him to command the forces sent out against the rebellion. The army of Iberia swept into Armenia as Mithridates
Petronius threw in with Galba but was put to death by replaced its king Arsaces. In the fighting, Pharasmanes
that new emperor. defeated a large Parthian force sent against him. Only the
threat of a wider war with Rome prevented Parthia from
Peutinger Table The Tabula Peutingeriana, a five- taking direct action against Iberia as a result. Considered
color map of the Roman world, was originally drawn in a reliable client, Pharasmanes was ordered by Emperor
the fourth or fifth century C.E. It was copied about 1265 Claudius (c. 49) to aid Mithridates once more in regain-
by a monk of Colmar, eventually coming into the posses- ing the Armenian crown (he had been exiled by Gaius
sion of a scholar named Konrad Peutinger in 1508. The Caligula). Iberia’s troops marched once again into Arme-
map is 22 feet long and 131/2 inches wide and presents nia, and with Roman support, Mithridates resecured the
much of the then known world, from Britannia to India, throne. But in 51, RADAMISTUS, son of Pharasmanes,
although the images are severely stretched as it was decided that he too wanted to be a monarch. Rather than
intended to serve as a diagram for travelers and was not face assassination, Pharasmanes encouraged his son to
drawn to scale. The chief feature of the map is the net- subvert Armenia. Relations with Mithridates had never
works of roads of the empire and of the lands to the east been loving, and Pharasmanes gave his son all of the sup-
beyond the imperial frontier. Details include mountains, port that he could. Mithridates was murdered, as
rivers, and towns, with annotations on where the traveler Radamistus assumed the sovereignty of Armenia. Rome’s
might find road stations and baths, and how far the dis- governor of Syria, Ummidius Quadratus, was horrified,
tances are from one point to the next. Unfortunately, part but the eventual removal of Radamistus did not come at
of the map, containing the western regions of the empire, Roman hands. He was ousted by the Armenians them-
is missing, so that most of Britannia and all of Hispania selves and returned to his father. Pharasmanes, fearing for
and Mauretania are lost. his own kingship, put his son to death in 58 as an act of
good faith to Rome. Subsequently, he fought in the long
Phaedrus (fl. first century C.E.) Author of five books of
fables, written in the sytle of Aesop

wars between Parthia and the Roman Empire over the Pharsalus 425
fate of Armenia, reportedly enjoying his task of demolish-
ing much of the Armenian landscape. was in Alexandria. After negotiations failed to gain him a
Roman pardon, Pharnaces gave battle at Zela in May 47.
Pharisees Members of one of the major theological He was routed and later murdered by a governor,
movements within JUDAISM from the time of the Hasmon- Asander.
aean kings to the fall of JERUSALEM (c. 142 B.C.E.–70 C.E.).
The Pharisees ranked with the SADDUCEES and the Pharsalus Greek town in eastern Thessaly, site of the
ESSENES (according to the writer Josephus) as leaders of great confrontation between Julius CAESAR and POMPEY
Jewish thought. Their name probably came from a Greek THE GREAT on August 9, 48 B.C.E. Pharsalus ended the
derivation of the Hebrew perushim, or separatists, proba- political fortunes of Pompey. Although years of fighting
bly reflecting the view held by the Sadducees of their own lay ahead, Caesar’s victory earned him a justified status as
teachings. Pharisaism taught that the Law of Moses (the foremost general in the Roman world. Following the Pom-
Pentateuch) had to be upheld and, as well, the oral law peian victory at DYRRHACHIUM in May 48, Caesar retreated
handed by Moses to Joshua and then to the prophets and into Thessaly, where his troops were able to recover and to
finally to the Pharisees. These laws, both oral and writ- forage for food. Pompey was confronted with two choices:
ten, were given by God to individuals that they might fol- He could leave Greece and move to Rome to gather more
low his teaching and thus earn eternal life and the political and senatorial support, or he could hunt down
resurrection of the body. Caesar and force a decision. He opted for the second
method, as his men were confident, with high morale.
The movement originated in the fall of the old Jewish Pompey also could not leave Caesar intact, able to crush
priesthood in favor of the Hasmonaean priest-kings, who the Pompeians in the East. As for Caesar, once his men
came to power with the help of the early Pharisees. werefed and rested, he eagerly waited for battle.
Henceforth, the kings of the Hasmonaean line gave their
blessings up to the propagation of their doctrines. The Throughout June and July, both sides maneuvered
Pharisees adopted views especially in two domains, the for position, trying to pin down the other’s detachments
spiritual and the temporal, that allowed them to deal with or main body and thus seize a strategic or tactical advan-
the Sadducees and were especially helpful in negotiating tage. Finally, knowing that he had much greater numbers,
for their survival under Roman occupation. Pompey selected a hill near the plain of Pharsalus and
ordered his lines of battle, placing his right flank on the
The Pharisees were divided as to the correctness of nearby Enipeus River, giving Caesar the option of fight-
the Great Rebellion (c. 65–70 C.E.). Many of their leaders ing. Caesar naturally accepted. Pompey possessed 60,000
worked to stop the revolt, and still others met with Ves- infantry and 7,000 cavalry, while Caesar commanded
pasian to convince him to spare the Pharisees as a group. around 30,000 infantry and only 1,000 cavalry. Knowing
These pleas, coupled with the destruction of the Great that Pompey would exploit his superiority in horsemen,
Temple, ensured the primacy of the Pharisees in Judaism. Caesar created a special force of six cohorts (some 2,000
Because it was more flexible, fluid and independent of the men), placing them in the rear of his right flank.
Great Temple and its stratified priesthood, Pharisaism
became the religious heart of the Jews in the Diaspora. Its The struggle began as the legions of Caesar advanced
institution of the synagogue allowed the Jews to live against the Pompeians stretched out along the base of the
throughout the Roman Empire without losing their reli- hill. As the footsoldiers came to grips, Pompey launched
gious pride or sense of unity. his cavalry, driving hard into Caesar’s right wing. Hope-
lessly overmatched, Caesar’s cavalry broke as the enemy
Pharnaces (d. 47 B.C.E.) King of the Bosporus pushed on. Suddenly the six cohorts appeared, surprising
Also called Pharnaces, king of PONTUS, he was the son of the cavalry. The Pompeian horse was scattered as the
MITHRIDATES VI, who had created the Bosporan domain as cohorts moved forward, striking against Pompey’s left. At
a major power in the East, Pharnaces led a revolt in 63 this moment, Caesar unleashed his last reserves. With the
B.C.E. that caused his father to commit suicide. Grateful fabled X Legion leading the way, the forces of Pompey
that such a gifted opponent had fallen, POMPEY THE GREAT were smashed utterly. Caesar led his victorious troops in
allowed Pharnaces to retain his newly gained throne. pursuit, crashing into the enemy’s camp and making any
Ambitious but cautious, Pharnaces waited until the recovery impossible.
Romans were engaged in the convulsions of their own
civil war (49–45 B.C.E.), before embarking upon his cam- Pompey fled the field, removed his insignia and
paigns of conquest. Using the absence of any major oppo- made for the coast with only 30 riders as escort. Caesar
nents, especially Deiotarus of Galatia, Pharnaces made had lost only a few hundred men, while inflicting more
war upon Caesar’s legate CALVINUS, defeating him at the than 10,000 casualties and capturing another 24,000.
battle of NICOPOLIS in October 48 B.C.E., while Caesar Although he still had followers ready to fight on his
behalf, Pompey sailed to Egypt, where he would meet his
end. Sources include Caesar’s Civil War and Lucan’s Civil
War, or Pharsalia.

426 Phasael Jotapianus, destroyed Philip’s faith in himself. To aid in
quelling the Danubian revolts, DECIUS was appointed gen-
Phasael (d. 40 B.C.E.) Son of the minister Antipater of eral in Moesia and Pannonia. By 249, Decius had been so
Idumaea and brother of Herod the Great victorious that his troops proclaimed him emperor. Philip
Phasael, like his brother, was groomed for high office, marched to give battle, but he was defeated near Verona
holding command in Judaea with his father and eventu- and slain. His son joined him in death a short time later,
ally becoming governor of Jerusalem. After Antipater’s putting an end to the first Arab line on the throne.
death in 43 B.C., Phasael and Herod were the masters of
Judaea, administering affairs in the name of the weak Philip II (d. 249 C.E.) Son of Emperor Philip I (the Arab)
king Hyrcanus. In 40 B.C., when the Parthians invaded and Otacilia Severa
the kingdom, Phasael was either killed or, more likely, Following the elevation of his father to the throne in 244,
committed suicide. Philip II was given the rank of Caesar, probably at age
seven. Three years later (247) he was made Augustus, or
Philae Island in the Nile River near Aswan; now sub- coruler, with his father, sharing as well in two consul-
merged. Philae was heavily decorated by temples, built ships. In 249, he was murdered, probably by the Praeto-
mainly by the last dynasties of Egypt and by the rian Guard, following his father’s defeat and death at the
Ptolemies. Various Roman emperors took an interest in hands of DECIUS.
the site and repaired or improved its structures. These
included Augustus, Hadrian, and Diocletian. The Temple Philip the Tetrarch (d. 34 C.E.) Son of Herod the
of Isis there was visited by travelers from all over the Great
Roman world. Philae served as one of the important By virtue of the will of Emperor Augustus, Philip was
boundary markers for the Roman province of Egypt, made the tetrarch of Gaulanitis, Trachonitis, and Ba-
denoting the starting point of Ethiopia. Archaeologically, tanaea. Although Herod despised Philip, an emotion that
the island was very impressive. As a result of the modern he visited upon all of his children, the son was able to
Aswan Dam, Philae itself was submerged by the Nile, and survive the old king’s reign, sharing in the inheritance of
the numerous structures that once graced the island were Herod when he died in 4 B.C.E. Augustus ensured that the
moved to a nearby island, Agilqiyyah, shaped to resemble extensive domain of Judaea was broken apart. Philip
the original in exact detail. received control of his own districts, ruling them until his
death. At that time, L. Vitellius, the governor of Syria,
Philip I (d. 249 C.E.) Emperor from 244 to 249 annexed the entire territory, but it was later given to
Called “Philip the Arab” because he was the son of an Herod Agrippa I. Philip was married to the infamous
Arabian chieftain who was also a member of the Equestri- Salome.
ans (EQUITES), Philip served in the army, rising to the
position of second in command of the Praetorian Guard , Philippi Founded in Macedonia by Philip of Macedon
behind TIMESITHEUS, the prefect. Sometime in 243, Time- in the fourth century B.C.E., this town gained lasting fame
sitheus died, with many assuming that he had been mur- as the site of the battle fought by Octavian (AUGUSTUS)
dered by Philip. Emperor Gordian III then named Philip and Antony against the Liberators, including Brutus and
as the new prefect. Shortly after assuming his duties, he Cassius. Philippi was actually two battles, fought in early
convinced the troops in the armies of Gordian in the East October and on October 23, 42 B.C.E.
to remove the young emperor. Acclaimed by the legions,
Philip immediately placated the Senate by having Gordian Following the formation of the SECOND TRIUMVIRATE
deified. He then terminated the campaign against Persia, at Bononia (Bologna) in November of 43 B.C.E., by Octa-
signed a hastily arranged treaty with the Persians and vian, Antony, and Lepidus, war was inevitable, for the
j o u rneyed to Rome to establish his claims. Once home, cause of Julius Caesar had been assumed by his heir,
Philip elevated his son to the rank of Caesar and had his Octavian. Marcus BRUTUS and Gaius CASSIUS LONGINUS,
wife, Otacilia Severa, named Augusta. His brother, Gaius the ringleaders in Caesar’s murder, had fled to the East,
Priscus, became the governor of Mesopotamia. where they had taken control of Rome’s provinces, bru-
tally draining them and any Roman ally of all available
With the imperial line apparently stabilized, Philip wealth. By late summer of 42, they had collected an army
set out in 246 against the CARPI in DACIA. The operations of 19 legions, totaling some 80,000 infantry and 20,000
along the Danube were extremely successful, as evi- cavalry. In September they crossed the Hellespont and
denced by his assuming the titles Carpicus Maximus and marched into Thrace.
Germanicus Maximus. Philip’s son was then promoted to
Augustus or coemperor, and in Rome the Secular Games Against them, Octavian and Antony gathered a host
were held to celebrate the 1,000th birthday of the city. of 85,000 foot and around 12,000 or 13,000 horsemen.
Problems soon erupted, however. The barbarian Goths, They sailed from Brundisium to Epirus, beginning imme-
Germans, and Carpi once more created trouble. More diately to maneuver around Macedonia for a suitable
important, usurpations, especially by Pacatianus and

place to make a stand. With Antony in the lead, the ph
 i
 l
 o
 s
 o
 p
 h
 y
 427
forces of the triumvirate came upon the Republican
legions near the town of Philippi. Brutus and Cassius had Augustus’s political rise but later sponsored the construc-
their forces positioned on both sides of the Via Egnatia, tion of the Temple to Hercules and the Muses at the prod-
with a swamp protecting the lines of communication ding of his stepson.
with their fleet at Neapolis.
Philo (Philo Judaeus [the Jew]) (c. 30 B.C.E.–50
Antony decided to attack through the swamp and C.E.) A noted intellectual writer of the first century C.E.
thus gain a surprise. He made preparations with a cause- Little has survived of his life except that he was born in
way over the worst parts of the mire and then crashed Alexandria to a wealthy Jewish family, was the uncle of
into the camp of Cassius. The sorties was highly success- Tiberius Alexander, learned Greek and emerged as the
ful. Cassius, thinking the chances of victory were gone, foremost spokesman of Hellenistic Judaism in the world.
had a servant kill him. Unbeknownst to him, Brutus’s In 39–40 C.E. he was sent to Rome to act as envoy to
units had made a similar raid on the camp of Octavian, Gaius Caligula. He presented accusations against the pre-
driving the young general from the field. Brutus and fect of Egypt, Flaccus, and defended the cause of Jewish
Antony returned to their respective camps, triumphant rights. These experiences were recorded in Legatio ad
but faced with the same dire news. Gaium (Embassy to Gaius) and Contra Flaccum (Against
Flaccus). As a philosopher, Philo was very influential,
Days passed as both sides waited for an opportunity. both in his own day and in the subsequent Christian the-
While Octavian could use the name of Caesar to moti- ological school of Alexandria, especially with CLEMENT
vate his cohorts, Brutus had to rely upon money. Sensing and ORIGEN. He pursued an allegorical interpretation of
that this would keep his men loyal for just so long, he Jewish literature, especially the Old Testament, present-
decided to give battle. Octavian recovered some of his ing Judaism to the Hellenic world in terms of mainly Pla-
honor as he and his troops stood firm against the enemy. tonic philosophy. Greek and Jewish philosophical ideas
Antony then routed the demoralized Republicans. Bru- were thus combined. Many of his writings, complex and
tus escaped with only four legions, leaving thousands of numerous, are extant.
prisoners behind. A short time later he committed sui-
cide. So died the “noblest of the Romans” and, with him, Philopater I (first century B.C.E.) King of Cilicia
the Republic. The son of Tarcondimotus I, Philopater was a minor ruler
sponsored by Pompey and Julius Caesar. Philopater suc-
Philippus, Flavius (d. 351 C.E.) Praetorian prefect of ceeded Tarcondimotus when he fell at ACTIUM in 31
Orientis from 344 to 351 B.C.E., fighting for Antony. Philopater tried to give his
For many years a reliable agent of Emperor CONSTANTIUS allegiance to Augustus but was deposed; Cilicia passed
II, Philippus was the son of a sausage maker but learned to into Roman hands and in 20 B.C.E., Tarcondimotus II,
read and write, mastered shorthand and entered imperial Philopater’s brother, was installed as the ruler.
s e rvice as a notarius (see NOTARII). By 344, possibly
through the influence of eunuchs at court, he was made Philopater II (d. 17 C.E.) King of Cilicia
praetorian prefect. In the name of Constantius he deposed Probably the son of Tarcondimotus II, Philopater II a
the orthodox bishop of Constantinople, Paul, deporting minor client-ruler of Cilicia in the early first century C.E.
him before putting him to death in Armenia. In place of Upon the demise of Philopater, most of the kingdom
Paul, Philippus placed the Arian prelate Macedonius. In favored annexation by Rome, a wish that was granted.
348 he toured Bithynia and held a consulship. To observe
the disposition of forces by MAGNENTIUS, the usurper, philosophy The history of Roman philosophy began in
Philippus was sent by Constantius to negotiate a peace 155 B.C.E. with the arrival in the Eternal City of an Athe-
settlement in 351. He spoke to Magnentius’s troops, nian embassy composed of three eminent Greek intellec-
charging them with disloyalty to the House of Constan- tuals: the Academic Carneades (214–129 B.C.E.), the Stoic
tine. As retribution, Magnentius refused him permission Diogenes, and the Peripatetic Critolaus. Carneades aston-
to leave. Philippus died in custody. Constantius at first ished his Roman hosts with his feats of forensic prowess,
believed Philippus a traitor but, learning of his speech, including the skill of the Sophists to be able to represent
restored his reputation and erected statues in his honor. either side of an argument with equal conviction. Of par-
ticular note were the many young Romans who flocked to
Philippus, Lucius Marcius (fl. first century B.C.E.) hear his lectures, marking a decisive moment in the
Consul in 56 B.C.E. and stepfather of Emperor Augustus embrace by the Romans of Hellenic philosophy.
Philippus married the widow Atia and thus became the
surrogate father of the young Octavian. Any influence he ROMAN PAGAN PHILOSOPHY
may have had with the lad was offset by Julius Caesar’s
interest in Octavian. Philippus was apparently opposed to Traditionally, the Romans had a deep mistrust of the Hel-
lenes and took to philosophy only slowly and reluctantly.

428 ph
 i
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 o
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 o
 p
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 y
 intensely concerned with Stoic morality, although his
own ethical system did not prevent him from continuing
The influx of philosophers was opposed by elements in the persecution and execution of Christians, in large
the more traditional and conservative Roman establish- measure because he saw Christianity as baneful for soci-
ment. Cato the Censor, for example, made an effort in the ety and the state. Stoicism’s influence was felt, however,
early third century B.C.E. to have all of the Greek philoso- even among early Christian philosophers.
phers banned from the city and prohibited from ever
returning. The campaign against the Greeks was not sup- Established as a reaction to the strict moral and ethi-
ported by the majority of Romans, and philosophy cal system of the Stoics, the Epicureans placed pleasure as
became a permanent aspect of Roman life in the centuries the essential requirement of happiness, although Epicu-
to follow. The backlash nevertheless helps to explain why rus (341–270 B.C.E.) argued that he was never a selfish
the serious study and application of traditional Greek hedonist. The Epicureans thus declared that while every
philosophy was undertaken only from the time of CICERO pleasure was good on its own account, not every pleasure
and VARRO in the first century B.C.E. has to be pursued. Equally, they believed that humans do
not have to avoid every pain, even if every pain is evil.
Cicero was the first truly notable Roman philosopher Additionally, the Epicureans later developed theories per-
and remained arguably Rome’s foremost practitioner. He taining both to physics and to logic and emphasized
was also the prime exemplar in the Roman world of the human freedom over the Stoic tendencies toward fate.
influence of Hellenism on the Romans and the flourish- For these reasons, Epicureanism found a wide following
ing of the so-called New Academy. The Old Academy had among the sensualist Romans and among those who saw
been founded by Plato and lasted until the fourth century the importance of the innate human pursuit of happiness.
B.C.E. The Middle Academy survived throughout the
third and second centuries B.C.E., and the New Academy Finally, the Cynics were never organized into any-
was established around 100 B.C.E. and survived until 529 thing approaching a formal school, such as the Stoics and
C.E., when it was closed forever by Emperor Justinian. Epicureans, but they nevertheless enjoyed wide public
popularity in late first century C.E. Rome. The Cynics
The New Academy was characterized by its eclecticism were founded upon the principles laid down by Diogenes
in the way that it utilized Platonism, elements of Aristotle, of Sinope (including the attainment of happiness by
Stoicism, and other schools. For Cicero, it was important meeting human needs in the easiest, most simple means
to overcome the influence of Carneades and his application possible), although many Cynics preferred giving credit
of skepticism. The solution to skepticism, which questions to Antisthenes. They achieved considerable influence in
the reliability of knowledge, for Cicero was the formation the third century B.C.E. and then faded until a marked
of a consensus gentium, the common belief of the people, revival in the first century C.E. Dio Cassius noted the
which would permit moral and ethical certainty. large numbers of Cynics in Rome during the reign of Ves-
pasian. They troubled the Flavian establishment with
The Eclectic School exemplified by Cicero was only their calls for austerity and rejection of all social conven-
one of several philosophical schools that flourished from tions and were subsequently banished from the city by
the middle of the first century to 225 C.E., the founding exasperated emperors. The chief representatives of the
date of NEOPLATONISM. The chief schools of this period Cynics during this period were DEMETRIUS THE CYNIC,
were NEO-PYTHAGOREANISM, STOICISM, EPICUREANISM, and DEMONAX, and Oenomaus of Gadara. The movement
the CYNICS. declined steadily throughout the second century C.E. but
remained in existence until at least the sixth century.
Neo-Pythagoreanism was most represented among
the Romans by Nigidius Figulus. While never a formally THE RISE OF
organized school, it exercised considerable influence on CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY
the academy, on the Neoplatonists, and even on the later
Christian mystics. The Pythagoreans evidenced a tradi- Christian philosophy emerged out of the desire of Chris-
tional fascination with numbers, but they also developed tian writers and theologians to begin the process of
an intense interest in magic, mysticism, and the study of expressing their faith in rational terms and so defend it
the transcendence of God. against contemporary philosophies. In this sense, the
works of early Christian philosophers must be distin-
The Stoics of the Late Stoa flourished during the first guished clearly from their theological writings, as philos-
centuries of the Roman Empire and claimed three signifi- ophy was not supported—as was religion—by claims of
cant Roman adherents: SENECA (3 B.C.E.–65 C.E.), EPICTE- the facts of revelation. In its broad terms, the rise of
TUS (60–117 C.E.), and especially Emperor MARCUS Christian philosophy is divided into two main eras: the
AURELIUS (121–180 C.E.). Influenced by Heraclitus, the patristic (extending from the first to the eighth centuries)
“Weeping Philosopher” (c. 544–484 B.C.E.), the Stoics and the scholastic (from the ninth to the 14th centuries).
placed much stress on morality. The writings of Seneca The patristic era was itself divided into three main peri-
demonstrate this, with their focus on the moral depravity ods: the pre-Augustinian, the Augustinian, and the post-
of Rome during the reigns of Emperors Claudius and Augustinian.
Nero. Likewise, Epictetus authored a compendium on
Stoic morality, the Moral Enchiridion, edited by his stu-
dent, Flavius Arrianus. Marcus Aurelius was also

The pre-Augustinian period encompassed the most Phoebe 429
formative years of Christian thought, from the Apostolic
Age to the rise of ST. AUGUSTINE (354–430) in the late Suggested Readings: Annas, Julia. Ancient Philosophy: A
fourth century. It included the writings of the first apolo- Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
gists, JUSTIN MARTYR (105–165) and TERTULLIAN (160– 2000; Clark, Stephen R. L. From Athens to Jerusalem: The
230); the polemists, such as the Pastor of Hermas (sec- Love of Wisdom and the Love of God. New York: Oxford
ond century); the Catechetical Schools of Alexandria and University Press, 1984. Copleston, Frederick. A History of
Antioch; and the first of the so-called church fathers, Philosophy. Vols. 1–2. New York: Image Books, 1985.
GREGORY OF NYSSA (d. c. 395). Kaufmann, Walter, and Forrest E. Baird, eds. Philosophic
Classics. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1994;
Such was his towering intellect and influence, that Kingsley, Peter. Ancient Philosophy, Mystery, and Magic:
St. Augustine not only established a rich and enduring Empedocles and Pythagorean Tradition. Oxford: Clarendon
theological system for Christianity but a detailed philo- Press, 1995; Walsh, Martin J. A History of Philosophy. Lon-
sophical structure as well. His wide-ranging philosophi- don: G. Chapman, 1985; Wedberg, Anders. A History of
cal interests—put to use always to advance Christian Philosophy. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982.
thought—were encapsulated by his famous maxim, Credo
ut intelligam (I believe that I may understand). He exam- Philostorgius (c. 368–439 C.E.) Ecclesiastical historian
ined the questions of faith and reason, ontology, the and follower of Arius
senses and the intellect, freedom, and grace, the nature of Philostorgius who came from Cappadocia. He became
evil, the origin of the soul, and the philosophy of history. an ardent admirer of the Arian bishop of Cyzicus,
He relied heavily upon Platonic philosophy for his own Eunomius and this influence colored all of his subse-
system, as seen in his reliance upon eternal truths (which quent writings while he lived in Constantinople. As a
are closely associated with Plato’s subsistent ideas), but historian, Philostorgius continued the work of EUSEBIUS
he deviated sharply from Plato in that eternal truths did OF CAESAREA with a History of the Church. Covering
not rest in themselves but in God. The way in which the years from around 300 to 425, the history viewed
Augustine’s philosophy was centered in God was clear in Christianity from an Arian perspective and thus sur-
his proclamation in the Confessiones (Confessions): Inqui- vived only in fragments and in an epitome by Photius,
etum est cor nostrum, donec requiescat in te (Our heart is who was very disrespectful of Philostorgius and his
restless until it rests in you). His philosophy was less views. Of value were the sources used by Philostorgius
rationalistic than those of his successors (most notably as well as his (biased) views of the leading figures of
St. Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century), but he ARIANISM.
remained the most influential and widely read Christian
philosopher for over a thousand years. Philostratus, Flavius (fl. early third century C.E.)
Writer and rhetorician
The post-Augustinian period of patristic philosophy Philostratus was from a wealthy family of Sophists in
included some of the last philosophers of the Roman Lemnos, an island off the coast of Mysia. Philostratus
Empire in the West. Perhaps the best known writer of pursued the career of sophistry. After teaching at Athens
this time was Anicius Manlius Boethius (d. 524), who he journeyed to Rome where his reputation brought him
was the chief source of information on Greek and Roman to the attention of JULIA DOMNA, wife of Septimius
philosophy during the first centuries of the Middle Ages. Severus. She was filling the imperial court with every
His chief work, De consolatione philosophiae (On the Con- intellectual that she could find, and Philostratus thus
solation of Philosophy), examined the questions of God, became a member of her inner circle. He was an author of
evil, and personal freedom. It included his famous obser- numerous works, the two most important being The Lives
vation that God is “better than which nothing can be of the Sophists and the Life of Apollonius of Tyana. The lat-
imagined,” a phrase used subsequently by St. Anselm in ter was written in eight books, sometime between 208
the rise of Scholastic philosophy. Other Christian and 210, probably under the influence of Julia Domna.
philosophers of the patristic period included Pseudo- Philostratus created such a carefully drawn, sympathetic,
Dionysius, Cassiodorus (d. c. 580), and Isidore of Seville and laudatory biography that over the next years Apollo-
(d. 636). nius was held up by pagans and anti-Christians as a
counterinfluence to the Gospels.
See also AMMONIUS SACCAS; AMBROSE; APOLLONIUS OF
TYANA; APULEIUS; ARIUS; ARRIA; ARRIAN; ATHANASIUS; BA- Phoebe (fl. late first century C.E.) Freedwoman of Julia
SILIDES; CALCIDIUS; CELSUS; CHRISTIANITY; CHRYSANTHIUS; (3), daughter of Emperor Augustus
CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA; CLEMENT OF ROME; CORNUTUS, Phoebe acted as a confidante and was thus privy to many
LUCIUS; EPICUREANISM; HYPATIA; IAMBLICHUS; JULIAN THE of Julia’s adulteries. When the scandal over Julia’s behav-
APOSTATE; KANUS, JULIUS; LONGINUS, CASSIUS; ORIGEN; PAN- ior erupted in the court in 2 B.C.E., Phoebe killed herself
TAENUS; PLOTINUS; PORPHYRY; PRISCUS; PRISCUS, HELVIDIUS; to avoid punishment.
PROCLUS; RUFUS, MUSONIUS; SOPATER; THEMISTIUS; THRASEA
PAETUS; and VICTORINUS, MARIUS.