Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire - 667 pages.

230 Gallia Cisalpina Gallia Cisalpina and formed two distinct areas within it:
Gallia Transpadana to the north of the river and Gallia
Ebel, Charles. Transalpine Gaul: The Emergence of a Cispadana to the south.
Roman Province. Leiden: Brill, 1976; Drinkwater, J. F.
Roman Gaul: The Three Provinces, 58 B.C.–A.D. 260. Ithaca, Gallia Narbonensis Originally called Gallia Trans-
N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983; King, Anthony. alpina; one of the four large provinces of Gaul (GALLIA),
Roman Gaul and Germany. Berkeley: University of Califor- along with Gallia Aquitania, Lugdunensis, and Belgica. It
nia Press, 1990; Van Dam, Raymond. Leadership and was the oldest and most important Roman possession in
Community in Late Antique Gaul. Berkeley: University of Gaul. The province was bordered by the Pyrenees, the
California Press, 1985. Mediterranean, the provinces of Tres Galliae, the Alps, and
the Rhine. In the earliest days of Roman expansion, Gallia
Gallia Cisalpina Name given to the region of north- Transalpina attracted Rome’s attention, especially with its
ern Italy and in use for centuries prior to the foundation Greek colony at MASSILIA and its prime location between
of the Roman Empire. Geographically, Gallia Cisalpina Italy and the growing Roman possessions in Spain. The
was surrounded by GALLIA NARBONENSIS, the Alps, Raetia, need for stable lines of communication, protection of the
Noricum, and Illyricum to the west, north, and east. To trade with the Gallic and Helvetian tribes, and its sheer
the south were the Italian sections of Etruria and Umbria. financial potential, prompted annexation around 121
Traditional dividing lines between the territory and the B.C.E. From that time until the fifth century C.E., Gallia
other provinces were the Alps and the famed RUBICON Narbonensis was a permanent and reliable territory.
River, marking the beginning of Italy proper.
A small degree of Romanization was felt during the
Gallia Cisalpina was originally the home of the initial years of occupation, but not enough to reduce the
Etruscans and other Italian peoples, most notably the importance of Hellenic Massilia or to warrant compar-
Umbrians and Ligurians. They were expelled by the isons with Spain, which bore a deep Italian imprint.
Gauls, who desired their land because of its natural Julius CAESAR, who arrived in 58 B.C.E., began the real
beauty and fertility but were in turn subdued by the cultural transformation of the land, called in his own
Romans in the third and second centuries B.C.E. Hence- annals simply “the province.” He launched his GALLIC
forth, Gallia Cisalpina was a province under Roman con- WARS from there and not only founded new colonies that
trol, but its tribes, such as the Taurini, Cenomani, and would become major metropolises but also resurrected
Insubres, were not fully mastered for some years. any older colonies that had declined.

When final Roman mastery was achieved, the The colony of NARBO, formed probably under the
implantation of colonies commenced. The sense of for- Gracchi in the late second century B.C.E., was given a
eignness could be removed quickly, and the province new breath of life. Other new coloniae (COLONIES) , formed
remained part of the strategic line of defense, protecting with stout veterans and artisans, were FORUM JULIUM (Fre-
Italy from invasion; Cisalpine, aided by Gallia Trans- jus) and ARLES. AUGUSTUS carried on Caesar’s policies but
alpina (Narbonensis) and Illyricum, formed a strong cor- also expanded and improved upon them. As part of his
ridor of provincial safety. When Julius CAESAR received reorganization of the Roman Empire, he declared the
his five-year commission to govern the Gallic world, province a senatorial possession, under the administrative
included in his command were these three holdings. The concern of a proconsul. Gallia Narbonensis flowered both
great general himself wintered in Gallia Cisalpina each as an economic entity and as a unique transplant of Roman
year so as to remain alert to Italian and Roman political culture and lifestyle. The capital was Narbo, to which were
developments. In 50 B.C.E., when he had finished his added many new cities and colonies, especially in the
GALLIC WARS and was marching on Rome, it was through Rhone Valley. The old Greek and Celtic ways surrendered
this region that he went. The boundary of the Rubicon to the new, in return for the benefits that Rome offered.
then assumed momentous importance. Native communities, most importantly Nîmes (Nemausus),
first received municipal status and Latin rights (IUS LATII)
Throughout the CIVIL WARS of the First and Second and finally full colonial privileges. Arles, Orange (Arausio),
Triumvirates, Gallia Cisalpina was the scene of troop Vienne, and Vaison were only a few of the Roman-trans-
movements and political appointments. BRUTUS ALBINUS formed cities, joined by Ruscino (Roussillon), Aquae Sex-
received the province to govern in 44 B.C.E., but he was tiae (Aix), and Avennio (Avignon). Latin emerged as the
delayed in taking up his post because of his participation language of government and preference. Roman and Italian
in Caesar’s assassination. When he did finally try to architecture dominated, and the Latin community and
assume command, Marc ANTONY involved him in battles local system of government replaced the Celtic cantons.
around Mutina, and he later died. In the agreements of Gallia Narbonensis surpassed Spain in assimilation.
the Second Triumvirate, Octavian (AUGUSTUS) held
Cisalpine Gaul until after Actium, in 31 B.C.E., when he Being very Mediterranean in climate and environ-
became emperor. In 25 B.C.E., as part of his general reor- ment, the province produced fruits in abundance. Agri-
ganization of the Roman world, Augustus declared Italy culture was the mainstay of the local economy, with
to be a special province and placed Gallia Cisalpina
within its jurisdiction. Of note, the Po Valley bisected

wines of high quality and excellent olives. There were Gallic Wars 231
cereals as well. Its pottery, made by skilled artisans, trav-
eled throughout the world. Even the regional trade was Caesar had been largely responsible for the rise of this
enhanced by the improvement of the Rhone Valley water- political union, Pompey was considered the greater gen-
ways and the continued development of the Roman eral and the foremost politician. Caesar recognized that,
ROADS. just as Pompey had attained power and fame by subduing
and claiming the East, he too needed to find glory in the
While incentives and Romanization played major field. His eyes turned to Gaul.
roles in the continued vitality of Gallia Narbonensis, it
benefited from centuries of peace. No invasion or major Marius, his uncle, had defeated the marauding tribes
disaster came to its precincts from the time of Augustus in the provinces of GALLIA CISALPINA and Gallia
until the fourth century C.E. Only the economic collapse Transalpina. Furthermore, from Gaul he would always be
of the empire in the third century C.E. and the chaotic capable of marching immediately to Italy in times of cri-
state of the Western lands in the fourth and fifth cen- sis and could be apprised of news from Rome. Thus, in
turies opened up the province to occupation and destruc- 59 B.C.E., a tribune of Caesar’s own party, Vatinius, made
tion. Then, with its defenses stripped away, ATHAULF took the proposal to the Senate that Caesar be granted the gov-
control in 415 and ravaged much of northern Narbonen- ernorship of ILLYRICUM, Gallia Cisalpina and Gallia
sis on his way through Aquitania and into Tarraconensis. Transalpina for five years. At his disposal were a quaestor,
In the subsequent disintegration of the imperial machine, 10 legates and four legions. With this army, totaling
the province received the same treatment as other lands around 35,000 men, the general set out to make history.
at the hands of a multitude of conquerors.
In his account of the Gallic Wars, Caesar wrote that
Such catastrophes were many years in the future Gaul was divided by three: the Belgae, the Aquitani, and
when Augustus became emperor, and Gallia Narbonensis the Celtae tribes, different from each other in language,
not only earned a reputation for wine but also achieved government, and laws. Early in 58 B.C.E., these tribes
actual fame for its local citizens. In the first century C.E., were threatened by the Helvetii, the people of HELVETIA
there were Domitius AFER and MONTANUS, ASIATICUS, and (modern Switzerland), who were on the march in vast
the Praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius BURRUS. In the sec- numbers toward southern Gaul, as part of a wider pattern
ond century, the province achieved its highest moment of migration and resettlement. Gathering together all
when ANTONINUS PIUS, born to a family from Nîmes, available troops, Caesar surprised the advancing horde at
ascended the throne in 138. By the end of the century his the ARAR River. A battle followed, in which some 30,000
native city was the foremost center of provincial life, Helvetii were annihilated. In July of that year another
replacing Narbo, which never recovered from a fire (c. engagement took place at BIBRACTE; the Helvetians struck
150). Antoninus Pius epitomized Pliny the Elder’s com- first, but they were repulsed, pushed back into their
ment that Gallia Narbonensis and Italy were one and the camp, and massacred. Some 130,000 to 150,000 men,
same. women, and children were slain. Only 110,000 Helve-
tians were left to begin the long march home, and Caesar
Gallia Transalpina See GALLIA NARBONENSIS. noted that he had earned the acclaim of Gaul’s many
chieftains.
Gallicus, Julius (fl. mid-first century C.E.) Orator
(Advocatus) during the reign of Claudius By August Caesar turned his attentions to another
In 53 C.E. Gallicus was defending a case before the foreign threat, this time from the Germanic King ARIOVIS-
emperor with such vigor that Claudius became angry and TUS. In modern Alsace, Ariovistus and his warriors were
had him thrown into the Tiber. When one of Gallicus’s conducting a campaign of terror among the local tribes,
clients, seeking a new legal representative, went to the especially the AEDUI and the AVERNI. Caesar wished for no
famous speaker AFER for help, Afer responded: “Who told other masters in Gaul and accepted a Gallic request for
you that I could swim better than he?” assistance. Only one battle was necessary, and Ariovistus
was thrown across the Rhine, having lost most of his
Gallic Wars Conflicts between the Roman LEGIONS army. Satisfied that external problems were eased, Caesar
under the command of Julius CAESAR and the many tribes entered winter quarters to plan his next move.
of Gaul (GALLIA); waged between 58 and 51 B.C.E. These
wars demonstrated the genius of Julius Caesar, the skills The year 57 B.C.E. began with disturbing news from
of the legions, the indomitable spirit of the Gauls and the Gallia Belgica. Local tribes had risen and were united
damage that could be inflicted on cities, territories, and into a strong anti-Roman coalition. To prevent their
entire populations in Rome’s drive to world domination. movement out of Belgica, which would promote a
widespread rebellion in the region, the legions were
In 60 B.C.E., the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE was formed ordered to march. The Romans pushed into Belgica in
among Caesar, POMPEY THE GREAT, and CRASSUS. Although late spring, defeating an army at AXONA under King
GALBA (1). This victory, however, was not enough to con-
vince the other people of Belgica about Roman superior-
ity, and the Nervii ambushed Caesar at SABIS in July; a
bitter, bloody battle took place until legionary discipline

232 Gallienus, Publius Licinius Egnatius once back in Belgica, Caesar pursued and harried the
Gauls into submission, driving Ambiorix from the region.
won out. Following up on his triumph, Caesar besieged
and captured the important city of ADUATUCA, ending all As soon as one Gallic chieftain was vanquished, how-
effective resistance in Gallia Belgica. The BELGAE had ever, another appeared. Throughout late 53 B.C.E., the
lived up to Caesar’s description of them as the greatest leader of the Averni, VERCINGETORIX, prepared his army,
warriors in Gaul. supplied it, trained it, and used discipline and organiza-
tion to make it formidable. At the start of 52 B.C.E. he
Caesar rested in Gallia Cisalpina for the winter and struck, knowing that Caesar was in Italy. By the time the
early in 56 B.C.E. set out against the tribes of western general returned, he faced hostile country between him
Gaul. The VENETI of Armorica (modern Brittany) fell and Labienus, to the north near LUTETIA (Paris). Pushing
under assault while Publius CRASSUS subdued AQUITANIA. ahead, Caesar swept the field, taking Villaunodonum
A sea battle between BRUTUS ALBINUS and the ships of the Cenabum (ORLEANS), and Noviodonum.
Veneti helped seal Armorica’s fate. Crassus was also
successful, joined by Titurius SABINUS, who had seized A siege of AVARICUM netted Caesar a brilliant victory.
Normandy by vanquishing the Venelli. These notable However, his momentum was lost in May, when he hur-
achievements symbolized the near total ownership of riedly tried to capture GERGOVIA, the capital of the
Gaul by the Romans, but they were offset by Caesar’s Averni, and suffered defeat and an enforced withdrawal.
inability to pacify two tribes of Belgica, the Morini and Labienus was able to extricate himself from the north,
the Menapii. Hampered by foul weather and the on- uniting with Caesar as he was making countermoves.
slaught of winter, Caesar contented himself with the Caesar swung into the Aedui and then punished
destruction of their villages, forests, and fields before Vercingetorix at Vingeanne. Unable to rout the Romans,
going into winter quarters. the Gauls retired to ALESIA to await a siege. From July to
the fall of 52 B.C.E., Caesar conducted a masterful opera-
Further steps to establish Roman rule over the reign tion in siege warfare enduring massive sorties from
were delayed because of a major crisis in 55 B.C.E. Ger- within the city and from outside forces. Starving,
manic tribes, the USIPETES and the Tencteri, pushed by Vercingetorix surrendered. Caesar accepted the submis-
the stronger SUEBI, crossed the Rhine and tried to settle in sion of the Aedui and the Averni, effectively ending all
Gaul along the Meuse River. Perhaps half a million Ger- Gallic resistance. In another year, the entire region was
mans were living in the area, and Caesar, facing a poten- pacified and given the new name of Gallia Comata.
tial crisis of staggering importance, first tried to negotiate
with them, in vain. When war ensued, Caesar allowed his For nearly eight years Julius Caesar fought the peo-
soldiers to wipe out the tribes, slaughtering hundreds of ple of Gaul. He was responsible for the deaths of as many
thousands. Those who survived asked to be placed under as one million people, furthering the spread of Roman
his protection. might and prestige. So thoroughly did he accomplish his
task that, with the exception of a few notable rebellions
To impress upon the Germans the futility of crossing (see CIVILIS and VINDEX), the vast region of Gaul became
the Rhine, Caesar constructed a large bridge over the one of the most loyal in the empire.
river in June of that year. He then ordered his men across
to intimidate the people on the other side. This demon- Caesar’s own commentary, The Gallic Wars, is the
stration ended, Caesar started his invasion of Britain (BRI- most detailed account of the campaign.
TANNIA), returning to Gaul to maintain a watch on the
increasingly mutinous nations there. Gallienus, Publius Licinius Egnatius (d. 268 C.E.)
Emperor from 253 to 268
Logistical problems and food shortages forced the Gallienus ruled the Roman Empire during an era of politi-
legions in Gaul to winter in eight scattered camps. This cal, military, and social crisis. The son of VALERIAN, he was
strategic error invited the Gallic communities to rebel. living in Rome at the time of his father’s accession in 253
AMBIORIX, leader of the Eburones, organized around and received the title of Caesar from the Senate after it
100,000 men and launched an assault against Titurius confirmed Valerian as the new emperor. He was elevated
Sabinus near Aduatuca. In the subsequent conflict, Sabi- to Augustus or coruler when his father reached Rome
nus was destroyed, and the Gauls moved against Quintus later in the year. While Valerian labored to restore order in
Cicero but were repulsed. Caesar marched into Belgica, the East, Gallienus worked from 254 to 260 to bolster the
forced a battle on unequal terms and suppressed sagging West, fighting with the GOTHS, CARPI, Germans,
Ambiorix. Meanwhile, his lieutenant LABIENUS defended MARCOMANNI, QUADI, FRANKS, and ALAMANNI along a wide
his camp and repelled Indutiomarus. He then joined Cae- frontier that stretched from the Rhine to the Danube.
sar as the Roman troops united to face what was antici-
pated as a vaster revolt the following year. Word then arrived in 259–260 that Valerian had been
defeated and captured by the Persian King SHAPUR I. Gal-
At the start of 53 B.C.E., all Gaul erupted. Caesar lienus was unable to respond, while Valerian was humili-
decided to take the war to the enemy, and with some 10 ated and tortured to death. The ensuing political chaos
legions crushed the NERVII, Senones, Carnutes, Menapii, gave birth to usurpers in every corner of the empire,
and the TREVERI. Another sortie over the Rhine convinced
the Suebi to curb any impulse toward entering the fray;

including one INGENUUS, the governor of PANNONIA, who Gallus, Appius Annius 233
was put down and killed by Gallienus himself, aided by
his cavalry commander, AUREOLUS. REGALIANUS, governor (51–52 C.E.) and presided over the famous trial of St.
of Upper Pannonia, revolted next and his elimination was PAUL in CORINTH, uttering the line that he “cared for none
followed by the rise of General POSTUMUS in Gaul. Postu- of these things” (Acts, 18.12). In 65, following the death
mus besieged Gallienus’s heir SALONINUS at COLOGNE, of his brother, Gallio was accused of conspiracies and
forcing him to surrender and then putting him to death. denounced by Salienus Clemens. Although acquitted, he
Gallienus could not respond because of his own wounds received only a temporary reprieve.
and the exhausted state of his legions. The rebellions of
the general in the East, MACRIANUS, and his sons were Gallus, Aelius (fl. late first century B.C.E.) Prefect of
ended by ODAENATH of PALMYRA, who proved an able and Egypt during the reign of Augustus (27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.)
reliable friend of Rome, fighting for years to push back Most noted for his unsuccessful expedition to conquer
the Persian menace from SYRIA, ARMENIA, and MESO- the country of ARABIA Felix in 25 B.C.E., Gallus’s had
POTAMIA. hoped to establish Roman dominion over all of Arabia
and use it as a powerful and financially rewarding base of
The Goths and the Heruli entered imperial territory, trade between Egypt and the Far East. He received per-
ravaging Asia Minor and Greece in 267. In 268, Gallienus mission from Augustus and made his preparations,
met and destroyed most of the HERULI at Naissus, only to launching his campaign from the Suez-area city of Arsi-
find out that behind him, at Mediolanum (Milan), his noe. Delays of various sorts hampered progress, and it
lieutenant Aureolus had taken the city and had declared was not until early 24 B.C.E. that Gallus and his force of
himself emperor. Gallienus’s position was precarious, some 10,000 men actually started out. The march
because Aureolus commanded an elite cavalry force through the desert was terrible, even with the help of the
formed with the express intention of defeating the bar- king of the Nabateans, a Roman ally named Aretas. Ara-
barians. Aided by his generals, Gallienus besieged Aureo- bia Felix stretched on and on, and after reaching the
lus, but conspiracies developed, and in 268 he was major city of Mariba, Gallus had to retreat because of a
assassinated by his Praetorian Prefect Heraclianus and a lack of water. He admitted defeat and marched home to
group of officers including AURELIAN and CLAUDIUS II Alexandria to find that in his absence the Ethiopians had
GOTHICUS, who both would become emperors. attacked southern Egypt. Some good came from the cam-
paign, however, for the natives of Arabia Felix soon
For 15 years Gallienus was involved in incessant war- established relations with Rome, impressed by Gallus’s
fare, trying to stem the tide of disaster and decline. At his audacity.
death the Roman Empire was little more secured. Odae-
nath was killed in 267, and his realm fell into the hands of Gallus, Appius Annius (fl. mid-first century C.E.)
his ambitious wife, ZENOBIA. Postumus controlled Gaul, General who distinguished himself in the campaigns of the
and the frontiers were precarious. Economically, the year 69 C.E.
provinces suffered from a debasement of currency. The Annius Gallus joined the cause of OTHO, who had helped
sources, most notably the Scriptores Historiae Augustae, to murder Galba and then succeeded him on the throne.
treated his reign with contempt. Nonetheless, the achieve- The legate was given immediate opportunity to display
ments of his reign included an end to the persecution of his loyalty, being sent to northern Italy by Otho, with
Christians begun by his father, the development of a Vestricius Spurinna and a large forward guard, to defend
formidable cavalry and a patronage of culture and the arts. against the advancing legions from the Rhine who sup-
ported VITELLIUS. While Spurinna held Placentia, Gallus
Gallio, Junius (d. 32 C.E.) Senator moved across the Po with several contingents and took
Reputed in his time to be a brilliant speaker, Gallio was up a defensive position around Mantua. He was thus free
an associate of Lucius Aelius SEJANUS but survived the to aid Spurinna when the Vitellian general, A. Alienus
bloody fall of the prefect in 31. However, in 32 he made Caecina, tried to storm Placentia. Gallus was little
an ill-advised suggestion concerning the Praetorian needed, for the defense of that city was fierce.
Guard and was accused of treason against Tiberius. Tem-
porarily exiled to Lesbos, Gallio was returned to Rome By April the armies of Otho and Vitellius were
and placed under permanent imprisonment. The writer maneuvering for strategic advantage, and Gallus prepared
Quintilian mentions him but criticizes his oratorical skill. his men to march to the main camp at BEDRIACUM. A fall
from a horse impaired him, however, and he was unable
Gallio, Lucius Annaeanus Junius (d. c. 65 C.E.) Son to attend the final council of war personally. He sent a
of Seneca the Elder messenger with the advice to delay battle, as the Othoni-
Brother of the great philosopher SENECA THE YOUNGER, ans were seriously outnumbered. Gallus missed the battle
Annaeus Novatus was adopted by the senator and orator of Bedriacum on April 15, 69, but rode to the area after-
Junius Gallio. He held the proconsulship of ACHAEA ward to try and organize Otho’s shattered legions. He
could not prevent the emperor from committing suicide.

234 Gallus, Aulus Didius object of intense dislike on the part of Emperor Tiberius
for his decision to marry the emperor’s former wife, Vipsa-
After Vitellius came to power in Rome, Gallus tem- nia. Gallus first offended Tiberius by his determined calls
porarily disappeared from the public eye. Vitellius fell in for lavish funeral arrangements for the deceased emperor
December of 69, and Gallus was summoned by C. Augustus. Gallus then wed Vipsania (whom Tiberius had
Licinius Mucianus, the representative of the victor, VES- been forced to divorce in order to marry the adulterous
PASIAN. Mucianus asked for Gallus’s help, and he gave it. daughter of Augustus, Julia, and so secure his connection
Julius Civilis, a one-time Roman soldier and the leader of to the throne) and cultivated friendships with known ene-
the Batavi, had started a revolt on the Rhine. Gallus was mies of the emperor, most notably Agrippina the Elder.
sent with Petilius Cerealis to stamp out the rebellion; the
province of Germania Superior to be his command while Summoning Gallus to Capri in 30, Tiberius arrested
Cerealis had the tougher assignment of facing Civilis. him, put him in chains, and then placed him in prison.
Within months the tribes were subdued, and Gallus pos- For three years, Gallus was tormented and slowly starved
sessed the goodwill of the new Flavian regime. to death, finally dying sometime in 33. Tiberius then per-
mitted a decent funeral, commenting that he had not
Gallus, Aulus Didius (fl. mid-first century C.E.) Gov- been given a chance to try Gallus properly. According to
ernor of Britain (Britannia) from 51 to 57 C.E. Tacitus, Augustus had described Gallus as a man harbor-
Gallus first came to imperial attention around 41 C.E., ing ambitions for the throne but lacking in the intelli-
when Claudius used him to depose the unreliable ruler of gence necessary to achieve such a lofty position. Of
the Bosporus kingdom, Mithridates. Gallus was probably Gallus’s five sons, three became consuls of Rome.
the legate of Moesia at the time, and his garrison
remained until 49, when Mithridates tried unsuccessfully Gallus, Gaius Cornelius (70–26 B.C.E.) Poet, soldier,
to oust his successor, Cotys. In 51–52, Gallus was and the first prefect of Egypt
appointed to fill the position of the legate P. Ostorious Born in the town of Forum Julii, Gallus eventually
Scapula, who had died, probably of exhaustion. The new became a member of the Equestrian Order (EQUITES).
governor of Britain did little to improve upon the work of Early on he joined the cause of Octavian (AUGUSTUS) and
his predecessors, preferring to maintain the province’s received commands in the CIVIL WAR of the Second TRI-
status quo. His tenure of command was eventually UMVIRATE. He took over control of the Antonian legions
extended into 57, when he was replaced by Q. Veranius. of L. Pinarius Scarpus in 30 B.C.E., using them to march
on Egypt. Showing daring and initiative, Gallus took con-
Gallus, Cestius (d. c. 66 C.E.) Governor of Syria during trol of the city of Paraetonium, holding it against Marc
the early phases of the Jewish rebellion in 66 Antony and thus ensuring Octavian’s victory and the end
Cestius was sent to the East c. 65 to replace the famous of Cleopatra.
Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo as administrator of Syria.
While he controlled the legions of the province and had As a reward for his exploits and his friendship,
bureaucratic mastery over Judaea, his powers were limited Augustus appointed him the prefect of Egypt, a highly
when compared to those of his predecessor. That proved prized position. Noted for his merciless suppression of
unfortunate, as Gallus was unprepared to deal with the Egyptian opposition Gallus also erected statues of himself
impending crisis in Judaea, demonstrating his incompe- all over the new province and carved self-proclaiming
tence when approached during a visit to Jerusalem in 65 inscriptions at Philae and on the pyramids. Augustus
by Jewish leaders with complaints about the corrupt punished him for such ingratitude by refusing him
procurator of Judaea, Gessius Florus. friendship. Always eager to accommodate the emperor,
the Senate condemned him, and in 26 B.C.E., Gallus
The following year, the Jewish rebellion was killed himself. He was reportedly a long-time friend of
launched, and Gallus gathered the XII Legion and Virgil, once saving his estates from government seizure.
marched on Palestine. Reaching the gates of Jerusalem, Gallus was the first poet of Rome to adopt the Alexan-
Gallus realized too late his untenable strategic situation, drine style of erotic elegy. Written in honor of Lycoris or
as most of Judaea had overthrown Roman garrisons and Cytheris, the mistress of Marc Antony, Gallus’s poems
rule. The retreat deteriorated in the Judaean heat into a were widely read and admired by Virgil. Other friends
full rout, and Gallus hastened the full rebellion in the included Asinius Pollo and Ovid.
region. Gallus took steps to restore order in Galilee but
died soon after from illness or exhaustion. He was Gallus Caesar (Flavius Claudius Constantius Gal-
replaced by the future emperor Vespasian. lus) (c. 326–354 C.E.) Nephew of Emperor Constantine
the Great and half-brother of Julian
Gallus, Gaius Asinius (d. 33 C.E.) Senator and consul The son of Julius Constantius and Galla, Gallus grew up
in 8 B.C.E. amid the numerous palace intrigues synonymous with
The son of the famous orator C. Asinius Pollio, Gallus fol- the last years of CONSTANTINE’s reign. Because of poor
lowed his father’s style of blunt speaking and was the health, he was not included in the annihilation of the

palace family following the old emperor’s demise in 337. gardens 235
Surprised by his survival, the new rulers decided to send
him to Cappadocia, where he remained with JULIAN. In Emperor Marcus Opellius Macrinus. This teacher took
351, Constantius II needed a relative to serve in the East, command of the army, and on June 2, 218, personally
and Gallus was made Caesar with control over Antioch defeated what was left of Macrinus’s rapidly declining
and much of Syria and Palestine, while Constantius dealt forces. Just as he had done for most of Elagabalus’s young
with the troubles in the West. Ammianus Marcellinus life, Gannys assumed control of all matters of govern-
wrote of his cruelty and the endless spite and ambition of ment, working with the powerful matrons Julia Maesa
his wife, Constantia, sister of Constantius, whom he had and Julia Soaemias in a close manner. He lent a certain
been forced to marry. His outrages included the murder amount of stability to the emperor’s bizarre court, proving
of courtiers and the massacre of Antioch’s senate. Con- a capacity for efficient administration while the new ruler
stantius sent one of his generals, Domitianus, the Praeto- was in Bithynia. His capable fulfillment of his office,
rian Prefect of the East, to Antioch to ask Gallus to return however, alienated Elagabalus, who resented the severe
to Italy. When Domitianus treated the Caesar with little restrictions that his tutor put upon his actions and per-
respect, he was killed. Finally, in 354, Constantius lis- sonal habits. Elagabalus thus killed him, supposedly
tened to the warnings of his advisers. Gallus was brought delivering the first blow. From that point on the new
before constantius, tried, convicted, and executed. regime sank into dissipation.

Gamala Town in the Gaulanitis region of the Pales- Ganymedes (d. c. 48 B.C.E.) Egyptian eunuch who was
tinian district of GALILEE. It was situated in rugged hills, the tutor of a sister of Cleopatra, Arsinoe
and a tall, imposing fortress was built there. In 66 C.E., at When Julius Caesar arrived in Alexandria in late Septem-
the start of the great Jewish rebellion, Gamala remained ber of 48 B.C.E., he found the Egyptian kingdom torn
loyal to Rome through the efforts of the representative of apart by civil war between Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra,
King Herod Agrippa II, an officer named Philip. Eventu- his sister. During the subsequent palace intrigues, ARSI-
ally, however, the city fell into rebel hands, and in the fall NOE, the forgotten sibling, embarked upon her own plans
of 67, Vespasian stormed the city. The historian JOSEPHUS for seizing the throne. She enlisted the aid of the reliable
described in some detail the efforts to capture the walls of general Achillas and that of her own teacher, Ganymedes.
Gamala. Several attempts were necessary, but on Novem- Caesar was besieged in Alexandria, but Achillas was slain
ber 10, 67, the citadel fell, and Gamala’s population was by the ambitious princess. Ganymedes aided her in this
massacred. treachery. The instructor then took over the siege, dis-
playing a firm understanding of war. He destroyed Cae-
games See LUDI. sar’s water supply by pouring in sea water, fought a bitter
battle in the harbor against several Roman ships and very
Gannascus (d. c. 47 C.E.) A chief of the Chauci tribe nearly trapped Caesar on Pharos, the famed dictator hav-
In 47 C.E., Gannascus led a series of punitive raids into ing to jump for his life and swim to safety. Caesar, how-
GERMANIA Inferior. Gannascus had served in the auxil- ever, received reinforcements and, with Mithridates of
iaries of Rome but was now working against Roman dom- Pergamum, annihilated Ptolemy in the battle of the Nile.
ination of Germany. He amassed a large fleet of small, fast Alexandria fell, and Arsinoe with it. She was forced to
vessels and struck at Gaul, where the pacified Aedui were join Caesar’s triumph in Rome. Ganymedes was probably
easy prey. Domitius Corbulo arrived in Germania Inferior murdered.
determined to put an end to Gannascus and his activities.
The Roman general first unleashed a flotilla of triremes gardens The landscaped areas in Rome were divided
on the Rhine, quickly decimating the naval power of the into two categories: those created to fulfill a productive
CHAUCI. Unable to transport his warriors by water, Gan- purpose and those designed for pleasure and set on
nascus retreated. Corbulo then whipped his legions into estates, both private and public. In most farms and villas,
shape and used terror as a weapon, intimidating the garden produce helped feed the residents. Fruits and veg-
neighboring tribes and conniving with the Chauci to etables were grown, sometimes in such abundance or on
murder their leader in return for peace. He succeeded. plots so large that additional money could be made by
The death of Gannascus, however, earned Corbulo and selling produce at the local market. Vineyards and
Rome the eternal hatred of the Germans, who waited for orchards were very often sumptuous or aesthetically
the chance to exact vengeance. enhanced. More formal gardens were a legacy of the
Greeks, and the inventive Romans took the idea and
Gannys (d. after 218 C.E.) Tutor of Emperor Elagabalus improved upon it. There were small gardens attached to a
In June of 218, Gannys was instrumental in causing the house or villa, holding collections of trees, shrubs, and
legions of Syria to rise up in favor of ELAGABALUS against fountains. Public gardens were vaster examples of the
same, including fountains and other adornments. While
there were many gardens in Rome, some of the finest

236 Gardens of Antony Little is known of Gavius prior to 129 C.E., except that he
came from Picenum and was, as his career would attest, a
preserved examples are found in Campania, especially in member of the Equestrian Order (EQUITES). In 129,
POMPEII and in HERCULANEUM. Emperor HADRIAN appointed him procurator in Maureta-
nia Tingitana, a post that he maintained until circa 132,
See also entries on specific gardens. when he received the procuratorship in Asia. When
ANTONINUS PIUS succeeded Hadrian to the throne in 138,
Gardens of Antony A series of gardens situated along he elevated Gavius to the command of the PRAETORIAN
the Tiber River in Rome. They were very close to the GAR- GUARD, along with Marcus Mamertinus. His reception of
DENS OF CAESAR. the Praetorian leadership may have come earlier, but his
retirement was in 158, which was recorded as his 20th
Gardens of Asiaticus Name given to private gardens year of service. His position must have been one that
in Rome owned until 47 C.E. by Asiaticus. Situated on the involved more than the Praetorians, as his advisory skills
Pincian Hill, the gardens were first built by Lucius Lucul- were used by the emperor as well. From 143 on, however,
lus, the victor of the Mithradatic Wars (74–66 B.C.E.) and he had sole charge of the Guard. Upon his retirement,
were the first of their kind in Rome. The scale was vast, Gavius received full consular honors. Antoninus Pius
stretching along the Pincian’s southern slope with views continued Hadrian’s policy of enriching prefects with
of the CAMPUS AGRIPPA, CAMPUS MARTIUS, and Quirinal consulships and wealth. Gavius, however, was singled
Hill. Asiaticus purchased the gardens and set upon a per- out for attention. His tenure as prefect had been long,
sonal program of beautification. The collection of foun- given the dangers and the demands of the office.
tains, sculptures, trees, and shrubs was so stunning that
Empress Messallina, coveting the gardens, had Asiaticus Geiseric (d. 477 C.E.) The greatest king of the Vandals
accused of treason and forced to commit suicide. He from 428 to 477
ordered his pyre built in the midst of his trees, so situated In 428, the “King of the VANDALS and the Alans”—Gun-
as to cause no harm to any of them. Ironically, in 48 C.E., deric—died, leaving control of Spain and parts of the
Messallina fled to the grounds to escape from the Praeto- Mediterranean to his half-brother, Geiseric. This new
rian Guardsmen ordered to execute her for her repeated king proved a superb successor. The historian Jordanes
adulteries. She died surrounded by the same trees that wrote of him as intelligent, a man who hated luxury and
had borne witness to Asiaticus’s funeral. was highly adroit at predicting the intentions and the
actions of others. Born to a slave woman, he became
Gardens of Caesar These gardens were privately Gunderic’s half-brother, despite being partially lame from
owned by Julius Caesar but left to the citizens of Rome in falling off a horse, and eventually shared the throne of the
his will. They were located somewhere along the Tiber, Vandals. His accession could not have come at a worse
very close to the GARDENS OF ANTONY. In 32 C.E., Tiberius time. Internal struggles and political conflicts faced BONI-
made his entrance to Rome from the gardens, following FACE, the magister militum and count of AFRICA, who
the massacre of Lucius Aelius Sejanus. wrestled with Ravenna for power in the West and with
the Goths for supremacy in Africa. Despairing of any rea-
Gardens of Lucullus See GARDENS OF ASIATICUS. sonable solution, Boniface decided to ask Geiseric to
enter Africa and to maintain it as part of his realm. He
Gardens of Sallust The former Ludovisi Gardens, offered Geiseric half of the lands there.
purchased and redesigned by the historian SALLUST. The
gardens stood along the southern edge of the Pincian Hill Unable to resist such an opportunity, Geiseric
and included part of the Quirinal Hill as well. As they ordered his people across Spain and Gibraltar and swept
were near the equally lovely GARDENS OF ASIATICUS, the into Mauretania. With reckless abandon the army of the
Pincian came to be known as the Collis Hortorum or Col- Vandals pushed across Africa, destroying and burning
lis Hortulorum, the Hill of Gardens. According to Dio, everything in its path. Boniface instantly regretted his
Vespasian favored the gardens more than the palace and invitation. He tried to stop Geiseric but was defeated and
actually held most of his audiences there, particularly then besieged at Hippo throughout much of 430. Geiseric
with the Roman citizenry. In later years the Baths of Dio- crushed Boniface’s reinforcements, sent to the continent
cletian were constructed just south of the gardens, and under Aspar in 431. He took Hippo and furthered his
for centuries the Agger of Servius to the east was domi- conquest of Numidia, going all the way to Carthage, one
nated by the CASTRA PRAETORIA. of the last major cities left under imperial command.

Gaul See GALLIA. The war had been fought with brilliance, and the
Vandal king elected to consolidate his holdings. On
Gavius Maximus, Marcus (d. after 158 C.E.) Prefect of February 11, 435, he signed a treaty with the empire in
the Praetorian Guard and an important adviser to Emperor which he received total ownership of Mauretania and a
Antoninus Pius large slice of Numidia. Within five years he violated that

agreement and captured Hippo and Carthage in 439, set- Gemonian Stairs 237
ting off a series of wars that would last for 30 years. Geis-
eric created a large fleet and used it to menace the nelius Fronto. Rhetoric was taught to him by Antonius
commercial lanes of the East and West. Another treaty in Julianus, and Favorinus had a marked effect on his subse-
442 merely delayed the inevitable conflict. Around 455, quent development. Gellius then worked for the govern-
the Vandals broke all pacts and took the rest of Africa. ment in the judiciary before moving to Athens. There he
Unopposed, Geiseric broadened his ambitions and was tutored by Herodes Atticus, Peregrinus Proteus, and
answered the call for help from Empress Licinia EUDOXIA, Calvenus Taurus. He remained in Athens for one year
who was being menaced by Petronius Maximus, the before returning to Rome to take up a legal career, which
brief-reigning Western emperor. Although this plea was he apparently did not pursue. That he was married can be
probably an historical fiction, the Vandal king did sail deduced from his references to his children in the praefa-
with a host from his own capital at Carthage, and in early tio of the Noctes Atticae.
June 455 he entered Rome. After pillaging the city of
everything of value, the barbarians returned home with His life’s great work was begun perhaps in 160, while
Licinia Eudoxia and her two daughters, one of whom was he was still in Athens, and took many years to complete.
subsequently married to Geiseric’s son, Huneric. It was not published until sometimes between 175 and
180. Gellius’s Noctes was written to present information
Direct interference in the imperial succession soon on a variety of subjects, including law, grammar, philoso-
followed, as Geiseric demanded that the nobleman OLY- phy, history, and gossip. Its organization was deliberately
BRIUS, husband of Eudoxia’s second daughter, Placidia, be haphazard, divided into 20 books, of which 19 more or
placed on the Western throne. The emperor at Con- less have survived. Recalling his days in Athens, the work
stantinople, Leo, resolved to deal the Vandals a blow. A abounds with tales of Herodes Atticus. He also relied
large fleet was assembled in 468 at Constantinople under upon archaic authors to supply his material and pre-
the guidance of the incompetent Basiliscus. It was to sail served vast amounts of literature, both Latin and Greek,
and fight in conjunction with a second fleet from Italy. A that would otherwise have been lost. Later authors
three-pronged attack, using elements of both empires, used his collection, especially Nonius, Macrobius and
East and West, developed with some initial success, as Ammianus Marcellinus. Gellius was known even in the
the Vandals faced invasion from several directions at Middle Ages.
once. Geiseric’s military genius, however, coupled with
Basiliscus’s ineptness, ended Roman hopes. Through the Gemellus, Tiberius (d. 37 C.E.) Grandson of Emperor
use of fire ships and a favorable wind, Geiseric smashed Tiberius by Drusus (3) the Younger and Livilla
Basiliscus, driving his defeated vessels all the way to Italy. Tiberius Gemellus was never loved or liked by his grand-
The last great effort of the combined domains of the father, who considered him the product of LIVILLA’s adul-
Roman Empire had failed. Geiseric had beaten them tery, and was included in Tiberius’s loathing along with
both, and Leo was left close to bankruptcy. the sons of Germanicus. After 33 C.E., any hope for
improving relations between them was ended as GAIUS
While his position in Africa had been threatened by CALIGULA became Tiberius’s favorite. In a testament to the
the Roman assault, Geiseric emerged both victorious and old man’s cleverness, however, his will named both Gaius
solidly in place as ruler of the Vandal territories. His Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus as heirs to the throne.
domain received his attention then, as he sought to make Gaius Caligula, aided by the prefect of the Guard, Macro,
it whole and independent of the influences of both Rome had the will rescinded and assumed power by himself.
and Constantinople. He stripped his leading city of Tiberius Gemellus, still young, was politically impotent
Carthage, and indeed all of Africa, of its Roman character. but did eventually receive the toga virilis and the title
ARIANISM served as the religion of state and orthodox PRINCEPS IUVENTUTIS, marking him as the heir. The wors-
Christians suffered persecutions. The old African social ening mental condition of Caligula, however, made the
order was toppled, and a purely Vandal system of govern- lad’s death inevitable; in 37, Tiberius Gemellus was mur-
ment was adopted. His nation emerged as a potent politi- dered. Caligula’s excuse was that Tiberius had been taking
cal force, an economic power and a legitimate player in a preventative dose of poison, his breath smelled of it, so a
the political future of the Mediterranean. tribune of the Guard decapitated him, allegedly before he
could poison the emperor. The medicine was probably a
Gellius, Aulus (fl. second century C.E.) Grammarian, remedy for a nervous cough. Gaius had commented on it,
archaicist, and author of a collection of knowledge, the saying: “Can there be an antidote for Caesar?”
Noctes Atticae (Attic nights)
Gellius was born sometime around 130 C.E., but nothing Gemonian Stairs The Scalae Gemoniae, the Stairs of
survives to give information about his early years. He Sighs, a series of steps leading from the capital (see Capi-
went to Rome circa 146, while still young, and he studied toline Hill, in HILLS OF ROME) to the FORUM ROMANUM.
under such literary greats as Sulpicius Apollinaris and Its name came from its role in some of the saddest and
Erucius Clarus and probably was an associate of Cor- bloodiest events in Roman history. Tradition dictated

238 Geneva in its honor, accompanied by festivals and drinking, espe-
cially on birthdays.
that any public figures who fell from power should have
their statues dragged to the stairs and thrown down. In Throughout the years of the Roman Empire, specific
20 C.E., for example, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso was genii were honored. The genius of Emperor Augustus
declared an enemy and his likeness was destroyed by the was revered as having begun the family that would raise
mob upon the stairs. As the empire declined in moral Rome to unparalleled greatness. Subsequent imperial cul-
vitality, the Scalae served the same purpose as before, tic practices made the genius a legitimate part of their
only now the actual bodies of the fallen were hurled programs. Aurelian tried to combat Christianity with it,
down them. In 31 C.E., Lucius SEJANUS, the ambitious and under Diocletian the Genius Populi Romani was his
PREFECT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD, was crushed by attempt at restoring the very life essence of the Romans
order of Tiberius. He was taken to the main dungeon (see RELIGION). The concept of a genius helping and pro-
near the stairs, the TULLIANUM, while his statues were tecting its charge was founded in the Egyptian belief of
destroyed. Later he was strangled, and his body kicked the Ka, and later found new attention in the Christian
down the Stairs of Sighs, where many citizens added system of the angelic orders.
insults. His children, a young girl and boy, were executed
viciously and also catapulted down the stairs. The Scalae George of Cappadocia (d. 361 C.E.) Bishop of Alexan-
Gemoniae probably played a part in the final act of the dria from 357 to 361
Sejanus drama. In 33 C.E., Tiberius ordered that all of the One of the most feared and despised figures in Christen-
prefect’s allies and political clients who had been held for dom, George was reputed to be cruel and violent by
nearly two years in prison were to be massacred. The nature. He was appointed to the see of Alexandria by
result was one of the worst days in Roman history and Arian bishops in 357, to replace the exiled Athanasius.
one of the most lurid pages written by Tacitus in his George immediately exceeded even the hardline expecta-
Annals. Not surprisingly, the stairs never lost their sinis- tions of the Arians by opposing everyone with non-Arian
ter reputation. beliefs, including moderates in his own theological camp.
He thus earned the enmity of every group in Alexandria
Geneva One of the leading towns of HELVETIA. Geneva and on December 24, 361, was torn to pieces by a mob.
was a possession of the once powerful tribe of the Allo- Emperor Julian offered only slight regret for the church’s
broges but later became a Roman possession. It was use- loss.
ful to the Romans mainly because of its location on the
Rhone, serving as a staging point for Roman campaigns See also ARIANISM; CHRISTIANITY.
into Gaul.
Gergovia City in southern Gaul (GALLIA) that served
Genialis, T. Flavius (fl. late second century C.E.) as one of the major centers of the AVERNI (Arverni). Ger-
Prefect of the Praetorian Guard with Tullius Crispinus in govia was situated near the Elaver River upon a high hill
193 C.E. and had been built as a fortress of considerable strength,
They were appointed by DIDIUS JULIANUS, who had just as Julius Caesar discovered in 52 B.C.E. In that year all of
purchased the imperial throne from the Guard. In the Central Gaul rose in revolt under the command of
face of Julianus’s rapidly deteriorating political position, VERCINGETORIX. Caesar immediately launched a cam-
Genialis remained utterly loyal, both to the emperor and paign into Gaul and in March captured the large city of
to the Praetorians, who had forced his nomination. He AVARICUM. His desire at that point was to crush the upris-
could not prevent the Senate from condemning or exe- ing quickly before it had a chance to spread in the region.
cuting Julianus. There is evidence that Genialis held his Gergovia, an important town of the rebel Averni, thus
office into the reign of Septimius Severus, Julianus’s suc- became his next target. A series of marches brought Cae-
cessor. sar and his legions to the site in April, but Vercingetorix
was already there. Word then arrived that other tribes
genius Originally corresponding to the Greek daemon, were in revolt. Caesar ordered an attack, only to be
the “genius” was a spirit with varying roles, although repulsed. Roman losses had been heavy, and Caesar could
throughout Roman history it was associated closely with not waste time on a fruitless siege. A retreat was ordered,
the man-spirit and Hercules. Each family (and each fam- to unite his forces with those of his lieutenant, Titus
ily member) had its own genius (or founder or protector) Labienus. Caesar had received one of the few setbacks of
responsible for the initial creation of the line and hence his career.
its endurance. The connection with a masculine spirit
was obvious. Its female equivalent was identified with Germania One of the most important territorial acqui-
Juno. Each Roman house honored the genius with a bed, sitions of the Roman Empire, providing the main defense
the lectus genialis, kept near the door. No human ever of Gaul north of the Danube. Germania at one time
slept in it and other, often bloodless, sacrifices were made included the territory east of the Rhine, all the way to the

Elbe. Eventually the term referred to the western bank of Germania 239
the Rhine, where two provinces existed: Germania Infe-
rior and Germania Superior, or Lower and Upper Ger- wiped out, prompting Augustus to exclaim: “Varus, bring
many. me back my legions!” The destruction of Varus ter-
minated Rome’s expansion to the Elbe, despite the
Julius CAESAR was the first Roman general to cast his belated punishment handed out to the Germans by GER-
eye toward the vast untamed wilderness and tribes of the MANICUS in 15 C.E., and the Rhine once more served as
barbarian world beyond the Rhine. During his GALLIC the frontier.
WARS, in 58 B.C.E., Caesar put an end to the power of the
Germanic tribes in Alsace by destroying ARIOVISTUS and The defeat of Varus and the concomitant indepen-
then, in 55 B.C.E., actually crossed the Rhine, via a bridge dence of the tribes in Germania necessitated a rethink-
that he had constructed. He convinced the tribes there, ing of the frontier defense. Ten legions were moved to
most notably the SUEBI, not to interfere in events in Gaul. the Rhine, under the immediate command of two legates
In 53 B.C.E., he journeyed across again, during his but answerable to the governor of Gallia Belgica. Fron-
oppression of the rebelling Gallic peoples. Aside from tier defense remained the main activity of the Rhine
these two minor sorties, the great Roman dictator left the legions until 69 C.E., when they moved from their posts
Germans in peace, establishing the Rhine as the natural and placed VITELLIUS on the throne. In their absence a
boundary between the growing territories of Rome and massive revolt broke out under CIVILIS, involving tribes
the outer lands. Caesar soon became embroiled in the such as the traditionally loyal Batavi, the Frisii, and
CIVIL WARS and, following his murder in 44 B.C.E., politi- BRUCTERI. A swift resolution to the crisis was reached
cal struggles erupted to determine the leadership of the when Vespasian and the Flavians gained power in
empire. 69–70. Civilis was defeated, and the tribes were pun-
ished. Further expeditions were conducted to subdue
With the dawn of the Roman Empire, from five to six the Bructeri, led by RUTILIUS GALLICUS and Vestricius
legions were used to pacify Gaul from 27 to 15 B.C.E., and SPURINNA.
even then unrest continued as the gradual process of
Romanization began. Finally, from 16 to 13 B.C.E., AUGUS- The Flavians strengthened the line of protection by
TUS himself remained in the provinces of Gallia, further- improving the forts, adding new auxiliaries, and rotating
ing the changes in the imperial domains. He departed in the legions in Upper and Lower Germany; an important
13 but the next year DRUSUS THE ELDER dedicated the campaign was begun to terminate local plots and to
great altar at LUGDUNUM (Lyons) and then completed shorten the line of communication from the Rhine to the
preparations for a massive invasion of Germania. Danube. Emperor DOMITIAN, in 83, continued these
Throughout much of 12 B.C.E., Drusus probed across the actions by striking out against the dangerous Chatti and
Rhine, establishing the presence of the legion there. In 11 then extending the line of the imperial border into the
he pushed farther into what the Romans called Germania fertile and strategically useful territories of Taunus,
Barbara, and from 10 to 9 B.C.E. he smashed the many Odenwald, the Main River, and the Neckar, linking them
tribes opposing his advance, such as the CHATTI, FRISII, to Raetia and the Danubian provinces. Around 90 Domi-
Sugambri, and BATAVI. The fighting was fierce, but the tian removed the two Germanias from the authority of
poorly organized and disjointed nations could not match Gallia Belgica. Henceforth, the two independent imperial
Drusus’s superior generalship or the iron discipline of his provinces of Germania Inferior and Germania Superior
legions. By 9 B.C.E., Drusus had reached the Elbe, swing- were under the command of legates.
ing north to defeat the CHERUSCI and then beginning his
march home, dying en route as a prophetess had pre- As the province resting upon the Lower Rhine, Ger-
dicted. mania Inferior, or Lower Germany, bolstered the frontier
stretching from the North Sea to the Moselle. A careful
TIBERIUS succeeded his brother in the campaign, watch was maintained over the local tribes. The Batavi
waging many small wars from 8 to 7 B.C.E., before leaving and the Canninefates lived to the extreme north, near the
the area in the hands of legates, who remained to estab- troublesome Frisii. To the south were the Cherusci, who
lish good relations (whenever possible) with local tribes. had fallen in stature by the time the province was
Encouraged by their successes, Augustus pressed forward founded around 90. The Ubii were settled on the west
for full provincialization of the area, sending Quinctilius bank, with their capital at COLOGNE. The Roman provin-
VARUS to command the legions in 7 C.E. But the Romans cial government was based in Cologne, the one-time
had greatly overestimated their position and the willing- Colonia Agrippina. Dealings with Gallia Belgica were
ness of the Germans to accept pacification. Led by the extensive, and the borders throughout the years remained
chieftain ARMINIUS, an officer in the pay of Rome and relatively unchanged. Germania Superior played a greater
both a Roman citizen and a client, the Cherusci, aided in strategic role on the frontier than Germania Inferior, for it
part by other surrounding communities, fell upon Varus bordered Raetia and the vital Danubian base line.
while he marched through the impossible terrain of the Changes took place continually on its borders. The acqui-
Teutoburg Forest. Varus and his three entire legions were sition of the Agri Decumates gave the province extensive
holdings, all ruled from the ideally located city of
MOGUNTIACUM (Mainz), the capital.

240 Germania imperial strategic emphasis from Rome to CONSTANTINO-
PLE only served to demoralize an already failing vitality.
Along with provinces were created the famous LIMES From the fifth century C.E., the Rhine served no longer as
(pl., limites) or defensive network of forts, stations, a barrier to invasion.
camps, and roads. They began in Germania Superior,
stretching south for some 230 miles through Taunus and ROMAN AND GERMAN CULTURE
along the Main down to the vicinity of modern Stuttgart,
where they joined the Raetian limes. They functioned to The first Romans in Germania were the legions, their
keep the barbarians from crossing into the imperial auxiliaries and camp followers. They found a multitude
province and helped to reduce the vast amounts of of people descended from mixed Indo-Germanic and
ground to be patrolled, as well as the incessant fear of Celtic stock: tall, muscular, and skilled in war. Tacitus
barbarian invasion. Legionary camps became unnecessary states in his account Germania that their kings were
and were soon replaced by more permanent cities. It may greatly esteemed but all loved liberty and would fight to
have been Emperor TRAJAN who cut the legions of Upper the death to keep it. They had lived in their lands for cen-
Germany to two, when he needed as many as possible for turies but were markedly inferior to the Gauls in civiliza-
his campaigns elsewhere. HADRIAN also bolstered the tion, industry, and sophistication. The Romans assumed a
limes by adding a palisade to the entire outer wall, in willingness of the tribes to assimilate the elements of
keeping with his policy of isolation, sealing off the Roman life, but the legions left only a shallow mark upon
empire from the world with ramparts and bastions. His the Germans between 12 B.C.E. and 9 C.E., one quickly
successor, ANTONINUS PIUS, maintained and extended the erased by Arminius.
Main works for better strategic position.
When eight legions arrived on the Rhine, however,
All of these fortifications would prove necessary by the lack of Germanic unity allowed a massive influx of
the end of the reign of Antoninus Pius, and the accession Roman culture, accelerated by sheer weight of numbers.
of MARCUS AURELIUS. For may decades the Rhine had been With the soldiers came women, children, traders, mer-
calm, undisturbed except by infrequent raids by the chants, and the ever present followers who were eager to
Chatti or the CHAUCI. Then, in the middle of the second benefit from the activities of the empire. As was typical of
century C.E., the migrating peoples from the East applied provincial policies, Rome moved to establish COLONIES,
pressure on the Germans. Starting around 170, the cities centered around native tribes, and allowed perma-
Chauci, Chatti, and their neighbors pierced the Roman nent legion camps with houses to be set up, the canabae.
frontier, adding to the chaos and devastation along the The camps and canabae served as magnets for settlers
Danube. During the MARCOMANNIC WARS, years of fight- who eventually took over the adjoining lands, fostering
ing were necessary before the tribes could be dislodged the growth of cities and ensuring a supply of auxiliaries
from Germany and Raetia, not to mention, Italy itself. By and soldiers for the army. Early colonies included Augus-
175 the borders were reestablished, but the destabiliza- tus Raurica, Augusta Vindelicorum, and Cologne. Trajan
tion of Germany had begun. began his busy reign by inaugurating such new coloniae
as Ulpia Noviomagus and ULPIA TRAIANA, while Aurelia
The third century marked the turning point in the Aquensis, Cologne, TRIER, Lopodonum, and Mogunti-
Roman era of domination. In 213, Emperor CARACALLA acum grew prosperous. Along the colonists, Germania
fought a war with the newest arrivals to Upper Germany, absorbed the Roman language and law and the best
the ALAMANNI. From then on, no peace would last for exports of Gaul, the storehouse for the German legions—
long, and the empire ceased to be the aggressor, using and possibly the Graeco-Roman religion. The precise
tribute paid to the barbarians as a legitimate form of degree of this Romanization process remains a source for
diplomacy. As the Roman Empire sank into civil strife continued archaeological research.
and internal political struggle, the recently risen FRANKS
advanced, finding little resistance. GALLIENUS tried to At the same time as the empire grew, most notably in
stem the tide but was unsuccessful, his catastrophic reign the West, it became a more and more highly Germanized
serving as a low point in imperial history. All of the state. After the Marcomannic Wars, Cologne, Mainz,
Roman cities and towns on the east bank of the Rhine Trier, and other cities were settled with Germanic tribes,
were devastated, until finally, around 263, the Agri Decu- following the Roman policy of accepting migratory peo-
mates (the Black Forest area) fell and territories were lost. ples and refugees into the boundaries of the provinces. In
With the soldier emperor PROBUS, the Rhine was time, the officers and highest officials in government
reclaimed, at least as a useful frontier, and remained so came from German territories, until even Emperor CARA-
into the time of DIOCLETIAN. In that ruler’s reorganization CALLA astounded his tribal clients from the Rhine by his
of the Roman world, the two provinces were renamed clothing style and his hair, both traditionally Germanic.
Germania I and II, and they received overall command
from the vicar of the diocese of Galliae. By the time of CONSTANTINE, the soldiers of the army
were descendants of the first legionaries and had spent
However, no amount of reorganization by Diocletian, their entire lives in Germania. Constantine relied upon
Constantine or their successors could prevent the inter- German officers, establishing the trend of the late fourth
nal deterioration of the Roman Empire. The shift of

and early fifth centuries C.E. in which the MAGISTER MILI- Geta, Lucius Septimius 241
TUM was always German. When the terrible invasion of
HUNS came pouring across the Rhine, they found inhabi- throughout the major cities of ASIA MINOR, SYRIA, PALES-
tants not dissimilar to those they had already known. TINE, and even in EGYPT. CAPPADOCIA was organized into a
province with the help of the legate Quintus Veranius.
Suggested Readings: King, Anthony. Roman Gaul and Troubles in Armenia were temporarily eased with the
Germany. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990; crowning of POLEMO of Pontus as its king. Parthian rela-
Todd, Malcolm. The Northern Barbarians, 100 BC–AD tions were improved. A famine in Alexandria was
300. New York: B. Blackwell, 1987; Schutz, Herbert. The relieved. Tiberius viewed all of this with jealousy, even
Prehistory of Germanic Europe. New Haven, Conn.: Yale censuring Germanicus for traveling through Egypt with-
University Press, 1983; Wells, C. M. The German Policy of out imperial permission.
Augustus: An Examination of the Archaeological Evidence.
Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1972. From the start Germanicus and Piso disliked each
other, and even the normally generous Germanicus was
Germanicus Julius Caesar (15 B.C.E.–19 C.E.) Son of pushed too far. When he returned from Egypt, he fell ill
Drusus (1) the Elder and Antonia; a noted general and polit- but recovered, only to collapse again. On October 10, 19
ical figure of enormous popularity C.E., he died. Antioch went wild with grief, joined soon
As a grandson of AUGUSTUS, Germanicus was raised in the by the entire empire. It was generally held that Germani-
imperial palace with his brother Claudius, where he cus had been poisoned (a fact assumed by Tacitus and
received a good education and was the more favored of Suetonius), and Piso instantly received the blame. When
the two by their mother. After the deaths of Lucius CAE- Agrippina returned to Italy, she openly charged Tiberius
SAR (2 C.E.) and Gaius CAESAR (4 C.E.), Germanicus was and Livia with the crime, and the emperor sacrificed Piso
groomed for high office and became a member of the rather than face even greater public outrage. As an orator
Senate, and he was adopted by TIBERIUS at the same time Germanicus showed himself gifted and even authored a
that Tiberius was adopted by Augustus. From 7 C.E. translation of an astronomical poem by Aratus. His chil-
onward, Germanicus was on campaign with Tiberius, dren were nine in number. The six survivors of childhood
first in PANNONIA and DALMATIA (7 to 10 C.E.) and then in were Agrippina the Younger, Livilla, Drusilla, Drusus,
Germany (11 to 12 C.E.). In the field he showed consider- Nero and, of course, Gaius Caligula, who would be Ger-
able strategic prowess, and when Tiberius departed for manicus’s legacy.
Rome, Germanicus was left in command of the German
legions. Because of his popularity, Germanicus was feared Germany See GERMANIA.
by Tiberius and his mother LIVIA. Further, Livia engaged
in a long-running feud with Germanicus’s wife, AGRIPPINA Geta (1), Lucius Septimius (198–211 C.E.) Son of
THE ELDER. However, in 14 C.E., when Augustus died and Emperor Septimius Severus and Julia Domna and the brother
Tiberius laid claim to the throne, Tacitus wrote that Ger- of Caracalla
manicus simply worked harder for the emperor. He took Born under the full name of Publius Lucius Septimius
an oath of loyalty himself and then administered it to all Geta, he was younger than his brother by only one year.
of the surrounding tribes. He traveled with his family to the Parthian War in 197
and the following year became Caesar, while his brother
A mutiny erupted in the legions of Germany and received the greater title of Augustus. For the next six
Illyricum at this time, and Germanicus relied upon the years Geta visited various parts of the empire, and in 205
support of his troops to quell it. As proof of the restored served in the consulship with CARACALLA. What had been
discipline, he took to the field again and made war in a rivalry degenerated into outright hatred at this point,
Germany from the Rhine to the Elbe, all the way to the especially after the murder of the PREFECT OF THE PRAE-
North Sea, against the Chatti and especially the Cherusci, TORIAN GUARD, C. Fulvius PLAUTIANUS. SEVERUS did what
under the command of the King ARMINIUS. In a series of he could to ease the situation, but his sons lived with
hard-fought battles, Germanicus did much to restore recklessness and certain depravity.
Roman supremacy and honor among the tribes responsi-
ble for the annihilation of General VARUS in 9 C.E. in the After another consulship with Caracalla in 208, Geta
TEUTOBURG FOREST. In 17 C.E., Tiberius ordered him back set out with his brother and parents for a campaign in
to Rome, where he celebrated a great triumph. Then the Britain. He served as administrator of the provinces in
emperor, sensing his growing strength among the the isles, with the title of Augustus, while Severus and
Romans, ordered Germanicus to the East, granting him Caracalla made war upon the Caledonians. The imperial
the title maius imperium, master of all of the eastern family remained in Eburacum (York) until 211, when the
provinces. While he clashed with Gnaeus Calpurnius emperor died, imploring his heirs to make peace
PISO, appointed by Tiberius governor of Syria, Germani- between themselves. Their hatred had existed for too
cus achieved numerous successes and was hailed long, however, and with the control of the world as the
prize, both refused to yield. The imperial will had stipu-
lated that they would serve as corulers. They worked in

242 Geta, Lusius officers, aiding Count THEODOSIUS against Firmus. As a
reward he received from Emperor THEODOSIUS I the rank
this fashion, never speaking and never discussing events of comes et magister utriusque militiae per Africam, or
or issues. count and commanding general of AFRICA.

After returning to Rome, the palace had to be split in In autumn of 397, however, he feuded with officials
half physically to avoid open hostilities. A proposal was in the West and in the ensuing political struggles, he
then made to have the empire divided between them, halted the shipment of grain to Rome and was declared a
something that their mother would not allow. Slowly public enemy by the Senate at the instigation of the MAG-
Caracalla gained the upper hand, acting as sole ruler ISTER MILITUM STILICHO. An army was sent to Africa
without any consultation. He dismissed Geta’s aides in under the command of Gildo’s brother, Mascezel, who
the court and plotted to kill him. After ending one such had supported Firmus and whose children Gildo had
plan, Caracalla agreed to meet his brother in his mother’s had executed. On July 31, 398, Gildo was defeated and
apartment, asking for this as a point of reconciliation. killed. His property was confiscated and was reportedly
There he had his soldiers attack Geta and watched as his so great that a special official was named to act as care-
brother died in Julia Domna’s blood-stained lap. The sole taker.
ruler of the empire, Caracalla gave Geta a funeral and
then removed his name from the records and inscriptions Gischala Town in the northern regions of Galilee, to
and massacred all of his followers. the west of the Jordan River. In the Jewish uprising of 66
C.E., Gischala was one of the centers of popular resistance
Geta (2), Lusius (fl. mid-first century C.E.) Prefect of to Rome. The Roman general, VESPASIAN, moved against
the Praetorian Guard during the reign of Claudius (41–54 the cities of Galilee, and, after reducing GAMALA, sent his
C.E.) son TITUS, with legionary attachments, against the rebels
Lusius Geta served with Rufrius CRISPINUS and was of Gischala, sometime in November. Knowing of the ter-
appointed sometime before 47 C.E., probably through the rible slaughter that had taken place at Gamala, Titus was
graces of Messallina. The first great crisis of his command anxious to avoid a similar occurrence. He therefore
came in 48, when Claudius summoned him to the palace implored the city to surrender, rather than endure a
for advice on what fate should befall the adulterous Mes- destructive siege. JOHN OF GISCHALA, the rebel comman-
sallina. Despite the power of his office, Geta was known der, asked for one day’s grace and used it to escape. The
to be a man of weak will, easily swayed. For this reason next day Gischala opened wide its gates. Titus made a
Claudius did not trust him with the empress’s execution. token gesture of conquest (a wall was thrown down) and
The next years were spent by Geta watching the steady then left a small garrison. Gischala was thus spared the
rise of Messallina’s successor, Agrippina. Both Geta and ravages of the uprising.
Rufrius Crispinus were reportedly loyal to Messallina’s
memory and her surviving children. The new empress gladiators One of the most famous elements of Roman
could not tolerate this and made plans to have them society and entertainment. A unique product of Rome
removed. She complained to Claudius that the two pre- and Italy, gladiators came to epitomize the socially deca-
fects were unable to maintain discipline and that the dent nature of the Romans, with their taste for blood
Guards would be better off with only one prefect. In 51, sports. Gladiators emerged among the Etruscans as a
as a result, both officers were removed. Their replace- form of the traditional blood sacrifice held at funerals,
ment was Burrus. when teams of warriors dueled to the death. When the
early Romans fell under the domination of ETRURIA, many
Getae One of the more populous tribes of THRACE, who prisoners of war were offered up in this manner, a cere-
lived in the area of the Danube and its tributaries. Their mony repeated in 358 B.C.E., when 307 captives were sac-
power was markedly reduced by the Roman imperial era, rificed in the Tarquin Forum. Inevitably, the Romans
and they relied upon aid from Rome for their defense, as accepted many Etruscan rituals; in 264 B.C.E., the family
was seen in 29 B.C.E., when General Marcus Licinius of M. Brutus solemnly celebrated his funeral with gladia-
CRASSUS helped them against an invasion of the Bastar- torial battles.
nae.
From that time on, burials honored by bouts between
Gildo (d. 398 C.E.) African-born general of the imperial gladiators became both common and grand. The gladiato-
army in Africa (c. 386–398); the son of King Nubel of Mau- rial schools, the type of combatants and their place in
retania society were all fully developed. The final aggrandize-
When the king died in 371, the realm was shaken by ment of gladiators came in the last stages of the Republic,
internal strife among his children. One brother, Firmus, when candidates staged large shows for public enjoyment
murdered the pro-Roman son, Sammac, gaining the sup- and political influence, culminating with the election of
port of the other brothers, Duis, Mauca, and Mascezel, Julius CAESAR as an AEDILE in 65 B.C.E. He held a massive
and a sister, Cyria. Gildo remained loyal to his imperial

celebration, complete with over 300 dueling pairs. gladiators 243
Henceforth, the contests became an important part of the
imperial control of the Roman mobs, satisfying the fighting. Public outrage was also turned against the gladi-
Romans’ thirst for action and directing their frustrations ators, following the murder of the Eastern monk
and energy. Telemachus by a crowd enraged at his interference in a
match (held either in 391 or 404).
Gladiatorial shows were not a major part of the LUDI,
the public games held many times throughout the year in There had always been a large number of willing par-
Rome. Rather, the combats were staged privately, espe- ticipants in the grim life of combat and death, which was
cially by the patronage of the ruling family. Rulers were viewed as a haven for the desperate. Candidates for the
expected to provide entertainments equal to the grandeur schools were originally found among slaves and captives;
of their reigns and were careful not to disappoint the prisoners of war, with nothing to lose, joined. But the
mobs. AUGUSTUS started the so-called extraordinary popularity of the sport soon demanded other avenues of
games, displays with no official function other than supply. Slaves were bought and then condemned prison-
amusement for the people. Eight separate shows were put ers used, the damnati, as well as members of the lower
on in his name or in the names of his children. CLAUDIUS classes, the humiliores. During the empire two other
followed his example, entering into a shouting match trends developed. First, many noblemen were sent by the
with the contestants on one occasion. various emperors into the ring to fight, for committing
many, sometimes imaginary, crimes. Once, when Gaius
TITUS opened the COLOSSEUM (c. 80 C.E.) with elabo- Caligula fell ill, a courtier vowed to fight in the arena if
rate ceremonies and a gladiatorial spectacle lasting 100 he should recover. When Caligula returned to good
days. TRAJAN, celebrating in 107 his triumph in the health, he forced the courtier to fulfill his pledge, paying
Dacian Wars, used 5,000 pairs of gladiators in the rings. careful attention to his swordplay. The courtier survived
Trajan loved to mount displays, and his reign was noted the arena.
for its shows. HADRIAN, like GAIUS CALIGULA, actually took
part for a time in the sport, as did CARACALLA and his Later, the imperial citizens, freedmen, even members
brother GETA. COMMODUS, son of MARCUS AURELIUS, dis- of high society, entered the class of the auctorati, those
played such a passion for gladiatorial life-styles that the who abandoned themselves to the gladiatorial lifestyle for
story was told that his true father, in fact, was one. He a wage, by giving an oath of service for a period of time.
fought in the ring and seemed far happier in the presence Changes in political or economic fortune also prompted
of the other combatants. He was slain to deter him from this recklessness. Those reduced to poverty signed up to
entering the consulship of 193 with a parade from the escape debtors and to administer to themselves a kind of
gladiator barracks. DIO wrote in detail of his obsession for purgation for profligate living. Gluttons, the so-called
the arena. Apicians, would spend vast fortunes on banquets and lav-
ish foods, go bankrupt and either kill themselves or
By the fourth century C.E., and with the rise of CON- become gladiators; in rare cases, Apician females would
STANTINE the Great, gladiators were vehemently opposed become fighting women.
by Christians as being a part of the wide practice of
PAGANISM. Many earlier writers and political figures, such A prospective candidate was trained at a school
as SENECA, who epitomized the philosophical view, held (ludus), either privately or publicly operated. Rome had
that such exhibitions were monstrous and needlessly probably four such schools, although the best were found
cruel. (The Christian bishop of Tagaste, ALYPIUS, once at CAPUA and POMPEII. Capua was a center of training that
watched gladiators and was disturbed to find himself dated back to the era of the Etruscans. The treatment of
caught up on the excitement of the carnage.) In the face such candidates was harsh, so difficult in fact that it pro-
of Christian leaders who were aware of the fact that mar- duced the revolt of Spartacus in 73 B.C.E. Horrified at the
tyrs of the faith had been slaughtered for centuries in the public threat posed by such warriors, special care was
arenas, gladiators could do little to prevent the growing afterward taken to prevent serious uprisings, although
restrictions and then final abolishment. Constantine gave some politicians used gladiators for their own campaigns.
the Christians a taste of blood vengeance by throwing Julius Caesar owned one of the best schools in Capua and
German prisoners to the wild animals, but he took steps planned another in RAVENNA. He allowed his gladiators to
in 326 to curtail the shows through the Edict of BERYTUS. serve as a wordless threat to opposition in Rome.

Such measures were only partially successful because A lanista, or drill instructor, relentlessly exercised the
of the popularity of the entertainment. Throughout the gladiators in the schools. Gymnastics and strength build-
fourth century harsher laws were passed, until around ing were first emphasized. The student then practiced
399, when HONORIUS ordered the last of the actual with a wooden sword (lusoria arma) until proficient with
schools closed. The cause of this vigorous action by the it, and then progressed to harder training with a variety
emperors was the relentless writing and preaching of of weapons. This study continued until the gladiator was
Christian officials. St. AUGUSTINE, St. JOHN CHRYSOSTOM, master of them all. He then chose his special weapon and
PRUDENTIUS, and, earlier, TERTULLIAN condemned the style, assuming the character that would remain uniquely
his until his death or his retirement. Specialists instructed
each fighter on a specific weapon.

244 gluttony provided to induce the process. A guest could empty his
stomach, rest for a time and then start dining again.
There were five classes of gladiators: eques, essedarii,
Galli, Thraeces, and etiarii. The eques was a horseman, Gluttonous revelries began in the Late Republic and
the essedarii were charioteers and the Galli were heavy reached their peak in the first and second centuries C.E.
fighters, further divided into several types. The Mirmillos The notable glutton Marcus Gavius APICIUS lent his name
(myrmillones) and Samnites fought with short swords, to the practice. He lived in the early first century C.E. and
long shields and large helmets. A secutor was a variation reportedly spent 100 million sesterces on his dinners;
on the Samnite, although in later years the Greek term eventually he was reduced to suicide when his vast for-
hoplomachi was applied to all heavy fighters. The Mir- tune dwindled and he could not indulge his appetites lav-
millo (identified by the fish crest on his helmet) was ishly. Another famous gourmand was the brief-reigning
often put into combat against the lighter armed but VITELLIUS, emperor in 69 C.E. According to the historian
mobile Thracians. Thracians carried long scimitars and SUETONIUS, he lived for food, banqueting three or four
bucklers or smaller shields. Their armor was normally times a day, routinely vomiting up his meal and starting
tight leather (fasciae), fastened around a leg. The least over. His visits to friends required meals of such expense
protected of all, but perhaps the most famous, were the that imperial associates went bankrupt trying to satiate
retiarii or the net-and-trident duelers. They wore no him. In one dinner, 2,000 fish and 7,000 birds were con-
armor at all, holding instead a net and a trident. Quick- sumed. To Vitellius this meal was ordinary, for he pre-
ness was their only hope, for once cornered or separated ferred the rarer pike livers, pheasant brains, flamingo
from their weapons, they were easy prey for the heavier tongues, and lamprey milk.
classes. Gladiators learned never to rely upon the mercy
of the spectators to save them. The so-called Apicians survived into the later years
of the empire. Ammianus Marcellinus criticized the
Suggested Readings: Auguet, Roland. Cruelty and Civi- nobles who hovered over cuts of cooking meat, drooling
lization: The Roman Games. New York: Routledge, 1994; in anticipation of the repast to come. Other satirists
Futrell, Alison. Blood in the Arena: The Spectacle of Roman and observers were merciless in their condemnations,
Power. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997; Grant, including JUVENAL and HORACE, as well as PLINY THE
Michael. Gladiators. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Pen- ELDER.
guin Books, 1971; Köhne, Eckart, and Cornelia
Ewigleben, eds. Gladiators and Caesars: The Power of Glycerius (fl. late fifth century C.E.) Emperor of the
Spectacle in Ancient Rome. London: British Museum Press, West from March 473 to the late spring of 474
2000; Kyle, Donald G. Spectacles of Death in Ancient One of the last rulers of the Western Roman Empire
Rome. New York: Routledge, 1998; Wiedemann, Thomas Glycerius was the newly appointed commander of the
E. J. Emperors and Gladiators. London; New York: Rout- protectores domestici with the title comes domesticorum
ledge, 1992. when the Burgundian magister militum, GUNDOBAD, chose
him to fill the vacant throne of the recently deceased OLY-
gluttony The excessive and obsessive enjoyment of BRIUS. Glycerius, a puppet of Gundobad, diverted the
food was taken to absurd and even physical or financial invasion of the OSTROGOTHS to Gaul. This was the sum of
extremes throughout Roman history. Romans had always his reign, for Emperor LEO at Constantinople refused to
enjoyed a rich variety of game, fish, meat, vegetables, and recognize him and sent his own choice, JULIUS NEPOS,
desserts. For the rich gourmand the kitchens of the city with a fleet to enforce Leo’s will. Abandoned by Gun-
could provide virtually any meal or dish. Banquets were dobad, Glycerius stepped down at Ravenna and was
sumptuous affairs lasting for hours and introducing many ordained the bishop of Salona.
courses. Various species of duck, goose and fish, pork,
rabbit and oyster, sausages, breads, eggs, and wines were Gnosticism The beliefs of a sect that splintered from
suitable for the average dinner, called tempestiva convivia. CHRISTIANITY, taking shape in the second century C.E.
But for many of the wealthy and the ostentatious upper Gnosticism first appeared as a very unorthodox form of
classes, gluttony was an expression of power, and no spirituality in numerous Christian schools, which were
expense was spared. influenced by Neoplatonism and views held by previous
pagan philosophers. Such associations made the creed’s
Gluttons, or gourmands, could spend anywhere from development within the church both difficult and
200,000 (a middle-class fortune) to 100 million sesterces chaotic. Essentially, the Gnostics believed that spiritual
on food. Chairs of solid silver, gold gifts of immense salvation came through the revealed knowledge of God,
value, and such dishes as peacock brains, flamingo the gnosis. This gnosis poured from the words of the
tongues, and elephant ears were served as parts of a feast Apostles and from specially chosen instruments, includ-
that could contain as many as 100 courses. When one ing the founder of the sect itself. The world was rejected
had eaten too much, a vomitorium permitted seclusion to as being foreign to the nature of God, who created all
allow removal of the ingested food; a long feather was

things. Some faithful believers were said to receive from Robigus Gordian I 245
this source of all life the special flame of the spirit. They Roma
were the great spokesmen of Gnosticism, but their own Saturnus God of Wheat-Rust
views often differed widely from one another, and hence Venus Goddess of Rome
the philosophy assumed a variety of incarnations and Vesta God of Agriculture
included those who took part in esoteric and orgiastic Volturnus Goddess of Love
ceremonies. Opposition to Gnosticism was intense and Vulcan Goddess of the Hearth
extensive. Such writers as IRENAEUS and TERTULLIAN Unknown
attacked the Gnostics with Christian orthodoxy and God of Volcanos
assaulted the group’s habit of accepting many pagan
myths and tenets. Golden House of Nero Famed palace built by NERO,
stretching from the Palatine to the Esquiline hills in
See also MONTANUS AND MONTANISM. Rome. In 64 C.E., much of Rome was destroyed by a terri-
ble fire. Included in the destruction was the DOMUS TRAN-
gods and goddesses of Rome See individual entries SITORIA, the imperial residence on the Palatine. Nero had
for the deities listed in the table below. never been pleased with the residence, viewing it as an
ugly artistic and architectural compromise, and in its
See also RELIGION; IMPERIAL CULT; PRIESTHOOD. place he planned a far more suitable estate, the Golden
House (Domus Aurea). Begun in 64 C.E. and not finished
GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME until 68, the Golden House stood as a magnificent, if
excessive, achievement in Roman architecture, the proud
Name Title accomplishment of the imperial architects, CELER AND
SEVERUS. The historian TACITUS wrote that these two tried
Anna Perena Goddess of the Year to drain away the resources of the empire on a project
Apollo Various that nature had declared impossible. But their use of
Bacchus God of Wine light, space, and open air was revolutionary and would be
Carmentis Unknown seen in other structures through subsequent Roman
Carna Goddess of Health architectural history.
Ceres Goddess of Agriculture
Cybele Great Mother Suetonius provided the most detailed account:
Daphne Goddess of Virginity
Dea Dia Goddess of Agriculture Much of the palace was overlaid with gold and deco-
Diana Goddess of Hunters rated with priceless jewels and mother-of-pearl. The
Dioscuri (Castor many dining halls had a ceiling with sliding ivory pan-
Sons of Zeus els that allowed flowers or perfume to rain down on
and Pollux) King of the Underworld guests from secret pipes. The great dining room was
Dis (Pluton) Unknown built in a circular design, with a rotating roof to show
Falacer Goddess of Luck the sky during the day and at night. Baths provided
Felicitas Goddess of Faith running sea water and sulphur water. When all of
Fides Goddess of Flowers these constructions were finished in this opulent man-
Flora Goddess of Fortune ner, Nero dedicated the palace, adding only that he
Fortuna Unknown could “at last start to live like a human being.”
Furrina God of Doors, the Past and
Janus Within a year, Nero was overthrown. When VES-
the Future PASIAN took control of the empire in 69 C.E., he decided
Juno Goddess of the Earth that the Golden House was not only too grand for his
Jupiter God of the Sky tastes but also an insult to the Roman people. He filled
Juventas Goddess of Youth up the vast pond and used this part of the grounds to
Lara Wife of Mercury build his gift to the city, the COLOSSEUM. This mighty sta-
Lares Sons of Mercury dium, in fact, earned its name from a statue of Nero that
Luna Goddess of the Moon had once stood there and had been called the Colosseum
Mars God of War because of its size. TITUS furthered the destruction of the
Mercury God of Merchants Golden House by erecting his Baths over much of the
Minerva Various original structure.
Neptune God of the Sea
Ops Goddess of the Harvest Gordian I (Marcus Antonius Gordianus Semproni-
Pales God of the Flocks anus) (c. 159–238 C.E.) Emperor (with his son, Gordian
Penates Gods of the Household II) from March to April 238
Pluton God of the Underworld
Pomona Goddess of Fruit Trees
Portunus God of Communications
Priapus God of Fertility
Proserpina Goddess of the Underworld
Quirinus Various (Deified Romulus)

246 Gordian II Pupienus raised the young Gordian to the rank of Caesar.
Neither ruler lived out the year because the Praetorian
Born to a family of obscure and debated origin, Gordian Guards murdered them both and elevated Gordian to the
achieved some notable political success with a career in throne. He was only 13 years old at the time. Gordian III’s
the Senate and a consulship in 222 C.E. Later he became administration was placed in the hands of the Senate,
governor of the southern province of Britain, perhaps in palace officials, and especially his mother. He remained
the reign of Caracalla. Despite his advancing years (he under their power until 241, when a new figure of pro-
was near 80) and his extensive property and estates, minence emerged—TIMESITHEUS. This PREFECT OF THE
either Emperor Severus Alexander or Maximinus ap- PRAETORIAN GUARD took upon himself all matters of
pointed him proconsul of Africa in 237–238. importance, and so completely did Gordian trust him
that he married his daughter, Tranquillina.
At the time of his arrival, the tax collectors of Max-
iminus were ruthlessly seizing property from wealthy In 242, Gordian and his prefect set off to wage war
Africans. Unable to survive financially, many young upon the Persians led by SHAPUR I. A highly successful
Africans banded together and convinced Gordian to operation provided for the rescue of all of Syria and the
declare himself emperor. In March of 238, the aged gover- repulse of the Persians along the entire frontier. Further
nor proclaimed a new imperial era and sent a deputation campaigns into Persia itself were disastrously aborted by
to Rome and the Senate for approval. The Senate agreed the death of Timesitheus in late 243. Gordian appointed
quickly, and Maximinus was condemned. Philip, called the Arab, as the new Praetorian prefect.
Within weeks the officer had prepared the legions for
Despite the general acceptance of Gordian’s claim mutiny, and in February 244, the young ruler was proba-
(and that of his son as coemperor), not all of Africa sur- bly murdered by soldiers unwilling to serve a child.
rendered so easily. Gordian, it seems, had once sued the Philip took over the empire.
governor of nearby Numidia, CAPELLIANUS, who chose
this moment to exact revenge. Declaring for Maximinus, Gotarzes II (d. 49 C.E.) King of Parthia, son of Artabanus
he marched his legion against Carthage. A brief battle III and ruler for the troubled years from about 38 to 49 C.E.
ensued, and Capellianus routed the hastily assembled When Artabanus died around 38, Gotarzes embarked
army sent against him, under the command of Gordian upon a campaign to remove all possible rivals. Toward
II. The young Gordian died in battle, and Gordian I this end he murdered his brother, Artabanus (who may
hanged himself. Capellianus massacred the followers of have been Artabanus IV), and the prince’s wife and fam-
the dead emperor. ily. This liquidation provided some safety for a number of
years. In 47 C.E., another brother, Vardanes, attempted to
Gordian II (Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempro- usurp the throne, and civil war raged across the Parthian
nianus Romanus Africanus) (d. 238 C.E.) Emperor provinces. The large country was divided. To avoid
(with his father, Gordian I) from March to April 238 destruction of the entire kingdom, Gotarzes stepped
Gordian II served as governor of Achaea and held a con- down in his brother’s favor. Within months he had
sulship under Severus Alexander before traveling with his regrets, however, and the battle raged again. This time
father to Africa in 238. There he had the position of Gotarzes prevailed and remained in control despite an
deputy to the proconsul, his father, at Carthage. In March attempt in 49, backed by Rome, to install a son of a
of that year he joined GORDIAN I in proclaiming themselves Parthian hostage of the empire, Meherdates, on the
the new emperors and was, by April, acknowledged by the throne. Gotarzes once more proved victorious and died of
Senate as the coruler of the empire. When the governor of natural causes in that year, a rare feat for the monarchs of
Numidia (CAPELLIANUS) launched his legion against his royal line.
CARTHAGE, Gordian II helped organize Carthaginian resis-
tance. In the ensuing battle, the cause of the Gordians was Goths A powerful group of Germanic people who
defeated and Gordian II died as well. His body was never played a major role in the crises besetting the Roman
found, and Gordian I killed himself after a brief reign. Empire from the third century C.E. They came originally
from the far northern edges of the Vistula River system,
Gordian III (Marcus Antonius Gordianus) (225– around the Baltic Sea. There, Gothic culture developed,
244 C.E.) Emperor from 238 to 244 C.E.; the grandson of but in the late second century C.E. they departed from
Gordian I by a daughter their lands and migrated south to the frontiers of the
He received an education in Rome, presumably staying Roman Empire. The reasons for the move, which must
behind when his grandfather and uncle (GORDIAN II) have involved hundreds of thousands of men, women,
went to Africa in 238. When word arrived that both Gor- and children, were probably the growing unrest in the
dians had assumed the imperial rank and had died in East, the increasing weakness of border defenses, and the
April of that year, their two successors, Balbinus and rumor of great plunder and riches available. Their hopes
PUPIENUS, first finished Emperor Maximinus and then
took control of the Roman state. To satisfy the mob,
which had come to adore the Gordians, Balbinus, and

of finding the watch on the border lax were confirmed, Gratian 247
and some time in the reign of Severus Alexander (c.
231–232), they burst through the Danubian line. By 238 Roman Empire in the West. Sources on the Goths in the
the Gothic position was so threatening that Emperor third century are highly fragmentary.
Maximinus bought them off with tribute. His aim was to
secure time to organize a proper offensive. He was See also OSTROGOTHS; VISIGOTHS.
defeated, however, by internal imperial rivalries, and
within four years the first raids had begun along the Graecina, Pomponia (fl. mid-first century C.E.) Wife
Danube. of the noted general Aulus Plautus
In 57 C.E., Graecina was accused of impiety and belief in
The Gothic King Argaithius was simply waiting for foreign superstition. According to the ancient traditions,
his chance, and in 248 the invasion began in earnest. her family sat in judgment to determine her guilt or inno-
Philip I, the Arab, fought hard against the barbarians, and cence and they found her not guilty of the charges. What
he seems to have achieved some success. But Philip died cult or alien belief to which she supposedly belonged has
trying to fight off his successor, Decius. Trajanus Decius never been discovered, although it has been suggested
found the Goths his main enemy in 249, for under a new that she may have been a Christian, an unlikely notion.
king, KNIVA, the Goths poured over the Danube. Decius Pomponia Graecina was also noted for her style of
beat them back at first but they returned later in the year, clothes. In honor of Julia, daughter of Drusus, Tiberius’s
better organized and allied with many other enemies of son, she wore only clothes of mourning. Julia had been
Rome, including the Dacian Carpi. War raged in Moesia, executed on the order of Messallina in 43 C.E. Claudius
Dacia and even in Thrace, while the main body was never punished Pomponia for this obvious act of disloy-
preparing a descent into the region of the Black Sea. alty.

The legions of Decius fought valiantly, but in 250, at Gratian (Flavius Gratianus) (359–383 C.E.) Emperor
Beraea, in Thrace, he was severely beaten by Kniva. A of the West from 367 to 383
year was spent reorganizing; the Goths were attacked Born at Sirmium, Gratian was the son of Emperor Valen-
again in 251. This time Decius was not only beaten but tinian I and Marina Severa. He held his first consulship in
also slain in battle. The Goths were now the masters of 366 and was named Augustus, or coruler, in 367,
the entire Danube territory, all the way to the Black Sea. although he was only eight years old at the time. On
The new Emperor Trebonianus Gallus could do nothing November 17, 375, Valentinian died, leaving Gratian as
to unseat them. Illyricum and Thrace were plundered and his heir, until his younger half brother, Valentinian II,
burned, and in 253 the Goths set sail along the Black Sea. was proclaimed his assistant through the influence of the
Asia Minor was wide open for pillage and treasure. MAGISTER MILITUM Merobaudes. Because of the ages of the
Roughly from 256 to 270, the Gothic tribes, under their two emperors, a bitter struggle took place for mastery of
kings, carried on expeditions in Asia Minor and the the palace, with the gifted politician and poet AUSONIUS
Balkans. Chalcedon was burned and Bithynia ravaged, emerging supreme with the title of Praetorian Prefect in
with the cities of Ephesus and Nicomedia especially dev- Gaul, Italy, and Africa. Merobaudes continued to exercise
astated. Lydia, Phrygia, parts of Asia, Cappadocia, and influence as well, especially in military matters.
even Galatia were subject to attack and destruction.
These incursions spurred on other hordes, such as the Wars on the frontiers demanded his immediate atten-
Heruli, the Carpi, and the Bastarnae. More ships sailed tion, and in 377–378 he campaigned against the Ala-
throughout the Black Sea, landing, killing, and adding to manni and then, in 378, received word that his colleague
the growing despair of the area. Gallienus did what he in the East, Valens, was preparing for war against the
could, which was little despite a notable victory at Nais- Gothic tribes. Though Gratian marched quickly, he failed
sus in 268 over the Heruli. to reach Valens in time, and most of the Eastern army
was destroyed, including the emperor, at the battle of
Far more successful was Aurelian, the emperor who ADRIANOPLE. The crisis of the century had occurred. Gra-
began the task of restoring Roman pride and strength. tian elevated Theodosius I in January 379 to the throne of
Aurelian did not merely fight the Goths, he demolished Valens, to manage the damaged affairs of that part of the
them. In a series of engagements the Gothic warriors empire while he retained the western regions. They
were driven out of the Balkans and into DACIA, while the joined a year later, fighting successfully against both the
Black Sea defenses were improved. Instead of pursuing Alamanni and the Goths in the Danubian regions.
the barbarians into the Roman province of Dacia, Aure-
lian pulled back; the new border was once again the By 383, further operations were planned against the
Danube. This decision left Dacia in the hands of the Alamanni, but Gratian had to deal with the usurper, Mag-
Carpi and the Goths. Subsequent evolution in the Gothic nus Maximus, a general in Britain who had been named
nation saw it quickly dividing into two distinct groups, emperor by his army. Discontent in the ranks caused
powerful states that would bring about the end of the massive defections from his own units, and Gratian
found himself without military or political support. He
tried to flee, only to be assassinated by one of his own

248 Grattius erable oratorical skill on behalf of Christian orthodoxy.
Among his writings were poems, letters, and treatises
officers, Andragathius, on August 25, 383, at Lugdunum such as the five Theological Orations and the Philocalia,
(Lyons). Ammianus Marcellinus wrote that Gratian was a which contained excerpts from ORIGEN.
youth of remarkable character, destined for greatness had
he not succumbed to a war-like demeanor and an inclina- Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335–395) Christian saint and one
tion to appalling behavior, unrestrained by his intimates. of the Cappadocian Fathers (with Basil and Gregory of
Nevertheless, he passed from the control of Ausonius to Nazianzus)
that of AMBROSE and thus worked to further the Christian Bishop of Nyssa, brother of St. Basil the Great, Gregory
cause against paganism. He was the first Roman ruler to was born at Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Gre-
step down as pontifex maximus, and, under pressure gory was intended for the religious life, but he temporar-
from Ambrose, ordered that the pagan Altar of Victory be ily abandoned his calling, becoming a rhetorician and
removed from the Curia, an act considered impious by marrying a woman named Theosebeia. At the urging of
the old senatorial traditionalists. St. Gregory of Nazianzus, however, he was convinced to
devote himself to the church, being consecrated around
Grattius (fl. early first century C.E.) Didactic poet from 371 as bishop of Nyssa by his brother. After being
the time of Augustus charged with improper use of church property by the
Grattius’s sole surviving work was notable among that of local governor, Gregory was deposed in 376 and exiled
the poets of the Augustan Golden Age. As a result of his for two years. The real cause of the deposition was the
being ignored by his contemporaries, almost nothing is offense taken by the Arians at his strong adherence to
known of his life, except that he was an Italian. Grattius’s the Nicene Creed. Gregory returned to his see after the
only extant work is Cynegetica, a long and highly techni- destruction and death of the pro-Arian emperor Valens in
cal poem about hunting. He focused on such subjects as 378. The next year he attended the Council of Antioch,
the hunter’s equipment, traps, and especially dogs. The where he gained prominence as an outspoken opponent
first and only extant book was composed of some 540 of Arianism. Elected in 380 to be bishop of Sebaste, he
hexameters. Some toward the end have been lost. protested the appointment. At the Council of Con-
stantinople (381) he was a leader of the orthodox party,
Gregory of Nazianzus (St. Gregory Nazianzen) (c. emerging from the council as a deeply respected ortho-
330–390) Christian theologian who helped defeat heretical dox theologian, one of the most influential in the Eastern
doctrines in the fourth century Empire. He apparently died a short time after participat-
Born at Arianzus, near Nazianzus, in Cappadocia (a ing in the Council of Constantinople (394) under Nectar-
Roman province in Asia Minor), Gregory was the son of ius, patriarch of Constantinople and successor to
the bishop of Nazianzus. After studying in Athens, he GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS.
returned to Cappadocia and entered the monastic life,
joining the community that had been established by St. Gregory of Nyssa was a remarkable theologian,
Basil in Pontus. Ordained against his will in 362, he philosopher, and writer. Philosophically, he sought a har-
worked for the next years to assist his father, continuing mony between Christian teaching and the tenets of Pla-
to do so after his own consecration around 370 as bishop tonism and Neoplatonism. He was the author of
of Sasima Cappadocia. He did not take possession of his numerous theological treatises, the most famous being
see, remaining an auxiliary bishop to his father. After his the Catechetical Orations in which he examined the Trin-
father’s death in 374, however, Gregory retired to a ity and the Incarnation, as well as baptism and the
monastery in Seleucia until 379, when he was summoned Eucharist. He also wrote against the heretical leaders
to Constantinople. There, he emerged through his Apollinaris and Eunomius. His ascetical works include
preaching as the main leader of the orthodox party in its On Perfection, On Virginity, and On the Christian Life.
struggle with Arianism. By his oratorical skill, Gregory Aside from sermons, homilies, and letters, he also com-
was able to revive resistance to the Arians, prompting the posed numerous works on Sacred Scriptures, his exegeti-
summoning of the Council of Constantinople in 381 and cal writings covering the life of Moses, a Treatise on the
the triumph of the Nicene Creed. Named bishop of Con- Work of the Six Days, and an explanation of the titles of
stantinople during the council, he was quickly so the Psalms.
appalled by the schemes and intrigues of those around
him that he resigned his see and retired to Nazianzus. A Gregory the Illuminator (257–332) Apostle and
little later he returned to Cappadocia, where he spent his patron saint of Armenia
last years in prayer and contemplation. Ranked with Sts. Called the Illuminator because of his preaching of the
BASIL the Great and GREGORY OF NYSSA as one of the Cap- Christian faith to the Armenians, Gregory was not the
padocian Fathers, Gregory played an important role in first to preach the Gospel in Armenia (that honor is tradi-
the final defeat of Arianism. While shy and retiring, he tionally held by the Apostles Bartholomew and Jude
nevertheless accepted responsibility for using his consid-

Thaddeus), but he was responsible for convincing the Gundobad 249
ruler of the Armenians, King Tiridates III, to accept
Christianity as the national religion. Details about his life received possession of Lugdunum (Lyons). He also
are complicated by the general unreliability of accounts played a part in the meteoric rise of the magister militum
written by Armenian chroniclers, such as that of Agath- RICIMER, by marrying his sister. The child resulting from
angelos (penned after 456), who embellished their narra- that union was GUNDOBAD, who would succeed him.
tives with fantastic tales and legends. It is likely, however,
that Gregory was originally a Parthian prince who was Gundobad (fl. late fifth century C.E.) King of the Bur-
raised as a Christian at Caesarea, in Cappadocia. He mar- gundians (after 474) and magister militum
ried and had two sons but then went to Armenia during Gundobad was the son of King GUNDIOC, who was wed-
the persecution of the church in that country under King ded to the sister of the MAGISTER MILITUM RICIMER. From
Tiridates. Gregory succeeded not only in converting the the start of his political and military career, Gundobad
ruler but inspired him to such devotion that the king relied upon his uncle, Ricimer, both for protection and
sponsored the church throughout his realm. The Arme- for advancement. Thus, while his father continued to
nian nobles and people quickly followed suit. Gregory reign over the Burgundians, he aided Ricimer in attain-
then returned to Caesarea, where he was ordained and ing mastery over the Western Empire. In 472 he helped
consecrated bishop of the Armenians by Leontius of Cae- besiege Emperor ANTHEMIUS in Rome, and, after finding
sarea. He continued to preach among the Armenians, the defeated and disguised monarch, beheaded him per-
establishing bishops and extending Christian influence sonally on July 11, 472. As a reward for his loyalty and
into surrounding regions, including the Caucasus Moun- service, Ricimer elevated Gundobad to the rank of mag-
tains. Upon retiring, he was succeeded by his son Aris- ister militum. When Ricimer was murdered in 472, Gun-
takes who, in 325, attended the Council of Nicaea. The dobad naturally succeeded him, assuming control over
position of bishop (or katholikos, also catholicos) was for the affairs of the West. He personally approved the
a long period hereditary, remaining in Gregory’s family. appointment of Glycerius to be emperor on March 25,
The many letters and sermons attributed to him are not 473, but did nothing to ensure the acceptance of his
considered genuine. decision by Constantinople. The rejection of Glycerius
by Leo and the subsequent naming of Julius Nepos to
Gundioc (fl. mid-fifth century C.E.) King of the Burgun- be emperor mattered little to Gundobad, because he was
dians already returning home. His father died around 474,
Gundioc distinguished himself by his successful dealings and Gundobad followed him on the throne. He was
with the Western Empire, from which he probably king at the time of the demise of the Roman Empire in
the West.

H

Hadrian (Publius Aelius Hadrianus) (76–138 C.E.) Plotina, Hadrian’s adoption was announced on the ninth,
Emperor from 117 to 138 C.E. two days before the official pronouncement of Trajan’s
Hadrian was born the son of Publius Aelius Hadrianus demise. Despite such a suspicious beginning, the new
Afer and Domitia Paulina. The date of his birth was emperor assumed power immediately. He terminated Tra-
reported as January 24, 76, in Rome, although his family jan’s attempts at expansion by pulling out of Meso-
came from Picenum in Italy and had lived in Italica, a potamia, installing clients there instead. Urgent matters
town of Hispania Baetica. Connections to the imperial then summoned him to Moesia, where the Sarmatians
palace came from the marriage of his grandfather, a sena- and Roxolani were suppressed. Despite a promise not to
tor, to Ulpia, the aunt of TRAJAN. Thus when Hadrian’s execute members of the Senate, four senators were slain,
father died in 85, the lad fell under the care of his an act that horrified the senatorial class and started
guardians, Trajan himself (not yet emperor) and Acilius Hadrian’s reign badly. His association with the Senate
ATTIANUS, both of whom would prove influential in his would never assume any warmth.
subsequent development.
The cause of the alleged plottings had been fear of
During his education, Hadrian displayed an intense Hadrian’s changes in the imperial foreign and domestic
fondness for all things Greek, earning the nickname policies. Many officials feared a weakening of the empire
“Greekling.” Through Trajan’s influence he entered into as a result. Hadrian abandoned military conquests, deem-
government service and held the powerful rank of tri- ing them far too expensive, and instead centered on the
bune, with posts in Pannonia, Moesia, and Germania frontiers. The borders were strengthened, new cities and
Superior. During this last posting, with the XXII Legion,
the Primigenia Pia Fidelis, word arrived in October of 97 A coin from the reign of Hadrian; on the observe side is a
that Nerva had died. Trajan succeeded him. Hadrian hur- testament to Britannia (Hulton/Getty Archive)
ried to give him congratulations and never ceased to
enjoy the emperor’s favor, journeying with him to Rome.
There Hadrian married Trajan’s grandniece, Vibia Sabina.

Wars followed as Hadrian saw duty in the First and
Second Dacian Wars (102–103 and 105–106). He became
a quaestor, legate, and praetor during the conflicts and
then governed Pannonia in 107. A consulship followed in
108, along with the governorship of Syria in 114. A sec-
ond consulship was set to be his in 118, but Trajan died
on August 8, 117, in Cicilia.

Hadrian was at Antioch at the time of Trajan’s death.
He may not have been the emperor’s first choice as suc-
cessor, but through Attianus and the Empress Pompeia

250

communities encouraged, legions made stationary in the harpax 251
provinces, and a broader system of static walls and fortifi-
cations adopted. Thus, in Raetia and Germania Superior, culture, and was himself an author of poems and an auto-
the limites were improved with palisades. In Britain (BRI- biography. To live in a retreat from Rome, he built a pri-
TANNIA) the incursions of the northern tribes were vate estate just outside the city at TIVOLI.
opposed by the Great Wall erected between Tyne and Sol-
way (see WALL OF HADRIAN). His many gifts, which included a superb memory,
were offset by a ruthless nature and a capacity to indulge
With a new, inward focus, Hadrian paid most of his in tyrannical behavior. His frumentarii would never be
attention to the provinces. He traveled more extensively popular, and the frequent executions at the start and the
than any of his predecessors, listening to the inhabitants end of his reign caused widespread dislike. The last mur-
of each territory. From 120 to 132 he never ceased his ders were a part of the emperor’s attempts to provide
wanderings, journeying to Gaul, Britain, Spain, Asia, Rome with a proper heir. His first choice was Lucius
Greece (see ACHAEA and ATHENS), Sicily, Africa, Asia Aelius Caesar, for he had no children himself; but Aelius
Minor, Cappadocia, Syria, and Egypt, where his favorite dropped dead in January of 138. Another successor was
courtier, ANTINOUS, died in the Nile. The CURSUS PUBLI- found, ANTONINUS PIUS, who adopted Aelius’s one son,
CUS, or imperial post, was placed under central imperial Lucius Verus, and MARCUS AURELIUS. To simplify the suc-
administration. Athens he loved, giving it new buildings cession, Hadrian killed his brother-in-law, Julius Ursus
and favors and sitting as president of its public games. Servianus, and Servianus’s grandson. The murders were
Throughout Asia and Asia Minor temples were dedicated. prompted by a desire to avoid political strife and were
Rome was not forgotten, for there he built a new PAN- evidence of the emperor’s increasing harshness in the face
THEON in the Campus Martius, to replace Marcus of worsening illness. Suffering from numerous ailments,
Agrippa’s old structure. The Pantheon was a mammoth Hadrian reportedly had a desire to be killed, pleading
achievement, the highlight of a golden age in the empire. with those around him to do so. He left Rome, finally, for
a villa at Baiae, where he died on July 10, 138, having
While touring the provinces, Hadrian made it a point ruled Rome for 20 years and 11 months.
to win and hold the loyalty of his LEGIONS, for he had
plans for them as well. Despite his gifts and constant Spartianus authored an unreliable biography of
sharing in the drudgery of their camp life, Hadrian Hadrian, using the emperor’s own autobiography, and
demanded better discipline and more training. The included it in the Scriptores Historiae Augustae.
legions were now rarely moved from their posts, and
relied upon smaller detachments, the vexillationes, to pro- Suggested Readings: Birley, Anthony. Hadrian: The Rest-
vide patrols and communications between camps. less Emperor. New York: Routledge, 1997; Boatwright,
Mary Taliaferro. Hadrian and the City of Rome. Princeton,
Hadrian was aided in these frontier and legionary N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987; Lambert, Royston.
adjustments by a period of calm. DACIA, subjugated by Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. Lon-
Trajan, was converted into a Roman territory of three don: Lyle Stuart, 1988; Perowne, Stewart. Hadrian. Dover,
provinces, and virtually everywhere else the imperial N.H.: Croom Helm, 1986.
peace was maintained. Only in JUDAEA was there yet
another episode in its bloody history of Roman occupa- Hannibalianus (d. 337 C.E.) Nephew of Constantine the
tion. In 132, the Jews under Simon BAR COCHBA rebelled, Great and ruler, briefly, of the kingdoms of Pontus, Armenia,
taking Jerusalem and forcing a war of two years’ duration. and Cappadocia (335–337)
The son of Flavius Dalmatius, Hannibalianus was the
Two other areas of concern for Hadrian were govern- brother of Flavius Julius Dalmatius, with whom he was
ment and law. The Equestrian Order (EQUITES) was educated at Toulouse by Exsuperius. CONSTANTINE con-
advanced in importance, taking over the major burden of sidered him worthy of participation in the succession,
the civil service and amassing secretariat positions. The marrying him in 335 to his daughter Constantina and
Equestrians were also placed on Hadrian’s board, the granting him the rank of nobilissimus, then appointing
CONSILIUM PRINCIPIS. This commission advised him on him to the throne of Pontus. Hannibalianus proved to be
various matters, including legal questions. The edicts an able ruler and general, driving the Persians out of
passed throughout the previous years were systematically Armenia before taking over the rule of the country. He
organized with the help of experts in law and the judi- then took the title of King of Kings, with control over
ciary. Judges were appointed in place of the traditional ARMENIA, PONTUS, and CAPPADOCIA. After the death of
role of the Senate, adding further to the increased central- Constantine in 337, the successors, especially CONSTAN-
ization of the state, including the development of the TIUS II, grew wary of his power, and he was included in
FRUMENTARII, the imperial Secret Service. the palace massacre at Constantinople.

As was obvious from his grasp of the role of govern- harpax Roman word for the Greek harpagos, or grap-
ment on a vast scale, Hadrian was an intellectual of some pling hook, used by the Roman NAVY. One of the superb
stature. He surrounded himself with the finest minds of
the time, encouraged Hellenic art styles, literature, and

252 Haterius, Quintus tory. Although the work was supposedly found in several
libraries in Europe during the 1500s and 1600s, such
tactical innovations developed by Marcus AGRIPPA, the copies are now lost. In the surviving portions, Hegesip-
harpax was designed to be fired from a catapult at an pus is concerned with the church in its early days in
approaching enemy ship, smashing into a hull to connect Jerusalem. He also compiled an important succession list
the two vessels. The Romans then reeled in the foe, of the Roman bishops. Originally probably from Pales-
smashing their oars and making them susceptible to tine, he seems to have journeyed to Corinth and Rome,
attack by the highly skilled Imperial MARINES. The harpax where he met several bishops as recorded in Eusebius.
enjoyed its greatest hour at ACTIUM, on September 2, 31
B.C.E., when the fleet of Octavian (AUGUSTUS) routed the Helena (Flavia Julia Helena) (c. 250–330) Mother of
ships of Antony and Cleopatra. Using the lighter Libur- Constantine the Great, Augusta from c. 325–330, and a
nian vessels, Agrippa, Octavian’s admiral, moved around renowned patron of Christianity
Antony’s heavier ships, pinning and boarding them. Helena was born in Bithynia to a poor family of little
social status. She was working as a servant when she met
Haterius, Quintus (d. 26 C.E.) Orator of the early first Constantius I Chlorus (d. 306). As he was not yet promi-
century C.E. nent politically, their relationship was not discouraged,
Haterius came from a senatorial family and showed an and their subsequent union resulted in the birth of Con-
early gift for speaking. According to Tacitus, however, stantine around 285. In 293, however, Constantius
this reputation did not survive his death because it was became Caesar (junior emperor) and found it politically
more the result of natural inclinations and skills than of expedient to divorce Helena, marrying Theodora, step-
study and discipline. His speeches were always aimed at daughter of Emperor Maximian. Helena withdrew from
acquiring the good will of Emperor TIBERIUS. public life until 306 when her son succeeded Constantius
in the imperial system of the tetrarchy. Converted to
Hatra Fortress city situated in the harsh desert of Christianity, Helena came to enjoy considerable prestige
MESOPOTAMIA, south of Nineveh and west of the Tigris. Its within the empire, especially as her son became sole ruler
principal source of income was the trade routes that in 324. The following year, Helena was given the hon-
stretched from the East to Antioch and Palmyra and near orific title of Augusta and wielded much influence in the
Hatra. During the Roman Empire, the city was Parthian government, with control over part of the imperial trea-
at first and then Persian, although it identified with the sury. In 326 she went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land.
Arabs. While there she helped finance the building of churches,
especially the Churches of the Holy Sepulchre, the Nativ-
Hatra was involved in several of the Roman-Persian ity, and the Ascension. She was also reported to have
wars, using its many advantages to thwart capture. In 117 found the True Cross. After returning to Rome in 330,
C.E., Trajan struggled to take the city but failed. It hap- she died a short time later at the age of 80, one of the
pened again in 199–200. Septimius Severus spent 20 days most venerable figures in the Roman Empire. Her tomb
of incessant fighting but could produce only a shattered was installed in the basilica of Via Labicana. According to
wall and no breaches in Hatra’s defenses. Later, in the later traditions, she was attributed, incorrectly, a back-
sweeping conquests of Ardashir, the first Sassanid king, ground and lineage based in England.
the city still held out, and it would not be until 244 C.E.
that Ardashir’s son, Shapur, overcame the independent Heliodorus, C. Avidius (fl. mid-second century C.E.)
garrison. By the 360s it was in ruins. Philosopher, secretary, and associate of Hadrian
C. Avidius Heliodorus acquired a reputation for philo-
The reasons for Hatra’s invincibility were described sophical and rhetorical brilliance as a member of Had-
in some detail by the historian Dio. He wrote that Hatra rian’s intellectual circle. His official position was that of
was neither large nor prosperous but used its location in ab epistulis. Later he served as prefect of Egypt, a reward
the arid desert to exercise a terrible advantage over foes. for his speeches. He was the father of Avidius Cassius, a
The sun proved merciless to encampments, water dried future general under Emperor MARCUS AURELIUS.
up in the region and swarms of flies infested the invading
troops. Storms frequently appeared as well, sent by the Helius (d. 69 C.E.) Freedman
Sun-god, to whom the area had been consecrated. Trajan, Helius amassed great power during the reign of Nero
having attempted to take Hatra, fell ill from the unpleas- (54–69 C.E.). He may have held a procuratorship in Asia
ant conditions there and never recovered. during the reign of Claudius, helping to launch the Nero-
nian age with the destruction of SILANUS in 54 C.E.; he
Hegesippus (fl. second-century C.E.) Christian histo- and Publius Celer poisoned Silanus. As a freedman of
rian and saint Nero, Helius received the emperor’s trust and emulated
Hegesippus was the author of five books of memoirs, in
Greek, against the Gnostics and on the true tradition of
apostolic preaching. He is known only through frag-
ments, mostly preserved in Eusebius’s Ecclesiastical His-

his corruption and vices. In 67, the emperor traveled to Hellenism 253
Greece, leaving Helius virtually in control of the empire.
He murdered at will but found that the responsibilities of grew more affluent, preferred the refinement, luxuries,
the office were too great. He begged Nero to return, and and artistic sensibility of the Greeks to their own previ-
eventually went to Greece to so alarm Nero that he would ous rusticity. Greek thus became the cultural benchmark
go back to Rome. Helius claimed that conspiracies were for the elite of Roman society.
everywhere. He was accurate, because Nero fell from
power in the next year. In 69 C.E., Galba, Nero’s succes- The Hellenic cultural imprint was advanced further
sor, ordered Helius put in chains, marched through the by the four Macedonian Wars fought between Rome and
streets of Rome and then executed. the kingdom of Macedonia from 214–148 B.C.E. The con-
flicts ended in the reduction of Macedonia to the status of
Helix, Aurelius (d. after 220 C.E.) Famous Roman a Roman province and the perpetual involvement of Rome
athlete in the affairs of the Greeks and the Hellenized East. The
Helix became one of the most popular athletes in Rome war also brought a steady influx of Greek and Hellenized
in 219–220. During the ludi Capitolini, he won both the slaves and prisoners to Rome, marking a significant social
wrestling and the pancratium, a type of violent boxing change. Many of the prisoners became tutors to the chil-
match. While performing at Olympia, he so frightened dren of the powerful of the city, teaching the future lead-
his opponents that no one entered the ring with him, ers of the empire Greek, philosophy, literature, and
fearing that he was the “eighth from Hercules.” rhetoric. Inevitably, Greek became one of the mandatory
languages of the upper classes, and ignorance of Greek
Hellenism One of the most pervasive and influential intellectual arts was considered a genuine social failing.
cultures encountered by the Romans was that of the Hel-
lenic civilization, which reached its zenith in the fourth- Hellenism was embraced subsequently by the Ro-
and fifth-centuries B.C.E. and left its imprint on virtually mans in virtually every significant aspect of their culture.
the entire Mediterranean world. The Romans found in Its influence was felt in the fields of education, art and
Greek culture the qualities and skills that they could architecture, literature, and philosophy, and nearly every
emulate. Rome thus adopted and Latinized elements of notable Roman intellectual had some association with the
Hellenic civilization, including its pantheon of gods and Greeks. Cicero and Julius Caesar both studied in Greece;
key facets of literature, art, and science. The acceptance Lucretius acknowledged openly the superiority of the
of Hellenism came slowly, but its embrace made possible Greeks; and Emperor Hadrian was unquestionably more
its place in the cultural inheritance bequeathed by the of a Greek in outlook than he was a Roman. Marcus
Romans to Western civilization. Aurelius wrote his correspondence in Greek, not in Latin.

The earliest influences of Hellenism on the Romans Beyond the confines of Rome and its social classes,
can be traced to the eighth century B.C.E. Greek colonies Hellenism exercised perhaps its greatest influence on the
were established in southern Italy and Sicily, and the peoples of the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire
Etruscans bore a distinct Hellenic cultural imprint. The and upon the sociopolitical system utilized by the
Romans, rustic farmers long suspicious of foreign influ- Romans for the maintenance of their far-flung empire.
ences, were reluctant to accept Greek customs, seeing Thanks to the conquests of Alexander the Great and
them as contrary to traditional Roman values of family life domination of the Mediterranean world by his immediate
and simple country habits. This opposition declined grad- successors, Hellenism was firmly planted across the many
ually following the overthrow of the last king of Rome in lands of the East well before the Roman legions marched
509 B.C.E. and the foundation of the Republic. As Roman upon their frontiers.
influence was extended across the Italian Peninsula,
Greek literature, philosophy, art, and social practices be- The inhabitants of what became the eastern
came evidenced in Etruria, as did the use of Greek lan- provinces of the Roman Empire were thus already united
guage. The continued expansion of Rome throughout the in a number of ways by Hellenic civilization. The first
Mediterranean and the conquest of Greece and Sicily ulti- and most ubiquitous forms of cultural unity was the pres-
mately led to the adoption of Hellenic civilization by the ence of a common tongue, a lingua franca: Greek, in the
Romans themselves in the third century B.C.E. form of colloquial language termed koin. Colloquial
Greek was spoken from the Italian peninsula to parts of
There followed an anti-Hellenic intellectual and cul- Africa to Egypt and Alexandria, across Palestine, and over
tural backlash led by Cato the Elder (234–149 B.C.E.), the whole of Asia Minor. It was the language of com-
who saw Hellenism as a threat to Romanitas, the self- merce and of most local government. The Romans did
perception of being Roman and part of Roman culture. not change this system, finding it useful as a centralizing
His sober call—like that of other Romans’—found little language, as they lacked the resources and the bureau-
sympathy among the Roman upper class, who, as they cratic personnel to staff every form and level of govern-
ment administration.

Equally, the presence of established cities and urban
centers based upon the traditional Greek structure of the
polis, offered to the Romans a ready-made arrangement for
government. The local administration was left in the hands

254 Helvetia Carcopino, Jerome. Daily Life in Ancient Rome. New
Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1968; Clark, G.
of those administrators on the scene, but they were gradu- Women in the Ancient World. Oxford: Oxford University
ally absorbed into the wider imperial system of the colonia Press, 1989; Cowell, F. R. Life in Ancient Rome. New York:
and municipia, which offered many advantages. The most G. F. Putnam’s Sons, 1961; Cunliffe, Barry. Greeks, Romans
favored status possible for a community was the granting and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction. London: Batsford,
of Roman citizenship, a privilege that necessitated the 1988; Dupont, Florence. Daily Life in Ancient Rome.
abandonment of the earlier polis in favor of the colonial Translated by Christopher Woodall. Oxford, U.K.: Black-
and then municipal status. Nevertheless, koin remained the well Publishers, 1992; Finley, M. I., ed. Classical Slavery.
lingua franca and the adoption of Roman law was uneven, London: F. Cass, 1987; Garnsey, Peter. The Roman Empire:
with long-standing Greek law and local customs enduring Economy, Society, and Culture. Berkeley: University of Cal-
long after a city was declared a municipia. ifornia Press, 1987; Hallett, Judith P. Fathers and Daugh-
ters in Roman Society: Women and the Elite Family.
The Hellenization of the Roman Empire was marked Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984;
in the late third century, with the decline of Rome and Raaflaub, Kurt A., ed. Social Struggles in Archaic Rome:
the division of the empire by Diocletian. As Rome proved New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders. Berkeley:
strategically indefensible to the threats on its frontiers, University of California Press, 1986; Rawson, Elizabeth.
the heart of the empire gravitated eastward, culminating Intellectual Life in the Late Roman Republic. Baltimore:
in the decision of Constantine the Great to build his capi- Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985; Trager, James. The
tal at Byzantium, the city renamed Constantinople. The Women’s Chronology: A Year-By-Year Record from Prehistory
Eastern Empire, based in Constantine’s metropolis, began to the Present. New York: Henry Holt, 1994; Veyne, P., ed.
along Latin lines but within a few centuries was fully A History of Private Life 1. From Pagan Rome to Byzantium.
imbued with the Hellenic flavor of the region and its his- Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987.
torical sensibilities. The Latin culture that had forged the
empire deteriorated in the West and was amalgamated Helvetia Correctly called Ager Helvetiorum (Land of the
with the even more vital Germanic peoples that were Helvetians); the territory occupied by the Helvetii, a fierce
overrunning it. In the East, the fading Latin culture people living in the western part of modern Switzerland. In
received a major strengthening by grounding itself fur- the late second century B.C.E., and throughout the first,
ther in Hellenism, which it earlier had admired grudg- according to Caesar, this territory was surrounded by the
ingly and had adopted gradually. Greek life and traditions Rhine, the Jura range and both Lake Geneva and the
allowed the Eastern Empire to reject outright the Ger- Rhone. As a consequence, the Helvetii lived a crowded
manic influences so dominant in the West during the existence, making expansion difficult and war inevitable.
later imperial era, thereby granting a stay of execution to
the Roman Empire itself. While the Western Empire Their first experience with Rome came around 107
ended in broad terms in 476, the Eastern or Byzantine B.C.E., when they invaded Gaul and later Italy, only to be
Empire endured until 1453. The words of HORACE (Epist., routed by Marius in 101. The cramped circumstances
2.1.156–57) proved prophetic indeed: Graecia capta under which they lived were not improved in 58 B.C.E.
ferum victorum capit et artes; intulit agresti Latio. when Julius CAESAR took control of Gaul (See GALLIC
WARS). Under their chief, ORGETORIX, they planned to
See also ART AND ARCHITECTURE, EDUCATION, LITERA- leave their homes and settle in the more fertile and expan-
TURE, PHILOSOPHY. sive regions of southern Gaul (GALLIA NARBONENSIS). After
Orgetorix died, the Helvetii set out on their quest.
Suggested Readings: Aries, Philippe, and Georges Duby,
eds. A History of Private Life 1: From Pagan Rome to It was unfortunate for them that Caesar had power
Byzantium. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard over Gaul at the time, for there they met an enemy that
University Press, 1987; Athanassiadi-Fowden, Polymnia. they could not defeat. At Arar and Bibracte, they suffered
Julian and Hellenism: An intellectual biography. Oxford: devastating setbacks and were compelled to return home.
Clarendon Press, 1981; Balsdon, J. P. V. D. Life and Leisure Subsequent Roman domination brought colonies and
in Ancient Rome. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969; Balsdon, legionary camps, subduing the Helvetii and, in time,
J. P. V. D. Roman Women: Their History and Habits. Lon- Romanizing them.
don: Bodley Head, 1962; Bertman, Stephen, eds. The Con-
flict of Generations in Ancient Greece and Rome. The capital of the Helvetii was Aventicum, joined by
Amsterdam: Gruner, 1976; Boren, Henry C. Roman Soci- such cities as Vindonissa and Noviodunum. They
ety: A Social, Economic, and Cultural History; Lexington, remained pacified and quiet for over a century and then,
Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1977; Bradley, K. R. Slaves and Masters in 69 C.E., suffered the misfortune of being in the line of
in the Roman Empire: A Study in Social Control. Brussels: march of the legions of aspiring-emperor VITELLIUS. Believ-
Latomus, 1984; Bradley, K. R. Slavery and Rebellion in the ing that Galba was still emperor, they refused to accept
Roman World, 140 B.C.–70 B.C. London: B. T. Batsford, Vitellius’s claims (they had not even heard of Otho).
1989; Brown, Peter R. L. Society and the Holy in Late Alienus Caecina, Vitellius’s general, launched an attack
Antiquity. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982;

against the Helvetii in retaliation. Thousands of the Helve- Herculaneum 255
tians were killed and most of the country was pillaged and 268. He first appeared in the records as the general in
burned. Aventicum was spared only by abject surrender command of an expedition against the Persians, defeated
and by the acceptance of humiliating terms. by the Palmyrenes of Queen Zenobia. This story is highly
unlikely. Heraclianus plotted to remove the emperor,
Helvetii See HELVETIA. whose reign had been marked by seemingly endless dis-
asters, political and military. His coconspirators were
Helvidius Priscus (fl. first century C.E.) Stoic philo- Claudius and Domitius Aurelianus (both later emperors)
sopher and, presumably, numerous other generals and staff offi-
The son of a centurion, Helvidius became a Stoic and had cers. For whatever reasons, Heraclianus killed himself
a long, distinguished career ahead of him when he mar- after the assassination.
ried the daughter of THRASEA PAETUS. Unfortunately, in Herculaneum City in CAMPANIA situated between
66, his father-in-law was destroyed politically through the Neapolis and POMPEII that achieved everlasting fame as
machinations of EPRIUS MARCELLUS. While Thrasea Paetus the sister city of Pompeii covered by Mount VESUVIUS on
was forced to commit suicide, Priscus was exiled from August 24, 79 C.E. Herculaneum was founded either by
Rome to Apollonia, Syria. local inhabitants or as a trading post by the Greeks. Its
development followed closely that of nearby Pompeii,
When Galba succeeded to the throne in 69, Priscus and, like it, the city was captured by the Romans in 89
returned to Rome, eager to avenge the death of Thrasea B.C.E. Unlike Pompeii, the city did not receive colonial
upon Marcellus. He was prevented from this by Galba status but, instead, municipal rank (see COLONIES and
and the division of the Senate. In 70 he was praetor, MUNICIPIUM). Throughout the late Republic and in the
greeting the new emperor Vespasian by his own name. early years of the empire, Herculaneum became the oppo-
This act of rudeness was only the start of a long campaign site of Pompeii, with residences, villas, and little industry.
of dissension and effrontery, culminating in his banish- Where Pompeii relied upon trade and business to survive,
ment from Rome again. Vespasian reportedly ordered his
death reluctantly, sending an order of pardon as well, but The remains of Herculaneum (Courtesy Fr. Felix Just, S.J.)
accidentally allowing it to be withdrawn when a report
reached him that Priscus was already dead. He thus died
in the same Stoic manner as his father-in-law. Tacitus, in
the Histories, wrote that Priscus discharged his duties as
senator, husband, and son-in-law with propriety, always
demanding the truth and firm in the face of danger.

Hera See JUNO.

Heracleus the Eunuch (d. 455 C.E.) Official in the
court of Valentinian III
Heracleus helped to murder the magister militum AETIUS
on September 21, 454. Heracleus held the post of cham-
berlain (PRAEPOSITUS SACRI CUBICULI), using his skills to
secure palace control. Toward this end he convinced the
emperor that Aetius was dangerous and had to be
removed. Valentinian, in agreeing to the murder, removed
from the scene the only man capable of halting the bar-
barian invasions of the era. Once Aetius was gone, Hera-
cleus secured his own position by opposing the
nominations of any successors, including PETRONIUS MAX-
IMUS. Maximus, however, was equal to the occasion and
convinced former officers of Aetius to remove not only
Heracleus but Valentinian as well. They died only months
after Aetius’s murder, in 455.

Heraclianus, Aurelius (d. 268 C.E.) Prefect of the Prae-
torian Guard (267–268)
Heraclianus served in the army of Emperor GALLIENUS
and was a prime player in the conspiracy against him in

256 Herennia Etruscilla subsequent evolution of European occultism, hermetic
magic, and pseudo-mystical alchemy.
the inhabitants of Herculaneum put their hopes in the
smaller taverns and shops and in the gold of the wealthy Hermogenes (d. after 138 C.E.) Physician of Emperor
owners of the villas. Thus, in 62 C.E., when an earthquake Hadrian (r. 117–138 C.E.)
caused severe damage in Campania, repairs went much Hermogenes was unable to cure HADRIAN of dropsy, an ail-
faster in Herculaneum. Any previous disasters were as ment that plagued the emperor toward the end of his life.
nothing compared to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. According to the historian Dio, Hermogenes participated
Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae were buried by lava in Hadrian’s efforts to end his life prematurely because of
and ash. In this city, the ash was as deep as 100 feet, seal- his illness. Hadrian summoned Mastor, an IAZYGES, and
ing for centuries the entire community. When discovered instructed Hermogenes to show him where to strike at the
in 1720, and through many long years of excavation, Her- heart for a quick death. Hermogenes began the instruc-
culaneum emerged as an almost complete city. It con- tions, but Mastor recoiled in terror from the deed. Hadrian
tained a theater, a basilica, baths, and temples to Isis and then supposedly ate dangerous foods and finally died, say-
Magna Mater. Its value, historically, and archaeologically, ing, “Many doctors have killed a king.”
has increased with each new discovery.
Hermunduri One of the major tribes of southern Ger-
Herennia Etruscilla (Herennia Cupressenia Etrus- many (GERMANIA), who occupied the region between the
cilla (fl. mid-third century C.E.) Wife of G. M. Q. Decius; Main and the Danube rivers. They were strategically
empress from 249 to 251 and Augusta from around 250 placed between two traditionally hostile people, the
Herennia joined her husband as ruler of the Roman CHATTI to the north and the MARCOMANNI to the south.
Empire and supported his persecution of Christianity. She The presence of such enemies and the geographic posi-
also supervised the education of their son, Herennius tion of the Hermunduri made an alliance with Rome both
Etruscus, who became Caesar in 250 and Augustus in desirous and inevitable.
251. She was elevated to Augusta around this time to aid
her position in Rome while DECIUS was away on cam- According to the historian Tacitus, the Hermunduri
paigns. In June 251, the emperor was annihilated with his were friends of the Roman Empire to an unusual extent.
son at Abrittus by the Goths under KNIVA. His successor They could cross borders and enter freely into Germania
was Gallus, who worked to placate the political elements Superior and Raetia. Commerce between them and the
in the capital by leaving Herennia in her position as provinces was heavy. In 58 C.E., the Hermunduri fought a
Augusta and by placing her younger son, Hostilian, in the summer-long battle with the Chatti for control over sev-
role of co-emperor. Gallus did not last past 253, and eral important salt springs. The Hermunduri gained vic-
Herennia faded into obscurity. tory. Later, Emperor Domitian probably received their
help against the Chatti during his campaign in Germany.
Herennius Etruscus (Quintus Herennius Etruscus By the middle of the second century C.E. the Hermunduri
Messius Decius) (d. 251 C.E.) Son of Decius and Heren- had joined the ranks of the Marcomanni and their Ger-
nia Etruscilla man allies. They made unsuccessful war against Marcus
Herennius received the traditional education of the Aurelius, were defeated and subsequently became only
court and, when his father became emperor in 249, was one element of the wider barbarian cataclysm growing
made a prince. In 250 he was appointed heir designate just beyond the Roman world.
of the throne, with the title of Caesar, and in 251 he
became Augustus. Herennius joined his father in the Herod Antipas (d. after 39 C.E.) Son of Herod the Great
wars on the frontier against the Goths, after leading and his Samaritan wife Matthace
troops himself into Moesia to protect the Danubian Herod Antipas was king of Galilee and Peraea from 4
provinces. The fighting was fierce. Herennius apparently B.C.E. to 39 C.E. He was one of the fortunate sons of
was at his father’s side in every engagement, including HEROD THE GREAT, surviving childhood and his father,
the last one, the disaster at Abrittus in June of 251. This who died in 4 B.C.E. As an heir, he aspired to the throne
terrible battle, fought with the Goths, cost the empire its of Judaea but had to be satisfied with Galilee and Peraea,
ruler and the designated heir, for Herennius died beside ruling as a tetrarch, appointed by Emperor Augustus.
his father. Herod did what he could to improve his domain, emulat-
ing his father in the construction of cities. Tiberias was
Hermes See MERCURY. founded and Sepphoris improved, although it was
intended to be subordinate to Tiberias, where Herod lived
Hermes Trismegistos A mystic author, generally in a palace erected for his pleasure. In Peraea he also
associated with the Egyptian god Thoth, whose works, repaired Betharamptha, renaming it first Livias and then
collectively known as the Corpus Hermeticum, were Julias.
divided into 18 books and played a major role in the

Domestically, Herod was not popular with his sub- Herodes Atticus 257
jects, inheriting the same local problems that had plagued
his father. He compounded these by divorcing the daugh- the Roman legions, Herod was firmly in place. He wisely
ter of Aretas IV of Nabataea and marrying the famous maintained excellent relations with Antony, now master
HERODIAS. She urged her new husband to ambitious pro- of the East as a member of the Second TRIUMVIRATE, but
jects but could do little to prevent his suffering a damag- avoided losing the kingdom to Cleopatra, who was
ing attack in 37 C.E. at the hands of his estranged amassing vast territories for Egypt. Such an association
father-in-law, Aretas, who exacted revenge for his daugh- eventually proved ill-advised, when Octavian (AUGUSTUS)
ter, an act left largely unpunished by Rome. won the battle of ACTIUM in 31 B.C.E.

Tiberius used Herod to negotiate a treaty with Herod was able to convince the new emperor that he
Parthia in 36 C.E., but his success in this venture was was trustworthy, and Augustus fitted the Judaean realm
short-lived. Herodias continued her ambitions, and in 39, into his general plan for the eastern clients of the empire.
Herod made the mistake of asking the new emperor, Not only was Herod confirmed in his role, but also new
GAIUS CALIGULA, for the right to rule as an independent cities were added to his possessions. Such gifts did noth-
king, with ambitions toward the realm of Herod Agrippa ing to improve his standing with his own subjects, how-
I. Caligula deposed him in favor of his friend Herod ever, for they disliked his Idumaean origins and his
Agrippa I. Herod Antipas and his wife were sent into policies toward Gentiles, despite the fact that they
exile in Lugdunum (Lyons), his removal probably the resulted in prosperity.
result of Herod Agrippa’s plotting. Ironically, Herod
Antipas never recovered politically from the two major The economics of Palestine were improved. Herod
events of his long reign. First, he was responsible for the built CAESAREA on the coast and granted gifts to foreign
arrest and execution of John the Baptist. Later, PONTIUS communities, especially the Greeks, whom he admired
PILATE sent him a prisoner to be tried, but the tetrarch and emulated. The Hellenic character of his court
would have nothing to do with such a religiously promi- inflamed the conservative Jewish population. His citizens
nent figure, Jesus Christ. found little joy in his rebuilding of the Great Temple, pre-
ferring to focus on his foreign tastes and his harsh and
Herod the Great (c. 73–4 B.C.E.) King of Judaea from 37 despotic government, so openly answerable to Rome.
to 4 B.C.E. Herod was beset by domestic troubles and by his own
Herod was the son of ANTIPATER of Idumaea, then a min- violent nature. Unrest was chronic throughout all of
ister of state for the family of Jannaeus Alexander. As his Palestine, and the more ruthlessly the king suppressed it
father grew in power and influence in the kingdom, the more widespread it became. Equally, Herod carried
Herod and his brother Phasael attained positions in gov- his willingness to shed blood into the privacy of the
ernment. By 47 B.C.E. he was governor of GALILEE, while palace. In 30 he murdered his predecessor, Hyrcanus, and
his brother served as governor of JUDAEA. Both were the following year executed his wife Mariamne.
Roman citizens. Antipater was assassinated in 43 by the
religio-political party of Malichus, and Herod immedi- His sons were fortunate to survive him, and on some
ately destroyed the group, making himself indispensable occasions lucky to survive dinner parties. Two sons, ARIS-
to the ethnarch of Judaea, the weak Hyrcanus. The next TOBULUS AND ALEXANDER, were tried and killed in 7 B.C.E.,
three years were spent by Herod in cementing his posi- and another died in 4 B.C.E., just before Herod himself
tion as the successor to Antipater in the kingdom. When expired after a bout with a terrible illness much like that
Antigonus, the son of the disenfranchised Prince Aristob- which later infected Emperor GALERIUS. Augustus com-
ulus, arrived to start a civil war, Herod defeated him and mented that it was safer to be one of Herod’s pigs than
compelled Hyrcanus to give him a share in the royal one of his sons, making note of the Jewish ban on the
house, including a marriage to his granddaughter Mari- handling of pork. Following his demise in 4 B.C.E.,
amne. Herod’s vast realm was divided among his heirs: Antipas,
Archelaus, and Philip. Never again would Rome allow
Herod was certainly working toward the succession such independence on the part of a king of Palestine.
when, in 40, the Parthians invaded Palestine. Hyrcanus
was captured, Phasael forced to kill himself and Herodes Atticus (Lucius Vibullius Hipparchus
Antigonus placed in control of Jerusalem. Unable to win Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes) (c. 104–178
without allies, Herod retreated to the mountain fastness C.E.) Sophist, political figure, and a patron of extreme
of MASADA, set its defenses and then journeyed to Rome wealth
to ask for the aid of Marc Antony. The general gave him Herodes was born in the famed city of Marathon but
full support and the rights to the throne of Hyrcanus, as taught in Rome and gained a considerable reputation for
ethnarch of Judaea, and the family home of Herod, Idu- rhetoric. Atticus became the tutor of Marcus Aurelius and
maea. Three years of fighting followed, including a siege Lucius Verus. Made a CONSUL in 143 and having amassed
of Jerusalem to evict Antigonus. Finally, with the help of tremendous riches, Atticus was also heir to the fortune of
Hipparchus of Athens, as his grandson. He turned this
legacy into a series of gifts to his native land, especially to
the city of Athens. In time his generosity overcame his

258 Herodian Herodion was generally hidden from view by its artificial
mound, tremendous in size but invisible until a visitor
reputation as a sophist. Athens received buildings and actually ascended the 200 steps of white marble leading
other gifts from Atticus, as well as aqueducts, which were to the summit. Round towers and high walls provided an
erected at Olympia. Atticus also constructed the Odeion architecturally impressive defense. Within, its beauty was
of Athens, in honor of his wife who died in 160. centered in the sumptuous palaces inhabited quite often
by Herod. There were apartments, baths, gardens, and a
Herodian (d. c. 250 C.E.) Historian and writer synagogue, as well as areas for friends and staff. Water
Born in Syria, Herodian joined the civil service according had to be brought in from outside sources.
to his own account. Little else is known of his early or
private life, except that his work displays a strong sense In 14 B.C.E. Marcus Agrippa visited Judaea and was
of patriotism toward the empire and a stern moral streak. entertained at the Herodion. Ten years later the fort
His lasting achievement was a history of the emperors, served as Herod’s tomb. He was reportedly buried there,
from Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Gordian III although his body was never discovered. The history of
(180–238 C.E.). Its value is limited until the narrative the site did not prevent the Jews from seizing it in 66 C.E.
reaches a more contemporary account, for Herodian in the JEWISH REBELLION against Rome.
ignored chronology, historical facts, and events. As a
younger associate of DIO, Herodian was overshadowed in The Herodion, however, was no Masada. It fell to the
his own generation by this great historian. His own his- legate Lucilius Bassus and his forces. During the time of
tory reflected Dio’s mammoth effort, relying upon it for the uprising of Simon BAR COCHBA (132–135), the Hero-
many details but, at times, supplementing Dio’s own writ- dion was reoccupied by the Jews but once more fell to the
ing. Romans.

Herodias (d. after 39 C.E.) Famous wife of Herod Anti- Heruli One of the more powerful of the barbarian peo-
pas and daughter of Berenice and Aristobulus, son of Herod ples. The Heruli or Heruls migrated originally from Scan-
the Great dinavia, perhaps Sweden, to follow their Gothic
Herodias watched her father being murdered at the order neighbors south. They branched off into two main hosts,
of Herod the Great and then married the half-brother of one continuing on toward the Rhine, the other toward
HEROD ANTIPAS, another Herod called Philip in the the BLACK SEA. Both arrived during the critical third cen-
account of the Gospel of Mark. Herod Antipas apparently tury C.E. to join in the terrible invasions of the time.
fell in love with his niece and proposed to her. Seeing
that his fortunes were rising faster than her husband’s, The Rhine Heruli found a place along the southern
Herodias accepted his hand. Antipas divorced his first stretch of the river where they came into immediate con-
wife, the daughter of Aretas IV of Nabataea, and took tact with the Romans, some time around 286 C.E. They
Herodias as his wife upon his return from Rome, some- soon entered into the service of Rome, supplying auxil-
time before the murder of John the Baptist. iaries for the army in Germany (GERMANIA). Their sepa-
rated cousins took a very different path. These Heruli
The marriage was received with animosity by the reached the Black Sea in the middle of the third century
people, who accused the royal couple of adultery and C.E. and were allied to the major nation of the Goths. As
incest. Further, Aretas IV launched a retaliatory attack they were familiar with ships and sailing, the Heruli were
upon Herod in 37, with an invasion of Peraea, a strike put in charge of the vessels extracted from the kingdom
that Rome did not avenge. Herodias was depicted as of the BOSPORUS and used to launch the invasions of Asia
harsh, demanding, and scheming. She was supposed to Minor, Thrace, and Greece in 267. The Heruli-guided
have driven her husband into the ambitious plans that fleets ravaged Bithynia, Byzantium, and much of the
eventually cost him his throne. In 39, she convinced Black Sea coast. Gallienus, that same year, fought a
Herod to ask for greater control of Galilee and Peraea, bloody battle against the Goths at Naissus. The Heruli
which resulted in the two of them being charged with contingents under King Naulobotus surrendered, and
treasonous conspiracies. They were deposed and exiled to Naulobotus received a client status from the emperor. But
Lugdunum (Lyons) by Gaius Caligula. two years later the Heruli ships were again on the prowl.

Herodion Fortress built by Herod the Great, 60 fur- At first the Heruli settled on the Black Sea, establish-
longs south of JERUSALEM, upon an artificial hill; served as ing for themselves a small territory. As the eastern hordes
one of his major defensive sites in JUDAEA. During Herod’s continued to arrive, they pushed westward, arriving
war of reconquest against the Parthians (40–37 B.C.E.), he finally in Pannonia. Relatively peaceful cohabitation fol-
defeated a Parthian force near the hill. To commemorate lowed with their Gothic neighbors, but by the middle of
this triumph a new fortress was constructed there. Ever the fifth century, a new, potent race had taken control of a
ambitious, Herod perhaps exceeded his own hopes, when vast stretch of land from the Steppes to the Danube. The
the Herodion (Latin, Herodium) was completed. The Huns became slave masters of the many smaller tribes
across much of Europe, using them as fighting servants.
Thus, in 451, when Attila set off to conquer Gaul, the

Heruli were in his host. The Hunnic empire, however, Hilary 259
was destined to be brief. Attila died in 454. One year later
a union of the Germans smashed the Huns in Pannonia at 220, was absolutely enamored of him. The slave’s mother,
the battle of Nedao, breaking them so thoroughly that also in servitude, was brought to Rome and given a place
they never again troubled Europe in any organized fash- of honor. Elagabalus tried to raise Hierocles to the rank of
ion. Heruli warriors participated in the battle against the Caesar and enjoyed being beaten by him for “adultery.”
Huns and reaped the rewards of freedom. They took over Not surprisingly, the Romans, and the Praetorian Guard
a part of Pannonia and there grew in size and in strength. especially, greeted such behavior as revolting and
By the end of the Western Empire, in 476 C.E., the mighty demanded Hierocles’ dismissal with other, equally offen-
Odoacer, the first barbarian king of Italy, may have sive officials. Elagabalus first agreed but then reinstated
deposed Romulus Augustulus with the help of the Heruli. Hierocles, an act that hastened the emperor’s assassina-
tion by the Guard in 222. Hierocles was included in the
Hesychius of Jerusalem (fl. early fifth century) Greek ranks of those massacred after the death of the emperor.
presbyter and exegete, author of numerous biblical commen-
taries, saint in the Greek Church Hierocles (2), Sossianus (fl. early fourth century C.E.)
Little is known of Hesychius’s life, although he was prob- Governor of Bithynia and Egypt and the instigator of perse-
ably a monk in his early years and, according to Theo- cutions against the Christians
phanes the Confessor, a presbyter in Jerusalem in 412. Hierocles tried to use an intellectual, philosophical, and
His writings have been lost in part, but many were pre- imaginative response to CHRISTIANITY. He preferred to
served in edited form and passed on under other names. compel Christians to recant rather than seek martyrdom
Thus, the commentary on the Psalms attributed to St. by execution. Punishment for those who remained stead-
Athanasius was probably the work of Hesychius. He fast, however, could take a unique turn. He once confined
apparently wrote commentaries on the entire Bible and a virgin to a brothel, an act for which he was beaten with
was the author of a lost church history. Hesychius should a stick by the philosopher Aedesius. Hierocles also
not be confused with Bishop Hesychius of Jerusalem, a authored a treatise attacking the basis and logic of Christ
contemporary of St. Gregory the Great. and the Christian Creed. Eusebius responded with his
Contra Hieroclem (Against Hierocles).
Hibernia Roman name for Ireland; also called Iverna
or Juverna after one of the tribes upon its southern coast. Hieronymian Martyrology Famous martyrology,
Ireland never suffered subjugation by Rome, although it known in Latin as the Hieronymianum, that was probably
was known to the Romans, including Julius Caesar and compiled in the fifth century in Italy. Its name was
Agricola. Tacitus, in Agricola, wrote of the country: derived from a statement in the (apocryphal) correspon-
dence that precedes the text that lists St. Jerome as the
This island is less than Britain, but larger than those of author of the work. The martyrology gives the date on
our sea (the Mediterranean). Its soil, climate, and the the calendar year, followed by the name of a saint com-
manner and dispositions of its inhabitants, are little memorated on each day, where the saint might be buried,
different from those in Britain. Its ports and harbors entombed, or venerated, and any appropriate details
are better known, from the concourse of merchants related to the particular saint.
for the purpose of commerce.
Hilarianus, Q. Iulius (fl. early fourth century C.E.)
Agricola, the great general of Rome in Britain, was of Chronologist
the opinion that all of Ireland could have been conquered Hilarianus was the author of several works on chronol-
and held by one legion and some auxiliaries. But the ogy. The most notable of these works was De duratione
inability of the legions in Britain to keep those islands mundi (On the duration of the world).
safe from invasion precluded any new acquisitions of ter-
ritory. Hilary (1) (Hilary of Arles) (403–449) Archbishop of
Arles who became a catalyst in the extending of papal
Hierocles (1) (d. 222. C.E.) Most decadent of the authority over the church in Gaul
courtiers in the service of Emperor Elagabalus From a family in northern Gaul, Hilary became a monk
Hierocles earned the title of “husband” to the ruler. Hie- in Lérins, succeeding St. Honoratus in 428–429 as arch-
rocles was a slave from Caria, living in Rome and earning bishop of Arles. A supporter of reform, he presided over
his living as a chariot driver. One day he took a spill just several councils, including those of Orange (441) and
in front of the royal box. His golden hair and beauty Vaison (442). In 444, he took the important step of
attracted ELAGABALUS immediately, and within days Hie- deposing Bishop Chelidonius of Besançon and irregularly
rocles was installed in the palace, amassing tremendous replacing him with another. This act exceeded his author-
power over the court and the emperor. Elagabalus, by ity as a metropolitan, and the entire measure was
rescinded by Pope St. Leo I. The pontiff then deprived

260 Hilary Mons Palatinus The Palatine Hill was situated just
south of the Quirinal Hill and the CAMPUS MAR-
Hilary of his metropolitan powers and obtained from TIUS. Throughout the Imperial Age it was the
Emperor Valentinian III recognition that Rome had abode of the emperors. Augustus lived upon it in a
supreme jurisdiction over the church in Gaul. Hilary sub- small house, and his successors built increasingly
mitted to the papal acts and was not removed from his lavish palaces. The DOMUS TIBERIANA was eventu-
see. He also authored a still extant biography of Honora- ally connected to the GOLDEN HOUSE OF NERO by
tus and other minor works. the DOMUS TRANSITORIA, which stretched across
the Velia to the valley beneath the Esquiline.
Hilary (2) (Hilary of Poitiers) (c. 315–367) Bishop of Domitian constructed the Domus Domitiani and
Poitiers, theologian, leading opponent of Arianism the DOMUS AUGUSTANA, with its own stadium.
Called the Athanasius of the West, Hilary was raised as a There were, as well, several arches surrounding
pagan, receiving an education centered around Neopla- the hill, including those of Titus and Constantine.
tonism. Converted to Christianity, he was elected bishop
of Poitiers around 353. A short time later, he emerged as Mons Capitolinus The Capitoline was actually two
the main defender of orthodoxy in the West against the hills with a depression between them, the Capitol
Arians. He was condemned for his stand by the Council and the Arx. Its name was derived from the mag-
of Biterrae in 356 and exiled to Phrygia for four years by nificent temple adorning its summit, the Temple
Emperor Constantius III. In 359, he returned to promi- of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Here was the very
nence at the Council of Seleucia, where he spoke out elo- heart of the Roman Cult of State and in time the
quently on his own behalf. His oratorical skills were religious center for the pagan world. The SIBYLLINE
matched by his lasting contributions to the faith through BOOKS were kept in the temple, and TRIUMPHS for
his writings. Aside from his commentaries on the Old generals were routed past it.
and New Testaments, particularly the Psalms, his chief See also TEMPLE OF JUPITER CAPITOLINUS.
works are De Trinitate (On the Trinity) and De Synodis
(On the Synods). Collis Quirinalis One of the largest hills of Rome,
the Quirinal is adjacent to the Campus Martius
Hilary (3) (Hilarius) (d. 468 C.E.) Saint, pope from 461 and just south of the Pincian Hills. It also formed
to 468 a valley with the Viminal, the vallis Quirini. Aside
Probably a native of Sardinia, Hilary served for a time as from the GARDENS OF SALLUST (Horti Sallusti),
archdeacon to Pope Leo I and was one of his legates with rightfully belonging to the Pincian Hills, the
Julius, bishop of Puteoli, at the Latrocinium, the Robber Quirinal contained two spectacular structures: the
Council of Ephesus in 449. There he protested the con- Baths of Constantine and the sumptuous Baths of
demnation of Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople, and Diocletian (see BATHS). Along the base of the
fought for the rights of the Roman see. He was forced to southern end of the Quirinal was the area of the
flee the city because of the violence that erupted there, city called the Subura.
barely escaping unharmed and attributing his safe jour-
ney to John the Evangelist, in whose burial site just out- Mons Caelius The most southeasterly of the seven
side Ephesus Hilary had hidden himself. Elected hills, the Caelian was connected to the inner
successor to Leo in November 461, he pursued the poli- workings of the city mainly by its northwestern
cies of his illustrious predecessor, devoting particular tip. Here the jutting portions were used in part by
attention to Gaul (France) and Spain, where he resolved Emperor Nero for his Golden House. Later, the
a number of ecclesiastical disputes and consolidated the Flavians created the COLOSSEUM in that area, fill-
authority of Rome. His synod at Rome in 465 is the old- ing the valley between the Caelian, Palatine, and
est Roman synod for which extensive minutes have been Esquiline hills. After the death of Claudius, Agrip-
preserved. In his dealings with the Eastern Church, pina began the TEMPLE OF DIVUS CLAUDIUS. Nero
Hilary circulated a decretal confirming the Councils of tore down its walls, but Vespasian restored them.
Nicaea (325), Ephesus (431), and Chalcedon (451). Because of its isolated position, relatively speak-
ing, the Caelian Hill served as a useful site for sev-
Hills of Rome Tradition held that King Servius Tullius eral military and semi-political units. The Castra
in the sixth century B.C.E. erected a fortification around Nova Equilum Singularium housed the horse sol-
the growing city of Rome, including within his walls the diers of the PRAETORIAN GUARD until 312 C.E. Two
seven hills that became so much a part of Roman history other camps were used as the headquarters of the
and legend. These hills were the Palatine, Capitoline, FRUMENTARII (the Imperial Secret Service) and the
Quirinal, Caelian, Aventine, Viminal, and Esquiline. PEREGRINI (foreign soldiers barracked in Rome).
Other hills surrounding the city included the Pincian,
Janiculum, and Vatican. Mons Aventinus The Aventine Hill was roughly
parallel to the Caelian Hill in the southern sec-
tions of the city. It was the gathering place of resi-
dences and displayed the considerable differences

among the classes of Rome. Along the lower areas Hirtius, Aulus 261
of the Aventine lived the plebeians and the for-
eigners. At the top were the villas of the wealthy. August 28, 430. Ever after he was known as St. Augus-
Collis Viminalis The Viminal was situated between tine of Hippo. On the very day that Augustine died, the
the large Quirinal and Esquiline hills. It contained Vandals were besieging the city. Under Geiseric, their
a hill and a wider expanse of territory to the east, king, the Vandals had entered Africa, sweeping across the
the Campus Viminalis. On that site were two bar- frontier and laying siege to Hippo from May to June of
racks, the castra of the cohortes urbanae (URBAN 430. In the wars that followed the Vandal settlement in
COHORTS) and the CASTRA PRAETORIA, the camp of Africa, Hippo endured terrible suffering as did all of the
the Praetorian Guard from 23 to 312 C.E. The Roman holdings in the region that fell into Geiseric’s
Urban Cohorts were maintained with the Praetori- hands.
ans until the time of Emperor Aurelian. They were
then moved to their own camp in the Campus Hippolytus (c. 170–236) Theologian, saint, writer;
Martius. antipope in the early Christian Church
Mons Esquilinus A large hill like the Viminal, the A presbyter in Rome, Hippolytus emerged a controversial
Esquiline contained the Campus Esquilinius. The and inflammatory figure in the Eternal City, largely
Esquiline was covered with a number of beautiful because of his opposition to a number of popes, most
GARDENS—the Horti Pallantiani, Horti Maecenatis notably Zepherinus (199–217) and Callistus (217–222),
and Horti Lamiani—and several grand buildings as well as their successors Urban (222–230) and Pon-
were constructed upon it. The major portion of tianus (230–235). Hippolytus particularly resisted the
the Golden House rested along its southern slope, teachings of Callistus, possibly establishing himself as an
and, because of the popularity of the Esquiline, antipope. His struggles with the popes ended only in 235
the Flavians chose to erect the Baths of Titus when, during the persecution of the church under
there, using the Golden House of Nero as a start- Emperor Maximinus Thrax, Hippolytus and Pontianus
ing point. Later, Trajan erected his baths just were exiled to Sardinia. Hippolytus died there, possibly in
northeast of Titus’s. 236 but apparently after reconciling himself with the
Collis Hortorum Pincius The Pincian Hills were Roman Christians, for his body was returned to Rome in
not within the original boundaries of Rome, but 236 and given a proper burial. Hippolytus authored a
the city nevertheless grew around them. Origi- number of works, including commentaries on Daniel and
nally, Collis Pincius, or Pincian Hills, was used, the Song of Songs, a treatise on the Apostolic tradition,
but this changed as private estates were founded and his greatest writing, Refutation of All Heresies, of
upon its crests, villas with the lavish GARDENS OF which Books 4 to 10 are extant. A list of all his works was
ASIATICUS and GARDENS OF SALLUST. The family of discovered on a statue of him in Rome in 1551; the statue
the Domitii also owned a series of tombs there, was probably made during Hippolytus’s lifetime. One of
where Nero was buried in 68 C.E. the greatest theologians of the West in the third century,
Mons Janiculus A hill across the Tiber from Rome, he was all but forgotten for many centuries, largely
which served originally as a fortress facing the because of his troubles with the popes.
Etruscans and protecting the Romans from inva-
sion. Later, the hill became one of the building Hirtius, Aulus (d. 44 B.C.E.) Author, consul in 43 B.C.E.
sites for those foreign deities that were not and an avid supporter and officer for Julius Caesar
allowed to be honored in the pantheon of the Aulus Hirtius was one of the young, bright leaders who
Roman gods or the city. The Syrian gods who had flocked to Caesar, serving in his legions during the GAL-
a following were worshiped there. Estates and vil- LIC WARS and in the CIVIL WAR OF THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE.
las also sprang up, as the view of Rome was As a result of Caesar’s goodwill, he became a praetor in
impressive from the hill’s heights. 46 and was scheduled to be a consul in 43. After the
Mons Vaticanus See VATICAN HILLS. assassination of Caesar in 44, Hirtius chose to follow
Octavian (AUGUSTUS) and commanded an army with
Hippo Also called Hippo Regius, a city on the Mediter- PANSA against Marc ANTONY. At Mutina he defeated
ranean coast of Numidia. Hippo was an old metropolis, in Antony but was then killed in action. His death may have
existence long before the Romans came to control AFRICA. been caused by Octavian, who feared his skills and
It was situated between the towns of Bulla Regia and wanted sole control of the troops during battle. The loss
Cirta and was part of the line of communications running of Hirtius was severe, for reasons that went beyond his
along the coast from Carthage. Hippo achieved notoriety usefulness militarily. When Caesar died, leaving his De
twice in the fifth century C.E. St. AUGUSTINE, a doctor of Bello Gallico (Gallic Wars) unfinished, Hirtius completed
the Christian Church, was consecrated a bishop in the its eighth book (as written in the praefatio) and quite
city, remaining its chief prelate from 396 to his death on possibly authored Caesar’s De Bello Alexandrino (Alexan-
drine War). He had plans, it may be assumed, to write the

262 Hispania another insurrection. Marcus AGRIPPA, in 19 B.C.E.,
burned their mountain cities, forcing them to live on the
accounts of Caesar’s other campaigns, de Bello Africa plains. This policy broke the will of the tribespeople and
(African War) and de Bello Hispaniensi (Spanish War), but gave birth to the new era of Romanization.
died before he had the opportunity. The authorship of
these two histories remains an important question. While After its initial conquests, Rome divided Spain into
Suetonius states that Hirtius completed De Bello Gallico, two relatively equal provinces, Hispania Citerior and His-
the African and Spanish accounts are far too poor in style pania Ulterior, or Nearer and Farther Spain, originally
and organization, as well as in grammar, to be his efforts. under the command of two proconsuls. This arrangement
neglected to take into account the considerable differ-
Hispania Roman province of Spain, one of the most ences in geography, culture, and economic potential of
successful in imperial provincial history. In Hispania, the various Spanish regions.
Rome founded three of its most profitable provinces:
Baetica, LUSITANIA and Tarraconensis. While these lands As part of the Roman Empire, Hispania was seen as a
were the first in the West to be acquired by the Republic, province of potential by the first emperor, who wanted it
they proved very difficult to subdue and took many years run efficiently, with an eye toward bringing out its vast
to Romanize. wealth and Romanizing it with cities and colonies. He
thus ordered the creation of three provinces, two of impe-
The first inhabitants were known as the Iberi and lived rial status and one of senatorial rank. Lusitania and Tar-
throughout modern Spain and just over the Pyrenees. In raconensis he kept for himself, knowing that wars were
time, a large Celtic migration brought the Celtiberi into inevitable there, while in the south, Baetica was ceded to
the region, who took over the central zones east of the the Senate, largely because of the territory’s reputation for
Guadarrama Mountains and south of the Ebro River. The harmony. Its boundaries were formed by the Anas and the
Celtiberi and the Iberians often united, but in the north, Baetis rivers, the latter giving the province its name.
from the Pyrenees to the Minius River, there were Iberians
who retained their cultural independence. These tribes A governor, normally a proconsul in rank, adminis-
evolved into the Astures and the fierce CANTABRI. tered Baetica’s affairs from his office at Corduba, although
Hispalis is also named as a possible seat of government.
For many centuries Spain had the reputation of being Baetica contained the old Carthaginian colony of Gades, a
rich in minerals, jewels, and, most notably, in gold. reminder of the connections to Africa, the continent lying
Phoenician traders arrived and, around 500 B.C.E., the just to the south. The line of communications of the
Greeks established colonies on the eastern coast, naming empire ran through Baetica to Mauretania, specifically to
the region Iberia; west of Gibraltar (the Pillars of Her- Tingitana. In the second century C.E. the Moors from the
cules), they named it Tartessus. The colonies brought in Rif made incursions into Baetica, ravaging coastal towns
new populations, which resulted in a mixture of native and sailing up the Baetis to Italica.
peoples. Such was the situation in 238 B.C.E., when the
Carthaginians invaded the region and Spain became a bat- Augustus retained Lusitania as an imperial province
tleground in the bitter Punic Wars between Rome and because of the prolonged unrest caused by the natives.
Carthage. The Romans won mastery of the Mediterranean The province occupied the area of modern Portugal, with
territory, and in the second Punic War (218–201 B.C.E.), its borders resting along the Douro and Anas rivers. Its
the Carthaginians were driven out of Spain entirely, forced capital was at Merida (Emerita), situated on the Anas.
to surrender their cities of Gades and Carthago Nova. The location was chosen to allow the governor to rely
upon Baetica in the event of a major rebellion among the
Rome thus inherited the problems of the region. local tribes.
Spain was totally primitive and required centuries of
incessant warfare for pacification. The two most indepen- Tarraconensis was the most important of the three
dent tribes were the Lusitanians and the Cantabri. Living provinces in Spain, for it controlled not only the Pyrenees
in the southwestern sections, the Lusitanians refused to leading to Gallia Aquitania (GALLIA) but also watched
accept Roman domination and demanded the presence of over the tribes of the Cantabri and the Astures. These
some of Rome’s most gifted military commanders: BRUTUS considerations influenced the size of the province,
ALBINUS, Scipio Aemilianus and, finally, Julius CAESAR, stretching its borders from the northwest coast all the
who vanquished the tribe in 60 B.C.E. The Cantabri to the way down to the Baetis River, including all of the moun-
north, and to a lesser extent the Astures, required fre- tain tribes and the Celtiberi cantons. To assist in adminis-
quent campaigns in the first century B.C.E., all conducted tering the province, the governor was initially provided
by the local governors in order to maintain the peace. Six with three legions (eventually reduced to one). The capi-
different generals launched wars against them between 44 tal of Tarraco on the coast served as the strategic center
and 27 B.C.E., with only temporary results. AUGUSTUS for Spain and the major port on the Mediterranean for
himself arrived in 27, thereby opening up all of Hispania the three provinces.
for provincialization. Although victory was gained and
many Cantabri enslaved, the resulting tranquility proved From the start Spain was prosperous, relying upon
illusory. The slaves escaped, returned home, and started several staple products for its economic health. Foremost
of its exports were minerals; it supplied the empire with

most of its gold, silver, lead, iron, copper, and tin. PLINY Honorius, Flavius 263
THE ELDER wrote of the production capacities of Galicia,
Lusitania, and Asturia, where there were many mines. Lead Iberians and Celtiberians reluctant to march off to war in
flowed in from Baetica, silver from Carthago Nova, tin the service of Rome.
from Lusitania, and copper from Lusitania and Marianus.
As a result, Hispania emerged as the mineral capital of the The upper classes and the Romanized families,
empire, and from the earliest days of imperial rule the meanwhile, produced brilliant intellectuals and writers
focus of administration was on exhausting the supply and who impressed the empire. The teacher of OVID, Marcus
developing the surrounding countryside to aid in distribu- Porcius Latro, SENECA THE ELDER, SENECA THE YOUNGER,
tion and transportation. The many well designed and intri- Pomponius MELA, Lucius COLUMELLA—all came from
cate road systems were built originally to combat rebellion Baetica. There were many others, the most famous of
and were then used to move the precious minerals from whom was QUINTILIAN, the first-century C.E. rhetorician
the provincial capitals of Tarraco, Corduba, and Merida. and historian. In politics, citizens from Hispania assumed
positions of greater power, attaining the consulship under
The other major export was agriculture. Much of CORNELIUS BALBUS and ultimately the throne. The emper-
Spain was fertile, with rivers and valleys offering an envi- ors HADRIAN and TRAJAN were from Hispania.
ronment for produce in such abundance that the Spanish
could feed themselves and then supply Italy and Rome. Suggested Readings: Curchin, L. A. Roman Spain. Con-
The types of food represented the diversity of the local quest and Assimilation. London: Routledge, 1991; De
climates. Spain sent Rome wheat, olive oil, wine, fruits, Alarcão, J. Roman Portugal: Introduction and Gazeteer.
and vegetables. Large cattle herds provided beef, and the Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1988; Keay, S. J.
coasts offered another type of harvest, fish. Roman Spain. London: British Museum Publications,
1988.
Development of so many industries, including manu-
facture of goods, was made easier by the stability that Hispo, Romanus See DELATORES.
Hispania enjoyed for centuries under the empire. Sur-
rounded on three sides by water and the Pyrenees guard- Historia Augusta See SCRIPTORES HISTORIAE AUGUSTAE.
ing the fourth, few frontier crises ever took place, except
for the arrival of the MOORS. Tarraconensis originally had Honoria Augusta (Justa Grata Honoria) (417/418–
three legions, but VESPASIAN found little use for such a after 451 C.E.) Sister of Emperor Valentinian III and daugh-
waste of good troops and moved two out of the province, ter of Constantius III and the formidable Galla Placidia
a decision reflecting the extent of pacification and the In 425 Honoria received the title of Augusta, shortly after
degree of Romanization that had been accomplished. her brother’s elevation to the throne. Honoria entered
Peace reigned until the demise of the empire in the West into an affair with one of the stewards, Eugenius, in 449,
in the fifth century C.E. a liaison that was discovered and terminated by her
lover’s execution. Betrothal followed to an utterly non-
Augustus had initiated the influx of Roman and Ital- ambitious senator, Flavius Herculanus. Desperate, Hono-
ian culture. Twenty-one colonies were founded in His- ria looked for a barbarian champion whom she could
pania, ultimately superceding the ones established by the recruit, choosing the most dangerous of them all, ATTILA
Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians. Many of these the Hun. The “Scourge of God” received her ring and her
were added to the long list of cities given a part in the plea. Finding it convenient to support her, Attila inter-
Latin franchise. Because of these holdings, and because of preted the ring as a proposal of marriage. In the spring of
the long years of Roman presence, Spain was the most 451, therefore, he set out with his army, invading Gaul.
Romanized group of provinces in the world, more so than When the Huns were repulsed at the Catalaunian Plain in
even GALLIA NARBONENSIS. The thorough intertwining of the summer of 451, Attila turned on Italy and arrived
Italian and Celtiberian and Iberian ways of life resulted in there in the following year, demanding the hand of Hono-
the same separation of classes and culture seen in other ria. Valentinian refused to surrender his sister, and only
lands, especially in Britain. The cities and larger commu- the famed intervention of Pope Leo, and perhaps the
nities were very Roman, while the greater mass of miners, presence of a deadly plague, prevented the Huns from
peasants, and lower-class workers were touched only in repeating on Rome the total destruction they had
language, currency, and military service. wreaked on Aquileia. The ultimate fate of Honoria
remains a mystery.
Hispania provided the Roman legions with soldiers
of remarkable stamina, bred in the mountains and fields. Honorius, Flavius (383–423 C.E.) Emperor in the West
Two functions of Spanish recruiting were to supply the from 395 to 423
legions and auxiliaries in Tarraconensis and to provide The son of THEODOSIUS I and Aelia Flavia Flaccilla, Hono-
troops for other regions. By the middle of the second cen- rius reigned at a time marked by the rapid deterioration of
tury C.E., however, such recruitment was difficult because the Western Empire. He was given the title of Augustus
of urban development. Secondly, the evolution of these
centers, out of the traditional Celtic cantons, made the

264 Horace fleeing with the rest of the Republican army after its
defeat. He lost his family estates and forfeited all politi-
at Constantinople in 393; two years later, Theodosius cal ambitions, but was pardoned and took a position as
died, leaving the empire to be divided between Honorius a clerk in the offices of the QUAESTOR (treasury) and
in the West and Arcadius in the East. From the start of his wrote poetry.
rule, Honorius was dominated by his powerful magister
militum, STILICHO, whose daughter MARIA married the In 39 B.C.E., he was introduced by Varius and Virgil
emperor in 395. Unfortunately, Stilicho was little con- to the literary patron Gaius MAECENAS. A friendship
cerned with the welfare of the West, but consumed developed quickly between them, and Maecenas became
instead with an overwhelming desire to rule both empires. Horace’s benefactor, giving him funds and the means to
He interfered with the internal court policies of Con- journey with him, especially to Brundisium in 37. Maece-
stantinople, effected assassinations and plotted to snatch nas’s greatest gift to Horace was a villa in the Sabine hills,
up Illyricum, a territory taken by Theodosius and pos- near Tivoli (Tibur). Horace mentions his villa in his
sessed at the time by Arcadius. works and spent much of his time there, often in the
company of his patron. Through his association with
These aspirations, coupled with a regrettable famil- Maecenas and because of his writing, Horace knew the
iarity with the Gothic hosts of Alaric, caused a stagnation most influential and important figures of the era. AUGUS-
of frontier defenses. On the last day of 406, the Ala- TUS himself honored Horace with his favor and with the
manni, Alans, Burgundians, Vandals, and their allies offer of a post as secretary. His prestige continued after
poured over the Rhine, burning Gaul and Spain. The Maecenas’s death in 8 B.C.E., his patron requesting in his
Roman holdings in these lands would never be the same. will that the emperor be “as mindful of Horace as of him-
Stilicho failed to produce effective countermeasures, and self.” Horace was buried next to Maecenas when he died
soon Alaric demanded tribute from Honorius, as usurpers himself later that year.
rose up in the provinces, most notably CONSTANTINE III.
Honorius’s only solution was to murder his leading gen- Horace described himself as short and fat, with a
eral on August 22, 408. The death of Stilicho led to fur- stomach so large that even the emperor remarked upon
ther Visigothic inroads, culminating in 410 with Alaric’s it. He was reportedly a cheery individual who enjoyed the
capture of Rome. This catastrophe was the lowest point company of friends, though he was the subject of critical
of Honorius’s impotent reign, for shortly thereafter Alaric attack and literary feuding as well. He was inclined to live
died, and the emperor discovered a new and reliable offi- frugally.
cer, CONSTANTIUS III. Constantius defeated Alaric’s succes-
sor, Athaulf; after negotiations, the hostage Galla Placidia The works of Horace are numerous, displaying a
(Honorius’s half-sister) was surrendered in return for the knowledge of philosophy (EPICUREANISM), a vast vocabu-
Visigoths’ right to settle in southern Gaul, near Tolosa lary and a reliance upon common sense. His efforts can
(Toulouse), in 418. The Visigoths thus enjoyed their own be divided into several genres.
state within imperial boundaries.
Epodes Written around 31–30 B.C.E., these poems,
Constantius died in 421, depriving the battered army based upon Archilochus, are among the earliest
of a commander, and Galla Placidia, unable to bear the political verse in Rome. They could be bitter and
peculiar advances of Honorius, left Italy for Constantino- harsh, critical even of Maecenas (No. 3), whom
ple in 423. She took the young Valentinian, Honorius’s Horace chides for the use of garlic.
successor, with her. Honorius was now alone and child-
less, for Maria had given him no heirs. A second marriage Satires Horace chose not to use moral outrage but
to Stilicho’s second daughter, Thermantia, also proved humor as the basis of his two books of satires,
barren. Honorius died, a failure in many respects, on published in 30 B.C.E. The 18 poems are filled
August 15, 423. In 402, however, he moved the imperial with his opinion, comedic touches, and observa-
center at MEDIOLANUM (Milan) to the marshy, easily tions on such subjects as food, sex, friends, and
defended city of RAVENNA, which for more than a century success. Through them all he wove genuine artis-
would be the home of the emperors and their Gothic tic flair and style, achieving his intent to “laugh-
successors. ing tell the truth.”

Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) (65–8 B.C.E.) Odes The Carmina, or Odes, were published together
One of the greatest poets in Roman history for the first time in 23 B.C.E. They followed closely
Born on December 8 at Venusia, Horace was the son of the style of the Alexandrine poets and other Greek
a freedman tax collector or auctioneer. He was educated lyric forms, although Horace justly laid claim to
in Rome, where he studied under Orbilius, who enjoyed the distinction of being the first Roman poet to use
flogging his pupils. Eventually Horace traveled to Athens such refined Hellenic techniques in Latin. These
(c. 45 B.C.E.), where he continued his studies. In 44, 103 poems were written during a period of matu-
he joined the army of Marcus Brutus, achieving the rank rity and thus represent Horace at the peak of his
of TRIBUNE. He fought at the battle of PHILIPPI in 42, form, revealing vast learning in mythology, reli-
gion, and the verse of other periods.

In 17 B.C.E., his long ode, the Carmen Saecu- Hostilian 265
lare, was published. Commissioned by Augustus
for the ludi Saeculares (games), Horace used the Hormazd III (d. 459 C.E.) King of Persia for two years,
style to honor not only the gods but his imperial 457–459
patron as well, recounting his noble deeds. The Hormazd succeeded Yazdagird II and was followed by
Carmen Saeculare was followed by other poems, Peroz, the mighty king who ruled from 459 to 484.
forming a fourth book of odes.
Epistles The Epistles of Horace were published in See also SASSANID DYNASTY.
two books, the first in 20 B.C.E. and the second
in 17 or later. He wrote to a vast number of peo- Hormisdas (fl. mid-fourth century C.E.) Sassanid prince
ple, including Augustus, Maecenas, and LOLLIUS. and the son of the Persian King Hormazd II; brother of Sha-
Although less significant and (some would argue) pur II, who succeeded Hormazd in 309
inferior to the Satires, Horace injected his letters Hormisdas fled Persia in 324 to offer himself to the
with his own philosophy and opinions on social Roman Empire. He was welcomed by Constantine or
problems, etiquette, and questions of morality. His Licinius Licinianus. Constantius II made him a cavalry
method was informal, convivial, and filled with commander and companion on a trip to Rome in 357.
flashes of vision. Julian the Apostate then gave him another post in his
Ars Poetica Although probably composed as part of army, which was headed for the East in 362. He took him
the Epistles, the Ars Poetica (Art of Poetry) was along on his Persian expedition of 363, where the Roman
separated from the original collection. It was a let- cavalry once again came under Hormisdas’s control. The
ter, written to two members of the Piso family. prince took insults from his countrymen in this campaign
The Ars Poetica presented a criticism of the art but did manage to convince a Persian garrison to surren-
and stood as Horace’s longest poem. Its dating is der. Julian may have planned to install Hormisdas on the
hard to determine, appearing first in the time of Persian throne after conquering the country. The imperial
Quintilian; he may have finished it around 18 army, however, failed to take Ctesiphon, and Julian died
B.C.E. Another name for the Ars Poetica was Epis- in battle a short time later, ending any ambitions. Back in
tula ad Pisones. Constantinople, Hormisdas lived in a palace. His son,
also named Hormisdas, entered into the service of the
The principal sources for details of Horace’s life are Roman Empire.
his own works and a biography by Suetonius.
Hosius (c. 257–357 C.E.) Also called Ossius; bishop of
See also POETRY. Cordova
A prelate who played a major role in the Christianization
Hormazd Ardashir (d. c. 272 C.E.) King of Persia, also of the Roman Empire and in the early Arian controversy,
called Hormazd I; son of the great Shapur I Hosius was elected a bishop in 296. He suffered in the
Throughout much of SHAPUR’s reign, Hormazd served as persecutions of Maximian but survived to take part in the
governor of the territory of Khorasan, bearing the title of Council of Elvira in 306. From 313, Emperor Constan-
Great King of Kings of the Kushans. When Shapur died tine relied upon him as an adviser, requesting a report on
in 272, Hormazd succeeded him but died after a brief the Arian controversy. Traveling to Alexandria, Hosius
time on the throne. He probably served with his father in returned with conclusions so certain that the emperor
the war against Rome and witnessed the capture and convened the Council of Nicaea. Hosius may have served
humiliation of Valerian in 259–260. as the president of the council and may have been the
one to introduce the theological term homoousios (see
See also SASSANID DYNASTY. ARIANISM). The next years were spent in ardent opposi-
tion to the growing Arian movement. He took part in the
Hormazd II (d. 309 C.E.) King of Persia and ruler of the Council of Sardica in 343 and was exiled to Sirmium in
Sassanids from 302 to 309 355 for supporting St. Athanasius. In a letter from exile,
Sometimes called Hormizd II, Hormazd succeeded his written to Constantius II, he called for a delineation
father Narses to the throne in the wake of a Persian between church and state, a very unique view for the
defeat. Narses had lost the war with Rome in 296–298 time. In 357, at a synod, he finally agreed to sign a pro-
and had signed an unsatisfactory treaty, ceding control of Arian declaration, regretting and repudiating his signa-
Armenia to Rome. Hormazd could do little to reinstate ture upon his death bed at the age of 100.
the glory of the Persian army and appears to have con-
tented himself with internal affairs. His reign was Hostilian (Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quin-
marked, however, by domestic unrest, and he may have tus) (d. c. 251 C.E.) Younger son of Decius and Herennia
died prematurely. An infant son, Shapur II, followed him Etruscilla, and the brother of Herennius Etruscus
in 309. In 251, Herennius was appointed Augustus, and Hostilian
received the title of Caesar. While his brother and father

266 Hostilianus venting long beards. Their diet consisted of milk prod-
ucts and meats when available, made tender by being
were away on campaign against the Goths, Hostilian placed under the saddle during riding. Physically they
remained in Rome with Herennia. In the summer of 251, were very stout, with thick legs and muscular frames.
word came that DECIUS and his son had been massacred Though invariably outnumbered, their proficiency with
at Abrittus by Kniva and the Goths. TREBONIANUS GALLUS weapons made one Hun a match for many of his foes.
became emperor but placated the Romans by leaving Opposition was reduced by outright cruelty toward sub-
Herennia as Augusta and by appointing Hostilian as his ject populations. While traveling to Europe the Huns
coruler. The young emperor died a short time later of the annihilated everything in their path, destroying the Slavs
plague. on the Steppes and pillaging their way across the
Ukraine.
Hostilianus (fl. first century C.E.) Cynic philosopher of
Rome In the middle of the fourth century C.E. the first
Hostilianus was an associate of the more famous screaming horsemen descended upon the ALANS, OSTRO-
Demetrius the Cynic. Both were exiled from the capital as GOTHS, and HERULI. Within years the Huns dominated the
part of the campaign to remove philosophers from Rome ways between the Black Sea and Dacia, burning every-
in 71–75 C.E. thing in their wake. For whatever reason, perhaps a
struggle between rival chieftains, a period of quiet fol-
Huneric (d. 484 C.E.) King of the Vandals from 477 to lowed.
484, the son of King Geiseric
Huneric joined his father in his conquest of Africa in 429, By the middle of the fifth century, however, the Huns
at the invitation of the MAGISTER MILITUM BONIFACE. After once more stood ready to make war. Their first ambitious
six years of bloodshed, a treaty was signed with Valen- chief was ULDIN, who was defeated by an army of Theo-
tinian III in 435. As part of the pact, Huneric was sent to dosius, somewhere in Thrace. Uldin had failed to hold
Rome to live there as a hostage, but he returned home together the various elements of his nation. The Hunnic
before 439, as his father began to exert his influence over population was then split into three camps, the two most
all of Africa. Back with GEISERIC, Huneric was married to powerful being led by Rugila and Mandiuch. Rugila
the daughter of the Gothic ruler, Theoderic, to form an received tribute from Theodosius and may have sup-
alliance between the Visigoths and the VANDALS. By 449, ported him against the Goths, for more land in Pannonia.
however, Geiseric wished to make a different union, and When he died shortly after 433, his brother Mandiuch
a reason was found to invalidate the marriage contract. took over the majority of the clans and was succeeded by
Huneric allowed his wife to be charged with attempting his own sons, Bleda and ATTILA. Attila proved the most
to poison Geiseric. Her nose and ears were cut off, and capable ruler that the Huns would ever know. He pushed
she was sent back to a horrified Theoderic. This mutila- to the East and seized the Caucasus, solidifying his own
tion and dismissal made possible the wedding between position before murdering Bleda in 444. Sitting alone on
Huneric and Eudocia, the daughter of Licinia EUDOXIA, in the throne, Attila embarked on a strong campaign of war.
455. Eudoxia and her two daughters, Eudocia and In 447 he invaded the Danube frontier, threatening Con-
Placidia, had been taken from the sacked city of Rome by stantinople. Marcianopolis fell, and more tributes of
sea to Carthage and had been useful in the bargaining money and land resulted in a treaty by which he agreed
between Geiseric and Emperor Leo. When an agreement to respect the Danube.
was reached in 461, allowing captives to be released,
Huneric kept Eudocia as his wife. He succeeded Geiseric In 451, Attila and the Huns set out for the Rhine.
in 477 as the king of the Vandals. They pierced Germany and poured into Gaul. Total vic-
tory seemed within his grasp when the Huns suffered a
Huns The most famous and most feared of all of the reverse at the battle of the CATALAUNIAN PLAIN in the sum-
barbarian hordes to ravage the Roman Empire. Known mer of 451. After this defeat, Attila turned on Italy.
originally as the Hsiung-nu, the Huns developed as a dis- AQUILEIA was besieged and utterly ruined. The Hunnic
jointed confederation in Central Asia. In the third cen- horsemen next moved on Rome. Pope Leo, aided by a
tury B.C.E. they were already nomadic and on the move plague and by an Italian famine, forced a Hunnic retreat.
into China. The Great Wall was erected to hold them at Attila was dead within the year.
bay, and so the Huns turned west. Culturally, the Huns
were united by a sense of perpetual danger and by an Attila’s empire did not long survive him. His sons
instinct for self-preservation, uniting against a common proved incapable of holding together the fabric of the
foe. They relied upon leaders who ensured that no enemy united clans, and in 454, at the NEDAO River in Pannonia,
ever matched them in ferocity or in martial skills. The the long-enslaved Goths, Alans, Heruli, and their allies
cheeks of infant males were slashed to form scars, pre- rose up. The Hun holdings were lost, and their clans were
driven in every direction. For nearly a century the Huns
had been the strongest barbarian nation and the greatest
rival of the Roman Empire in the north. Their realm

stretched at one point from the Ukraine to the Rhine. By Hyrcanus 267
holding the Goths and many others in check, they pro-
vided the cities of the Eastern and Western Empires time Hyrcanus (d. 30 B.C.E.) Son of the Hasmonaean King
to prepare for the inevitable onslaughts, and compelled Alexander Jannaeus and Alexandra Salome, and the brother
many tribes to join with the Romans against a common of Aristobulus
foe. Ammianus Marcellinus wrote of them in some detail. When Alexander died, leaving his wife to rule his Jewish
domain, Alexandra assumed power for the years 76 to 67
Hydatius (c. 400–470 C.E.) Christian chronicler in Spain B.C.E., with the help of the cunning minister, ANTIPATER
in the fifth century OF IDUMAEA. In 67, Alexandra died, and the throne
Hydatius became bishop of Aquae Flaviae in 427. His passed to her sons. Hyrcanus immediately fell under the
great work, the Chronicle, was a continuation of Jerome, influence of Antipater, who allowed the rivalry between
extending the history to his own time, up to the year 469. the brothers to erupt violently. With Antipater’s aid, Hyr-
It is one of the few extant and contemporary examina- canus gained the upper hand in the civil strife, relying
tions of the invasions of Spain in that century. upon King ARETAS III, the Nabataean of Arabia, to besiege
Aristobulus at Jerusalem in 65. A Roman army under the
Hyginus, Gaius Julius (c. 64 B.C.E.–17 C.E.) Freed- command of Marcus Scaurus, a lieutenant of Pompey,
man, scholar, and librarian of the Augustan Age (27 prevented total victory. Antipater convinced Hyrcanus to
B.C.E.–14 C.E.) address Pompey directly, to ask for the throne. Pompey
Hyginus may have come from Spain to enter the service gave him the traditional high priesthood and a reduced
of Augustus, under whose patronage he came to be the territory to rule, not as a monarch but as a prince or eth-
head of the library on the Palatine Hill. As a writer, Hygi- narch. Henceforth, although Hyrcanus bore a title, Chief
nus was prolific, following VARRO in style. He was a friend Minister Antipater held the true power, even gaining the
of OVID and authored an examination of famous figures in favor of Julius Caesar. By 43, Hyrcanus was a virtual pup-
Roman history, commentaries on Cinna and Virgil, and pet of his minister and the minister’s two sons, Phasael
compiled extensive surveys on agriculture and bees. The and Herod (the Great), the governors of Jerusalem and
writings of two other men under the name Hyginus, one Galilee, respectively.
on legal boundaries, are sometimes ascribed to him.
Domestic unrest culminated in Antipater’s assassina-
Hypatia (c. 375–415 C.E.) Neoplatonic philosopher of tion in 43. Hyrcanus was then placed under the control of
Alexandria Phasael and, especially, Herod. The ethnarch had little
Hypatia suffered the rare distinction of being a pagan choice but to support Herod against Antigonus, the son
martyr. She was the daughter of Theon, receiving an edu- of his dispossessed brother ARISTOBULUS. Once Herod
cation in Alexandria, where she soon gained fame as the defeated Antigonus, Hyrcanus had to give him a share in
leading Neoplatonist. Among her students was the Chris- full royal authority, including the hand of his daughter
tian, SYNESIUS, who became bishop of Ptolemais. Hypatia Mariamne. In 40, Antigonus found an ally in the Parthian
had poor relations with the Christian leaders of her city. Empire. The Parthians swept into Palestine, placed
In 415, a mob grabbed her and physically tore her to Antigonus in control, forced Phasael to commit suicide
pieces. Some legends state that she was flayed alive with and captured Hyrcanus. The aging ruler was led away in
whips made of abalone shells. Those responsible were chains, as Herod escaped to Rome. When Hyrcanus
never punished. returned in 37 to Judaea, he found that Herod had been
installed in his place. From that time on, Hyrcanus was
used by Herod as a symbol of Jewish unity, but he was
murdered in 30. The pretext was that Hyrcanus was try-
ing to remove Herod.

I

Iamblichus (c. 250–319/325 C.E.) Neoplatonic philoso- Dacia, the Sarmatians joined their Germanic neighbors
pher and theurgist in raids followed by a full-scale invasion of Pannonia in
One of the most noted writers and pseudo-mystics of his 92. They defeated the local legion, the XXI Rapax, and
time, Iamblichus was born in Coele-Syria to a family of required the personal efforts of the emperor in order to
Chalcis. Porphyry influenced his education at Rome, be subdued.
where he developed a knowledge of NEOPLATONISM, a
subject that he later taught, perhaps at Apamea. Iam- Other battles took place mainly as a result of the gen-
blichus earned his fame as both a writer and a mystic. His eral chaos on the borders during the wars of Marcus
extant works include a Vita Pythagorae (Life of Pythago- Aurelius (see MARCOMANNIC WARS). The Iazyges also con-
ras), a defense of magic (De Mysteriis), several mathemat- sidered the Dacians as bitter enemies and attempted to
ical treaties, a book on rhetoric, and Protrepticus, using seize Dacian territory even when the country had been
other authors. He is reported to have written commen- converted into an imperial province.
taries on Plato and Aristotle (not extant) and a work on
the oracles of Chaldea. As a mystic, Iamblichus suppos- Iberia Kingdom in the Caucasus, situated between the
edly possessed the power to perform miracles and to levi- Caspian and BLACK SEAS. It was known for its beauty and
tate. He displayed an interest in theurgy (supernatural or fertility, while the Iberians themselves were noted for
divine intervention in human affairs), ritualistic magic, their civilization, especially when compared to their bar-
and ceremony. He differed with Porphyry in his disdain baric neighbors to the north and to the Armenians in the
for Plotinus and his Neoplatonism. south. Connections were made with the Roman Empire
and the Parthians through trade and agriculture. Pompey
Iazyges Tribe of Sarmatians who settled on the the Great launched an expedition against the Iberians in
Danube frontier and had dealings with Rome from the 65 B.C.E.; according to the historian Tacitus, the three
first century C.E. They were probably among the first kingdoms of the region, Albania, Iberia, and Colchis,
of the Sarmatians to advance from their original homes were protected in the name of Rome. Tiberius later
around the Sea of Azov, being driven westward through requested Iberian aid against the Parthian King Arta-
southern Russia along the Dnieper. After several mi- banus. The domain was still in existence during the reign
grations the Iazyges reached the area along the Danube of Caracalla (211–217 C.E.), when its king Pharasmanes
and the Theiss, where the plains afforded room and the visited Rome. Iberia was frequently confused in the
surrounding mountains defense. The Iazyges were ancient histories with the kingdom of the BOSPORUS,
counted among the client states of the Roman Empire which was also located near the Black Sea.
from the time of the Flavians into the third century,
with a number of incidents proving that imperial control Icelus (d. 69 C.E.) Freedman of Rome
was not always effective. During Domitian’s wars with Icelus was one of Emperor Galba’s former slaves who
won his freedom as a reward for service and for being a

268

long-time lover of the aging general. He took the name of Ilerda 269
Marcianus as a free man and became a key adviser to
Galba when the general was governor of Hispania Tarra- Judaea considered the Edomites to be foreigners, a fact of
conensis. According to Suetonius, he may have been some importance during the years of the dynasty of
imprisoned in Rome just before the fall of Nero, but was Antipater of Idumaea.
released in time to allow the dead ruler to be buried
properly and to prepare Rome for Galba’s triumphant It was as Idumaea, the Greek form of Edom, that the
arrival. Throughout Galba’s reign, Icelus fought with two region was included in the territory of Roman-occupied
important state officers: Cornelius LACO and Titus VINIUS. Judaea. Idumaea achieved supremacy in Jewish affairs
He differed with his rivals on virtually every issue, espe- with the rise of ANTIPATER OF IDUMAEA in the middle of
cially that of the succession. When Icelus was unable to the first century B.C.E. This minister of state became the
put forward a candidate, Piso was named Galba’s heir power behind the throne, propping up the moribund
(Laco’s choice). Otho then conspired to take the throne, Hasmonaean line. Antipater’s son, HEROD THE GREAT, first
and Icelus was included on his list of condemned. He served as governor of Galilee and then, in 40 B.C.E.,
died by public execution. retreated to Idumaea to establish a line of defense against
the invading Parthians. His cornerstone of defense was
Iceni A leading tribe of Britain (BRITANNIA), living in the mountain fortress of MASADA, the strongest citadel in
the far northeast (modern Suffolk and Norfolk); their Palestine.
capital was called Venta Icenorum (Caistor) and was
located near Norwich. The Iceni were one of the first After Herod died in 4 B.C.E., his vast kingdom was
allies of Rome, following the invasion of Britain by carved up and granted to his sons by Augustus.
Claudius in 47 C.E., a decision they regretted almost Archelaus, one heir, received Judaea, Samaria, and Idu-
immediately, as the ruthless and expansionist imperial maea, where he ruled as an ethnarch. His successor was
policy was revealed by the governor appointed in 50 C.E., Agrippa I, whose administration became unpopular,
Publius Ostorius Scapula. The Roman advance into the owing to his reputation and to the continued unwilling-
tribal regions of Britain caused fighting, and the call came ness of the Jewish people to accept the family of Antipa-
from Scapula even to clients of the empire to surrender ter. In the following years, Idumaea suffered as the JEWISH
all weapons. Proud and resenting this dishonor, the Iceni REBELLION (66–70 C.E.) ravaged much of the province.
revolted, only to be routed. Masada once more proved strategically essential, endur-
ing a long siege.
Peace returned for the next 11 years as the Iceni king
Prasutagus and his wife BOUDICCA ruled their people Ignatius (St. Ignatius) (c. 35–107 C.E.) Bishop of
without major incident. In 61, Prasutagus died, Antioch; one of the earliest Christian martyrs, whose letters
bequeathing his domain to Caesar in the hopes of avoid- on the road to Rome and whose death left an impression on
ing annihilation. The Romans jumped at the chance to the second-century church and beyond
take over the Iceni lands. Centurions pillaged the king- According to the theologian Origen, Ignatius was the
dom, flogged Boudicca and outraged her daughters. pupil of St. John and the second bishop of Antioch.
Unable to endure these and other cruelties, the Iceni According to the historian Eusebius, however, he was the
revolted under the command of the queen. They were third, following Euodius, although Euodius is generally
eventually defeated by General Suetonius Paulinus, and ranked as the first bishop of Antioch. As bishop of Anti-
their territory, conquered by Rome, was added to the och, Ignatius was arrested and sent for execution to Rome.
province of Britannia. On the way he began writing epistles to the Christian
communities, in which he reaffirmed the honors of mar-
Ides Name given to the middle day or days of the tyrdom, the greatness of Christ and the need to remain
Roman month. According to tradition, these days were steadfast in the face of unorthodox elements and influ-
normally placed under the care of the god Jupiter and ences. These letters were the subject of intense scholarly
were celebrated in his name. The one exception of this debate during the Middle Ages and in the 19th century.
custom was March, for its Ides was celebrated to honor
both Jupiter and Anna Perenna. See also CHRISTIANITY.

See also CALENDAR. Ilerda Spanish city that was the site of a series of bat-
tles fought from April to July in 49 B.C.E., between the
Idumaea District of JUDAEA to the south of Jerusalem, legions of Julius CAESAR and the Pompeian generals,
stretching from Gaza to the Dead Sea and including a Lucius Afranius and Marchus Petreius, in the Civil War
small part of Arabia Petrae; known in the Old Testament of 49–45 B.C.E. After setting out from Italy in March with
as Edom. Its inhabitants, called Edomites, made incur- the declaration, “I am off to meet an army without a
sions into Judea, and for centuries afterward the Jews of leader and when I come back I shall meet a leader with-
out an army,” Caesar hoped to destroy the forces of
POMPEY in the West. He trapped Lucius Domitius Aheno-
barbus in MASSILIA and then moved on Spain with an

270 Illyricum Following the defeat of Pompey in 48, Caesar first
concluded a peace with the Delmatae but then, in 45–44,
army of 37,000. With lightning speed the Caesareans cap- unleashed P. Vatinius in combat. His successes against the
tured the important passes of the Pyrenees ahead of the tribe were extended by Octavian (AUGUSTUS) in the years
Pompeians, who withdrew, hoping for a better opportu- 35–33 B.C.E. These sorties were very limited, however,
nity to use their 60,000 men to advantage. and aimed solely at certifying Roman ownership of the
area. In 27 B.C.E. this mastery was confirmed as Illyricum
Caesar chose to pursue them cautiously and both was added to the provinces of the empire.
sides maneuvered, refusing to give battle. Afranius and
Petreius were less skilled than Caesar and were soon The senatorial province status of Illyricum would not
forced to retreat to Ilerda with their larger legions. Once last long. Warfare raged across the land as Tiberius fought
trapped there, the Pompeians watched as Caesar sur- the Bellum Pannonicum (the Pannonian War) from 13 to 9
rounded the city, cut off the water supply and starved B.C.E., in which he seized Pannonia, suppressed the Illyri-
them into submission. On July 2, Ilerda surrendered. ans and punished the Delmatae. Sometime around 11
Caesar was able to recruit thousands of soldiers as a B.C.E., Illyricum was proclaimed an imperial province to
result, while destroying bloodlessly one of Pompey’s ease in defense and the provincial administration. Every
largest field forces. A mere demonstration was all that resource available to the Danubian legions was needed in
would be necessary to pacify the rest of Spain. 6 C.E., when the Delmatae and their neighboring tribes
rose up again (see BATO [1] and BATO [2]). Bitter fighting
Illyricum (Dalmatia) Territory stretching from characterized this three-year struggle in all parts of
northeastern Italy to Macedonia, and from the Danube Illyricum. By 9 C.E., however, the power of the Delmatae
along the Moesian border to Epirus. In the days of the was broken, and all resistance shattered. To be certain of
Roman Empire this vast region on the east shore of the this, Augustus divided the large province; henceforth
Adriatic was divided into two provinces: Illyricum (also there were Illyricum Superius and Illyricum Inferius,
called Dalmatia) and Pannonia. While PANNONIA evolved known in the time of Vespasian as Illyricum (Dalmatia)
into a major frontier province along the Danube, all of and Pannonia.
Illyricum provided a land route for imperial trade and
communications with Greece and Asia Minor. As an imperial province, Illyricum was placed under
the authority of a legate, who maintained order initially
Rome’s interest in Illyricum had existed since its first with two legions. His seat was at SALONA, and the bound-
political and economic expansion in the third century ary of the province ran from the edge of Italy and the
B.C.E., when it came into contact with the peoples of the Save River on the north, to MACEDONIA in the south. In
Illyrian kingdom and at the Celticized tribes of the Del- the west was the Adriatic, with Salona on the coast, and
matae. When their pirate activity interfered with Roman to the east was MOESIA.
shipping, direct intervention resulted in the so-called
Illyrian Wars in 228–227 and in 219 B.C.E. In time, the The importance of Illyricum rested in its key location
Illyrians became allies of Rome, siding with them against on the communication lane from the East to Italy and as
the Carthaginians and especially against Macedonia in a support for the provinces on the ever troubled Danube
the Second Punic War. frontier. Thus, Romanization and pacification proceeded
there at an accelerated rate. The legions and their auxil-
Future relations were less pleasant, as another con- iaries introduced Latin culture. Latin proved supreme
flict in 168 B.C.E. proved the general supremacy of the over native dialects, and cities slowly replaced the vil-
Roman army and the fall of the Illyrians. Local destabi- lages and Celtic communities, except in the Dalmatian
lization occurred when the Danubian tribes assumed a highlands, where the old ways died slowly. Roads were
greater importance in strategic affairs. Several expeditions begun by Augustus and continued by Tiberius, who made
kept them in line, but the Delmatae remained a major Illyricum’s links with Pannonia, Moesia, Macedonia,
factor, especially at the time of Julius Caesar’s acquisition NORICUM, RAETIA and the Italian city of Aquileia one of
of the governorship of Illyricum in 59 B.C.E. the key elements of the Danubian line of defense.

Caesar visited Illyricum during the winters of his By the middle of the first century C.E., one legion was
Gallic Wars, spending time at Aquileia, but his attention removed and sent to Moesia. During Domitian’s reign a
was focused on Gaul from 58 to 51, and he left the Illyri- second was found to be unnecessary. While some gar-
ans and Delmatae unmolested. Because of their proximity risons were vital, the process of Romanization created an
to Pompey’s political bases in Greece, most of the Illyrian environment of suitable social harmony.
tribes fell under Pompey’s influence. When the Civil War
erupted between Pompey and Caesar, they sided with the Legions throughout the empire found the province
Pompeians, defeating Caesar’s lieutenants in 51 and in an excellent source for recruits. Throughout the second
48–47 B.C.E. Furthermore, the Illyrian threat was consid- century C.E. the tough, intelligent, and reliable Illyrians
ered in the planning of the Caesareans for their campaign injected a new vitality into the legions. They became a
against Pompey in 49–48, during the CIVIL WAR, FIRST source of stability in military affairs and formed the
TRIUMVIRATE. principle pool of officers in the third century. This was

the final political achievement of Illyricum and, indeed, Imperial Cult 271
the growing provinces of the Danube. With the third
century came the great crises of economic decline, inter- given immunitas by Claudius in 54 C.E. because of its
nal anarchy, and barbarian invasions. Generals emerged great mythological history and because of the interces-
as emperors, marching against other generals and usurp- sion of a native son, Xenophon, who was the imperial
ers. Few years of Roman history were as black as the physician at the time. Byzantium also received a five-year
middle of the third century, as rulers fell in battle or right to be spared from tribute in order to ease its finan-
were overwhelmed by the sheer enormity of the tasks cial problems. As was obvious, immunitas followed no
facing them. fixed pattern and could be adjusted to meet the demands
of a specific situation. Roman colonies were not immedi-
The Illyrian and Danubian officers of the army ately included, although they usually benefited from the
were the ones to stabilize the situation. CLAUDIUS II IUS ITALICUM. Individuals also held immunitas, normally
GOTHICUS (268–270), AURELIAN (270–275), and PROBUS as a result of special status with Rome. Such a person or
(276–282) were born to Illyrian families, and each group would reap the inscribed benefits; depending upon
helped to repair the damage of war, disease, and finan- the imperial decree, or lex senatus consultum, such rights
cial ruin. More importantly, they laid the foundations could become hereditary.
for the reign of an emperor born to a poor Dalmatian
family, Diocletian. See also IUS LATII; TAXATION; TRIBUTUM.

He redesigned the entire empire, resurrecting its for- imperator Originally, an honor paid to a general who
tunes and setting it upon a path of order that would last had won a great victory; later conferred upon the
for another century. His gift to Illyricum was to retire to supreme head of the empire. In the days of the Republic,
his estates at Split, near Salona. Under the new imperial a victorious general received the title with the cheers
provincial system, Illyricum was included in the diocese (SALUTATIO) of his soldiers until he celebrated his TRI-
of Pannonia. UMPH. The Senate could also grant such a tribute, as con-
ferred upon Sulla, Pompey, and Julius Caesar. Sulla and
It was unfortunate that a province so influential to Pompey received the honor more than once, and Caesar
the imperial rebirth in the third and fourth centuries used it permanently. Augustus was given the title in 29
should suffer so severely in the fifth. Illyricum was rav- B.C.E. by the Senate, and it was incorporated into his
aged by the barbarians and also served as the cause of a name and was claimed by his successors, despite the fact
disagreement between the Eastern and Western Empires. that they had no military honors or victories. In 69 C.E.,
The debate was over jurisdiction, an issue made irrele- Otho took the throne by assassination, with the acclama-
vant by the demise of the West. tion of the Praetorian Guard, and assumed the dignifying
title, while Vespasian claimed it for the imperial house-
imagines Masks made of wax and other materials as hold. Tradition developed that a ruler was given the
portraits of deceased Romans; kept by the family and imperator for the individual successes of his generals.
descendants for use in other funeral processions. At the (Claudius was, by the end of his life, Imperator XXVII.)
time of a funeral, all imagines were taken from their The title was also claimed by proconsuls and governors.
shrines and given to actors who had been hired for the Junius Blaesus, the proconsul of Africa, was the last to
occasion. During the funeral procession the actors would hold the position of imperator without royal rank, in 22
surround the bier of the corpse, wearing the masks and C.E. A rebellious general might also use the traditional
representing the spirits of those who had gone before. SALUTATIO of the legions to lay claim to the throne. Impe-
This ceremony was considered essential and socially rial coinage remains the best evidence for the title in
important to ensure a proper burial. practice.

See also DEATH. Imperial Cult Also, Cult of the Emperors; the system-
atic religio-political practice of honoring the emperors
immunitas The freedom granted to a colony, commu- and the Roman state. Viewing the emperors as divine and
nity, or individual from paying taxes, local or imperial, worthy of prayers and honors, the cult was of consider-
seeing service in the legions, or performing other able political value, enhancing the status of Rome within
required duties. During the time of the Republic, the the provinces and ensuring the obedience of all imperial
immunitas was granted by the Senate to many cities as an subjects. The notion of ruler-worship was pervasive in
addition to their libertas. It was also given to allies and to the ancient world; it was traditionally observed in most
members of the Italian Confederacy. During the period of Asian nations and exalted to a high degree in Egypt. The
the empire, the emperor and the Senate determined the Hellenic world followed the custom, adding a pantheon
granting or revocation of the immunitas. Nero, for exam- of highly anthropomorphic deities, to the extent that cer-
ple, gave it to Greece, along with its freedom, but Ves- tain royal men were seen as gods. Alexander the Great
pasian rescinded it. Other cases involved full exemption used such cultic practices, and Ptolemy was deified by
or temporary declarations. The island of Cos (Kos) was

272 imperium more attractive to the populace in the distant realms of
the empire’s Eastern provinces, while the West had been
his own heir. Initially, the Romans rebelled at such an so Romanized that such a cult was superfluous.
excess, but Roman generals had become associated with
gods and goddesses by the second century B.C.E., after imperium The ancient term used to describe the pow-
major triumphs. The conquered tribes in the provinces ers possessed by the supreme administrative authority of
took up the custom of calling the senators of Rome their the Roman state. Imperium extended to matters of life
“saviors” and looked upon them as gods. Pompey the and death, as well as law, military command, and all deci-
Great, Marc Antony, and Julius Caesar all attained a semi- sions of policy. Its bestowal on an individual conveyed a
divine status. supreme but temporary power. By tradition the first kings
of Rome held the imperium, but after their removal and
AUGUSTUS, however, exploited the full potential of the acceptance of the Republic, such authority passed
deification of the emperor in order to deal with the into the hands of elected officials. Consuls, praetors, and
expanse of the empire and the diversity of its inhabitants. specially chosen officers could be granted the imperium
In Egypt, Greece, and parts of Asia Minor and in Gaul, as for a set time period, normally one year or the time nec-
well as in Africa, the imperial cult was fostered in the essary for the completion of a particular task, such as
name of Roman et Augustus. Roman supremacy and Pompey’s military commission in 67 B.C.E.
unity were the result, and out of this early practice came
the Cult of the Emperors. Throughout the Republic, the nature of the
imperium evolved. The privileges of such an office might
After Caesar’s death in 44 B.C.E., Octavian (Augustus) be withheld by dictators such as Sulla, or the amassing of
officially proclaimed him a god, Divus Julius, and in 27 foreign holdings might require that governors be given an
B.C.E., Octavian received the auspicious title of divi filius. imperium to administer their own territories. Such an
Public holidays henceforth were proclaimed on his birth- imperium, however, ceased at the borders of their region,
day, his house was dedicated to Jupiter, and in 12 B.C.E. and the imperium had no power within the boundary
prayers and oaths were given to him. Finally, his funeral (pomerium) of Rome itself. In 27 B.C.E., Augustus
was dramatized as the scene of his resurrection and reformed this system in such a way that he ultimately
immorality. gained control over the entire Rome Empire when he
worked out an agreement with the Senate to divide the
This Imperial Cult evolved along two different paths Roman world between imperial and senatorial provinces.
in the empire. In the East, the Romans were able to adapt He retained control, as proconsul, of those regions on the
to the traditional forms of divine kingship, while in the frontier that required legions, extending his imperium
West, where no such practice existed, Rome invented outside of Rome and within as well. In 23 B.C.E., when
one. Romans and Italians accepted the cult as part of the Augustus resigned the consulship, he was allowed to
Roman state religion, but with little enthusiasm. maintain this in perpetuity. At the same time, he was
Throughout Asia, Bithynia, Greece (Achaea and Macedo- granted control over the imperial provinces above that of
nia) and in most of Asia Minor, temples to the divine the governors (IMPERIUM MAIUS). Augustus was now mas-
Julius and Roma were constructed. At the same time, the ter of the most important provinces and the very heart of
koinon, or city assemblies, were joined into CONCILIA to the imperial administration. The imperium was voted to
administer the cultic ceremonies and to act as local Augustus for five years in 18 and 13 B.C.E., and for 10 in
provincial councils. The concilia in the Asian provinces 27 and 8 B.C.E. and in 3 and 13 C.E. Subsequent emperors
were granted a wide latitude in the form and style of wor- received their imperium from the Senate upon gaining
ship ceremonies. Pergamum, Ephesus, Smyrna, and Tar- the throne, although approval was probably pro forma.
sus erected the earliest temples to Rome and Augustus
and to succeeding rulers and empresses, including imperium maius Also, maius imperium; a term denoting
Tiberius, Livia, and Hadrian. the special power conferred upon certain individuals to
conduct a mission with an authority superior to a gover-
In the West, the concilia were used to impress Roman nor’s (IMPERIUM PROCONSULARES) in a given region or in the
culture upon the subjugated peoples. In Gaul, Britain, entire empire. During the Republic, the Senate had the
along the Danube, and in Germany, the concilia acted as exclusive right to grant the imperium maius, but during
the leading proponents of intensive Romanization. In 12 the empire the rulers not only possessed it in perpetuity
B.C.E., Drusus the Elder consecrated the altar of Roma et but also shared it with the others. Such authority was
Augustus at LUGDUNUM (Lyons), and from that point on granted rarely during the Republic, and Pompey was
the city was the cult center for the Gallic provinces. denied the privilege in 57 B.C.E. In 43 B.C.E., however, Bru-
Another altar was erected before 4 C.E. in Oppidum Ubio- tus and Cassius were given that rank in the East. Augustus
rum for all of Germania. By the end of the first century was voted the imperium maius in 23 B.C.E. as part of his
more altars appeared in Gallia Narbonensis and in Spain,
Africa, Dacia, and throughout the Danubian frontier.

Just as the concilia did not survive the changes of the
second and third centuries, the Imperial Cult suffered
from the isolation of the emperors from the provinces
and the instability of many regions. Local gods became

settlement with the Senate over the division of the Roman industry 273
Empire (see IMPERIUM); Augustus’s maius extended over
every province under imperial jurisdiction. On occasion tigers, an animal never seen by the Romans, and an arm-
he shared the imperium maius with a reliable lieutenant, less boy, who performed marvelous feats with his legs and
such as Marcus Agrippa in 18 B.C.E. and again in 13 B.C.E., toes, presumable due to a mastery of yoga. For the next
when Agrippa traveled to the Pannonian area to settle its two and one-half centuries a lucrative and busy system of
affairs. Tiberius assumed the imperium maius in 13 C.E. as exchange was in existence. From India, Rome received
the designated heir of Augustus. Others granted this spices of a wide variety, silk from China, perfumes and
power in the first century C.E. were Germanicus in 17 and many precious stones and gems. Caligula wore a robe
Corbulo in 63, both assigned to the troublesome East. with Indian jewels when he crossed his boat bridge at
Bauli, and Septimius Severus used an altar adorned with
imperium proconsulares A type of the IMPERIUM per- ivory and stones from India in his ostentatious funeral
taining to the powers of a PROCONSUL in charge of a procession for Pertinax in 193 C.E. In return, the Romans
province. In principle, such an imperium gave a governor sent metals, cloth, glass, and, most importantly, gold, sil-
administrative control over the territory under his com- ver, and copper. In fact, so much coinage was exported
mand, with two major restrictions. First, the imperium during the first century C.E. that its effect upon the econ-
proconsulare of one proconsul could not be greater than omy is still debated; one theory argues that this mammoth
that of any other unless the emperor provided him with a exportation of currency brought about the third century
special status (see IMPERIUM MAIUS). Secondly, all authority collapse and played a role in the general demise of the
of the imperium ended when the official crossed the empire two centuries later, which further weakened trade.
POMERIUM, or the sacred boundary of Rome. Any official As the eastern frontiers closed with the rise of the Persian
visiting Rome was subject to the laws and magistrates of SASSANIDS, the links with India were terminated.
the city.
See also SILK ROUTE; TRADE AND COMMERCE.
Incitatus The horse of Emperor GAIUS CALIGULA. The
emperor treated the chariot horse with his usual industry The first Roman industry of any significance
excesses, allowing him to live in a marble stable, to sleep began in the second century B.C.E. as a result of the
in an ivory stall and to wear purple blankets and jeweled Roman victory in the Punic Wars against Carthage. The
collars. Incitatus was given furniture, slaves, and guards victory in the war brought expansion of Roman influence
who were ordered to patrol the nearby streets and over Spain, Greece, and parts of Africa and Asia Minor
enforce quiet among the human residents so that the ani- and the acquisition of cheap labor in the form of slaves
mal could sleep in peace. Caligula frequently had the and prisoners. The capture of skilled workers made pos-
horse to dinner, feeding him golden barley and toasting sible the development of key industries in Italy that were
his health with golden goblets. He even promised to discovered in other markets of the Mediterranean. Spe-
make Incitatus a consul but was assassinated before he cialization in crafts and industries allowed Roman mer-
could do so. chants to become competitive throughout the Hellenic
world and in turn facilitated the rise of trade networks
India Originally, the name applied by the Romans to all that eventually reached to Asia in the first century B.C.E.,
the nations of modern Asia, but in time designating the including China and India. To assist their work, crafts-
land that carried on extensive trade with the empire. India people and traders formed guilds (collegia). The collegia
was known to the Romans from accounts about Darius wielded some influence, but their tendency to involve
(the Persian ruler), Alexander the Great, and Seleucus I, themselves in politics led to their suppression.
all of whom sent embassies or traveled to India personally.
Inevitably, economic ties developed, as the region pos- The networks of trade that spread outward from
sessed many rare, exotic, and fabled items. Trade was Rome and that grafted themselves onto pre-existing
disrupted, however, by the rise of the hostile Parthian trade routes marked one of the distinguishing charac-
Empire and the attempts by the tribes of Arabia Felix to teristics of Roman industry. Industries located on the
dominate trade. Under the empire, relations with the Roman provinces, ranging from glass and agriculture
Parthians improved. The expeditions of AELIUS GALLUS, to metalworking and pottery became so numerous and
though largely unsuccessful, reduced Arab reluctance to prosperous that they overshadowed the industries of
trade, and land routes were improved in the north and Italy. This decline of Italian industry was hastened by
south. Aqaba served as a port for these ventures. the decision on the part of the later Roman government
to depend on provincial industries for needs in
In 20 B.C.E., envoys from India arrived in Rome to weapons, goods, and materials for administration. At
make overtures of friendship, which resulted in a treaty. the same time, government centralization, increases in
According to Dio, the gifts from the Indians included taxes, and strict requirements that sons follow their
fathers in the family trade, compelled Italian craftspeo-
ple to revive the long dormant custom of guilds in the
first century C.E. In time, the renewed collegia were able
to wrest from the government enough privileges and

274 informers as the western gateway to Britain, Spain, and especially
Germany, it developed multi-provincial ties. Its agricul-
An olive press in Pompeii (Courtesy Fr. Felix Just, S.J.) tural produce fed Germanic legions and the inhabitants
of the camps on the Rhine, while workshops and facto-
economic advantages that the Italian craftspeople were ries pursued traditional Gallic crafts, including wood-
able to protect their work and ensure the survival of working, silversmithing, pottery making, glasswork, and
many forms of industry after the demise of the Roman the forging of iron. Gallic pottery was highly regarded
Empire in the West. throughout the empire. Local commerce provided a
smaller, secondary market.
While collegia played a major role in industrial out-
put, the darker reality of Rome’s craftwork was that in Suggested Readings: Casson, Lionel. Ancient Trade and
many industries—such as mining—most of the work was Society. Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University Press,
performed by slaves or condemned criminals ad metallum 1984; D’Arms, John H. Commerce and Social Standing in
(to the mine). Other slaves were used as craftspeople Ancient Rome. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
because of their specialized skills. However, the majority Press, 1981; Duncan-Jones, Richard. Structure and Scale
of craftspeople were Roman citizens or freedmen who in the Roman Economy. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Uni-
grew up learning their trade at the sides of their fathers versity Press, 1990; ———. The Economy of the Roman
and other members of the same craft guilds. The collegia Empire: Quantitative Studies. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge
provided a social milieu for craftspeople, ensuring not University Press, 1982; Finley, M. I. The Ancient Economy.
only employment but funeral services and care for surviv- second edition. London: Hogarth, 1985; Frayn, Joan M.
ing family. Sheep-rearing and the Wool Trade in Italy During the Roman
Period. Liverpool U.K.: F. Cairns, 1984; Greene, Kevin.
Individual provinces became noted for certain indus- The Archaeology of the Roman Economy. Berkeley: Univer-
tries, encouraged by both provincial administration and sity of California Press, 1986.
the increasingly centralized imperial bureaucracy. There
was metalwork from Gaul, luxury items from the East, informers See DELATORES.
and agriculture throughout the West, Egypt, and Africa.
Syria profited from its glassmaking and weaving and from Ingenuus (fl. third century C.E.) Governor of Pannonia
its prime location on the trade routes with the East. Spain and a usurper in 260
provided glassware and the mineral needs of most of the Following the defeat and capture of Emperor Valerian by
empire, including gold, silver, and copper for currency. the Persians, Ingenuus challenged Valerian’s son and suc-
Individual artisans produced pottery, leather, metal, cessor, Gallienus, and declared himself emperor at Sir-
bricks, glass, and other goods in provincial centers, while mium with the help of his legions from Moesia. His
the economies of independent cities in Asia, Achaea, and attempt was short-lived, however, as Gallienus defeated
Italy were supervised by the correctores. him that same year at the battle of MURSA MAJOR.

Britain and Gaul perhaps best epitomized the blend Ingiuomerus (fl. early first century C.E.) Uncle of the
of imperial and provincial industry. In Britain, agriculture chieftain Arminius and a leader of the Cherusci
and minerals were used locally but were also exported to Ingiuomerus acquired a formidable reputation as an
the Continent. Small industries produced pottery and enemy of Rome and formed a union with Arminius in 15
metalwork for domestic use. The province was thus vital C.E. to oppose the advances of the Roman troops of GER-
as a self-sufficient entity and as a minor player in the eco- MANICUS. Ingiuomerus lived up to his reputation in battle
nomics of the empire. Because of Gaul’s strategic location but was wounded after leading an assault on Germani-
cus’s camp. In 16 C.E. both Ingiuomerus and ARMINIUS
narrowly escaped capture, evading the enemy with the
help of their CHERUSCI, who allowed them to get away.
The following year the Germans themselves divided as
MAROBODUUS struggled with the tribes not under his con-
trol. Ingiuomerus deserted his nephew and joined Maro-
boduus, sharing in his defeat at the hands of Arminius
and the Cherusci and SUEBI.

Innocent I (d. 417 C.E.) Pope from 401 to 417
Innocent was born at Albano, Italy, and was possibly the
son of St. Anastasius I. He served Anastasius as his dea-

con and was elected his successor on December 21, 401. Isauria 275
A pontiff of considerable ability, personal strength, and
morality, Innocent proved an important figure in estab- Irenaeus (c. 130–200 C.E.) Bishop of Lyons and one of
lishing the primacy of the Roman see. He demanded, for the first theologians in early Christianity
example, that all disputes within the church be settled Probably born in Smyrna, Irenaeus listened as a boy to
by him, setting important precedents in jurisdiction and the profound Christian message of Polycarp. Subse-
authority. In 404, he called for the restoration of St. John quently St. Irenaeus studied in Rome, entered the clergy
Chrysostom as patriarch of Constantinople and later he and became a presbyter at Lyons. In 177 he was sent to
secured ecclesiastical control over Illyricum, which had Rome, narrowly missing the initial persecution of Chris-
passed under Eastern jurisdiction in 388. The heresy of tians in Lyons, which claimed the local bishop, Pothinus.
Pelagianism was condemned in 417, and its founder, Irenaeus returned the following year and was chosen to
Pelagius, was excommunicated. Innocent also emerged succeed the martyred prelate as leader of the Lyons Chris-
as a formidable political figure, working to have Em- tian community, a position that he held until the end of
peror Honorius issue decrees against the Donatists. In his days. From his see, he served as a defender of ortho-
410, however, Innocent could not prevent the sack of doxy in Christian doctrine, composing Adversus omnes
Rome by the Visigoths, despite his efforts at Ravenna to Haereses (Against All Heresies), a brilliant attack upon
negotiate a settlement. Returning to Rome in 412 after GNOSTICISM. This work was translated from the original
being spared the horrors of the invasions, his absence Greek into Latin, Armenian, and other languages. He may
was considered providential. Innocent is considered by have suffered martyrdom, a common fate of major figures
many historians to be the first pope, with his predeces- in the church at that time.
sors who ruled with less authority, being counted as
bishops of Rome. Isaac the Great (St. Sahak) (c. 350–439) Saint and
famed katholikos (also catholicos, or head) of the Arme-
insula A series of houses formed into blocks of rooms nian Church
and used in those major cities of the empire where the Isaac was very important in promoting Armenian cultural
Italian influence was predominant. In ROME the insula independence and a sense of national literature. The son
was the main style of living quarters and developed as of St. Narses, he was a descendant of St. Gregory the Illu-
a response to the crowded population of the capital. Insu- minator. Isaac was educated at Constantinople and, after
lae normally had the same outward appearance, that of a the death of his wife, he became a monk. In 390, he was
tall, square set of floors; within, however, some variety in appointed katholicos of Armenia, the 10th to hold the
architectural planning could be exhibited. There might be office. He fostered monasticism among the Armenians,
a large mansion covering many rooms, which could be converting his residence into a monastery, and secured
sublet. By law they were limited in height to 70 feet. the recognition by Constantinople that the Armenian
Other internal styles included many small apartments; Church had patriarchal rights, thereby freeing Armenian
one room or more; even whole floor suites. While insulae Christianity from the control of the Greeks. Isaac was
were both necessary and inevitable, they contributed to crucial in organizing a group of scholars, with the help of
the massive overpopulation of Rome and to its filthy, his auxiliary bishop, Mesrop Mastots, that translated
squalid, tenementlike nature. What was worse, any small Greek and Syriac works, especially the Bible, into Arme-
fire would quickly spread from one connected insula to nian. It is possible that he also composed Armenian
anther, as happened in 36 C.E. on the Aventine and, of hymns and, perhaps, the Armenian liturgy. Deposed by
course, in the great fire of 64. The inhabitants of these the Persians in 425, he was able to regain his see in 432
buildings had very little hope of escape from such fires through popular insistence. He is known as St. Sahak in
because of their height and the poor quality of the struc- the Armenian Church.
tures.
Isauria A region of Asia Minor situated roughly
See also DOMUS. between PISIDIA and CILICIA, to the west of the Taurus
Mountains and comprising a part of that range’s western
Ionia Famous area of Asia Minor; included in the slope. Traditionally the Isaurians were a fierce people,
province of Asia in the Roman Empire. The area occupied specializing in robbery. They were initially defeated by
the central west coast on the Aegean and included such Lucius Servilius Vatia in 75 B.C.E., their territory subse-
cities as Ephesus and Smyrna. quently falling under Roman rule. Isauria passed into the
jurisdiction first of CAPPADOCIA, but under Antoninus
See also ASIA. Pius it was given to Cilicia. Two small cities served as the
local economic centers: New Isaura and Old Isaura.
Ionian Sea See ADRIATIC SEA.
Although supposedly subjugated, the Isaurians
Ireland See HIBERNIA. refused to surrender their old ways. In 6 C.E., they
resumed their marauding of surrounding communities

276 Isidorus plined priests, dressed in white linen garments, per-
formed beautiful rituals, accompanied by music. A well
and were again defeated. Two centuries later, in the reign organized spiritual structure made Isis’s devotional doc-
of Severus Alexander (c. 222), the Isaurians rose up trines even more exciting and easily propagated. Isis
briefly, continuing to make trouble into the reign of endured for many centuries, replaced only by the
Probus, who had to build a fortress in order to keep them Madonna of Christian belief. An interesting example of
pacified in 278. So resilient did they prove that they were the Hellenization of Isis is found in a novel of the late
mentioned in 404 C.E. by St. John Chrysostom in his let- first century C.E., by Xenophon of Ephesus. He com-
ters from his place of exile in the Taurus Mountains. A bined the character of Apollo and Isis into one story of
campaign had to be mounted and lasted three years two lovers who evade hardships through her constant
(404–407), but was wholly insufficient to stop them. intervention.

Emperor Leo found the best way to end their threats. See also RELIGION.
In order to put the Isaurians to constructive use and to
counter the same Germanic military influence that over- Issus Small town, near the northeastern corner of the
whelmed the West, Leo recruited native peoples in the Mediterranean, where a battle was fought in 194 C.E.
East to serve in his army. The Isaurians were probably between the legions of Septimius Severus and Pescennius
chosen to fill the ranks of the newly created Palace Niger for control of the Eastern provinces of the empire.
Guard, the EXCUBITORS. Leo married (c. 466) Ariadne, the After assuming the purple in Rome in 193, Severus, with
daughter of Tarasicodissa, a chief of the Isaurians. Tarasi- his Pannonian legions, passed into Asia Minor, winning
codissa took the name ZENO and played a major role in the battles of CYZICUS and NICAEA. By 194, Severus was
court politics. In November of 474 he succeeded to the marching toward Syria, when Niger himself arrived with
throne when Zeno’s grandson, Leo II, died. The Isaurians, reinforcements.
who now controlled the palace, were very unpopular
because of their reputations and previous crimes. A The location of this final confrontation was the same
palace revolt led by Basiliscus ousted Zeno, who simply as at that historic battle of 333 B.C.E. between Alexander
retired to Isauria as its king. Basiliscus proved even more the Great and Darius the Persian. Just as earlier, the
unpopular, and in 476, Zeno returned and ruled the invader, Severus, was outnumbered by his opponents, for
empire until 491. Niger possessed a vast host. While Niger commanded his
troops personally, however, Severus entrusted his troops
Isidorus See BUCOLICI. to P. Cornelius Anullinus.

Isis One of the most popular and enduring goddesses According to the historian Dio, the battle initially
of the ancient world. Isis was originally one of the great favored Niger because of his superior numbers and would
deities of Egypt. She was the sister and consort of Osiris, have gone against the Severans had a storm not erupted.
and put him together after he had been dismembered by Lightning struck and rain drenched the field. Niger’s
his evil brother, Set. She was later impregnated by the troops were more adversely affected because of the wind.
dead Osiris, giving birth to Horus, who took revenge Unable to overcome both nature and the enemy, these
upon Set. troops began a retreat that quickly degenerated into a
rout. Some 20,000 soldiers died on Niger’s side as Severus
Isis evolved as a fertility goddess and as a universal proved triumphant. Niger tried to flee but was slain out-
Mother figure. By the second century B.C.E., traders and side of Antioch. Severus could now turn his attention to
sailors were carrying her cultic influences throughout the Clodius Albinus, his opponent in the West.
known world. Within the Greek domains Isis became
identified with Demeter, her statues assuming the usual Istria Also called Histria; a land at the north of the
Grecian motif. They soon appeared in the cities of Africa, Adriatic, between VENETIA on the Timavus River and
Asia Minor, and Spain. Before long she arrived in Italy ILLYRICUM on the Arsia. The Istrian territory extended
and entered Rome toward the end of the Republic. into the Julian Alps. The Istri were reputed to be a fierce,
warlike and territorially possessive people. They resented
Popular resistance to foreign cults had always been a the founding of AQUILEIA by the Romans, and war was
part of the Roman makeup (see APOLLO and CYBELE), but common until C. Claudius Pulcher defeated them in 177
Isis was more successful than other deities. Her followers B.C.E. Although there would be small insurrections in the
moved from Pompeii, and sometime before 50 B.C.E. a future, Istria became part of the important province of
temple in her honor was erected in Rome. The great ITALIA, and Aquileia served as the largest port on the
moment of Roman acceptance came in the reign of Gaius Adriatic.
Caligula, who built a large temple to her in the Campus
Martius. She thus earned the title of Isis Campensis. Italia Homeland of the Romans, for centuries distin-
guished by special status, honors, and rights. Originally,
As was true of most of the highly popular cults in
the Roman Empire, the temple of Isis offered elaborate
ceremonies and complex mysteries. Her highly disci-

“Italia” referred only to the southern half of the pen- Italia 277
insula, where the Italians or Vitalians resided. In succeed-
ing years, however, the territorial possessions of the tige. The villa system of the Republican age endured, as
Romans increased so greatly that by the time of the well as the great figures of the time who built these
empire, “Italy” stretched from Sicily to the ALPS, includ- retreats from the world. They fled to luxurious estates in
ing the once barbarian GALLIA CISALPINA. Campania, at BAULI, and BAIAE, and life throughout the
region was generally good.
Although the Romans came to dominate the Mediter-
ranean and beyond, Italia itself was not easily acquired In the second century C.E. Italia’s status changed. The
and was composed of numerous peoples, some never decline of the region was rooted in numerous events, all
fully assimilated, and a complex internal social strata. of which reflected upon the state of the empire itself.
Indeed, the final organization and pacification of Italy did Economic decentralization threatened Italian supremacy,
not occur until the late first century B.C.E. Even then, peace in Asia and Africa reduced the number of slaves
many tribal complexes remained. The oldest people and cheap labor available for Italia’s industries, and thou-
known to ancient tradition were the Pelasgians or Siculi, sands of Italians had departed for better lives in the
who came from a Greek line and could be called the first colonies, bringing a crisis of depopulation. No longer
inhabitants. More famous were the Etruscans, who mas- were the Roman LEGIONS Italian, and by the second cen-
tered the lands between the Tiber and the Alps. There tury, even the emperors were of foreign birth.
were also the Umbrians, the Latini, Sabines, Apulians,
and a host of smaller clans, including the Volsci, Baeligni, Most serious of all was the philosophy of the central
Marsi, Hernici, and Sallentini. Far to the south there lived imperial government that the Roman Empire was a
as well Greek colonists. All were defeated and subjugated united fabric of provinces. HADRIAN had already set a
by the Romans through many wars. wider perimeter by traveling for most of his long reign
(117–138 C.E.) to the cities of the West, the East, and of
In recognition of the tapestry of Italia’s cultures, Africa. Economic production elsewhere was encouraged.
Augustus, in 27 B.C.E., established a system of 11 dis- COLOGNE soon made better glassware, Africa better
tricts: lamps, and the Gallic artisans proved superior in pottery
and metal goods. Sensing the need to respond to the
I. Campania and Latium demands of a new era, the cities in northern Italia,
II. The region of Calabria, Apulia, and the Hirpini Aquileia, and MEDIOLANUM (Milan), adapted to meet the
III. Lucania and Bruttium needs of new markets in Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia, and
IV. Samnium (The region of the Marsi, Frentani, Illyricum, and thus survived by supplying wine, glass,
and weapons to the legions on the Danube. Southern
Marrucini, Paeligni, Vestini, and Sabines) Italia showed no such initiative. Ominously, the north
V. Picenum suffered a prefiguring of the fifth century when, around
VI. Umbria 170 C.E., the QUADI and MARCOMANNI burst across the
VII. Etruria Danube and besieged Aquileia while ravaging parts of
VIII. Gallia Cispadana Gallia Transpadana and Istria.
IX. Liguria
X. Eastern Gallia Traspadana, Venetia, Istria Caracalla (ruled 211–217 C.E.) then dealt two crush-
ing blows to Italian pride. He appointed the financial offi-
(Aquileia), and Carnia cers of the state, the CURATORES, to the cities of Italia.
XI. Western Gallia Transpadana Each CURATORE supervised the finances of a municipality,
determining if the funds were being used properly. The
ROME was excluded from the jurisdiction of the dis- passing of the Constitutio Antoniniana ended Italia’s
tricts. All land within Italia benefited from the full protec- unique legal and social status forever by granting citizen-
tion of law and participated in the IUS ITALICUM. Such ship to every inhabitant of the empire. Under the next
advantages allowed inhabitants to live in considerable emperors and throughout the third century C.E., the
prosperity but fostered economic expansion as well. duties of the CORRECTORES expanded as their jurisdiction
came to encompass geographical boundaries instead of
Since the second century B.C.E., Italy had grown from legal matters only.
a primitive country to the leading financial power in the
empire. Its industries enjoyed a monopoly in the first DIOCLETIAN, however, was responsible for the admin-
century C.E., and its merchants controlled trade every- istrative decline. In reorganizing the provinces of the
where. Equally, Italia was blessed with abundant beauty, empire circa 300 C.E., Italia was declared part of the dio-
agricultural goods, and a fortunate location. Exports cese of Italiae, under the governorship of two VICARII, one
included metalworks from CAMPANIA, silver from CAPUA, in the north and the other in the south. Aside from the
and pottery from PUTEOLI, Cumae, and Campania. If loss of prestige, tax rights, and political independence,
Rome was the political center of the world, Italy was the Italia suffered as well by being ignored by both Diocletian
industrial one. Wealth allowed the cities of POMPEII, and his eventual, powerful successor, CONSTANTINE THE
Capua, AQUILEIA, and others to achieve considerable pres- GREAT. Diocletian refused to live in Rome, preferring
Nicomedia, and visited Italy only in 303, after he had

Regions of Italy and Rome under Augustus 0 50 100 Miles
0 50 100 Kms
GALLIA VENETIA
TRANSPADANA X N

XI Padus R. Adriatic Sea

LIGURIA GALLIA APULIA
IX CISPADANA II

VIII

Arnus R. Tiberis R.UMBRIA
VI
ETRURIA
VII PICENUM
V

Rome SAMNIUM
IV

LATIUM
I

CAMPANIA

LUCANIA

ROMA Tyrrhenian III
Sea BRUTTIUM
VII
XIV VII Servian Wall Aurelian Wall V
IX
VI

IV

V

VIII III I Porta Capena VIII Forum Romanum
XIV X
II Caelimontium IX Circus Flaminius
XI I II
Tiberis R. III Isis et Serapis X PPaallaattiiuumm

XIV IV Templum Pacis XI Circus Maximus
XIII
XII I V Esquiliae XII Piscina Publica

0 150 Miles VI Alta Semita XIII Aventinus

0 150 Kms VII Via Lata XIV Trans Tiberim

been on the throne for 20 years. Constantine, born in ius civile 279
Serbia, conquered the Italians in 312 when he defeated
MAXENTIUS at the MILVIAN BRIDGE, but he chose Serdica as mon throughout the empire and could often be con-
his initial headquarters before building his new capital, sulted in libraries.
CONSTANTINOPLE. This city on the Bosporus became the
heart of the empire. It is likely that itineraries were first developed in
early Roman history, but the surviving examples date
Italy remained the home of the emperors of the West, from the first century C.E. A few notable examples have
who lived in Rome, Mediolanum (Milan), and eventually survived, but the most notable is the Itinerarium Antonini-
RAVENNA. Such attractions drew the VANDALS and the anum, also called Itinerarium Provinciarum Antonini
HUNS, who poured into the province. With the fall in 476 Augusti (Antonine itinerary). Dating probably to the late
C.E. of ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS at the hands of ODOACER, the third century, the Itinerarium Antoniniarum collected 225
barbarian king, Italia came under the rule of foreigners. routes, mainly for troop movements, along the major
roads of the empire. It offers details on where to stop at
See also COLONIES, ETRURIA, HERCULANEUM, POMPEII, mansiones along the routes of the cursus publicus, with a
TIBER, UMBRIA, VESUVIUS, viae. variety of proposed intineraries, although there is clear
information on the shortest route that might be taken
Suggested Readings: Clarke, J. R. Houses of Roman Italy between two locations. The longest route described is
100 B.C.E.–C.E. 250. Los Angeles: University of California that between Rome and Egypt and was perhaps included
Press, 1991; Clayton, Peter Treasures of Ancient Rome. in the plan of Emperor Caracalla’s proposed journey to
New York: Random House, 1986; Grimal, Pierre. Roman Egypt in 214–15. Included with the Itinerarium Antonini-
Cities. Translated and edited by G. Michael Woloch. anum was the Imperatoris Antonini Augusti itinerarium
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983; Harris, maritimum, an itinerary on sea travel.
William V. Rome in Etruria and Umbria. Oxford, U.K.,
Clarendon Press, 1971; Neeve, P. W. de. Peasants in Peril: The Ravenna Cosmography, a compilation by an 11th-
Location and Economy in Italy in the Second Century B.C.E. century monk that was originally the work of a cleric in
Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben, 1984; Potter, T. W. Roman Italy. Ravenna around 700, made use of earlier Roman docu-
London: British Museum Publications, 1987; Salmon, ments from as far back as the fifth century. It provides a
Edward Togo. The Making of Roman Italy. Ithaca, N.Y.: list of stops, river names, and other information for trav-
Cornell University Press, 1982. elers. Copy errors are abundant, however.

Italicus (fl. mid-first century C.E.) Son of the Cheruscan In the later empire, itineraria were created to provide
Prince Flavius and a Chatti princess, and nephew of the Christian pilgrims with maps and routes to the holy city of
famous leader of the German Cherusci, Arminius Jerusalem. Among the best known of these are the
Italicus was born in Rome, as his father had been unable Itinerarium Burdigalense sive Hierosolymitanum (Jerusalem
to return home because of his loyalties to the Romans. In or Bordeaux itinerary) and the Peregrinatio Aetheriae
47 C.E., CLAUDIUS gave Italicus an escort and gold, send- (Journey of Aetheriae). The Bordeaux itinerary gives
ing him to take over the vacant throne of the CHERUSCI. A details to pilgrims journeying from Bordeaux to Jerusalem,
civil war had decimated the aristocracy, and Italicus was with stops at Milan, Constantinople, and Antioch and
welcomed initially as a suitable chieftain. However, his with an alternate return route home. The text offers
imperial associations made the establishment of a perma- descriptions, annotations, and distances between the sites.
nent sovereignty difficult, for elements in the Cherusci The Peregrinatio Aetheriae, also called the Itinerarium Ege-
refused to accept him. A battle ensued, and Italicus and riae, dates to 400 and is an account of a nun who made a
his followers were victorious. For a number of years he pilgrimage to the East, with visits to Constantinople,
remained the head of the tribe, but, growing arrogant, he Egypt, and Edessa. The nun wrote the book for her fellow
was eventually expelled. With the aid of the LANGOBARDI, sisters in Hispania. Aside from its great value in terms of
Italicus returned but reigned as a notoriously bad king. Roman cartography and travel, the Peregrinatio also pre-
serves details on the liturgical life of the Holy Land during
Italy See ITALIA. the period, as well as examples of Late and Vulgar Latin.

itineraria Maps or guides that provided lists of sta- See also NOTITIA DIGNITATEM and PEUTINGER TABLE.
tions along a road, distances to various points, and other
useful information that might be of value to the Ro- Iuga The Roman name for JUNO, as the goddess of mar-
man traveler. The itinerarium was the land equivalent of riage.
the periploi, which provided similar details for ocean
travel. Carved on stone or bronze tablets, or written on ius civile Roman civil law. The ius civile denoted the
papyrus or parchment, the intineraria were quite com- laws, statutes, and regulations governing Roman citizens,
which were different from those applied to foreigners
(the IUS GENTIUM). In the first century B.C.E., SCAEVOLA
organized the ius civile into a mammoth collection of 18
books, while Servius Sulpicius a short time later amassed