Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire - 667 pages.

480 Rubellius
Plautus in November of 395. Rufinus did build a monastery and
shrine but was noted for his lobbying of anti-pagan legis-
Rubellius Plautus (d. 62 C.E.) Son of Julia (5, daughter lation. Despite his obviously zealous Christianity, he was
of Drusus the Younger) on good terms with the pagan LIBANIUS and had met with
Plautus was, with NERO, one of the closest blood relatives the orator SYMMACHUS.
to Augustus in the latter half of the first century C.E. Out
of fear of Nero, and because of his own Stoic beliefs, Rufinus, Vulcacius (fl. fourth century C.E.) Praetorian
Plautus led a secluded, blameless life, but in 55 his name prefect of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa from 365 to 368
was mentioned in connection with conspiracies against A noble Roman pagan, Rufinus was consul in 347, and
Nero and by 60 he was considered a successor to the moved on to Illyricum and then Gaul in 354. His career
emperor. This disquieted Nero, who ordered Plautus to was briefly endangered because of his being the uncle of
retire to Asia, where Plautus moved with his wife Antistia Gallus Caesar, by his sister, Galla. In 365, he was named
and a few friends. Finally, in 62, Nero ordered his death, Praetorian prefect by Valentinian I, despite his old age,
quipping when Plautus’s head was brought before him, replacing Claudius Mamertinus.
“Why did no one tell me Plautus had such a big nose?”
Rufinus of Aquileia, Tyrannius (c. 345–410 C.E.)
Rubicon Small river in the north of Italy south of Christian scholar and monk, a specialist in translating
Ravenna, in the region known as the Ager Gallicus; it rises Greek theological texts into Latin
in the Apennines and flows northeast to the Adriatic. The Italian by birth, Rufinus was educated at Rome where he
importance of the Rubicon was its role as boundary became a close friend of Jerome. Pursuing a monastic life
marker, during the Republic, for Italy and Gallia Cisal- he journeyed to the East around 371, visiting Egypt and
pina. It assumed a permanent place in history in 49 B.C.E., studying in Alexandria. Arriving in Jerusalem, he estab-
when Julius Caesar, at the head of his army, crossed over lished a monastery there before returning to Rome in 397.
into Italy in direct violation of the Senate’s orders. Living out his years in Aquileia, Rufinus made translations
from the Greek of numerous important works, including
Rubra Saxa Italian site in Etruria. Meaning “red the writings of such Christians as Basil, Gregory of Naz-
rocks,” Rubra Saxa was on the Via Flaminia and indicated ianzus, Eusebius of Caesarea, and especially Origen. His
the nearness of a traveler to Rome. In 312 C.E., it was the adherence to the teachings of Origen, even after Origen’s
site of a skirmish between the armies of CONSTANTINE the condemnation as a heretic, caused a major rift between him
Great and MAXENTIUS. and Jerome, who disagreed bitterly with the unorthodox
nature of Origenism. This quarrel was never settled. Rufinus
Rufina, Pomponia (d. 213 C.E.) One of the four Vestal died after fleeing to southern Italy during Alaric’s invasion.
Virgins put to death in 213 for impurity
Pomponia Rufina was buried alive for her indiscretions, Rufus, Bassaeus (fl. second century C.E.) Prefect of the
according to custom. Praetorian Guard under Emperor Marcus Aurelius, from
circa 169 to 172
See also CRESCENTIA, CANNUTIA; LAETA, CLODIA; SEV- Rufus was singular as a prefect because of his humble ori-
ERA, AURELIA; VESTAL VIRGINS. gins and his apparent lack of education. Born into
poverty, he nevertheless attained membership in the
Rufinus, Flavius (d. 395 C.E.) Praetorian prefect of the Equestrians (EQUITES) and held the order’s highest post.
East from 392 to 395 C.E. By his own admission he did not know languages but was
The most powerful figure in the early reign of Emperor considered a good man in other respects.
Arcadius, Rufinus came from Gallia Aquitania and was
known for his intelligence and his devout Christian ways. Rufus, C. Valgius (fl. late first century B.C.E.) Consul
Rising through the ranks in Constantinople, he became in 12 B.C.E.
increasingly important to THEODOSIUS I, serving as MAGIS- A writer during the Augustan Age (27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.),
TER OFFICIORUM in 388. Consul in 392, he was then Rufus had a number of literary interests, including epi-
appointed Praetorian prefect. Systematically he destroyed grams, a study of herbs, elegies, and a Latin translation of
all political opponents, maneuvering himself into an the rhetorical work of Apollodorus of Pergamum.
excellent position to bid for the throne. Upon the acces-
sion of Arcadius in 395, Rufinus encountered political Rufus, Cluvius (fl. first century C.E.) Consul in 66 C.E.
opposition from EUTROPIUS (2), the chamberlain, and and noted historian
STILICHO, a MAGISTER MILITUM. First Eutropius blocked the For many years a favorite of Emperor Nero, Rufus was
marriage of Rufinus’s daughter to Arcadius, securing a used in 67 as the imperial herald, announcing the next
wedding with Eudoxia, a child of one of Rufinus’s vic- songs that Nero would perform. Appointed one of the
tims. Then Stilicho, presumably on the orders of a jealous
Rufinus, sent back to Constantinople a large part of his
army. Soldiers from this force then murdered the prefect

governors of Spain, he supported the cause of Vitellius in Rutilius
Gallicus 481
69, being acquitted of charges of planning to usurp the
throne by virtue of his eloquence and reputation. As a Acquiring a reputation as a Stoic, Rufus became the
writer, Rufus centered himself on a history of Nero and teacher of numerous philosophers, especially Epictetus
the civil war of 69 C.E. Written with accuracy, his work and Dio Chrysostom. A friend of Rubellius Plautus, he
was used by the historian Tacitus in his Histories and followed him into exile in Asia Minor when Nero ban-
probably served as a source for Plutarch and Suetonius. ished the courtier, c. 60. Returning to Rome after Plau-
tus’s death, Rufus again had to leave Rome as part of the
Rufus, Quintus Curtius (fl. mid-first century C.E.?) PISONIAN CONSPIRACY of 65, living until 68 in Gyaros. The
Historian capital was safe when Galba became emperor, but under
Considerable questions exist with respect to Rufus. He the Flavians he went into exile again by command of VES-
has been dated to both the Augustan and the Flavian PASIAN. Through the liberal policies of Titus, Rufus was
ages, but quite possibly lived and wrote in the middle of allowed to journey back to Rome, where he died some-
the first century C.E. Rufus’s writings were highly imita- time in 101.
tive of Livy, and similar to the style of Seneca, which was
in vogue in the time of Nero, and his affected rhetorical Rufus, Verginius See VERGINIUS RUFUS, LUCIUS.
manner was typical of the Silver Age of Roman literature.
His 10-volume History of Alexander relied heavily upon Rugila (d. 433 C.E.) King of the Huns during the early
Greek sources. Books 1 and 2 as well as parts of the oth- fifth century C.E.
ers were lost. With his brother MANDIUCH, Rugila controlled two of the
three main clans of the Hunnic people. Rugila received
Rufus, Faenius (d. 65 C.E.) Prefect of the Praetorian tribute from Theodosius II in return for curbing his am-
Guard from 62–65 C.E. and the successor of the great prefect bitions toward the Eastern Empire. He also probably
Burrus supported Theodosius in his war against the GOTHS,
Rufus had the misfortune of being appointed as coprefect receiving a slice of Pannonia for his reward.
of the Guard with Ofonius TIGELLINUS. He had made a
reputation for himself as prefect of the grain (from Rusticus, Junius (fl. mid-second century C.E.) Stoic
55–62), as an honest and decent leader. The post was philosopher
given to him to hide the rise of Tigellinus, who com- One of the main instructors of the future emperor, MAR-
pletely dominated the prefecture, appealing to Nero’s CUS AURELIUS, Rusticus had much influence on the
debauched lifestyle. Tigellinus spared no opportunity to emperor. He earned both a second consulship in 162 (the
attack his colleague as a lover of Agrippina the Younger, first having been in 133) and a prefectship of the city.
Nero’s mother, or as a servant of her vengeance. Having Upon his death Marcus asked the Senate to erect statues
lost all power, Rufus joined the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY in in his honor. He was, as well, an important adviser.
65. When it was uncovered, he tried at first to play the
role of inquisitor. He was discovered and put to death. Rutilius Gallicus (Quintus Julius Cordinus Gaius)
(fl. first century C.E.) Consul circa 70 and 85 C.E. and gov-
Rufus, Gaius Musonius (c. 30–101 C.E.) A Stoic ernor of Germania Inferior under Vespasian
philosopher from Volsinii During the period of 75–78 he launched an effective cam-
paign against the BRUCTERI. He was honored by Domitian
and died sometime around 92.

S

Sabellianism Also called Modalism, one of the two turies C.E. The Sabinians took their name from Masurius
forms, with Adoptionism, of the theological movement of SABINUS but later were known as Cassians after Sabinus’s
Monarchianism in the second and third centuries C.E. student, CASSIUS LONGINUS. Sabinian views were based on
The Sabellians took their name from the theologian the teachings of Gaius Ateius CAPITO, Sabinus’s instructor
Sabellius (d. after 217), who argued that the Godhead (or and an adherent of conservatism in the reign of Augustus
the Creator) was essentially undifferentiated in its inter- (27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.). Among the few characteristics dis-
nal nature. This was in contrast to Christian teachings, cernable in the attitude of the Sabinians was a legal con-
which held that the Trinity was comprised of three dis- servatism reflecting their founder. In opposition to the
tinct Persons and one substance. Sabellius was probably Sabinians were the PROCULEANS. A rivalry between the
excommunicated in 217 and died most likely unrecon- schools lasted well into the second century, when they
ciled to the church. Little else is known about him. The were united. The most famous head of the Sabinians was
movement subsequently died out after Sabellius’s death. Salvius Julianus.

Sabina, Vibia (d. after 128 C.E.) Empress from 117 to Sabinus, Caelius (fl. late first century C.E.) Leading
136, the wife of Hadrian jurist; consul in 69 with Flavius Sabinus
Sabina was the daughter of L. Vibius and Matidia, and Sabinus was a member of the Sabinian school of law and
granddaughter of MARCIANA, the sister of Emperor TRA- probably a contemporary of Pegasus. Both practiced with
JAN. Although Trajan apparently did not approve, success under the Flavians.
Empress Plotina, in 100, organized Hadrian’s marriage to
Sabina. Hadrian was thus positioned perfectly to succeed See also PROCULEANS; SABINIANS.
Trajan as emperor and, in 117, Sabina became empress.
Although she was made Augusta in 128, Sabina had a Sabinus, Cornelius (d. c. 41 C.E.) Tribune of the Prae-
reputation for faithlessness. Hadrian reportedly ousted torian Guard
Septicius Clarus, Prefect of the PRAETORIAN GUARD, and With Cassius CHAEREA, Sabinus was one of the ringlead-
Suetonius Tranquillus, an imperial secretary, because of ers in the plot to assassinate Emperor GAIUS CALIGULA in
their overly familiar attitude toward the empress. He sup- 41 C.E. Among the conspirators Sabinus was least known
posedly once said that had he been a private citizen he and was overshadowed by the prefect of the Guard and
would have sent her away. However, upon her death, his more bitter comrade. Nevertheless, he had a direct
sometime after 128, she was given full honors. There was hand in the murder, later committing suicide when
a rumor that she had been poisoned. Chaerea was dead.

Sabinians Members of one of the two important Sabinus, Flavius (d. 69 C.E.) Brother of Emperor Ves-
schools of LAW in Rome during the first and second cen- pasian

482

Sabinus had a long career in government, serving as Sabinus,T
 itus
Flavius 483
legate in MOESIA from around 49 to 56 C.E. and as PRE-
FECT OF THE CITY (praefectus urbi) during the reign of murder, unrewarded by Galba, was later an element in
NERO (c. 61). In 69, in an act of appeasement to Ves- the unhappiness of the Guard with their new master.
pasian, Emperor OTHO appointed Sabinus once more as
prefect of the city. Later that year, he was summoned by Sabinus, Oppius (d. 85 C.E.) Governor of Moesia in 85
Emperor VITELLIUS to negotiate that ruler’s hopeful abdi- C.E.
cation, but soldiers in ROME refused to accept Vitellius’s The first of the Roman officials to confront the onslaught
resignation. Sabinus, with his friends, was besieged on of the Dacians under DECEBALUS, he failed totally and was
the capitol and fought it out in the TEMPLE OF JUPITER. killed in battle as the Dacians ravaged much of the
Captured, Sabinus was executed at the feet of Vitellius. province.
His death was a rallying cry for the Flavians, who cap-
tured the city a short time later. Sabinus, Poppaeus (d. 35 C.E.) Grandfather of Pop-
paea, the wife of Nero from 62 to 65 C.E.
Sabinus, Julius (d. 79 C.E.) Leader of the Germanic A highly successful imperial governor throughout the
tribe of the Lingones reign of TIBERIUS (14–37 C.E.) and CONSUL in 9 C.E., Sabi-
In 70 C.E., Sabinus claimed descent from Julius CAESAR nus was made legate in MOESIA by AUGUSTUS, probably in
and began a revolt. Quickly defeated, he fled to his estates 11. Viewed by Tiberius as what TACITUS called competent
before disappearing for nine years with his wife Peponila. and not more than competent, his services were retained
Captured in 79, he was executed with his family. by the new emperor, who added the governorships of
MACEDONIA and Achaea as well. His tenure was extremely
Sabinus, Masurius (fl. first century C.E.) A student of long, and he administered Moesia for 24 years. Only his
Gaius Ateius Capito and an eminent jurist death in 35 ended his term of office. In 26 he won a
Sabinus possibly came from Verona, studying law in notable victory over the Thracians, receiving a triumphal
Rome. He achieved such notoriety that the school of law insignia. Sabinus was typical of Tiberius’s appointed offi-
founded by Capito came to be known by his name cials, capable of fulfilling their duties but not in a manner
(SABINIANS). Among the works of Sabinus was a study of that was overly skillful or remarkable.
the IUS CIVILE, used by subsequent jurists and thus influ-
ential in shaping the Digest. Written in three books, the Sabinus, Publius (fl. first century C.E.) Prefect of the
treatise was called Ad Sabinum. Praetorian Guard during the brief reign of Vitellius in
69 C.E.
Sabinus, Nymphidius (d. 69 C.E.) Prefect of the Prae- Sabinus was appointed prefect with Julius Priscus as part
torian Guard from 65 to 69 C.E. of the newly created Praetorians. He had been a mere pre-
Sabinus was the son of a freedwoman of considerable fect of an auxiliary cohort, probably in Germania, owing
beauty who had worked in the imperial court and his promotion to the patronage of Fabius VALENS, one of
claimed that he was born of Emperor GAIUS CALIGULA. Vitellius’s important generals. However, he developed a
Known for his height and forbidding looks, Sabinus friendship with CAECINA ALIENUS another legate, and
entered the LEGIONS, eventually holding a command over when Caecina deserted the Vitellian camp, Sabinus was
auxiliaries in PANNONIA. Admitted to the Praetorian removed from his post and briefly imprisoned. He was
Guard as a TRIBUNE, he made himself useful to NERO and succeeded by Alfenus VARUS.
the corrupt Prefect TIGELLINUS, especially during the PISO-
NIAN CONSPIRACY in 65. With the consularia ornamenta, Sabinus, Quintus Titurius (d. 54 B.C.E.) Legate in the
Sabinus was made co-prefect of the Guard with Tigelli- army of Julius Caesar during the Gallic Wars
nus. He proved a deft political manipulator, staying Sabinus was used against the Belgae in 57 B.C.E. before
alive until 68, when Tigellinus became ill and Nero fell assuming command of three LEGIONS in 56 and defeating
from power. Once Tigellinus was removed, Sabinus found the Venelli in northwestern Gaul. Two years later, at ADU-
the patronage of the new Emperor GALBA potentially ATUCA he was trapped and killed, with Cotta, by
profitable, promising in the claimant’s name a hefty Ambiorix.
DONATIVUM in return for the support of the Guard. Disap-
pointments soon confronted him as he realized that his Sabinus, Titus Flavius (d. 84 C.E.) Husband to his
position was not to be improved with the new adminis- cousin, Flavia Julia (7), daughter of Emperor Titus
tration. Overestimating his control of Praetorians, and Although Julia was known to be involved with her uncle,
probably with an eye on the throne, he marched into the DOMITIAN, Sabinus married her anyway, sharing the con-
Castra Praetoria, asking their help. The soldiers of the sulship of 82 with Domitian, then emperor. Perhaps to
Guard not only rejected his offer but also killed him. This remove him as an inconvenience or because of the ban-
ishment of DIO COCCEIANUS, Sabinus was put to death.

484 Sabis cially oral traditional laws, were not valid. Further, the
Sadducees held that fate had no place in mortal affairs
Sabis The Sambre River of today’s northern France and and that humanity decided its own course.
Belgium; site of a military engagement in July 57 B.C.E.
between Julius CAESAR and the NERVII, the strong Gallic These views put them in direct opposition to the
tribe of Gallia Belgica. Using surprise, the Nervii struck PHARISEES, who preached oral law and stressed the role of
hard at Caesar’s outnumbered legions; only by his sheer fate. Their fight with the Pharisees, bitter and violent at
force of will was victory secured for the Romans. times, drew in as well the priest-kings of the Hasmon-
Haranguing his troops, especially the reliable X Legion, aeans, who derived their power from oral tradition. Con-
Caesar drove them on, eventually smashing the tribes so sequently, the Sadducees enjoyed little political influence
completely that the Nervii virtually disappeared as a and even less popular appeal. Through an agreement
nation. They had lost nearly 60,000 men, while the with the Pharisees they were permitted to serve as priests
Roman losses proved relatively light. The battle of Sabis in the Great Temple, eventually having several of their
ensured the conquest of Gallia Belgica. number named high priest, most notably Caiaphas,
presider over the interview of Jesus. The Temple thus
Sabratha Coastal city in North Africa to the west of served as their main source of power. After its destruction
Lepcis Magna and Oea, in the region of TRIPOLITANIA. in 70 C.E., the Sadducees could not survive the resulting
Smaller than Lepcis and less favored by the imperial gov- collapse of structured Judaism, dying out over the next
ernment, Sabratha nevertheless was able to develop its centuries.
resources. Archaeologically the site was important for its
second-century-C.E. theater, designed along lines similar Salacia Minor and obscure Roman deity affiliated with
to the one in Lepcis, although this one was larger. There NEPTUNE, perhaps as his wife or consort. Salacia was
were also temples, a basilica, a CURIA, and a forum. probably the goddess of springing water (salire means
“jump”).
sacramentum The oath of allegiance taken by members
of the legions. The sacramentum began in the earliest of Salarian Way See VIAE.
the Roman formations, when the troops swore to the stan-
dards to remain loyal for the length of a campaign. After Salii The “leapers,” a priestly college in Rome dedi-
the re f o rms of Marius, the pledge served for the entire cated to MARS. Founded probably by King Numa but
period of service. Under the emperors, however, each developed under King Tullus Hostilius, the Salii were
legion took the sacramentum to the PRINCEPS, in recogni- actually two groups, the Salii Palatini and the Salii Ago-
tion that he was the supreme ruler of Rome. Each January nenses or Collini. The former were connected to Mars,
1 and on the anniversary of the emperor’s accession, the while the latter were once affiliated with Quirinus. Both,
sacramentum was readministered. According to tradition, however, placed great importance in their ceremonies on
the sacramentum was taken by a legate and his tribunes, the ancilia or holy shields. Although the Salii were to be
who then asked for it from the cohorts of the legion. One found in towns throughout Italia, in Rome there were 12
legionary was selected, reciting the oath, with his com- members, all Patricians, whose parents were both living.
panions replying “idem in me” (“the same with me”). Their head was a magister, with a praesul (dance leader)
and vates (song leader). The normal costume was the war
Sacred Way See VIAE. tunic, the tunica picta, a bronze breastplate, a peaked hat
(apex), a military cloak (trabea), a sword at their side, a
Sacrovir, Julius (d. 21 C.E.) King of the Gallic Aedui shield (the ancile) on the left arm and a spear in the right
In 21 C.E. Sacrovir led an ineffective revolt against ROME, hand. The ancile was an eight-shaped replica of the gift of
finding support only from within the Aedui and elements Jupiter to Numa. As their name would suggest (salire,
of the Treveri. Joined by Julius Florus, a Romanized Gaul, dance or jump), the Salii perf o rmed rituals at certain
Sacrovir had around 40,000 followers when attacked by times of the year. In October they danced at the armilus-
Gaius Silius and Visellius Varro, the legates of Germania trium (October 19), closing the campaigning season.
Superior and Inferior. Defeated in battle, Sacrovir fled March was a busy time for them. On March 11 they
and later killed himself. presided over the Equiria or horse races in honor of Mars;
on the 19 was the purifying of the shields, and on the 23
Sadducees One of the leading Jewish religious move- came the tubilustrium or cleansing of the trumpets. The
ments, from the Hasmonaean Revolt until the fall of the song of the Salii was called the Carmen Saliare.
Great TEMPLE OF JERUSALEM (c. 166 B.C.E.–70 C.E.). The
Sadducees probably emerged as a legitimate element of Salinator, Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus (d. 136 C.E.)
JUDAISM after the Hasmonaean uprising. They believed in Grandson of Julius Servianus, great-nephew of Emperor
the sanctity of the Pentateuch, that only those laws actu- Hadrian
ally written down were to be followed. Any others, espe-

With his grandfather, Salinator was a leading candidate to Salona 485
succeed to the throne. The aging emperor seemingly
groomed Salinator for the throne, granting him special position. Thus, while only an Equestrian (EQUITES) Sal-
status at the court. In 136, however, Hadrian changed his lustius Crispus far outweighed his friends in the Senate
mind, choosing Lucius Ceionius COMMODUS (known as and came to be second only to Maecenas in imperial
Lucius Aelius Caesar). When Servianus and his eighteen- favor. When Maecenas died in 8 B.C.E., Sallustius Crispus
year-old grandson became angry at this, Hadrian forced was the most reliable bearer of secrets. This status was
Servianus to kill himself and put to death Salinator. unchanged when Tiberius became emperor. He was not
only responsible for the murder of the claimant AGRIPPA
Sallust (Gaius Sallustius Crispus) (c. 86–35/4 B.C.E.) POSTUMUS in 14 C.E., but also helped arrest and execute
Historian Clemens, Agrippa’s masquerading servant. His vast
Sallust embarked on a political career through the wealth and sumptuous lifestyle were mentioned by the
patronage of the influential Clodius Pulcher, reaching the historian TACITUS.
tribuneship in 52. As was the case with most of Clodius’s
followers, Sallust was outraged by his death at the hands Sallustius Passienus Crispus, Gaius (fl. first century
of Annius MILO. A legate in Syria circa 50 B.C.E., he C.E.) Consul in 27 and 44 C.E.
returned that year to Rome only to be ousted from the The adoptive son of Sallustius Crispus, he earned a repu-
Senate by the CENSORS. Julius CAESAR reinstated him in tation as one of the foremost orators of Rome. He was
49, and Sallust became one of his supporters. After com- famed for his comment on Gaius Caligula that “no man
manding a legion in Illyria, he served in 47 as a negotia- had ever been a better slave or a worse master.” By mar-
tor with the troublesome legions in Campania. Along riage to NERO’s aunt, Domitia Lepida, he became associ-
with the rank of praetor in 46 came that of proconsul of ated with the ruling family. Apparently seeking to
AFRICA. His extortionist administration was so bad that in improve his position even further, he abandoned Lepida
45 charges were brought against him, only to be halted by and wed AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER. Aside from starting a
Caesar. Nevertheless, the scandal rendered him useless. vicious enmity between the women, the union brought
Sallust retired to his estates, which included the Horti him little good. He was dead shortly thereafter, his wealth
Sallusti, or Gardens of Sallust. falling into his widow’s hands. It was widely reported that
Agrippina poisoned him.
Sallust turned to writing only in his later years and
p roved very influential. Instead of adhering to the mod- Salluvii Also called the Salyes, a large Gallic tribe liv-
els of the ANNALISTS, he tried to find new sources of inge- ing in GALLIA NARBONESIS. Of Ligurian stock, they pre-
nuity. Tu rning to the Greeks, especially Thucydides, he sented difficulties to the early Roman occupiers of the
followed their style, using conciseness, speechmaking, region. Once subdued, their lands became part of the
and archaism, while chronicling recent events in the tra- province of Gallia Narbonensis, and the colony of Aquae
ditional Roman manner, with rhetoric and reflection. Sextiae was established to ensure continued cooperation.
This unorthodox brand of writing was highly unique and
left a marked impression upon his successors. Sallust Salona City resting on the eastern shore of the Adriatic
authored several notable historical works. A monograph Sea; capital of the province of ILLYRICUM. Also called
on Catiline relied upon literary sources to re c reate the Salonae, the city was old but was vigorously developed in
mood of the state at the time, rather than to document the hands of Roman traders (c. 47 B.C.E.), receiving a
dryly the events. Another monograph, covering the colony as well, Colonia Martia Julia Salona, through the
Jugurthine War, was more carefully researched, and patronage of Julius Caesar. From the time of AUGUSTUS,
hence was smoother and objective. Of considerable Salona served as the most important city in Illyricum.
ambition was his History, composed in five books, detail- The legate of the province had his seat there and con-
ing the notable happenings from 78 B.C.E. until his own struction reflected its status. Salona was actually two
era. Unlike the first two, it has survived only in frag- cities in one, an old community known as urbs vetus and
ments. a new one, urbs nova, built just to the east. Urbs vetus had
a temple and forum, and an amphitheater capable of
Sallustius Crispus, Gaius (d. 20 C.E.) Friend and holding more than 15,000 people. Urbs nova was even
adviser of Emperor Augustus and leading figure in the reign larger but was centered on housing and business, with
of Tiberius many private homes and several basilicas. Both sectors
Sallustius was the grandnephew of the writer SALLUST; were walled and connected by a large gate, the Porta Cae-
introduced into Roman society with his adoption by the sarea, erected by Augustus. One of the most successful
historian, he subsequently pursued a career similar to metropolises in the Roman Empire, Salona was the birth-
that of Gaius MAECENAS. He gained great influence in the place of Emperor Diocletian (c. 240 C.E.). When he
government without acquiring the routine senatorial retired in 305, he took up residence in his palace at
nearby SPLIT.

486 Salonina hordes. Morality clearly held the upper hand to society
and declining sense of rectitude. Other efforts include ad
Salonina (Cornelia Salonina Chrysogone) (d. 268 Ecclesiam in four books, showing that Christians should
C.E.) Empress from 254 to 268 donate their goods to the church, and letters.
Wife of Emperor GALLIENUS from around 249 to 268.
Salonina was noted for intellectual and virtuous character- Samaria District in PALAESTINA situated to the north of
istics, both of which helped her survive the stress of being JUDAEA and the south of GALILEE. Samaria was once one
AUGUSTA at a time when the Roman Empire was facing of the most important cities in the region, serving for a
severe crises and she was facing the pain of her husband’s time as the capital of the kingdom of Israel. However, an
less faithful behavior. Unfortunately, she was murdered intense dislike between the Samaritans and their Jewish
with Gallienus at the siege of Mediolanum (Milan). neighbors dated as far back as the Babylonian Captivity.
Thus, Samaria was considered a separate area of Pales-
Saloninus (Publius Licinius Cornelius Saloninus tine. Under POMPEY THE GREAT’s reorganization of the East
Valerianus) (d. 260 C.E.) Son of Emperor Gallienus and it was attached to SYRIA. AUGUSTUS presented it to HEROD
Empress Salonina THE GREAT, who spent large sums beautifying it. After
The youth was first appointed Caesar in 258. Two years Herod’s death in 4 B.C.E., the Samaritans fell under the
later, under the guidance of his mentor Silvanus, and control of Archelaus, until he was removed, and then the
supposedly with the cooperation of the local general, POS- legate of Syria assumed overall command via the procura-
TUMUS, Saloninus was elevated to Augustus, or co- tor of Judaea. Around 36 C.E., a small local incident
emperor, and given command of the Rhine frontier. As caused a major social upheaval, and PONTIUS PILATE called
Gallienus was away on campaign, the direction of impe- in troops to quell the unrest. Appalled at the bloodshed
rial government in the West was ostensibly in the lad’s that resulted, the Samaritans protested to VITELLIUS, the
hands, although real decisions were probably left to Sil- governor of Syria. Their appeals eventually cost Pilate his
vanus. This proved unfortunate, for Silvanus and Postu- career. By the fourth century C.E., Samaria was a place of
mus quarreled. A disagreement became violent, and the no importance.
general gathered his troops, besieging Saloninus and Sil-
vanus at Cologne in 260. The city was captured, and Samos Island in the Aegean Sea, separated by a narrow
Saloninus was put to death. channel from the coast of ASIA MINOR. Samos had a long
and honorable history during the formation of the
Salutatio The greeting given every morning from six Mediterranean world, before passing into the hands of
to eight A.M. to the most powerful or high-ranking per- Rome in 84 B.C.E., when it was attached to the province
sons in the Rome of the imperial era. This form of flattery of Asia. Through the work of Q. CICERO in 62 B.C.E.,
was typical of Roman society at the time, for those who some of the island’s wealth was returned to it, and further
desired advancement in the state sought the patronage of favor was shown during the time of its occupation by
figures of influence. Although tiresome, the salutatio was ANTONY and CLEOPATRA in 32. AUGUSTUS found Samos to
deemed necessary, for favors could be asked and a small be an excellent place to winter. He spent the cool months
monetary gift, the sportula, was often given. The term there in 21 and 20 B.C.E. For their hospitality, the resi-
also referred to the cheer given to a general by his troops, dents were declared free by his decree. Subsequently the
either in celebration of a victory or in recognition of his island had little to offer except as an abode for exiles.
rank as IMPERATOR. On the basis of the salutatio, some
generals assumed that their troops were saying that the Samosata Capital city of the kingdom of COMMAGENE
general should aspire to the throne. in northern SYRIA. It became a major site in the province
of Syria after the annexation of the realm by VESPASIAN in
Salvianus (Salvianus of Massilia or Marseilles) (fl. 72 C.E. Subsequently the city was the birthplace of two
fifth century C.E.) Presbyter and writer notable philosophers, the pagan LUCIAN of Samosata and
B o rn probably near Cologne, Salvianus was a Christian by the Christian PAUL OF SAMOSATA.
birth, later marrying and converting a pagan named Palla-
dia. The couple broke up, in the mutual pursuit of re l i- Santones Tribe in Gallia Aquitania that lived on the
gion, and Salvianus moved to a monastery on the island of western coast of Gaul (Gallia); quickly subdued by the
Lerins, just off modern-day Cannes. From around 424 to legions of Julius Caesar during the GALLIC WARS. By 56
439 he taught there. Salvianus was the author of numer- B.C.E. and the successful conclusion of the operations of
ous books, the most important being De Gubernatione Dei Crassus in Aquitania, the Santones were considered paci-
(On the governing of God), a treatise in eight books arg u- fied. Although they took part in the widespread rebellion
ing in favor of the divine retribution of the Almighty. An of VERCINGETORIX in 52 B.C.E., they eventually were
invaluable study of the prevailing social depravity within declared a federated state of Rome. Their chief city, origi-
the Roman Empire, the work contrasted the social vices of
the Romans with the cleansing vitality of the barbarian

nally called Mediolanum, was later known as Santones Sarmatians 487
(Saintes).
LIUS (r. 161–180 C.E.), senatorial rights were returned.
Saoterus (fl. second century C.E.) Influential freedman Under the reforms of DIOCLETIAN, the isle belonged to the
during the reign of Emperor Commodus (177–192 C.E.) diocese of Italia.
Saoterus was notable because of his origins. Coming from
NICOMEDIA he used his position to reward his old city, When compared to its rocky and barren sister, Cor-
receiving senatorial permission to hold games there and sica, Sardinia was blessed with natural wealth. The plains
to build a temple to Commodus. He was murdered by the in the western and southern sections offered great oppor-
more ambitious CLEANDER. tunities for agriculture. The full economic potential of
the island was never developed, but crop production still
Saracens A warlike and nomadic people who origi- yielded vast amounts of food for nearby Italy, especially
nated in northwestern Arabia but came to be known ROME. With corn were to be found rich mines of iron and
throughout a wide stretch of land, from Mesopotamia to silver. Finally, beautiful springs provided salt, which was
the Nile. Although contact was made between the Sara- sold on the coast.
cens and ROME during the reign of MARCUS AURELIUS,
actual dealings were uncommon until the third and The seat of government for both Sardinia and Corsica
fourth centuries C.E. Known as the Saraceni, one of their was at Carales, the largest city. The Romans found the
chiefs offered to be an ally to Julian but joined the Per- Sardinians to be quite uncivilized and fought for many
sians against the Roman Empire because of the terrible years to subdue them. Most outbreaks of violence origi-
treatment given to him by Julian. The most famous leader nated in the mountains dominating the east and parts of
of the Saracens was Queen Mavia, who carried on a war the north. Called the Insani Montes (the Mountains of
against the Romans in PALESTINE, from 373 to 378. When Insanity), they were the hiding places of rebels and brig-
a treaty was finally arranged in 378, she sent a troop of ands. Operations were necessary against them, most
her warriors to help defend CONSTANTINOPLE from Gothic notably in the reign of TIBERIUS (14–37 C.E.).
attack, following the battle of ADRIANOPLE. Ammianus
wrote of their sortie against the GOTHS, describing how Sardis One of the great cities of ASIA MINOR and once
one of the Saracens, dressed only in a loin cloth, killed a the capital of Lydia. Known also as Sardes, it was situated
barbarian and then drank his blood. This so horrified the in western Asia Minor, northeast of SMYRNA. Although
enemy that their normal bravado was severely shaken. still large and productive, it suffered a decline during the
imperial era because of the continued development of
Sardanapalus The name of the last ruler of the Assyr- Ephesus and Pergamum. In 17 C.E., Sardis was virtually
ian Empire; it was adopted by Emperor ELAGABALUS as destroyed in the earthquake that ruined numerous cities
part of his numerous Eastern titles. in the province of Asia. Although rebuilt through the
help of Tiberius, the city was never able to recover its
Sardinia Large island in the Mediterranean, positioned prestige. The clearest evidence of this was given in 26,
strategically south of the island of CORSICA and about when Sardis and Smyrna competed for the right to build
midway between Spain’s Balearic Islands and the western a temple in honor of TIBERIUS. Smyrna won. Sardis was a
shore of Italy. Fertile and rich in raw materials, Sardinia very early place of Christian worship, mentioned by John
attracted the attention of the Phoenicians, Greeks, in Revelation as one of the seven churches in Asia. He
Carthaginians, and, ultimately, the Romans, who con- commented upon its state of ruin.
quered it and neighboring Corsica in 227 B.C.E. Sardinia
was originally placed under the provincial command of a Sarmatians Called Sarmatae by the Romans, these
PRAETOR, but with the founding of the Roman Empire a large and powerful people of Indo-Iranian descent lived
change was made. Under AUGUSTUS (ruled 27 B.C.E.–14 for centuries on the steppes of southern Russia, roughly
C.E.) the island, along with Corsica, was declared a sena- east of the Don (ancient name, Tanais) River, near the Sea
torial province in the care of a proconsul. Just as local of Azov. They were closely connected racially to the
opposition to Roman occupation had surfaced in the Scythians, who possessed an extensive empire along the
third century B.C.E., civil unrest and bandit activity prob- Black Sea. Contact between the two peoples was warlike
ably contributed to the transfer of Sardinia to the impe- but limited until the middle of the third century B.C.E.,
rial provinces in 6 C.E. Procurators remained as governors when migrations of Iranian-based tribes pushed the Sar-
until Nero’s time, when he traded it back to the Senate in matians westward. This brought them into direct conflict
return for granting freedom to Achaea. Over the years with the Scythians, whom they eventually defeated for
Sardinia passed back and forth, depending upon various control of the entire region, except the Crimean Penin-
circumstances, until finally, in the reign of MARCUS AURE- sula. The Scythians proved the more active of the two
nations, and the Sarmatae broke into small tribal entities.

Sarmatian culture was surprisingly well developed
and enlightened. Although nomadic, they had an orga-
nized aristocracy that ran a vast empire while accumulat-

488 Sarmizegethusa 230, when Ardashir rolled into Mesopotamia. This war set
off a long series of conflicts that raged over the next 133
ing wealth. The most interesting cultural feature was the years. Emperor SEVERUS ALEXANDER was able to respond
probably-Iranian holdover of women possessing a major effectively enough, but even when he departed in 233 for
role in affairs, both domestic and military. Not only were home no treaty was concluded. The Persians were back,
women more free than their Hellenic or Roman counter- under Shapur I, in 242. His reign was notable for one
parts, they also hunted and rode into battle with the men. major victory, the annihilation of Emperor VALERIAN in
Sarmatian possessions were always distinctive, with col- 259–260, at Edessa. The Sassanids captured a Roman
ors being used throughout their clothing. Pottery was emperor, destroyed his entire army and justifiably laid
often primitive, but they seemed to like imports from all claim to control of the East. Persian triumphs came at the
over the East. As with the Scythians, the Sarmatians had darkest moment in imperial history, and total mastery of
an intense fondness for gold, using it in virtually every the Eastern provinces was prevented only by the rise of
aspect of their life, especially in armor. ODAENATH of PALMYRA. Shapur suff e red crushing setbacks
at the hands of the Palmyran, even enduring a siege of
In battle, the Sarmatians adopted the same tactics CTESIPHON in 267. There followed a period of decline, so
and strategies as the Scythians, Parthians and most other that in 283, Emperor Carus felt confident enough to
Eastern states. This meant the use of massive units of launch a major war upon Persia’s King VARAHRAN II. Cte-
cavalry, divided into heavy and light. Heavy cavalry usu- siphon fell. Further inroads might have been made, but
ally meant the nobles, dressed in thick body armor vary- Carus died, probably murdered by his Praetorian Prefect
ing in composition between iron and bone. They carried Aper. With the accession of DIOCLETIAN, Varahran II was
heavy lances and their charge was not easily broken. In forced to surrender Mesopotamia and ARMENIA.
support rode the light cavalry, less armored and bearing
bows fired with a deadly accuracy. The era of weakness seemed ended in 293, when
NARSES came to power. Narses invaded Syria in 296,
Contact with the Roman Empire came in successive thrashing the tetrarch GALERIUS in battle near Callinicus.
waves, ending in often bloody struggles. The first of the Galerius, urged on by Diocletian, went back on the defen-
tribes was the IAZYGES, who settled in the Danube region. sive in 298, not only routing Narses but seizing Cte-
They were followed closely by the ROXOLANI and then the siphon as well. Roman terms of peace had to be accepted.
ALANS or Alani. Mesopotamia was lost, Armenia was a Roman client and
other stretches of territory along the Tigris surrendered.
Sarmizegethusa The capital of DACIA, both for the It was a bleak moment for the Sassanids, but a brilliant
independent realm and the Roman province. Sarmi- recovery came in the person of SHAPUR II, who ruled from
zegethusa was the largest city in the kingdom and con- 309 to 379. Once of a mature age, he massacred all who
sidered essential to the well-being of the Dacians. might oppose him within the Persian nobility, firmly took
Throughout the wars of King DECEBALUS with Rome, hold of the army and declared war on the Roman Empire
Sarmizegethusa was kept safe from capture, but in the around 336. He fought with CONSTANTIUS II, losing an
summer of 106 C.E. it fell to the legions of TRAJAN. The encounter in 344 or 348, and enduring a huge operation
Romans chose to keep it as the center of the new by Julian in 363. When that pagan emperor died in 363,
province of Dacia. Trajan founded a colony there, renam- his replacement, Jovian, accepted the Persian terms for
ing the city of Colonia Ulpia Traiana Augusta Dacica peace, a humiliating and unnecessary treaty. Shapur was
Sarmizegethusa Metropolis, more commonly known as satisfied, and SHAPUR III (383–388) signed an important
Colonia Dacia. pact with THEODOSIUS I around 384–386.

Sassanid dynasty Family ruling the so-called Persian This agreement ended the long, unbroken chain of
Empire from 226 C.E. until the middle of the seventh cen- hostilities between the Sassanids and the Romans. It was
tury. Using a powerful combination of political domina- all the more remarkable because between 387 and 502 it
tion, noble allies, and religious unity, the Sassanids forged remained in force, with only two minor violations. Thus,
a realm that came to be viewed as the equal of the Roman both states were able to focus on internal politics, while
Empire. In 208 C.E., Papak King, a minor vassal lord of enjoying a warm if not uneasy relationship. For the East-
the Parthian Empire, was succeeded as ruler of the small ern Empire, the barbarians could be held in check, while
realm of Persis by his son, SHAPUR. His youngest son, for Persia the ever restless nomadic peoples on the fron-
ARDASHIR, overthrew his brother and became king. With tiers could be repulsed or subjugated. Typical of the deal-
Shapur dead, Ardashir subdued the surrounding vassals ings between Constantinople and the Sassanids was the
of Parthia and, in 224, defeated and killed ARTABANUS V in sending of emissaries to announce all successions or pol-
battle. In 226 Ardashir took the title of “King of Kings,” icy decisions; failure to do so was seen as a major breach
ascending the throne of a new empire, Persia. of protocol.

From the start, the Romans had no idea that the Per- The Sassanid dynasty came to power through the
sians would be any different from the corrupt and deterio- vigor of a young people, ready to explode, whose energy
rated Parthians. Their blissful ignorance was shattered in

Coins from the Sassanid Persian Empire. (Courtesy THE SASSANID KINGS satire 489
Warren Esty)
King Dates
was applied in the destruction of the Parthians and all
who might oppose the Sassanid programs. But when Papak 208–224 C.E.
actual governing was needed, the Persians chose to adopt Shapur 224
much of the Parthian system. This was understandable, Ardashir
for the bureaucracy of the Parthians was, in Eastern Shapur I 226–241
terms, generally efficient. An essential difference was the Hormazd Ardashir 241–272
strong centralization of the entire government. Unlike the Varahran I 272–273
Arsacids, the Sassanids kept the nobility in line while Varahran II 273–276
running the vast regions of the empire with governors or Narses
with reliable clients. No other Ardashir was to be allowed Hormazd II 293
to rise up and declare himself king of kings. The mon- Shapur II 293–302
archs of Persia were naturally more autocratic, leaning on Ardashir II 302–309
the feudal nobility for support. The aristocracy supplied Shapur III 309–379
the army with its characteristic, mailed cavalry. With the Varahran IV 379–383
state pillars of the Royal House and the Nobles stood the Yazdagird I 383–388
religion of the Sassanids, Zoroastrianism (or Mazdaism). Varahran V 388–399
Yazdagird II 399–420
Coming from Iran, the Persians were firm adherents Hormazd III 420–439
of Zoroastrian doctrines. The Sassanids converted their Peroz 439–457
traditional faith into a leading political element. A priest- Valash 457–459
hood, with influence over every social caste, jealously Kavad 459–484
guarded its own place and watched for unacceptable Zamasp 484–488
heresies, such as MANICHAEISM. There were, however, Khusro I 488–531
many faiths in the Persian world, including Buddhism, Hormazd IV 496–498
Judaism, the original Zoroastrians as opposed to the Varahran Chobin 531–579
Mazdean forms, and CHRISTIANITY. Khusro II 579–590
Kavad II 590–591
Beneath the triad of throne, nobles, and priests there Ardashir III 590–628
existed the bulk of the citizenry. There was probably a Boran
second class of nobles, answerable to the leading houses. Hormazd V 628
Another class would have been the non-noble ministers Yazdagird III 628–629
and government officials, followed by the masses of com- 629–630
mon inhabitants. There was, no doubt, a complicated and 630–c. 632
ritualized social pattern that went with the various levels 632–651
of life, a system in play until the fall of the Sassanids to
the Muslims around 651. satire A form of versification with the object of ridicul-
ing or mocking folly or social failings and thus correcting
society on the whole while entertaining it. Quintilian
once remarked that “Satire is wholly ours” (“satura total
nostra est”). This was not inaccurate, for only in the spir-
ited, spontaneous, biting, and practical hands of the Ro-
mans could satire so blossom.

Proto-Satire probably came to Rome in the early
fourth century B.C.E., with itinerant minstrels who per-
formed their improvised Fescennine verse on the public
stage. In 364, Etruscan artists offered an actual ballet,
beginning a tradition of combined humor with music and
dance, to which were added influences from the Greeks.
These included Stoic and Cynic speakers who addressed
a multitude of sins in their sermones, using jokes and
anecdotes to enliven their style.

In the second century B.C.E., Ennius penned poetry
aimed specifically at satirizing life and death. He was fol-
lowed by two influential writers of satire, Varro and
Lucilius. Varro (d. 27 B.C.E.) came after Lucilius (d. 102/1
B.C.E.) but was unique in his Menippean satires by com-
bining both prose and poetry. Serious subjects were

490 Saturnalia and VITELLIUS. When the III Legion in ILLYRICUM revolted
against Vitellius, Saturninus wrote the emperor of the
treated in a humorous fashion. This mixed writing was events but later shrewdly deduced that the cause of Ves-
adopted by other satirists. PETRONIUS found it useful, as pasian would eventually triumph. He thus joined Anto-
did SENECA in his Apocolocyntosis, a vicious lampooning nius Primus in marching on Italy. Suspected of being
of the deification of Claudius. A much later application secretive and scheming, Saturninus had difficulty holding
was made by Emperor Julian in his jocular Caesares, on to the loyalty of his troops. When he was charged with
about the emperors before him. writing to Vitellius, the soldiers tried to murder him. He
fled, retired to Patavium and surrendered total command
However, Lucilius (second century B.C.E.) was cred- to Primus.
ited by Horace with being the “Father of Satire.” He
observed many facets of life at the time, using humor, Saturninus, Gnaeus Sentius (d. after 41 C.E.) Consul
seriousness, or bitter attack. As his medium of expression Probably the son of a like named consul in 4 C.E. who
was hexameter, he was quickly and easily mirrored by a attained the position in his own right in 41. Immediately
host of imitators who, in the opinion of HORACE, could after the assassination of Gaius Caligula he transferred
never match him. There were, however, several notable the funds of the treasury to the capital, where they might
satirists. be protected by the Senate. He then delivered a long
address to the senators around him, proposing that the
Horace led the great revival of satire at the end of the entire system of the principate be abolished. Although
first century B.C.E. Preferring to poke fun at less obscene greeted with enthusiasm, his idea was not implemented
parts of the human comedy, he was never particularly because the Praetorian Guard had chosen Claudius the
offensive. PERSIUS, in the early first century C.E., pursued next emperor.
the Lucilian form but did not attain the literary heights of
JUVENAL, who was arguably the finest and the last of the Saturninus, Julius (d. c. 278 C.E.) Usurper in the East
satirists. With Juvenal, satire came to an end as a viable art (c. 278)
form. It was too dangerous to apply rapier wit against a Probably a Moor, as reported by ZOSIMUS, instead of a
murderous imperial regime. Even Horace and Juvenal Gaul, as listed in the Historia Augusta. One of the most
adopted the names of the dead or titles from other writers. reliable generals in the army of Aurelian, he was
Such restrictions made further growth quite impossible. appointed overall commander of the East. Shortly after
PROBUS succeeded AURELIAN, the LEGIONS of Saturninus
Saturnalia The festival in honor of SATURNUS, held elevated him to the purple. His period was brief.
originally on December 17 of each year. Of the many Although he minted coins at ANTIOCH, he own soldiers
holidays on the Roman calendar, Saturnalia was certainly killed him at Apamea.
the happiest. This was probably due to the adoption of so
many Greek characteristics in the Roman pantheon. Just Saturninus, Lucius Antoninus (d. 89 C.E.) Governor
as Saturnus was heavily influenced by the Greek god Kro- of Germania Superior during the reign of Emperor Domitian
nos, so was the Saturnalia transformed by the merry day In January 89 Saturninus took control of his two legions
of Kronia. When the Saturnalia originated is unclear, at Moguntiacum (Mainz) and attempted a rebellion
except that it was very old. Chief characteristics of the against the central government. When word reached
holiday were a temporary abolition of social standing so ROME, Domitian set off at once, but his presence on the
that slaves were given the day off, gambling was allowed, Rhine proved unnecessary. A. Lappius MAXIMUS, governor
gifts were exchanged with family and friends, and a Sat- of Germania Inferior, had refused to join his colleague.
urnalicus princeps (a leading man of the Saturnalia or a He marched his troops to battle and destroyed Saturninus
“Lord of Misrule”) was elected. Clearly, the Saturnalia at a site near the Rhine. The German tribes who were
had its own effect upon the celebration of the Christian supposed to help Saturninus could not cross the Rhine
Christmas and New Year. because of an early thaw. Maximus wisely burned Saturn-
inus’s papers to avoid unnecessary cruelties by Domitian.
Saturninus, Aemilius (d. c. 197 C.E.) Prefect of the
Praetorian Guard Saturninus Secundus, Salutius (d. after 367 C.E.)
Saturninus was prefect with PLATIANUS during the reign of Praetorian prefect from 361 to 367
Septimius SEVERUS. He was murdered by his ambitious Called the “Phoenix” by Libanius because of his ability to
colleague. recover from political setbacks, Saturninus came from
Gaul and was a pagan, earning the trust of Empero r
Saturninus, Aponius (fl. first century C.E.) Governor JULIAN THE APOSTATE. Thus, in 361, Julian appointed him
of Moesia in 69 C.E. Praetorian prefect for the East. Remaining with Julian
Saturninus gained a victory for ROME against the SARMA-
TIANS, the tribe that had hoped to use the chaos in the
empire to its own advantage. Saturninus was given a tri-
umph and retained in his office by both Emperors OTHO

throughout his short reign, he convinced his master that Scaevinus,F
 lavius 491
Christians should not be tort u red in Antioch. As one of
the leading generals of the time, he helped organize the The Temple of Saturn (Courtesy Fr. Felix Just, S.J.)
Roman fleet to be used against the Persians. In the cam-
paign of 363 he was very nearly killed in the same battle ple in the region of the Cimbric Chersonesus, roughly
in which Julian was mortally wounded. After Julian died between the Elbe and Trave rivers (modern Holstein).
in 363, Saturninus was re p o rtedly offered the throne, They made their presence felt by other Germans by over-
declining because of his age. He continued to serve Jovian running the lands of the Chauci along the Elbe in the late
and VALENTINIAN I, but was finally forced to retire in 367, second century C.E., before entering into conflict with
because of his advanced years and the intrigues of other others. The date of their contact with Rome has, by some,
palace officials. Although a pagan, he was noted for his been put at 286 C.E. Henceforth they fought with the
fair treatment of Christians and his incorruptible nature. Franks for supremacy of both the Lower Rhine-Elbe terri-
tories and the confederations of tribes along the German
Saturninus Dogmatius, Gaius Caelius (fl. early frontier. Their attacks in Gaul caused considerable dam-
fourth century C.E.) Praetorian prefect of Gaul (Gallia) age, while their savage piratic activity rendered the north-
from 334 to 335 ern coast of Gaul virtually indefensible, hastening the
A trusted servant of CONSTANTINE the Great, Saturn i n u s demise of imperial control in Britain. From the middle of
was of non-senatorial descent, his career probably began the fifth century, Saxons in large numbers took part in
during the reign of CONSTANTIUS I Chlorus (305–306 C.E.) raids on Britain, with the Jutes and the Angles. Their
and many of his early posts were held under that emperor. raiders eventually settled permanently in the isles. Britain
After serving as head of the RES PRIVATA, he held offices in was soon conquered and occupied by this wave of
Italia, including PREFECT OF GRAIN for Rome (praefectus invaders.
annone urbis), and later came to the rank of VICARIUS for Scaevinus, Flavius (d. 65 C.E.) Senator during the reign
Moesia and PREFECT OF THE CITY of Rome. Around 324 of Nero and a member of the Pisonian Conspiracy in 65 C.E.
Constantine elevated him to COMES and then appointed Scaevinus was one of the leading figures in the plot to
him to the Senate through ADLECTIO. Ve ry reliable, Saturn- murder the emperor, but he was unable to keep it a
inus was made Praetorian prefect in his own right. secret. Betrayed by his freedman Milichus, he at first
denied any knowledge of the plan. But when his friend
Saturnus God of time. One of the least known of the Antonius Natalis confessed everything, Scaevinus joined
Roman gods, his origins and characteristics were mysteri-
ous. According to some legends he was a mythical king of
Italia, but his origin was probably related to the Latin
satus (sowing or planting). This made him a very old
agricultural deity, identified by early Romans with the
Greek god Kronos, and hence father of Jupiter, Neptune,
Pluto, and Juno. Saturnus, like Kronos, was considered
the oldest god in the Roman pantheon. Fleeing Jupiter, it
was said, he appeared to King Janus and was given a tem-
ple on the Capitoline Hill, which later became the trea-
sury (the aerarium Saturni). In return, he taught the
Romans agriculture and headed Italia during a fabled age.
The fact that he was a Greek import was demonstrated by
the sacrifices made to him. The presiding priest had an
uncovered head by tradition during ceremonies, as com-
pared to a covered head for other ceremonies, although
there is etymological argument for his origin in Etruria.
The festival in honor of Saturnus, the SATURNALIA, was
one of the most joyous holidays in ROME. Saturnus, how-
ever, did have a dark side, for he was associated with an
unknown goddess, Lua (or Lua Mater), whose name
implied lues (plague or disease).

See also GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME.

Saxons One of the most powerful and active Germanic
tribes in the late empire. The Saxons developed as a peo-

492 Scapula,
PubliusO
 storius Scholae Palatinae One of the corps of bodyguards
created by CONSTANTINE the Great to replace the defunct
him, revealing the names of co-conspirators. He was then PRAETORIAN GUARD. Constantine desired his new force to
executed. be intensely loyal to the imperial household and thus
gave the units on duty a special area of the palace in
Scapula, Publius Ostorius (d. 52 C.E.) Consul in 47 which they could await orders. Chosen, originally, from
C.E. and general the German cavalry regiments, the Scholae was divided
Of an Equestrian family, he was appointed by Empero r into so-called schools, seven in number and each 500
CLAUDIUS in 47 to succeed Aulus Plautius as governor of strong. Each school was under the command of a tribune,
Britain, with orders to extend Rome’s dominion over the who was answerable to the MAGISTER OFFICIORUM. Most
isle and to certify its possessions. This operation, han- of their duties were in Constantinople with the new
dled professionally and without mercy, was eminently administration, but it is possible that some of the Scholae
successful. He designed the Fosse Way, the line of were posted in the West.
communications that stretched behind the frontier.
Roman presence was made permanent with a colony at See also PALATINI; SCUTARII.
CAMULODUNUM (Colchester). These advances came at a
t e rrible price, for Scapula made war on the rebellious science and technology See ART AND ARCHITECTURE,
ICENI, DECANGI, BRIGANTES, and Silures. This last tribe, ASTRONOMY, ENGINEERING, FOOD AND DRINK, INDUSTRY,
led by CARATACUS, required severe methods of suppres- LEGIONS, MEDICINE, PLINY THE ELDER, SHIPS, TIME, TRANS-
sion. When Caratacus was taken to ROME in 51, Scapula PORTATION.
was awarded a triumph. Much work remained, and sub-
sequent campaigns were not as productive. The Silures Scipio, Metellus (d. 46 B.C.E.) Consul in 52 B.C.E. and a
refused to surrender, and Scapula died of exhaustion in supporter of Pompey during the civil war with Julius Caesar
the field. A member of an ancient family, Scipio was a firm sup-
porter of the aristocracy in the Republic and thus found
Scapula, Q. Ostorius (fl. late first century B.C.E.) POMPEY a useful counterbalance to CAESAR. A political
First prefect of the Praetorian Guard, with Publius Sal- alliance was cemented by the marriage of Scipio’s daugh-
vius Aper ter Cornelia to Pompey following the death of Julia, Cae-
A member of the Equestrians, Scapula was chosen by sar’s daughter, who had been married to Pompey, in 54. A
AUGUSTUS in 2 B.C.E. to assume joint command of the grateful Pompey then elevated Scipio to the consulship as
Praetorians. He was not to exercise any of the powers his colleague; this despite his inability to win election as
that would come to be a fixture of the prefectship and consul on his own. When the civil war began in 49, Sci-
was removed (with Aper) in favor of Valerius Ligur, pio joined Pompey at Dyrrhachium and was assigned a
sometime before 14 C.E. He subsequently served as pre- proconsular command in the East. Following the defeat
fect of Egypt. of Pompey at Pharsalus in 48, Scipio fled to Africa with
the Pompeian remnant. There he was one of the leading
Scaurus, Mamercus Aemilius (d. 34 C.E.) Great- generals with Cato Uticensis, Titus Labienus, and King
grandson of the famous Republican figure, Marcus Amelius Juba of Numidia. After taking part in the Pompeian
Scaurus defeat at the battle of Thapsus in February, 46, Scipio
A noted orator in his own right, wealthy, and a member killed himself.
of the SENATE, Scaurus earned the dislike and scorn of
Emperor TIBERIUS, who called him a disgrace to his ances- Scribonia (fl. first century B.C.E.) Wife of Octavian
tors. Although no one could fault his oratory or skills as (Augustus) before his marriage to Livia Drusilla
an ADVOCATUS, such imperial displeasure numbered his Augustus wed Scribonia, sister of Lucius Scribonius Libo,
days. The prefect of the Praetorian Guard, MACRO, out of political considerations, for Libo was the father-in-
attacked his writing of a tragedy, Atreus, as treasonous. law of Sextus POMPEY. Scribonia was much older than Oc-
This and other supposed crimes brought his forced sui- tavian and had already been married twice, to ex-consuls.
cide in 34 C.E. He was the uncle and stepfather of Domi- Their union was not a happy one. On the day in 39 B.C.E.
tius CORBULO (2). that she bore him a daughter, Julia (3), he divorced her in
favor of Livia, claiming “I could not stand her nagging.”
Scaurus, Q. Terentius (fl. second century C.E.) Gram- When Julia was banished by Augustus in 2 B.C.E., Scribo-
marian who specialized in Latin grammar nia went into exile with her.
His work, De Orthographia, was mentioned by such late
writers as AUSONIUS and CHARISIUS and thus helped pre- Scribonii brothers Courtiers in the reign of Nero (r.
serve important elements of the Latin language. Scaurus 54–68 C.E.)
also authored commentaries on VIRGIL and HORACE.

In 58 C.E. Proculus and Rufus Sulpicii Scribonii were sent Sebastianus 493
to PUTEOLI with a cohort of Praetorians to suppress the
citizenry there, who were upset about the trade competi- many emperors. The biographies for this era are espe-
tion from Ostia. The Scribonii put down the revolt with cially dubious with regards to the so-called Thirty Tyrants
total ruthlessness, restoring order very quickly. Later they and a vicious treatment of Gallienus. Thus, when used,
were appointed governors of Germania Superior and care must be exercised.
Inferior, running the provinces together, for they did
everything in unison and were very close. Hearing com- See THIRTY TYRANTS.
plaints about their habits, Nero summoned them to
Greece and compelled them both to commit suicide. scutarii A part of the imperial bodyguard founded by
Diocletian to act as a substitute to the PRAETORIAN GUARD.
scrinii Name given to the secretariat of the central im- The scutarii were based on the Equite scutarii of the era of
perial administration. Established during the early years Gallienus, who used them as a special cavalry corps. Dio-
of the empire, the scrinii had become a vast bureauc- cletian promoted them to the bodyguard, recruiting their
racy by the fourth century C.E., when they were placed numbers from the Illyrian legions, making them more
under the magistri scrinii, who were answerable to the reliable than the Praetorians. From the time of Constan-
MAGISTER OFFICIORUM. There were originally three major tine the Great, the scutarii were probably attached to the
sections of the scrinii—the memoriae, libellorum, and SCHOLAE PALATINAE.
epistularu m—followed later by the dispositionum. The
memoriae, under the MAGISTER MEMORIAE, handled peti- Scythia A very ancient land that was, according to
tions to the emperor; the libellorum was concerned with Roman thinking, a vast territory extending from the
legal cases; and the epistularum, which drafted corre- Volga and the north of the BLACK SEA to the borders of
spondence, was split in two, one for Greek and the other India. While the Scythians actually occupied a smaller
for Latin. Finally, there was the dispositionum whose area than this, their traditionally nomadic lifestyle and
comes dispositionum worked out travel arrangements for brilliant use of the endless steppes made them for several
the emperors. centuries the masters of the Ukraine and the Caucasus.
Originally they were a very mobile nation, living and
See also COMES; EPISTULIS AB; LIBELLUS, A; NOTARII. traveling in the skin-covered wagons so typical of the
yurts of the Steppe people and the Mongols. They were
Scriptores Historiae Augustae Known also as the superb horsemen, dangerous warriors, and self-sacrificing
Historia Augusta and the Augustan History, a collection of in war. Over time, they cultivated fields of grain in the
biographies of the Roman emperors, caesars, and south of the Ukraine, and groups of them became settled
usurpers from the reign of Hadrian to that of Carinus and in the Crimea. Such agricultural endeavors made them
Numerian (roughly 117–284 C.E., with a gap c. responsive to economic ties with inhabitants of parts of
244–259). The Historia Augusta is one of the most the other Black Sea coast, especially through THRACE and
debated and controversial ancient sources available to ASIA MINOR. The Scythian Empire was thus wealthy and
modern scholars. Originally called Vitae Caesarum, the considerable, dealing especially with the Greeks.
collected biographies were first named the Historia
Augusta by I. Casaubon in the early 17th century. It was Unfortunately, pressures from the East drove the
claimed to have been written by six authors: Aelius Spar- related SARMATIANS into conflict with the Scythians in the
tianus, Julis Capitolinus, Aelius Lampridius, Vulcacius middle of the third century B.C.E. After bitter fighting
Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio, and Flavius Vopiscus. The the Scythians were defeated but retained their holdings in
influence of Suetonius’s Lives of the Caesars is obvious, the Crimean Peninsula. Here they remained, continuing
although these works were probably not a continuation to play a trading role in the region. A number of
of the Lives. Scythian-based tribes did journey west to the Danube
frontier. One of the largest was the tribe of the Bastarnae,
Such a question is only one of many concerning the responsible for ravaging parts of Thrace in 30–29 B.C.E.
Historia Augusta. Doubts as to the accuracy of the They were defeated and their King Deldo killed by Mar-
accounts, the number of actual authors, the reliability of cus CRASSUS (2) in 29 B.C.E. Other Scythians remained in
the documents, changes made in the manuscripts, and the Danubian territory, some supplying troops to Rome;
the dating of their original composition have left authori- CARACALLA had Scythian bodyguards.
ties with little option but to form theories based on the
most verifiable evidence. The amount of conjecture, cou- Sebastianus (d. 378 C.E.) Magister peditum in the East
pled with the obvious falsification of sources and docu- in 378
ments, rendered the entire Historia Augusta suspect. This Described by the historian Ammianus Marcellinus as a
is unfortunate, because the writings stand as the principle quiet, peace-loving man who was very popular with the
mine of information on the third century C.E. and its troops, Sebastianus was appointed to the post of leader in
EGYPT in 356–358, giving support to Bishop George of
ALEXANDRIA and the Arians, and removing all orthodox fol-

494 Secundus,
Pedanius Lugdunensis, the Seine, which rises near Dijon and flows
northwestward to the English Channel, provided the
lowers of Athanasius, probably at the demand of the pro - Romans with a wide river and tributaries for waterborne
Arian Emperor CONSTANTIUS II. Sebastianus next appeared traffic throughout the whole province and into Gallia Bel-
in the service of JULIAN in 363, in the Persian Campaign gica. This system was one of the secrets to Gaul’s success
before joining VALENTINIAN I on his trip to the West in 364. in trade and industry.
As one of the emperor’s generals, he took part in opera-
tions against the Alamanni in 368, and, with MEROBAUDES, Sejanus, Lucius Aelius (c. 20 B.C.E.–31 C.E.) Prefect of
against the Quadi in 375. With the death of Valentinian in the Praetorian Guard from 14 to 31 C.E.
that year, the jealous Merobaudes sent Sebastianus, who One of the most ambitious yet enigmatic figures of the
was ignorant of the emperor’s demise, to a post so far first century C.E., Sejanus, the son of the successful
removed as to ensure no interference with the succession. Equestrian Lucius STRABO, was born in Volsinii (modern
Tuscany) and used family connections to have himself
By 378 he held the rank of magister peditum, through adopted by the Aelians, perhaps by Aelius Gallus, the
the influence of Emperor VALENS, who requested his help prefect of Egypt. With his father and adoptive father, as
in the battle against the GOTHS. While accounts differ as well as his respected brothers, Sejanus was perfectly posi-
to the circumstances of his departure for the East (several tioned to embark upon a glorious career.
mention the intrigues of the eunuchs in the West), his
services were welcomed by the ruler of the East. Despite One of his first posts was with Gaius CAESAR during
successes against the Goths in THRACE, he advised Valens the prince’s posting to the East (1 B.C.E.–4 C.E.). After
not to wait for Gratian to arrive with reinforcements but Gaius died Sejanus joined the staff of Tiberius before
to attack the barbarians immediately. His counsel was fol- receiving the appointment as co-prefect of the Praetorian
lowed, with the result being the battle of ADRIANOPLE. Guard with his father in 14 C.E. Soon, at the request of
Sebastianus was among the dead in the disaster. TIBERIUS (now emperor), Lucius Strabo took up the posi-
tion of prefect of Egypt, and Sejanus became the sole
Secundus, Pedanius (fl. first century C.E.) Prefect of master of the Praetorians. He made himself absolutely
the city in 61 C.E. indispensable to Tiberius, acting as his workhorse and
Secundus was murdered by his own slave. The case was loyal supporter, while slowly amassing political influence.
of great public interest because of the old law that stipu- By having his own minions appointed to key positions he
lated that in case of such a crime all of the slaves in the soon was the equal of virtually any other official of state.
house should be put to death. When the soldiers arrived He was pleased by the death of GERMANICUS in 19, seeing
to carry out the punishment, a mob prevented them with it as the perfect chance to rid himself of the legitimate
stones. Emperor NERO then rebuked the people and heirs to the throne, the children of Germanicus and
ordered the executions to go forth. DRUSUS (3), Tiberius’s son.

See also SLAVERY. Drusus was murdered in 23, probably by poison after
Sejanus had seduced his wife Livilla. The party of Ger-
Secundus, Petronius (d. 98 C.E.) Prefect of the Praeto- manicus followed. AGRIPPINA THE ELDER and her sons,
rian Guard with Norbanus during the reign of Domitian NERO and DRUSUS (2) were removed in 29, and their
In 96, he became a member of the plot to murder the em- friends and allies faced condemnation, exile, or death.
peror, joining his colleague and Domitia, the empress. Fol- Tiberius secretly abetted Sejanus’s annihilation of his ene-
lowing Domitian’s assassination, Secundus was replaced by mies, receiving continued signs of the prefect’s loyalty,
Casperius AELIANUS, who incited the Praetorians to revolt first in 22, when Sejanus helped extinguish the fire in the
and demand revenge for the dead emperor. Despite his Theater of Pompey, and then in 26, when the roof caved
friendship with Nerva, the new ruler, Secundus had to be in at the grotto of SPELUNCA. There he leaped upon the
handed over for execution by his own soldiers in 98. emperor, shielding his body from the rocks.

Segovia A town in Spain situated in the region of the Tiberius was ready to listen when the prefect had
Guadarrama Mountains in Hispania Lusitania. Segovia ideas for improving the principate. In 23, Sejanus
possessed one of the finest aqueducts in the Roman received permission to centralize the cohorts of the Prae-
Empire. Built in the late first or second century C.E., the torian Guard in Rome, thereby creating the CASTRA PRAE-
aqueduct carried water into the town from a nearby TORIA that brought so much unhappiness to the city. His
source at Rufrio and included an architecturally brilliant statues appeared everywhere in the provinces, and
bridge over a steep valley. Tiberius referred to him as adjutor imperii, or “imperial
aide.” Those seeking promotions or favors looked to him
Seine River known as the Sequana to the local Celtic for help or patronage. A triumph came in 26, when he
tribe of the SEQUANI; one of the main rivers in Gaul (GAL- convinced Tiberius to depart from Rome to Capri. There
LIA), it played a major role in trade and communications he could keep close watch over the emperor while con-
within the provinces of Tres Galliae. Cutting across Gallia tinuing to build his own strength in the capital.

Sejanus then asked for permission to marry Livilla, Senate 495
Drusus’s widow; Tiberius denied him this reward, offer-
ing, instead, permission to marry Julia, Livilla’s daughter. from a minor political entity in Italy to the most powerful
The betrothal was announced in 31. Sejanus was at the state in the world. This august body suffered degrada-
height of his power, serving as CONSUL and accepting the tions in the first century B.C.E. at the hands of Sulla and
fearful respect of the Senate. Julius CAESAR, and by the reign of AUGUSTUS (27 B.C.E.–14
C.E.) it was a mere instrument in the hands of the emper-
Perhaps through the warnings of Antonia, Claudius’s ors. Although there would be moments of achievement
mother, or because of his own sense of intrigue, Tiberius during the imperial epoch, the Senate’s era of glory had
wakened to the threat of Sejanus. In a carefully laid plot passed.
he trapped the prefect in 31, having him arrested, taken
to the dungeon of TULLIANUM and there executed. His As the first emperor, Augustus was shrewd enough to
three children, two sons and a daughter, were also slain. retain to the furthest possible degree the trappings of the
The daughter, being under age, was raped to make her Republic, including the Senate. Once he had cleansed it
eligible and then executed. They joined their father at the and made it his own through ADLECTIO (enrollment) and
base of the GEMONIAN STAIRS. APICATA, Sejanus’s divorced censorial privilege, he returned to it extensive powers.
wife, was spared but committed suicide. A bloodbath The Senate was still in charge of the AERARIUM (state trea-
ensued as the clients of Sejanus were hunted down with- sury), governed or administered all provinces outside the
out mercy. control of the emperor, including Italy, retained the privi-
lege of minting all copper COINAGE, and eventually had
There has been considerable debate as to the ultimate legal and legislative rights. One by one, however, its orig-
aim of Sejanus. He was destroyed before any plans could inal duties were curtailed or usurped by the rulers. The
come to fruition, but through his work the principate was aerarium was one of the first to go as the Senate grew
made absolute, the Praetorians awakened to their politi- utterly dependent upon the goodwill of the PRINCEPS. The
cal potential and the prefectship of the Guard was made emperor heeded the advice of the senators selectively and
powerful. even the election of magistrates, which passed to the Sen-
ate from the people, was merely a reflection of imperial
Seleucia A great and ancient city in Babylonia, on the wishes.
Tigris River, near modern Baghdad. Seleucia was for
many years the capital of the entire region until the rise A serious blow to the Senate was the degree of
of CTESIPHON. Despite its political decline at the hands of supremacy exercised over the selection of its members by
the Parthians, the city did not lose its prestige or impor- the emperors. As the PRINCEPS SENATUS, the ruler applied
tance in terms of trade. Seleucia retained its indepen- the gift of adlectio to appoint senators, while all candi-
dence during the years of the Parthian Empire and was dates for the senatorial class were first approved by the
probably at the heart of numerous internal conspiracies palace. Nevertheless, the CURSUS HONORUM was intact, as
and power struggles for the throne in the first century senators were enrolled only after a long and possibly dis-
B.C.E. and C.E. Because of its location on the Tigris, Seleu- tinguished career in the military or government. High
cia was one of the targets of Roman attack in any cam- posts throughout the empire were often filled with them,
paign against PARTHIA and later PERSIA. By the fourth a situation concretized by the transformation of the sena-
century C.E. and the Persian War of Julian, the city was torial class into a hereditary one.
virtually deserted. The name Seleucia was used for other
cities in the East, founded in the Greek style. Clearly the Senate still had much to contribute to the
Roman state. To be a senator was one of the greatest hon-
Senaculum Name given to the Women’s Senate estab- ors attainable in the empire, and even the magistri mili-
lished by Emperor ELAGABALUS around 218 or 219 C.E. tum of the late empire wanted to be members. The
Traditionally the Romans had what was called the conven- emperors referred many legal cases to the body, as it
tus matronalis, a Republican board of matrons who con- began hearing those trials once brought before the comi-
cerned themselves with questions of social or political tia. All kinds of crimes were presented: capital, MAIESTAS
etiquette. A senaculum was originally the meeting place of (treason), financial improprieties, and appeals. In the sec-
the senators when the SENATE was not in session. Elaga- ond century C.E. any appeal decided by the Senate could
balus thus took this title and applied it to the conventus not be taken to the emperor for further consideration.
matronalis, when he empowered it with certain privileges,
mainly the formal recognition of their decisions. They Other legislative functions passed into its hands.
met on the Quirinal Hill. Through the SENATUS CONSULTUM the enactments of the
Senate were declared fully law after the rule of HADRIAN.
Senate One of the oldest institutions in Rome, serving Further, they could debate many aspects of imperial pol-
as a leading element in the emergence of the Republic icy, expressing the opinions of the senatorial order, popu-
lar views, or the fears of the upper classes. Emperors
always sought the Senate’s official granting of the princeps
with the IMPERIUM.

Ironically, all of these roles were fulfilled wholly in a
manner pleasing to the imperial court. Thus, laws were

496 senatus
 consultum It was a strange twist of fate that the Senate of Rome
should outlive the emperors. That happened when
promulgated as per the desires of the emperor, trials Odoacer ended the reign of Romulus Augustulus in 476
always ended with a condemnation or an acquittal as was C.E., terminating the Western Empire. He kept alive the
expected, and a successor to the throne usually was Senate, liking its capacity to legitimize his own regime.
accepted because he possessed the most legions. A fasci- The barbarian successors to Odoacer felt the same, at
nating exception to this came in 238 C.E., when the Sen- least until 603, when the Senate was last mentioned. Sen-
ate condemned MAXIMINUS I THRAX, first elevating ators in the West showed the final embers of indepen-
GORDIAN I in Africa but later naming two senators, PUPI- dence in the fourth and fifth centuries by defending their
ENUS and BALBINUS. Through the activity of the senators, ancient paganism, most notably the Altar of Victory in
Maximinus was killed. Unfortunately, neither Balbinus the Curia. The Senate of CONSTANTINOPLE remained until
nor Pupienus carried enough political power to prevent the ninth century.
their own assassinations after a reign of barely 100 days.
An emperor could run the empire quite effectively, either senatus consultum The power of the Senate to make a
on good terms with the Senate (as in the case of TRAJAN) declaration of its opinion to the magistrates of the state
or on poor terms (as did HADRIAN). It mattered very little. and thus influence law. In the days of the Republic, the
senatus consultum was enacted by the consent of the sena-
Increased centralization during the second century torial body; while officially it was not law, the pronounce-
C.E., the full development of the CONSILIUM PRINCIPIS, and ment carried with it the AUCTORITAS (authority) of the
the transfer of legal jurisdiction in many areas to both the Senate. Thus the senatus consultum could be viewed as
PREFECT OF THE CITY and the Praetorian prefect, debili- binding upon the people of Rome. As an instrument of
tated the Senate even more. In time all that remained was imperial rule, the senatus consultum was changed first
the distinct privilege of being a senator. There were many under Augustus and later under Hadrian. From the
social advantages. Members wore a tunic with a broad Augustan principate, the decree was far more potent
purple stripe (the latus clavus) in front, woven into the legally, and henceforth bore the names of the CONSULS or
material. They were given a short boot with a letter “C” other high figures. During the reign of Hadrian, the sena-
on the front, meaning centum for the first 100 members. tus consultum, included in praetor’s edicts, came to be
Senators were also honored with a feast, and vast wealth considered direct law. Through it, the emperor could
could be accumulated but was necessary because of the change administrative systems or decide religious ques-
expenditure made while in office. The taxes on properties tions or other laws. The letters “S.C.,” for senatus consul-
were crushing. tum, appeared normally on Roman imperial coins of the
brass or copper species as that was under the care of the
Aside from its normal schedule, the Senate could be Senate. The letters did not appear on the imperial coinage
convened at the will of the emperor by virtue of his posi- of gold or silver, displaying the differentiation between
tion as princeps senatus. Whereas the number necessary the Senate and emperors in terms of minting.
for a legal assembly was 400, this was ended by Augus-
tus, who made the figure dependent upon the importance Seneca (Lucius Annaeus Seneca) (c. 5–65 C.E.)
of a subject. Political impotence and apathy combined to Poet, writer, major literary figure, and Stoic philosopher
drive down attendance so that in time a mere 70 senators Seneca was the son of SENECA THE ELDER and was born at
constituted an assembly. Cordova, Spain. Taken to Rome as a youth, he studied
rhetoric and philosophy while using the reputation of his
Membership was for centuries exclusively Roman, father and the connections of his aunt to begin a senato-
becoming diluted slightly in the Republic’s last stages rial career. Made a quaestor in 32, Seneca quickly
with Italians entering. During the empire, the fully Ro- acquired his own name as an orator and master of the
man provinces made their contributions, especially HIS- pen, earning the jealous attack from GAIUS CALIGULA of
PANIA and GALLIA NARBONENSIS. As with the family of being a “textbook orator” and “sand without lime.” Hav-
Septimius SEVERUS, Africans took part by the late second ing survived the despotism of Gaius, he was suddenly
century, as did deserving wealthy candidates from the exiled to Corsica in 41 by Emperor CLAUDIUS, most likely
East. at the urging of Empress MESSALLINA. While the cause is
unclear, Seneca took the banishment quite poorly, and in
Much as Augustus had chosen the Senate to be a un-Stoic letters to Polybius, an influential freedman, he
recipient of superficial aggrandizement, so too did CON- pleaded for an end to the exile. This came only in 49
STANTINE the Great three centuries later. Through the when AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER, now the most powerful
interweaving of the Equestrian Order (EQUITES) with that figure in the palace, had him brought back to tutor her
of the senatorial, there was a caste of officials for many son, NERO. PRAETOR in 50, Seneca and the Praetorian pre-
administrative positions in the vast bureaucracy of the
later imperial government. With such a large pool of can-
didates, the Senate in Rome increased in size but contin-
ued to lack real power as a body, mainly because of the
creation of the Senate of Constantinople. The new Senate
was made the equal of Rome in 359 C.E. It too had no real
sway in the working of either empire, East or West.

fect Burrus were the two main ministers in Nero’s govern- Senecat
 he
Elder 497
ment upon Claudius’s death in 54. Through their influ-
ence the first years of the Neronian principate were Apocolocyntosis, the so-called Pumpkinification.
stable, marked only by the graceless decline of Agrippina Composed as a lampoon of Claudius’s apotheosis
and Seneca’s subtle reduction of her authority until her (deification) in 54, the work was both bitter and
murder in 59, in which the minister was a passive partici- deliberately cruel.
pant. Tragedies As a poet, Seneca specialized in tra-
gedies. He authored nine of them from the years
Increasingly, Nero proved difficult to control, and 49 to 62. They were: Hercules (Furens), Troades,
both Seneca and Burrus lost political ground. With Bur- Phoenissae, Medea, Phaedra, Oedipus, Agamemnon,
rus’s death in 62 it was only a matter of time before the Thyestes, and Hercules Oetaeus. A tenth, Octavia,
emperor decided that Seneca had outlived his usefulness. was once ascribed to him but is generally consid-
Of advancing age, Seneca retired, settling on his estates in ered the work of someone else. It is the only sur-
Campania, as Nero sank into tyranny. In 65, Seneca, per- viving praetexta (Roman tragic drama).
haps wrongly, was implicated in the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY
and was allowed to choose the method of his death, set- Suggested Readings: Seneca. Apocolocyntosis. Bryn Mawr,
tling finally, after a few failed attempts, on a lethal vapor Pa.: Thomas Library, Bryn Mawr College, 1988; ———.
bath. Twice married, his second wife was Pompeia De Clementia. Edited by F. Prechac. Paris: Les Belles Let-
Paulina. tres, 1961; ———. Epistulae. Edited by L. D. Reynolds.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965; ———. Hercules: The
Seneca had been attacked as a writer for being too Madness of Hercules. Translated by Ranjit Bolt. London:
eager a proponent of the gaudiness of the Silver Age of Oberon, 1999; ———. 17 Letters. Translated by C. D. N.
Roman literature. His was a conscious rejection of the Costa. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1988; ———.
past greatness of the Augustan Age, dressing his prose in Medea. Translated by Frederick Ahl. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
an affected and overly decorated style. Nevertheless, the University Press, 1986; ———. Moral and Political
sheer volume of his work, stretching from prose to Essays. Translated by John M. Cooper and J. F. Procopé.
poetry, including satire, scientific studies, and letters, is Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1995; —
astounding. ——. Oedipus of Lucius Annaeus Seneca. Translated by
Michael Elliot Rutenberg. Wauconda, Ill.: Bolchazy-Car-
Dialogi The dialogues of Seneca, written between ducci Publishers, 1998; ———. Phaedra. Edited by
37 and 41 C.E., can be divided into two categories, Michael Coffey and Roland Mayer. New York: Cambridge
philosophical examinations and consolations. His University Press, 1990; ———. Seneca’s Phoenissae: Intro-
philosophic dialogues were: De Providentia (On duction and Commentary. Edited by Marica Frank. New
providence); De constantia spientis (On the con- York: E. J. Brill, 1995; ———. The Tragedies. Translated
stancy of the philosopher); De Ira (On anger); De by David R. Slavitt. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Vita Beata (On the happy life), incomplete; De Press, 1992–1995; Share, Don, ed. Seneca in English. New
Otio (On leisure); De Tranquillitate Animi (On the York: Penguin Books, 1998.
tranquility of the spirit); De Brevitae Vita (On the
brevity of life). Three consolationes, Ad Polybium, Seneca the Elder (Lucius Annaeus Seneca) (c. 55
Ad Marciam and Ad Helviam, were addressed to B.C.E.–41 C.E.) Rhetorician, writer, father of Seneca and
POLYBIUS, MARCIA, and Helvia, his mother. Annaeus Mela and grandfather of Lucan
Seneca was born in Cordova, Spain, to an Equestrian
Other Prose Works Three treatises were composed family, spending most of his life in Rome. The details of
that fell out of the scope of the Dialogi. They were: his life, beyond his marriage to Helvia, a Spanish woman,
de clementia (On clemency), written in 55–56 and and his vast accumulated wealth, are unclear. He was,
surviving only in part, stressing the need for however, a prolific writer. He authored a (lost) history of
mercy in a ruler; de beneficiis (On benefits), in the important events of his era but also penned from
seven books written after 56, covering benefits memory a vital collection on the declaimers. Dedicated to
available to individuals; and Naturales Quaestiones his sons, the compilation contained 10 books of Contro-
(Natural questions), possibly 62–64, addressed to versiae and seven books on Suasoriae. Each of the Contro-
Lucilius and discussing many phenomena of versiae had a preface, surveying various orations.
nature. Unfortunately, only a few excerpts survived. A fourth-
century–C.E. Christian abridgement made a little more
Epistulae morales 124 moral letters, in 20 books, available, preserving the prefaces for Books 1, 2, 3, and 4.
were also addressed to Lucilius, presenting vari- Even fewer of the Suasoriae are extant. Of the seven
ous aspects of Stoic and philosophical doctrine books but a few epigrams are known. As a writer, Seneca
(64–65). There were once more than those now revealed himself as capable of humor and careful
extant. thought.

Satire Seneca’s adaptation of the Menippean Satire,
combining verse and prose, was used in his

498 Senecio,
Claudius Sequani One of the large tribes inhabiting GALLIA Bel-
gica in the first century B.C.E. They suffered very severe
Senecio, Claudius (d. 65 C.E.) Son of a freedman deprivations at the hands of the chieftain ARIOVISTUS and
In the service of the emperors and a confidant of welcomed his defeat by Rome. Through a broad alliance
Emperor NERO, Senecio joined OTHO in 55 C.E., another with the Germans, however, they succeeded in acquiring
friend of the ruler, in the conspiracy to hide Nero’s affair supremacy over the federated tribes of the AEDUI. This
with the woman ACTE. He apparently fell out of favor (as brief reign was ended by Caesar’s conquests in Gallia Bel-
did Otho) and next appeared as a member of the PISO- gica. Subsequently their territory along the Seine was part
NIAN CONSPIRACY to murder Nero in 65. Discovered, of the Roman province of Gaul. The district of the
Senecio was promised a pardon by his former patron. Sequani was called Maxima Sequanorum.
He thus revealed name after name but was put to death
anyway. Serapis Deity who became a fixture in the pantheon of
Ptolemaic EGYPT and was later popular throughout the
Senecio, Herennius (d. c. 93 C.E.) An advocatus and Roman Empire. Serapis (also Sarapis) was created
biographer from Hispania Baetica through the patronage of Ptolemy 1 of Egypt, who com-
Senecio never pursued a public career beyond the office bined the Memphite religious idea concerning the spirit
of QUAESTOR but was highly successful in his legal pur- of the APIS Bull with Osiris, lending body to the new deity
suits. He also authored a work on HELVIDIUS PRISCUS and with a huge statue. The worship of Serapis became con-
was probably put to death by Emperor DOMITIAN for it. nected with that of other, more Greek deities, especially
Zeus. Manifestations varied, depending upon the prefer-
Senecio, Sosius (fl. late first century C.E.) Consul in 99 ence of the worshipers. He was Aesclepius, and hence
and 107 C.E.; a confidant of Trajan god of healing, or Jupiter, supreme god, or even Osiris-
Senecio earned from Trajan a statue in his honor in 110. Hades-Pluton as the god of death. The popularity of Ser-
He was also a friend of PLINY THE YOUNGER and was the apis during the Republic and the early imperial age was
recipient of several dedications by Plutarch in his Lives. limited to Egypt and to parts of Greece. With the spread
Little else is known of him. of other cults, however, especially Serapis’s superior rival,
ISIS, the cult found fertile ground in Mediterranean ports,
Sentius, Gnaeus (fl. early first century C.E.) Successor in the East and finally in the West. A temple to the divin-
to Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso as governor of Syria in 19 C.E. ity was constructed in York (see BRITANNIA) while the
Sentius was chosen by the legates and senators in Syria to famed Serapeum in ALEXANDRIA, with its host of cultic
assume control of the province following the death of altars, served as the center for the Roman world.
GERMANICUS. He proved very firm, refusing to give Piso
any favors and even sent the alleged prisoner, Martina, to ROME did not grant permission for Serapis to enter
Rome to take part in the inevitable trial against Piso and the city until the reign of GAIUS CALIGULA (c. 37 C.E.).
his wife, PLANCINA. When the former governor attempted Henceforth the emperors of the first and second centuries
to reclaim his office, Sentius defeated his plans, placing C.E. supported Serapis enthusiastically. By the third cen-
him on a ship for Rome. tury Romans were ardent believers, most notably in the
so-called Zeus-Helios-Serapis or Serapis, the Sun god
Septemviri The so-called Board of the Seven, one of Jupiter. This form lasted until the annihilation of the cult
the leading PRIESTHOODS of ROME. Originally known as by Christians in the fourth century. The destruction of
the Epulones, they were created in 196 C.E. to aid the the Serapeum in Alexandria was one of the mortal blows
PONTIFICES in their duties. Specifically, they organized to organized PAGANISM in the Roman Empire.
the banquets (the epulum) on the Capitoline Hill in
honor of the Capitoline deities. Later the Collegium Serena (d. 408 C.E.) Niece of Emperor Theodosius I and
Epulonum assumed the task of superintending the pub- wife of the magister militum Stilicho
lic amusements whenever the SENATE ceremoniously Extremely unpopular in the courts of both ROME and
dined on the Capitoline, normally as part of the ludi CONSTANTINOPLE, Serena wed Stilicho sometime before
Romani. 385, bearing him children who were to be linked by mar-
riage to the imperial household: Maria and Aemilia
When founded, the priests were known as the tresviri Materna Thermantia both married HONORIUS, while a son
epulones as there were three of them. This number was was mentioned as a possible husband to GALLA PLACIDIA.
increased to seven, and the name Septemviri Epulones Her general treatment of pagans and her ambitions for
was henceforth used, even after Julius Caesar had added her husband were enough to cause lasting dislike. When
three more members. The Septemviri were still in exis- Stilicho was murdered in 408, she was put to death,
tence in the fourth century but eventually faded in the mainly out of fear of her dealings with the VISIGOTHS’
wake of Christianity. King ALARIC.

See LUDI and PAGANISM.

Servianus, Julius (Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus) Severus
II 499
(d. 136 C.E.) Consul in 90, 120, and 134 C.E.
Servianus was generally considered the heir apparent Samples of sestertius (Courtesy Warren Esty)
during the reign of HADRIAN (117–138). Like his great
patron, Emperor TRAJAN, Servianus was a Spaniard, Severianus, P. Aleius (fl. late second century C.E.)
attaining the trust of both Trajan and his predecessor, Roman legate in Armenia in 161 C.E.
NERVA. Appointed by Nerva in 98 to the governorship of He was notable for his complete failure in preventing the
Germania Inferior, he already possessed great political invasion of the country by VOLOGASES III of PARTHIA and
power as a senator. Trajan used Servianus extensively, for leading virtually an entire legion to its destruction
naming him governor of PANNONIA and granting him near Elegeia. His resounding defeat brought Lucius VERUS
important commands against the Dacians. He became a to the East, precipitating a major war with Parthia in 163.
member of the imperial family by marrying Domitia
Paulina, sister of Hadrian. By 136, Hadrian was increas- See ARSACID DYNASTY.
ingly ill and looking for a successor. Servianus was too
old at 90 to be considered but not so feeble as to be Severus (1) See CELER AND SEVERUS.
viewed as no longer a threat to stability. To ensure a
smooth transition of power, Hadrian ordered his death Severus (2) (fl. first century C.E.) Prefect of Egypt dur-
and that of his grandson, Gnaeus Fuscus. It was reported ing the reign of Tiberius, in 32 C.E.
that Servianus exclaimed before his execution that “my Also called Hiberus, he did not come from the usual
only prayer is that Hadrian lingers for a long time, pray- ranks of the Equestrians (EQUITES) but was a freedman.
ing for death but unable to die.” This was a singularly unusual appointment.

Servius (fl. early fifth century C.E.) Grammarian Severus I See SEVERUS, SEPTIMIUS.
Servius was included by MACROBIUS in the Saturnalia and
authored a major work on VIRGIL. The commentaries on Severus II (Flavius Valerius Severus) (d. 307 C.E.)
Virgil are extant in two versions. The first, certainly by Joint emperor from 306 to 307
the hand of Servius, was a short treatise centering on the Severus was an Illyrian soldier and a close friend of
grammar, diction, and style of Virgil, while the second Emperor GALERIUS. When Galerius was promoted from
was longer, with additions and quotations of other writ- Caesar to Augustus in 305 (see TETRARCHY) he nominated
ers. Called the schola Danielis, it was probably composed Severus as his replacement. This move gave Galerius a
much later by a Christian. Servius himself was possibly a powerful hold over the Roman Empire, for the other Cae-
pagan. sar, Maximinus II Daia, was also a support e r. The new
Augustus, CONSTANTIUS I CHLORUS, was seemingly out-
sestertius (Also sestertii or sesterces) One of the numbered. Severus’s sphere of control was Italy, AFRICA
major species of Roman imperial COINAGE; the main coin and, later, PANNONIA. One year later, Constantius died in
of silver, worth approximately one-quarter the value of Britain, and Galerius used his authority to elevate Severu s
the DENARIUS. Originally issued during the Republic, its to the rank of Augustus in the West. Constantine, Con-
first minting was traditionally set in 296 B.C.E., when it stantius’s son, was appointed as his Caesar. This infuriated
bore a worth of two asses. With the monetary reforms of MAXENTIUS, the son of the old Augustus, Maximian. In
Emperor Augustus, the sestertius replaced the AS as a sil- 307 Maxentius found allies in Rome and was proclaimed
ver coin. Subsequently it was the most widely distributed
money in the Roman Empire, earning the name nummus
or the “coin.” It suffered in the economic crisis of the
third century C.E. and was dropped altogether as a form
of currency after the usurper Postumus made a last issue
during the years 259–267.

Severa, Aquilia See ELAGABALUS.

Severa, Aurelia (d. 213 C.E.) One of the four Vestal Vir-
gins put to death by Emperor Caracalla in 213 C.E.
Along with Pomponia Rufina and Clodia Laeta, she was
buried alive for crimes of unchastity.

See also CANNUTIA CRESCENTIA.

500 Severus,L
 ucius
Catilius

emperor. Galerius sent instructions to Severus to march
f rom Milan to Rome. His campaign was a disaster. Retreat-
ing to Milan, he surrendered to Maximian, who had come
out of retirement. Galerius took to the field, and upon his
entering Italy Severus was put to death by his captors.

Severus, Lucius Catilius (fl. second century C.E.) A gold aureus of Septimius Severus, struck 201 C.E. in Rome
Consul in 110 and 120 C.E. (Courtesy Historical Coins, Inc.)
An imperial officer and the greatgrandfather of MARCUS
AURELIUS, Severus was of a distinguished senatorial fam- larger one with the select soldiery of the Danubian
ily, embarking on a highly successful career as proconsul legions. The VIGILES and URBAN COHORTS were increased
of Asia, praefectus aerari militaris, praefectus aerari Sat- in size as well.
urni and legate of CAPPADOCIA from 114 to 117, where he
fought in TRAJAN’s Parthian campaign. In favor with His position as emperor was not universally
HADRIAN, he was put in charge of SYRIA in 117, holding accepted, for PESCENNIUS NIGER, governor of Syria,
the post until around 119. After serving as consul for a claimed the empire, and CLODIUS ALBINUS, governor of
second time, he was made proconsul of AFRICA before Britain, was another obvious candidate. To gain time
being appointed PREFECT OF THE CITY in 138. Upon the against the more dangerous Niger, Severus offered Albi-
adoption of Antoninus Pius as Hadrian’s heir, Severus was nus the rank of Caesar, with the obvious implication that
reportedly so disappointed at not being named that he would be the heir. Albinus accepted this position,
Hadrian removed him from his post. allowing Severus to launch his war with Niger. Crushing
the Eastern claimant at the battle of ISSUS in 194, Severus
Severus, Septimius (Lucius Septimus Severus) turned on Albinus in 196, and at LUGDUNUM (Lyons) the
(145–211 C.E.) Emperor from 193 to 211 and founder of a governor of Britain was destroyed. Severus was now sole
dynasty that influenced the Roman Empire from 193 to 235 master of the Roman world, but the civil war had caused
Severus was born at LEPCIS MAGNA in Tripolitania, to great ruin, both in terms of fighting and in the political
Publius Septimius Geta and Fulvia Pia, both members of executions necessary to bring the Senate and bureaucracy
successful families in the Equestrians (EQUITES) and the under heel. Once he had liquidated all possible enemies,
SENATE. After an unclear early career he became a QUAE- Caracalla was designated as his heir, later joined by Geta.
STOR of Rome around 169, later returning to Lepcis
Magna, where he married Paccia Marciana, who died There was little time to enjoy the comforts of Rome
childless after several years. The TRIBUNE of the Plebeians for war with Parthia was deemed essential. From 197 to
in 174, he was PRAETOR in 177 and a legate in SYRIA by 199, he waged a successful war of vengeance against
180. Emperor COMMODUS removed him after approxi- Parthia for its support of Niger. CTESIPHON, the capital,
mately two years. fell, and MESOPOTAMIA was seized and became a Roman
province. Visits to Syria and Africa ended in 203 with a
The major turning point in his advancement came in triumphal return to Rome. In celebration of his tenth
184 when he was reinstated as an imperial favorite, imperial year, two arches were erected, one in Lepcis
receiving the post of governor of Gallia Lugdunensis and Magna and the other in Rome. The gift to Lepcis was typ-
several years later of Sicily; he was also married, to the ical of his attentions to African cities, especially his
formidable Julia Domna, the Syrian noblewoman who hometown, which would know no brighter moment.
gave him two sons, CARACALLA in 188 and GETA in 189. From 203 until 207/8, Severus remained at Rome, falling
Consul in 190, he was made governor of PANNONIA Supe- under the influence of his own Prefect of the PRAETORIAN
rior in 191. Severus was still there in 192 when Com- GUARD, PLAUTIANUS. Plautianus was allowed vast powers
modus was assassinated and succeeded by Pertinax. The until 205, when Caracalla, who was forced to marry the
new emperor did not last long, and his death in 193 prefect’s daughter, led a coup that brought down the
resulted in the auctioning off of the empire by the PRAE- ambitious minister.
TORIAN GUARD to DIDIUS JULIANUS, the highest bidder.
Knowing that the sanctity of the throne had been vio-
lated, that omens and prophecies had predicted his rise to
the purple and that he had the perfect solution militarily,
Severus accepted the SALUTATIO from his troops. Hailed at
Carnuntum, he and his legions marched to ROME, where
Didius Julianus was sentenced to death and executed by
the Senate. Once in the capital he entrenched himself
politically by disbanding the Guard and forming a new,



502 Severus,S
 extusJ
 ulius Martin’s life but finished and published after the saint’s
death. The other, more important work, was a universal
Troubles appeared in Britain as the local tribes, espe- c h ronicle covering Christian events from creation to 400
cially the Caledonians, had pushed beyond the WALL OF C.E. In excellent Latin, it is a useful source on the events
ANTONINUS. In 208, Severus and Caracalla invaded Cale- of the fourth century, especially Priscillianism (see
donia while Julia Domna and Geta remained behind at PRISCILLIAN).
Eburacum (York). Fighting relieved the pressure on the
frontier but did not make a long-lasting impression. Plan- Severus Alexander, Marcus Aurelius (Marcus
ning another attack, Severus fell ill at Eburacum in 211 Julius Gessius Alexianus Bassianus) (208–235 C.E.)
and died. He had taken care to promote Geta as Cara- Emperor from 222 to 235
calla’s equal, reportedly telling them both on his Severus was born in a town in Phoenicia, the son of Ges-
deathbed: “Cooperate with each other, pay the soldiers sius Marcianus and JULIA MAMAEA, the daughter of JULIA
and hate everyone else.” His plea was well in keeping MAESA. As the cousin of Emperor ELAGABALUS, Severus
with the policies of the Severan regime. The legions now Alexander received not only an education in being a
numbered 33, with vast units of NUMERI or irregular priest of the sun god but also a stable and normal
troops. The army, especially the centurions and officers, Roman upbringing. This was of importance as Elaga-
was deliberately cultivated to be loyal totally to the cen- balus’s eccentricities convinced Julia Maesa and Julia
tral government—namely, the emperor himself. He had Mamaea that he had to be removed. Through Maesa’s
won the throne because of them and never forgot where influence, Elagabalus adopted his younger cousin in
his true source of authority rested. 221, giving him the title Caesar and PRINCEPS JUVENTUTIS
and the new name, Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander.
Further, the power of the imperial administration By 222 they were joint consuls, and Severus Alexander
was widened throughout the empire, as was seen in the enjoyed greater popularity with the Senate and the PRAE-
field of law. When Plautianus fell, his replacements TORIAN GUARD. Elagabalus grew jealous, and his
would include the eminent jurists ULPIAN and PAPINIAN. attempts at removing his cousin from power ended in
Both did much to improve Roman legalism while Julia his assassination by the Guard. Severus Alexander then
Domna kept alive intellectualism and artistry in the midst assumed the throne.
of a seemingly martial reign. Ultimately, Severus helped
provide enough stability to the empire to ensure its sur- It was the unfortunate image of the reign that
vival, even in the hands of Caracalla and in the crises of Severus Alexander was dominated by the formidable
the third century C.E. women of the imperial palace, most notably the Julias.
While they cultivated a series of sound policies, the
Suggested Reading: Birley, Anthony R. Septimius Severus: apparent weakness of the emperor eventually cost him
The African Emperor. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University his life. Julia Maesa was at first the leading figure in the
Press, 1989. Roman Empire, until her death in 223. Shortly thereafter,
the brilliant jurist and Praetorian Prefect ULPIAN was
Severus, Sextus Julius Consul in 127 C.E.; governor in murdered by his own troops, and the imperial house lost
numerous provinces under Emperor Hadrian and general an invaluable adviser.
Severus was a member of the Equestrians (EQUITES) from
Dalmatia. After serving as legate in MOESIA and CAPPADO- Julia Mamaea stepped forward to direct policy. In
CIA, he was sent to Britain as its governor. Known by 225 she arranged a marriage between her son and the
Hadrian to be reliable, he was ordered (c. 132) to JUDAEA noblewoman Barbia Orbiana. Within two years, how-
to take command of the legions there in the campaign to ever, the new empress had been driven out of Rome and
suppress the rebellion of Simon BAR COCHBA. From 132 to her father put to death. Bearing the title AUGUSTA and
135 he waged a ruthless but successful campaign in Mother of the Emperor and the Camp and the Senate,
PALAESTINA, crushing the uprising while devastating the Julia initiated in her son’s name stern fiscal re f o rms to
prince. With pacification complete, he was made the first restore the financial strength of the Roman world. The
governor of Syria Palestine. SENATE was given a larger role in government and an
enlarged CONSILIUM PRINCIPIS (council of advisers) pro-
Severus, Sulpicius (c. 363–420 C.E.) Christian historian vided advice.
Born in Aquitania, Severus came from a noble family,
studying law before converting to CHRISTIANITY around All was not well on the frontiers, and the newly
389. When his wife died in 392, he re t i red to the life of a formed Persian Empire of the Sassanids required the
monk, transforming his estates into an ascetic haven emperor’s attention. A campaign was waged in 232 with
under the influence of St. MARTIN OF TOURS. After a brief such success that upon his return to ROME Severus
involvement with Pelagianism, he died sometime around Alexander laid claim to the title of bersicus maximus.
420. He was the author of two important histories. Word soon arrived from the DANUBE that the tribes in the
One was a biography of St. Martin, composed during region, especially the Alamanni, were threatening the

provinces. The emperor and his mother set out in 234 ships 503
with the legions but soon infuriated the troops by their
insistence on negotiations. MAXIMINUS I THRAX was pro- Persian nobility for political support. Growing up, Shapur
posed as a rival for the throne, and the soldiers murdered kept in contact with Emperor CONSTANTINE the Great,
both Severus Alexander and Julia Mamaea. His death sig- sending embassies to him in 324 and 337. Upon reaching
nalled the age of the soldier emperors. maturity, the King of Kings strove to gain total control of
his empire, defeating the nobles who challenged his au-
Sextus Caesar (d. 46 C.E.) Cousin of Julius Caesar thority. Once possessing supremacy in the palace, he made
Sextus was appointed by the dictator to be the governor war upon the Roman Empire, starting with an invasion of
of SYRIA in 47 B.C.E. At his disposal was a legion to keep Mesopotamia around 336. Until 363, fighting continued,
the peace, although the name of Caesar was far more varying only in intensity or with brief rounds of peace.
valuable. Despite the support of the Jews, Quintus Caecil- Battles raged over the East, in ARMENIA and MESOPOTAMIA,
ius BASSUS, an officer once in the service of POMPEY THE although a favorable treaty was secured from Jovian, fol-
GREAT, arrived in 46. He stirred up the troops at Tyre, and lowing the death in the field of Emperor JULIAN in 363. He
in the resulting mutiny Sextus was killed. was succeeded by his brother, ARDASHIR II.

Shapur I (d. 272 C.E.) King of Persia; the second ruler Shapur, III (d. 388 C.E.) King of Persia from 383 to 388
of the Sassanid dynasty and the Persian Empire, from 241 The son of SHAPUR II, he became ruler upon the over-
to 272 throw of his uncle, ARDASHIR II, by the Persian nobility.
Assuming the throne at a time of great vitality in Persia His reign was notable for the peace that was made with
and of instability in Rome, he was the son of the famous Emperor THEODOSIUS I around 384–386.
ARDASHIR, who died in 241. Although he was not crowned
until 242, he immediately seized the initiative and cam- See also PERSIA; SASSANID DYNASTY.
paigned against the numerous states within the Persian
domain. With the title “king of kings,” he then embarked ships Seagoing vessels were improved and modernized
upon a bitter war with the Roman Empire, from 241 to during the imperial epoch as a result of Rome’s expansion
244. Philip the Arab made peace with him. After subjugat- throughout the Mediterranean, the continued work of the
ing the wild peoples of Media, he re t u rned to the Roman Alexandrian shipbuilders and the large amounts of capital
provinces with an army. Armenia was invaded in 250 and spent by Roman merchants. Although there were many
SYRIA attacked two years later. With a combination of his differently rigged and designed vessels, most of them
power and the exploitation of Rome’s weakness, Persian served either as merchant vessels or warships.
influence was spread over much of the East. Only
Emperor VALERIAN, starting in 257, could march to oppose MERCHANT SHIPS
him. In 259–260, at the battle of EDESSA, the unlucky Vale-
rian was captured, humiliated, and then put to death. Traditionally, the vessels designed for commerce and
trade were shorter, wider and of a heavier build than their
This major triumph was long remembered by the military counterparts. Being stouter in design, such ships
Persians. Shapur attempted to follow up this achievement were more seaworthy in all weather, especially when
with a direct assault upon ASIA MINOR, but in 262 a new filled with goods. As their purpose was purely economic,
opponent had emerged, ODAENATH of PALMYRA. The fol- space was devoted to storage instead of weapons or
lowing years were filled with savage fighting, until (c. implements of war. Oars were normally limited in num-
267) ARMENIA had been lost and Shapur was in dire mili- ber, as the crews were small. Merchantmen relied upon
tary straits. Defeats at the hands of Odaenath ended the sails, using oars only for maneuvering in special situa-
king’s ambitions for expansion. tions or in an emergency. These limitations made mer-
chant ships easy prey for a quick attack, even in convoys,
Shapur was considered a cruel and grasping monarch. although in a good wind and with enough warning sails
N e v e rtheless, he gave to his subjects a general freedom of made them faster. For defense they required assistance
worship, including the Christians and the Jews. The reli- from the navy of Rome.
gious cult leader, Mani, found in Shapur an interested and
sympathetic patron. Upon Shapur’s death in 272, he left WARSHIPS
H o rmazd ARDASHIR, his son, a stable government.
The Roman fleets that were created for the Punic Wars
See also SASSANID DYNASTY. were, for the most part, based on Carthaginian design.
CARTHAGE boasted the powerful ship called by Rome the
Shapur II (d. 379 C.E.) Ruler of the Persian Empire from quinquereme, or “Five,” so named because of the five
309 to 379 banks of oars used to propel it. By the end of the wars
Son of HORMAZD II, he came to the throne when still an with Carthage, this was the principal design used by Ro-
infant. His mother acted as regent while relying upon the man builders. Afterward and up to the battle of ACTIUM,
warships tended to be bigger and even heavier.

Octavian (AUGUSTUS) and his gifted admiral, Marcus
AGRIPPA, chose to counter the heavy warships of Marc

504 Sibyl of massive ship building. It stretched 145 feet and was 20
feet wide, with a crew of nearly 600. Its value was limited
A mosaic of a warship (right) and a trading vessel, from Ostia tactically, as Antony, who had several at Actium, discov-
(Courtesy Fr. Felix Just, S.J.) ered. The triremes of Octavian and Agrippa proved victo-
rious and set the naval standard for the next age.
ANTONY and Cleopatra off the coast of Actium in 31 B.C.E.
with a new naval strategy. Agrippa’s fleet was composed of Suggested Readings: D’Arms, John H., and Kopff, E. C.,
faster, lighter triremes and the so-called liburnicae, vessels eds. The Seaborne Commerce of Ancient Rome. Rome:
c o n s t ructed by the builders of LIBURNIA in ILLYRICUM. American Academy in Rome, 1980; Hodge, Peter. Roman
Agrippa’s brilliant tactics, the HARPAX (a special weapon for Trade and Travel. London: Longman, 1978; Rodgers,
attacking and damaging enemy vessels) and the internal William L. Greek and Roman Naval Warfare; a Study of
d i s o rder of the Egyptian fleet contributed to Octavian’s Strategy, Tactics, and Ship Design from Salamis (480 B.C.E.)
decisive victory. The battle of Actium ushered in a new era to Actium (31 B.C.E.). London: B. F. Stevens & Brown, Ltd,
for the Roman world and signalled the supremacy of the 1937; Starr, Chester G. The Influence of Sea Power an
trireme and liburnicae in the Roman imperial navy. These Ancient History. New York: Oxford University Press,
ships became the mainstay of the naval arm, although 1989;———. The Roman Imperial Navy, 31 B.C.–A.D. 324.
there were also smaller transports, privateers, and cutters, Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1941; Warry, John.
all of Greek design. Warfare in the Classical World. Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press, 1995.
No longer concerned with massive warfare, Rome
was now preoccupied with safeguarding the seas against Sibyl Name given by the Romans to a famous group of
infrequent but dangerous piratic activity and the defense prophetesses. By tradition, the first Sibyl (plural, Sibyllae)
of the merchants. This policy was successful only so was the daughter of Dardanus and Neso. Subsequently,
long as the navy was capable of mounting operations. the number of her namesakes were placed at three, four,
With the eventual deterioration of the navy, the Mediter- 10, and even 14. None of these other Sibyls could match
ranean and the north coast of Gallia and Germania in importance the one at Cumae in Italy. The Sibyl of
became susceptible to aggressive piracy by the VANDALS of Cumae offered to King Tarquinius Superbus nine books
AFRICA and the SAXONS in GERMANIA, both in the fifth of prophecies for 300 gold pieces. This price was reached
century C.E. after she burned six of them. The remaining volumes
became the SIBYLLINE BOOKS.
Typically, all warships were decorated with eyes
painted on their bows just above the beak, the ram (ros- Sibylline Books The legendary books of prophecy
trum) of three spikes used to smash an opponent or to sold to King Tarquinius Superbus by the SIBYL of Cumae.
destroy enemy oars. The corvus was attached to the bow Precisely when or how the Sybilline Books were written
during the Punic Wars; it was a boarding plank with was never clear to the Romans, but the three volumes of
another spike that connected the quinquereme to the prophetic verse became extremely important to the wel-
enemy vessel. Agrippa’s harpax replaced the corvus, prov- fare of the Roman state. Entrusted to the quindecemviri,
ing more effective in combat, especially when used by the the Sibylline books were consulted at various times by
lighter ships in Octavian’s fleet. the Senate. Whenever calamity, pestilence, unrest, or de-
feats took place, they were opened to determine the
The trireme and the liburnicae w e re based on the meaning of such events. Decisions of war or peace might
older Greek pentekontos, which had reigned for centuries be affected greatly by the poems inside, and the words of
as the supreme weapon of naval warfare. On average, the the Sibyl were taken seriously.
trireme was some 110 feet long and 12 feet wide, with a
crew of 200, not including detachments of marines. The The Sibyllini Libri continued as a part of the life of
quinquereme (also spelled quinquireme) was around 120 the imperial era. In the care of the quindecemviri, the vol-
feet long and 20 feet wide, with a crew of 300, not includ- umes were recopied in 18 B.C.E. at the order of Augustus
ing marines. If the quinquereme was big, the deceres was as the original libri had been destroyed by fire in 83 B.C.E.
huge. This dreadnought was the fashion toward the end of Increasingly, however, the verses were not taken seriously,
the first century B.C.E. and could be considered the apex and by the end of the fourth century C.E., CHRISTIANITY
attacked them as being obvious symbols of PAGANISM.
Finally, during the reign of Emperor HONORIUS (395–423)
the MAGISTER MILITUM STILICHO burned them. Interest-
ingly, in the days of the empire a group of Jews and
Christians produced their own version of the Sibylline
Books, called the Sibylline Oracles.

Sicilia (Sicily) Province of the empire; the large Silanus,M
 .J
 unius 505
island at the southern tip of Italia’s boot. Sicilia was called
Thrinacia or Trinacria, but was known to the Romans as Euric was ceded Auvergne. Euric released him and even
Triquetra because of its shape; according to tradition, the allowed him to return to his ecclesiastical duties. Tired
first resident was the Cyclops. The beautiful, fertile island and ill, Sidonius died around 479.
was contested by virtually every major Mediterranean cul-
t u re, but the name Sicilia was derived from the tribe of the Sidonius Apollinaris was the author of more than
Siceli or Sicani. They were joined by Cretans, Phoenicians, these three panegyrics. In the Carmina these addresses
G reeks, and Carthaginian colonists. The later seafaring were preserved (in reverse chronological order) along
states of Greek origin fought bitterly with CARTHAGE for with a large number of poems. He also communicated
years. Sicilia’s western regions fell into Roman hands with with friends and associates, through Letters. In style he
the end of the First Punic War in 241 B.C.E., and the east- was neither original nor flawless, but he provided an
e rn part in 211 B.C.E. Sicilia, ROME’s first imperial posses- important glimpse of life at the time of the dying Western
sion, was placed under the care of a PRAETOR and Empire.
eventually a proconsul. Roman occupation was made
somewhat easier by the granting of Latin rights (IUS LATII) See also SYMMACHUS.
by Caesar. AUGUSTUS placed limits on these but aug-
mented the Latinization with full promotion to colonial Silana, Junia (d. after 59 C.E.) Wife of Gaius Silius (2)
status and the creation of numerous colonies of veterans. Silana was divorced her husband by the order of Empress
MESSALLINA in 47 C.E.. She was, according to the historian
The natural wealth and economic potential of the Tacitus, a high-born, lovely woman, wealthy but aban-
island were legendary. So rich in wheat and corn were its doned. After the divorce she became a dear friend of AGRIP-
fields that it was known to be an abode of the goddess PINA THE YOUNGER. Their relationship soured in 55, when
Ceres. There grains were produced in abundance, while Agrippina, jealous of Silana’s qualities, frightened away
other exports included fruits, almonds, honey, and wine. Sextius Africanus, a prospective husband. Vowing revenge,
In purpose the province fulfilled a role similar to that of Silana used two clients, Iturius and Calvisius, to accuse
Sardinia, as a breadbasket for Italy and Rome. After the war Agrippina of planning to raise up Rubellius Plautus to the
of 36 B.C.E. and the defeat of Sextus POMPEY by Octavian throne. Through a spirited defense Agrippina secured her
(AUGUSTUS) and Marcus AGRIPPA, the island settled into a acquittal and the punishment of the plotters. Silana was
general tranquility for many years. SYRACUSE, an ancient banished. After the death of Agrippina in 59, she was
city, was made the provincial capital. By the fifth century allowed to returnto Italy, dying at her estates in Tarentum.
C.E., Roman protection had deteriorated. The VANDALS of
GEISERIC attacked the province, and, after the fall of the Silanus, D. Junius Torquatus (d. 64 C.E.) Descendant
WesternEmpire in 476, the OSTROGOTHS laid claim to it. of Augustus during the reign of Nero
Silanus was put to death by the emperor. Nero killed him
Sidonius Apollinaris (Gaius Sollius Apollinaris because he refused to allow members of the family of
Sidonius) (c. 430–479 C.E.) One of the last great orators AUGUSTUS to survive in his reign.
and poets of the Roman Empire
An associate of the final emperors of the West, and a See also RUBELLIUS PLAUTUS.
superb panegyricist, Sidonius was born to a noble senato-
rial family at Lugdunum (Lyons), proving an excellent Silanus, Lucius Junius (d. 49 C.E.) Praetor in 48 C.E.
student. By marriage to Papianilla, daughter of Emperor Silanus was the son of Aemilia Lepida and hence a descen-
AVITUS, he became connected to the imperial family when dant of AUGUSTUS. Although young, he was allowed to
his father-in-law was crowned in July 455. In his honor, hold a magistracy five years before his time and was
Sidonius delivered a panegyric on New Year’s day, this lat- betrothed to OCTAVIA, daughter of CLAUDIUS. This pro-
ter receiving as a reward a statue in the Forum of Trajan. posed union was immediately attacked as dishonorable
After the fall of Avitus, Sidonius eventually accepted the because of accusations that he had committed incest with
successor, MAJORIAN, composing another panegyric at his sister, Junia Calvina. A further threat came in the per-
Lugdunum in 458. He held some office in Rome until son of AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER, who was conspiring to
461, when he returned to Gallia Lugdunensis. This semi- have her son Nero wed Octavia. Always impressionable,
retirement was ended in 467 when he headed a dele- Claudius listened to the charges and terminated the be-
gation to the court of Anthemius. In early 468 he t rothal. Silanus was then expelled from the SENATE and
delivered a third panegyric and was made PREFECT OF THE forced to resign from the praetorship. On the day of
CITY before going home. Offered the post of bishop of Claudius’s wedding to Agrippina (in 49) he killed himself.
Auvergne in 469, he accepted, working to counter the
influence of the advancing GOTHS. This opposition led to See also PRAETOR.
his brief imprisonment in 475, when the Gothic King
Silanus, M. Junius (d. 54 C.E.) Brother of Lucius Junius
Silanus, the Proconsul of Asia in 54
He held the distinction of being the first victim of NERO’s
reign. The historian TACITUS reported that he died

506 siliqua versification. The Punica was a vast epic in 12,200 lines
and 17 books, covering the Second Punic War. His main
because AGRIPPINA feared his reputation as being more source was LIVY.
capable as emperor than Nero. Nonetheless, Silanus was
so sluggish that he had the nickname of “the golden Silk Route Traditionally, the great trade route be-
Sheep.” He had also been CONSUL in 46. tween the West and the sources of silk, spices, and
unique products in China. During the Roman Empire ,
siliqua A silver coin (plural, siliquae) issued from the an early version of the Silk Route ran through the Par-
time of CONSTANTINE the Great (c. 312 C.E.). It served as thian Empire and such cities as PETRA, ANTIOCH, DOURA,
one of the foundations of the reorganized currency of the and EDESSA. Full economic links were in place from the
late empire, being worth approximately one–twenty- first and third centuries C.E. Decline in the financial
fourth the value of the gold SOLIDUS. Siliquae were minted health of the Roman world and hostility from the Per-
for centuries after the fall of the Western Empire. sians terminated the system, not to be revived for several
centuries.
See also COINAGE.
Silva, Flavius (fl. first century C.E.) Governor of Judaea
Silius, Gaius (1) (d. 24 C.E.) Consul in 13 C.E. and a in 73 C.E.
legate of Germania Superior, from 14 to 21 C.E. The successor of Lucilius Bassus as general in charge of
One of the most competent generals in the service of suppressing the remnants of the Jewish Rebellion, he was
Emperor TIBERIUS, in 15–16 he aided GERMANICUS in his thus faced with the difficult task of besieging the fortress
German campaign, conducting operations against the of MASADA, capturing it on May 2, 73. He served as CON-
CHATTI. In 21 he destroyed the rebel SACROVIR. For his SUL in 81.
victory over the Chatti he was awarded the triumphal
insignia. Tiberius apparently resented his achievements, Silvanus (fl. mid-fourth century C.E.) Magister Peditum
the loyalty of his troops to him personally and his friend- in Gaul from around 352 to 355 and a brief usurper in 355
ship with GERMANICUS. Silius was charged with various Of Frankish descent, Silvanus was originally a supporter
offenses and committed suicide in 24. of MAGNENTIUS, but deserted him in 351 for CONSTANTIUS
II, before the battle of MURSA MAJOR. Rewarded with the
Silius, Gaius (2) (d. 48 C.E.) Son of Gaius Silius (1) rank of magister peditum in 352/3, he served in Gaul but
Silius suffered an unhappy youth but was considered the found himself under attack by enemies in the court.
most handsome man in Rome during the reign of Faced with a forged letter claiming his ambitions for the
CLAUDIUS. His good looks attracted the attention of throne, he had little choice but to rebel against the injus-
Empress Valeria MESSALLINA, who, in 47, developed such tice. His troops at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) pro-
a passion for him that he was forced to divorce his wife, claimed him emperor. Constantius sent Ursucinus to
Junia SILANA. Consul-designate, he seemingly joined their crush him but learned of Silvanus’s loyalty too late. The
affair with ardor, and in 48, he and Messallina were mar- emperor spared Silvanus’s son.
ried in a mock ceremony. The inevitable uproar brought
down Messallina, and Silius went to his death without Silvanus, Gaius (d. c. 65 C.E.) Tribune of the Praetorian
delay, asking only that it be swift. Guard during the reign of Nero
In 65, he became a member of the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY
Silius Italicus, Tiberius Catius Asconius (c. 26–101 but was not revealed as a plotter for he was sent to ques-
C.E.) Epic poet and author of the longest Latin work, the tion SENECA (the Younger) about his possible role. Sil-
Punica vanus later returned to inform Seneca that he would die.
Silius Italicus was probably from Spain but the place of Although acquitted, the officer eventually killed himself.
his birth remains unclear. An accomplished orator, he
was an associate of both PLINY THE YOUNGER and MARTIAL, Similis, S. Sulpicius (d. c. 124 C.E.) Prefect of the
attaining notoriety as a lawyer but also as an informer Praetorian Guard during the last years of Trajan’s reign
during the reign of Nero. CONSUL in 68, he was a sup- He began his career as a soldier in the Guard, becoming a
porter of VITELLIUS. Under the Flavians (69–96 C.E.) he centurion before moving up the Equestrian ladder. He
held the post of proconsul of Asia (in 77), gaining praise was PREFECT OF THE GRAIN, prefect of Egypt, and finally
for his stable regime. Retiring to Campania and ROME, Sil- Praetorian prefect. When HADRIAN came to the throne in
ius purchased an old estate of CICERO’s, repaired VIRGIL’s 117, Similis requested permission to retire because of his
tomb and amassed a great collection of books. He died in advanced age. The emperor agreed reluctantly, and Sim-
a state of self-induced starvation because of a terminal ill- ilis retreated to his estate in the country, where he died
ness. Silius Italicus probably began writing after his after seven peaceful years.
retirement, bringing a Stoic-influenced outlook to his
work. In style he imitated very closely his contemporary,
LUCAN, while relying on a disciplined technical method of

Sinope I m p o rtant and old city situated on the northern 69
 C.E. 507
Black Sea coast of ASIA MINOR, in the region of PAPH-
LAGONIA. Once the largest of the Greek colonies in the To please the establishment, GALBA announced on
area, the city retained its status and wealth even after January 10 that PISO LICINIANUS was his heir. Instead of
occupation by ROME. At the time of Julius CAESAR, a satisfying his enemies, he merely infuriated the governor
colony of veterans was founded there, known as Colonia of Lusitania, Marcus Salvius OTHO, who felt more deserv-
Julia Caesarea Felix Sinope. The city relied primarily ing of the throne than Piso. He found allies in the PRAE-
on the bountiful trade in the Black Sea for its survival. TORIAN GUARD, for they were ready to commit murder
By the fourth century C.E., its position had declined con- after Galba refused to pay them their promised DONA-
siderably. TIVUM, saying “I am used to levying soldiers, not paying
them.” Otho and his fellow conspirators struck on Jan-
Siraci The name given to a SARMATIAN tribe that took uary 15, killing Galba and his heir.
part in the power struggles for the BOSPORAN KINGDOM.
The Siraci joined the cause of MITHRIDATES (2) against Otho received the support of the Senate and the
Rome and were defeated in 49 C.E. by a Roman backed fealty of the legions in Syria (under VESPASIAN), the East
army. and on the Danube. In Rome he took steps to placate
those who suffered under Galba but then discovered that
Sirmium City on the Save River just south of the the troops in Germania had risen in revolt. The Rhine
DANUBE and near modern Belgrade, in the region of Pan- legions, urged on by their ambitious legates, CAECINA
nonia Inferior. Sirmium assumed a great strategic impor- ALIENUS and Fabius VALENS, declared for VITELLIUS, the
tance to the Romans because of its central location governor of Germania Inferior, even before Galba was
relative to the Danubian frontier. With communication dead. So, with an army of 100,000 men, Vitellius and his
possible with MOESIA, PANNONIA, ILLYRICUM, and MACEDO- generals set out for Italy.
NIA, it was ideal as a center for naval operations. For that
reason the emperors DOMITIAN and TRAJAN took up quar- Inexplicably wasting time for weeks, Otho finally
ters at Sirmium in their wars against the Dacians, and sprang into action to defend Rome and his throne. He
MARCUS AURELIUS found it convenient in his MARCOMAN- had at his disposal only 25,000 men but positioned them
NIC WARS. The city boasted notable brick structures, well along the line of the Po River in northern Italy. The
including baths, granaries, and palaces. Vitellians, meanwhile, passed through Gaul and Helvetia,
ravaging much of the countryside. Battle finally was
Sitas (fl. late first century B.C.E.) Blind ruler of the Thra- joined at PLACENTIA and then at BEDRIACUM, on April 15.
cian tribe of the Dentheleti Othonian hopes were crushed in a confrontation that
An ally of ROME, Sitas and his people in 29 B.C.E. were should not have taken place, and on April 17 Otho killed
menaced by the Bastarnae, who overran their lands in himself. Vitellius proceeded to Rome, where he indulged
Thrace. Marcus Licinius CRASSUS (2) was sent into the himself in a brief period of dissipation. His administra-
region and rescued Sitas. tion was worse than Galba’s, far more corrupt and even
more spiteful. The old Praetorian Guard was disbanded,
69 C.E. One of the bloodiest and most turbulent years replaced by a new one formed from the Germanic le-
in the history of the Roman Empire. In this terrible gions. Gladiatorial shows, endless feasts, and lavish
period the Roman world, especially ROME, endured assas- spending were brought to a stunned end by the news that
sinations, executions, coups, battles, invasions, and bitter the Danubian armies had given their SALUTATIO (salute) to
rivalries, all reflecting the other name given to 69 C.E.— Vespasian in the East and were marching on Italy under
the Year of the Four Emperors. the command of the legate Antonius PRIMUS.

On June 9, 68, Emperor NERO, uttering the words, Vespasian, governor of JUDAEA, had been directing
“What an artist dies with me!” committed suicide. The the Jewish War before the outbreak of the hostilities in
SENATE recognized Servius Sulpicius GALBA (2), governor Rome. He was an excellent choice for emperor, well-
of Hispania Tarraconensis, as Nero’s successor. He did not respected and backed by the prefect of Egypt, TIBERIUS
reach Rome until the fall of 68, but soon disappointed JULIUS ALEXANDER, and the governor of Syria, MUCIANUS.
everyone in the city with a harsh, overly austere nature The legions in that part of the empire took their oath to
and a tendency to allow his advisers, Titus VINIUS, Cor- him in July. Word reached the disaffected Danubian
nelius LACO and ICELUS, a free hand in the tyrannical commands quickly. Vespasian soon had even more sol-
acquisition of monies. Consequently, on January 1, 69, diers ready to die for him and his cause. Primus, using
the legions on the Rhine refused to take the oath of alle- his gift for eloquence, convinced the Danube legions not
giance (the SACRAMENTUM) and demanded that a replace- to wait for Vespasian’s eastern units, on their way under
ment be found. Mucianus. They marched west toward Italy, placing
Vitellius in an ironically similar position to the one faced
by Otho. The Vitellians tried to protect the line of
advance into Italy but failed because of their stagnated
military skills and the attempted treason of Caecina
Alienus.

508 slavery command; they could be chief chambermaids or butlers.
Vulgares constituted the bulk of house slaves. All house-
The climactic engagement between the Flavians hold chores were handed to them, including cooks
(Vespasian’s troops) and the Vitellians came at Bedriacum (coqui) and bakers (pistore s). Some were janitors or
on October 27. Led by Primus, the Danubian cohorts doormen. The literati acted as readers or secretaries for
won the day. The road to Rome lay ahead, while Vitellius the household and were highly prized because of their
made a few preparations for a siege and negotiated with literacy.
Flavius SABINUS, PREFECT OF THE CITY and Vespasian’s
brother, for a surrender. Feelings ran high among the All slaves outside of the house were called members
Vitellians, and Sabinus was soon besieged on the Capitol, of the familia rustica. They were herdsmen, farmhands or
perishing supposedly at the feet of Vitellius. Such treach- gatherers in the fields. The familia rustica were seen more
ery infuriated the Flavians. Primus was forced by his often in the days of the Republic, for the maintenance of
legionaries to attack Rome at once, pushing into the Eter- large numbers of slaves on farmlands was staggeringly
nal City in three great columns. A bitter fight ensued at expensive. More importantly, the government in Rome
the Castra Praetoria, while Vitellius was captured and did not relish the idea of a landowner amassing a virtual
executed on the Gemonian Stairs on December 20. Soon army of slaves on a rural estate. Tenant farming thus
the entire city was pacified. Primus settled into the role of replaced slavery in crop production and farming.
master of Rome, awaiting the arrival of Mucianus. The
year ended as the Eastern legions approached, bringing to According to Roman law, the slave was utterly the
a close a truly grim time. Mercifully, there followed many property of his or her owner. Thus, the master could
years of stability. treat the slave as he pleased. Punishments, rewards,
manumission, and even death were at the whim of the
slavery An ancient institution in ROME, and a major owner. While social norms and belief in the humane
part of Roman society and economics for many centuries. treatment of all human beings helped to improve the
Because of the pervasiveness of the practice of enslaving general lot of slaves, there were still many shocking acts
human beings, the Romans drew up strict laws and regu- of cruelty. Laws were passed to help regulate treatment,
lations to ensure that slaves were treated in a fair manner. in particular, the lex Petronia (circa 61 C.E.) and the lex
Throughout the Republic, slaves were available, but it Junia Petronia (19 C.E.). Even with such laws, persons
was only after the second century B.C.E. that they began of influence committed acts of outright murd e r. Wit-
appearing in massive numbers. The reason for this ness Publius Vedius POLLIO, who threw his slaves to
expansion in the slave trade was Rome’s rise as the most man-eating eels.
powerful state in the Mediterranean. With territorial
acquisitions in ASIA MINOR, many of the slaves came from Aside from the lex Petronia and the lex Junia Petronia,
the East and were Syrian, Jew, Greek, and even Egyptian. other steps were taken. The Roman constitution suppos-
Further conquests along the Rhine, the DANUBE and in edly ensured fair living conditions for slaves. If a master
Gaul opened up even more sources for strong barbarians was obscenely harsh, the slaves could protest, and
who made good fieldhands. Claudius decreed that any slave who was infirm and was
left exposed could be considered free. Further, in the
The wide variety of slaves in Rome, and throughout event of a slave’s sale, any family, including wife and chil-
the Roman Empire, was broken down into precise dren, went with him, this despite the official refusal of
classes. All slaves were either public or private. Public the law to recognize any children at all or to accept a
enslavement was usually preferable to private, as the servi slave’s marriage as legitimate.
publici had greater personal freedom, were rarely sold and
could, to a small degree, own property—a condition Manumissio was the act of terminating enslavement.
unique in the history of slavery. Duties involved caretak- It was generally up to the owner to decide if a slave
ing public buildings, serving officials, and performing as should go free. The custom developed to allow many
lictors and executioners. slaves their independence, and by the time of Augustus
this had become a distinct social problem. In 2 B.C.E., the
Private slavery could be pleasant or hellish. Those lex Fufia Caninia was passed, restricting the mass manu-
slaves belonging to one person were called a familia, missions that occurred upon the death of a master.
with three being necessary to constitute this body. All Another law, the lex Aelia Sentia (in 4 C.E.), completed
private slaves belonged either to the familia urbana or the intent of the Fufia Caninia by creating certain condi-
familia rustica. The familia urbana worked in the houses tions for manumission. A board of magistrates deter-
of their owners. This entailed traveling with the master mined the suitability of a slave, based on his or her moral
to any country villa; the familia urbana did not lose their or social character. As punishment for harsh treatment a
status by departing from the city because the villa was slaveholder might lose the slave in question. During the
considered an extension of the main house. The slaves of Christian era, it was possible for a slave to leave his servi-
the house were appointed to smaller groups, called decu- tude to enter a monastery or to become an ascetic. Natu-
riae, depending upon their specialities or appointed jobs. rally, all such would-be clerics had to remain forever in
Ordinarii ran the housekeeping, with slaves under their their religious environment. Any departure from the

monastic way or any grounds of corrupt living meant an social
classes 509
immediate return to slavery.
citizens, winning entry into politics and recognition as a
CHRISTIANITY, long concerned with its own survival, legitimate class, the Plebeians.
did not have the opportunity to condemn slavery as con-
trary to the proper way of life. Once the Roman Empire These two social orders were joined in time by the
was fully Christianized, steps were taken to eradicate the Equestrians (see EQUITES), who belonged both to the
entire institution. Led by Christian leaders and writers, Patricians and the Plebeians. Importantly, the Equestrians
the slaveowners were openly discouraged from continu- fulfilled the needed task of acting as bankers and eco-
ing the practice. The institution died hard, finding new nomic leaders. They received into their ranks numerous
strength in the barbarian invasions, bringing the so-called noblemen who opted for membership and commoners
silavi or slaves. who could afford the large fees necessary for admission.

Suggested Readings: Buckland, William W. The Roman The entire Republican social system was not swept
Law of Slavery; The Condition of the Slave in Classical away by AUGUSTUS, but it was certainly reformed and
Slavery. Edited by M. I. Finley. London: F. Cass, 1987; changed. Imperial Roman society reflected both the rise
Finley, M. I. Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology. London: of the emperors and their families and the acquisition
Chatto and Windus, 1980; Yavetz, Zvi. Slaves and Slavery and Romanization of vast stretches of once barbarian or
in Ancient Rome. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction enemy land. At the top of the imperial social classes was
Books, 1988. the palace, with the PRINCEPS. Augustus did not rely upon
Oriental court ceremonies as a way of governing, but
Smyrna Venerable, wealthy, and naturally beautiful city inevitably such a grandiose lifestyle took firm hold. GAIUS
on the western coast of ASIA MINOR. From the earliest days CALIGULA and NERO were the first practitioners, but the
of Greek expansion in the Aegean, Smyrna attracted more cunning DIOCLETIAN used it to elevate the royal
colonists. With fertile hills and a superb harbor it emerged family and hence the entire central administration into a
as a major center for trade, both by sea and land, a reputa- supreme position in the empire. Diocletian’s precedent
tion carefully and shrewdly cultivated by its leaders. They was followed by the house of the Constantines and
chose to aid ROME in its wars against Mithridates, earning became fully developed by the emperors of the fifth cen-
the eternal gratitude of the Romans. As one of the fore- tury C.E. and by the Byzantines. The notion of an
most metropolises of the senatorial province of ASIA, emperor being a god (apotheosis) was an instrument of
S myrna was a recipient of the intense development initi- perpetuating the privileges of the ruler while indoctrinat-
ated by the emperors. An earthquake devastated it in 178 ing the provinces into the IMPERIAL CULT.
C.E., but MARCUS AURELIUS sent a senator of Praetorian
rank to rebuild it, putting vast resources at his disposal. The Patricians suffered severely under the emperors
Unfortunately, Smyrna was not blessed with the presence because of their social proximity to the imperial house-
of any imperial officials beyond the conventus iuridicus. hold and their ancient assembly of the Senate. Despite
This placed it at a disadvantage to EPHESUS and PERGA- Augustus’s complex attempts at retaining the Republican
MUM. Christianity made the birthplace of HOMER a suc- facade of government, it was a reality of life that his own
cess, as Smyrna was included in the seven churches of position as princeps had come at the expense of the Sen-
Asia and as the site of mart y rdom of POLYCARP. ate. Further, the Patricians as a class were diluted by the
appointment of Equestrians and even Plebeians to their
social classes A strict social order developed in the ranks. Nevertheless, they survived the purges of the more
early days of Rome, when the kings called together the tyrannical emperors and existed as best they could. From
oldest families (patres) for advice and counsel. The heads the third century C.E., members of the wealthy upper
of the families formed the SENATE (from the Latin for class of the empire came to be known as honestiores and
senes, old men) and thus constituted, with their families, were given special rights, especially in terms of law, with
the first class of Roman society, the populus Romanus. the aim of preserving their dwindling numbers.
With the expulsion of the kings, the Republic was
founded, with political power resting in the hands of Of the major classes in Roman Imperial society, the
PATRICIANS, who controlled not only the Senate but also Equestrians were clearly the most successful. As they had
the high positions of government. Their exalted position access to all classes, were historically the most flexible
was in marked contrast to the status of increasingly and had long-standing ties to business and finance, the
numerous freeborn men. These came not from noble fam- Knights were perfectly positioned to receive the patron-
ilies but from the ranks of the commoners and could nei- age of the emperors. By the second century C.E., they
ther serve in the government nor hold any kind of office. began to take over vital roles in affairs of the empire.
In time, however, they constituted the majority of Roman
Because of the infusion of new blood, the Equestri-
ans were constantly drawing off members of the next
class, the Plebeians. The departure of members of this
group to the Equestrians was probably always welcomed,
especially by the new knight’s family. Political influence
for the Plebeians was gone after 14 C.E., when Tiberius
transferred the election of magistrates from the comitia to

510 Socrates Socrates (c. 380–450 C.E.) Lawyer and Christian his-
torian
the Senate. Other problems surfaced as well. Slaves were A native of CONSTANTINOPLE, Socrates knew little of the
being released by their masters (manumissio) in vast West. This deficiency was apparent in his continuation
numbers, and it was necessary to pass the lex Fufia of the Ecclesiastical History of EUSEBIUS. Composed in
Caninia (2 B.C.E.) and lex Aelia Sentia (4 C.E.) to restrict seven books, Socrates’s work carried the chronicle from
such manumissions. 305 to 439. He relied at first on Rufinus, but after the
writings of Athanasius became available he corrected
The plight of the Plebeians in the years of the numerous historical errors, issuing a revised edition. In
empire was very often severe. Social advancement was style, Socrates strove for straightforward and objective
difficult, and there was little incentive to work toward narrative. This being an ecclesiastical account, he dis-
improving one’s lot because of the public subsidies of played little interest in secular matters but conveyed his
food (frumentationes) given out by the emperor. When layman’s aversion to the theological debates of the time.
combined with the distracting games and shows that He used, however, numerous documents from the East-
were held all years, many in Rome were content. Plebs ern Church, in turn being the main source for SOZOMEN.
found life even worse in the late empire, when they
became known as the humiliores, or lower class. They solidus Main gold coin of issue during the late empire.
were the most affected by the decay of central authority, Whereas the AUREUS had served for centuries as the cen-
for the food stopped coming and protection from brig- tral species of gold currency, by the fourth century C.E. it
ands and invasions ceased. had become too heavy and hence too expensive to mint.
By the reforms of CONSTANTINE the Great (c. 312) the
For those Plebeians who were desirous of stepping aureus was replaced by the solidus, a lighter coin but still
up into a better existence, there were ways. Success in of gold. The solidus received vast distribution and lin-
business made the Equestrian ranks attainable, while gered as a form of currency in the Dark Ages.
even a military career opened up avenues that in the
Republic were utterly closed. Another method of self See also COINAGE.
aggrandizement was the finding of a patron. Being a
client to a wealthy or powerful Roman official could lead Solinus, Gaius Julius (fl. early third century C.E.)
to appointments in the government or at least a small Grammarian and author of the Collectanea Rerum Memo-
amount of gift money, the sportula. In the patronage rela- rabilium
tionship between a patron and a client, a client would Solinus borrowed extensively from PLINY THE ELDER’s
flatter and scrape before his protector, giving early morn- Natural History and the writings of Pomponius MELA,
ing attendance (SALUTATIO), and in turn the patron without acknowledgement, presenting curiosities in geo-
would, if convenient, offer dinner, a few extra coins, graphical history from all over the empire. Considered
some clothes, or even a kindly word. This parasitic exis- inferior as a writer, Solinus has been attacked as a plun-
tence has been seen as a major example of the degenera- derer, whose own original contributions, notably on the
tion of Roman society. British Isles, could not compensate for a lack of indepen-
dent scholarship elsewhere.
See also CURIALIS; DECURIONES; FARMING; INDUSTRY;
SLAVERY; TRADE; TRIBUNE; TRIBUNICIA POTESTAS. Sol Invictus Roman god of the sun, called by the
Greeks Helios. Sol to the early Romans was a Sabine god
Suggested Readings: Boren, Henry C. Roman Society: A who possessed a temple on the Quirinal Hill and received
Social, Economic, and Cultural History. Lexington, Mass.: public worship on August 8 of every year. When the
D. C. Heath, c1977; Bradley, K. R. Discovering the Roman Greek deity Helios was introduced into ROME, Sol
Family. Studies in Roman Social History. Oxford, U.K.: assumed most of his attributes, including his identifica-
Oxford University Press, 1991; Brown, Peter R. L. Society tion with Apollo. The Greek city of Rhodes, with its
and the Holy in Late Antiquity. Berkeley: University of Cali- Colossus, was dedicated to the deity.
fornia Press, 1982; Carcopino, Jerome. Daily Life in Ancient
Rome. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1968; Despite the connection to Apollo and the attempts of
Garnsey, Peter. The Roman Empire: Economy, Society, and AUGUSTUS to give Apollo a high place of honor, worship
Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987; of Sol was not widespread in Rome or in Italy. That
Goodman, Martin. State and Society in Roman Galilee, A.D. changed with the introduction of the Eastern cults, espe-
132–212. Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Allanheld, 1983; Hal- cially that of Mithras. From the time of VESPASIAN and the
lett, Judith P. Fathers and Daughters in Roman Society: Flavians (69–96 C.E.), Mithras and solar cults were offi-
Women and the Elite Family. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Uni- cially sanctioned by the imperial government. Henceforth
versity Press, 1984; Raaflaub, Kurt A., ed., Social Struggles the rise of Mithraism was inexorably tied to the idea of
in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Sol Invictus or the Invincible Sun.
Orders. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986;
Syme, Ronald. The Augustan Aristocracy. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1986; Yavetz, Zvi. Plebs and Prin-
ceps. London: Oxford University Press, 1969.

Sol Invictus was part of the twofold process in Sororia 511
Roman religion of increasing influence and the need to
find a universal deity for the entire empire. As the sun Sopater came from Apamea in SYRIA and was a noted
was the most wondrous sight in the universe, held sacred pagan writer. Visiting Nicomedia and CONSTANTINOPLE,
by virtually every civilized culture in the Roman world, it he became a close friend of CONSTANTINE the Great. It
was natural to make Sol the heart of imperial religious was to the emperor that he explained that no expiation
grandeur. A foreshadowing of this came in the reign of was possible for the murder of CRISPUS. Sopater soon fell
ELAGABALUS when the sun god of Emesa was brought to under attack by jealous courtiers, led by the Praetorian
Rome. It found final fruition under AURELIAN, the soldier- Prefect ABLABIUS. Accused of propagating PAGANISM and
emperor, who helped the Roman Empire recover from the using magic to ruin crops, the philosopher was executed.
catastrophes of the third century C.E. Celebrating his tri- His son, also a philosopher, was an associate of the
umphs, he thanked Sol Invictus of the East for coming emperors CONSTANTIUS II and JULIAN THE APOSTATE.
to his aid. Solar belief was ordered throughout the
provinces, a decree upheld by DIOCLETIAN in his attempts Sophistry A school of learning and artistic skill that
to expunge Christianity. Even CONSTANTINE used the was popular in ancient Greece and then died out as the
solar motif on his COINAGE. This first Christian ruler Sophists lost their finesse and lore and degenerated into
employed the idea of Sol Invictus on most of his species pomposity. A rebirth in sophistry came in the second
of coins, often with the motto, “SOL INVICTI COMITI,” all century C.E., with an increased Roman appreciation of
the while acting as patron to the Christians. Sol Invictus, Hellenism under Emperor HADRIAN. Resurgent sophistry
with Mithras, was revered by only one more emperor, was a result of the success of the rhetorical speakers so
Julian, from 361 to 363. much a part of the first century C.E., especially the decla-
mations. Once more, orators roamed the world, attract-
soothsayers Known to the Romans as HARUSPICES; ing large, cheering audiences that included, at times,
important diviners used by both the state and private per- even Roman emperors. The greatest of these new So-
sons in a number of ways. According to tradition, sooth- phists were DIO COCCEIANUS, HERODES ATTICUS, and
sayers first developed in Etruria, mastering their craft PHILOSTRATUS. The movement declined in the chaos of
before appearing in Rome during the reign of Tarquinius the third century, only to reappear in the fourth. So-
Superbus. They were subsequently summoned back to phistry at this time became the weapon of leading
the city by senatorial decree to interpret any prodigies or pagans fighting Christianity’s attacks on paganism. In
omens left unexplained by the SIBYLLINE BOOKS. The their ranks were JULIAN THE APOSTATE, THEMISTIUS, LIBAN-
soothsayers were requested with such frequency that by IUS, and Himerius. SYNESIUS OF CYRENE was the last
the time of the Punic Wars they had settled in Rome. notable Sophist.
Generals often consulted them, and their pronounce-
ments were followed carefully by the priests of the city. Soranus (fl. second century C.E.) Physician and medical
They thus achieved popularity at the expense of the writer
AUGURS, many going so far as to accept money for their Soranus came from EPHESUS, studying at ALEXANDRIA
services, an act that earned general condemnation. before finally opening up a practice in Rome, where he
Although they possessed their own order, the haruspices remained during the reigns of TRAJAN and HADRIAN
lacked an actual collegium. This was changed by CLAUDIUS (98–138). Soranus authored some 20 volumes on
in 47 C.E. when he asked that a college of soothsayers be medicine, specializing in specific diseases instead of gen-
established with the object of preventing the old science eralities or symptoms. He wrote in Greek but Latin trans-
from dying out. lations were common and popular.

Soothsayers could do three things: read entrails Soranus, Barea (fl. mid-first century C.E.) Noted Stoic
(extispicium); decide the meaning of an event; and name a philosopher and political figure
way in which to appease the gods after some event of an Soranus was consul in 52 C.E. and proconsul of Asia from
ominous nature. The first form of divination, the reading around 61–62. He fulfilled his duties with both integrity
of the exta or vital organs, was the most commonly used and energy, aiding EPHESUS in developing its harbor and
skill, for control could be exercised over the entire cere- refusing to punish PERGAMUM for preventing the city’s
mony. The other two had to be in response to an event or plunder by Acratus, one of Nero’s freedmen. For this and
happening. Haruspices remained under a leader, the for his virtue, Soranus was singled out for destruction.
haruspex maximus, until the early fifth century C.E., when NERO charged him with friendship with RUBELLIUS PLAU-
their institutions were closed. TUS and treasonable activities. Condemned, Soranus sto-
ically took his own life.
Sopater (early fourth century C.E.) Neoplatonic philoso-
pher following the death of his tutor, Iamblichus Sororia Name given to JUNO as the goddess of puberty.

512 Sosigenes as spies, assassins, or as experts in cruel torture (this was
the purpose of the Quaestionarii, the Questioners).
Sosigenes (fl. first century B.C.E.) Peripatetic philoso-
pher and astronomer Once the Speculatores had made themselves useful
He was hired by Julius CAESAR in 46 to reorganize the their existence was guaranteed. Membershipwasrestricted
Roman calendar. to veterans of more than five years service. NERO, through
his Prefect Ofonius TIGELLINUS, used the Speculatores to
Sosius, Gaius (fl. first century C.E.) Lieutenant of Marc hunt down his enemies, especially those in the PISONIAN
Antony and governor of Syria in 38 B.C.E. CONSPIRACY. And TITUS, it was said, sent them out as his
The following year he marched with two legions in Pa- own murderers, removing all political rivals while serving
lestine to aid HEROD THE GREAT in reclaiming his lost as prefect for his father, VESPASIAN. Because of their limited
kingdom from the Parthians and from rival claimant An- number and the necessity of keeping some of them
tigonus. In 37, Sosius besieged and captured JERUSALEM involved in mundane tasks, the Speculatores never evolved
for Herod, commemorating the event by striking coins into an empire-wide intelligence organization, such as the
bearing the likenesses of Antigonus and JUDAEA (epito- one created by HADRIAN, the FRUMENTARII.
mized by a captive woman). Henceforth he was a fol-
lower of Antony against Octavian (AUGUSTUS), once Spelunca Now called Sperlonga; a country estate in
delivering a stinging attack against Octavian in the SEN- Campania, built in the first century C.E. and used by
ATE. Consul in 32, when open warfare erupted between Emperor TIBERIUS as a private retreat. Meaning “cave” or
the triumvirs (see TRIUMVIRATE, SECOND), Sosius fled to “grotto,” Spelunca was a beautiful cavern on the coast,
the East to join ANTONY. He was at the battle of Actium in decorated and supported by masonry, Rhodian sculptures
31, where he fell into Octavian’s hands but was spared. (a remembrance of his time on Rhodes), rooms, dining
Sosius rebuilt the aged TEMPLE OF APOLLO in ROME. areas, show stages, and even a fish pond, or vivarium.
According to TACITUS, Tiberius left Rome in 26 C.E. to live
Sozomen, Salmaninius Hermias (fl. early fifth cen- in Campania. On his way to the VILLA JOVIS, he stayed at
tury C.E.) Christian historian Spelunca with an entourage, including Praetorian Prefect
Sozomen probably came from Gaza but lived in CON- Lucius Aelius SEJANUS. While dining, the mouth of the
STANTINOPLE as a lawyer. His main achievement was to cave collapsed. The courtiers ran for their lives, and only
write a continuation of EUSEBIUS’s Ecclesiastical History. In Sejanus remained, covering Tiberius’s body with his own.
nine books the chronicle extended the history from 323 This event prompted the emperor’s explicit trust in his
to either 425 or 439, although the sections from approxi- lieutenant.
mately 421 are not extant. Sozomen relied heavily upon
the writer SOCRATES, his older contemporary, but his own Split A small village approximately three miles west of
sources were more sound, especially in terms of Western Salona on the Illyrian coast. Its significance dates from
development and the spread of CHRISTIANITY among the 305 C.E., when the retired Emperor DIOCLETIAN took up
non-Romans. residence there, living out his life in a sumptuous palace.
The villa at Split was constructed by Diocletian from
Spain See HISPANIA. around 300 to 305/6, and its architecture was both inge-
nious and practical, combining styles that were imperial,
Sparta Sparta fell under Roman domination with the martial, and sound. Its military qualities could be seen in
rest of Greece, and from 146 B.C.E. it was included in the the stout rectangular walls surrounding the entire com-
province of MACEDONIA until it became part of Emperor plex, with towers and easily defended gates. Two colon-
AUGUSTUS’s creation of ACHAEA. Sparta was considered a naded avenues cut the palace into quarters, with the
federated state. business sections and the barracks in the two northern
portions. Here business could be conducted in prepara-
Speculatores A department of the PRAETORIAN GUARD, tion for seeing the emperor, who resided with his exten-
originally created to act as the source of couriers, scouts, sive entourage in the southern half.
or special agents. Over time, the Speculatores and their
sub-department, the Quaestionarii, acquired a sinister Diocletian’s suites, rooms, and audience chambers
reputation as the private assassins and torturers of the were very impressive. None more so than his Hall of
Roman emperors. The need for special service soldiers Audiences, the Aula Palatina. There, dressed in his formal
was a natural one, as in Rome there were many non- robes and sitting on a lavish throne, he would greet his
military duties that accompanied enlistment in the Prae- guests. Pointed toward the sea, the throne rested beneath
torians. The Speculatores thus became familiar with a hugh vaulted arch, designed to strike awe in any suppli-
internal palace intrigues by carrying dispatches or run- cant. Ironically, although Diocletian was an expert at cre-
ning errands for the powerful. Lucius Aelius SEJANUS, the ating imperial atmosphere, his happiest moments at Split
notorious Prefect in the reign of TIBERIUS, first used them were spent in his gardens, especially in his cabbage beds.

Stabiae 513

A reconstruction of Split, the residence of Emperor Diocletian (Hulton/Getty Archive)

Sporus (d. 69 C.E.) Beautiful youth in Rome who was Spurinna (fl. first century B.C.E.) Augur of Rome in 44
“married” to Emperor Nero around 65 C.E. B.C.E. who uttered the warning to Julius Caesar: “Beware the
The marriage was complete with a dowry and the title of Ides of March!”
m i s t ress. Sporus had the nickname Sabina because of his He also answered Caesar’s retort that the Ides had come,
similarity in appearance to POPPAEA, the dead empress and saying: “Yes, they have come, but they have not passed.”
f o rmer wife of Nero. One of the more notorious lovers of
the ruler, Sporus fled from Rome with Nero in 68, killing Spurinna, Titus Vestricius (fl. first century C.E.)
himself during the short reign of VITELLIUS in 69. Minor official in the cause of Emperor Otho against Vitellius
in 69 C.E.
S.P.Q.R. The four letters used by the Romans on Spurinna and Annius Gallus were appointed by Otho to
their coins, standards, and monuments. They stood for be the forward commanders of the troops marching north
Senatus Populusque Romanus (Senate and People of to defend Italy from the invasion by the Vitellians.
Rome). S.P.Q.R. was retained by AUGUSTUS and placed, Spurinna proved his worth by protecting the town of PLA-
in a variety of forms, on the Roman imperial COINAGE CENTIA from attack by CAECINA ALIENUS. He then joined
f rom his reign until the time of CONSTANTINE the Great. his fellow Othonians in the battle of BEDRIACUM.
Other variations included “S.p.q.r.a.n.f.f., OPTIMI PRIN-
CIPI,” (the Senate and People of Rome [hope for] a pro s- Stabiae Small town in Campania, to the southwest of
perous and joyous New Year [annum novum faustum POMPEII and north of Surrentum. Stabiae was very old
felice] to the foremost prince); or “S.P.Q.R. IMP. CAES. when it was destroyed by Sulla during the Social War
QUOD V.M.S.EX.EA.P.Q.IS.AD.A.DE” (Senatus Popu- (90–89 B.C.E.), but it is noted for two happenings in 79
lusque Romanus Imperatori Caesari quod viae munitae sint C.E. The first was its near total destruction by Mount
ex ea pecunia quam is aerarium detulit), in gratitude to VESUVIUS, along with that of Pompeii and HERCULANEUM.
Augustus for his monetary contribution to the treasury The second was the death of PLINY THE ELDER, witnessing
and his gifts of the roads and improvement of public the eruption from Misenum, when he sailed to Stabiae to
safety.

514 Statius,
Publius
Papinius Stephanus (Pope Stephen I) (d. 258 C.E.) Pope from
245 to 257
get a better look and inhaled the toxic fumes pouring His years as the leader of the Roman Church were spent
over the town. in bitter conflict with his colleagues, differing with them
on such questions as lapsed Christians and baptisms by
Statius, Publius Papinius (c. 40 or 45–95 or 96 C.E.) heretics. A disagreement occurred with CYPRIAN, the
One of the great poets of the Flavian era (69–96 C.E.) bishop of CARTHAGE, over the latter. Little else is known
Statius was born in Naples, the son of a school teacher. about Stephanus and doubts remain concerning his sup-
Competing at an early age in contests in Naples and posed martyrdom in 258.
Alba, he made a name for himself and his work. Upon
his father’s death he traveled to ROME, where he com- Stilicho, Flavius (d. 408 C.E.) Magister militum in the
posed pantomimes and became a declaimer of high West from 394 to 408 and one of the major political figures
repute (see RHETORIC). Social connections, a marriage to in the later years of the Roman Empire
a Roman woman named Claudia, and the successful Stilicho was the son of a VANDAL cavalry officer and a
reception of his work, especially the Thebaid, allowed Roman lady. Probably through the influence of his father
him to live in some comfort in Alba for the remaining he was chosen in 383 to serve as part of a diplomatic mis-
years of his life. His three main works are the Thebaid, sion to PERSIA. Upon his return (c. 394) he was married
Silvae, and Achilleid. Derived from Antimachos, the The- to Serena, Emperor THEODOSIUS I’s niece, and given the
baid was his earliest and longest composition. Published rank of COMES, or count. From 385 to 392 he was comes
a round 91, its 12 books of hexameter detail the struggle domesticorum, accompanying the emperor on his cam-
between Polynices and Eteocles. Very superficial, Statius paign against Magnus Maximus while amassing influence
seemed to thrive on rhetorical effect, willingly mixing and power in the court. Made MAGISTER MILITUM in
pathos with the outrageous. Silvae, a collection of THRACE (c. 392), he was a general during the war against
32 poems on diverse topics, was published sometime Eugenius. After the battle of FRIGIDUS (394), Theodosius
before his death. It stands as the most popular of the declared him magister militum in the West.
poet’s works because of its insights into the times and its
more traditional style. Achilleid was never finished, as its Stilicho now possessed virtually unlimited power,
second book was incomplete. On a massive scale, this increasing his control by centralizing the bureaucracy of
epic was to augment the Iliad. Statius certainly pos- the Western provinces, making them answerable to him
sessed the talent and the eccentric vision to achieve its alone. Thus, when Theodosius named Stilicho as
completion. guardian of the young Honorius, he was ready to go
beyond the letter of the emperor’s aims, especially after
Statius Annaeus (fl. mid-first century C.E.) Friend and Theodosius died in 395. De facto ruler of the West and
physician of Seneca master of the Eastern armies, Stilicho pronounced him-
Statius helped his long-time associate to kill himself self guardian of both emperors HONORIUS and ARCADIUS.
in 65 C.E. When SENECA did not die from the usual Marching into Greece he was ready to annihilate ALARIC
method of cutting his veins, Statius tried the tradition- and the VISIGOTHS but received orders to desist from Prae-
al Greek way—hemlock. Seneca had lost too much torian Prefect RUFINUS, whom Stilicho subsequently had
blood, however, so a lethal vapor bath was prepared, the murdered.
Laconicum.
The removal of Rufinus did nothing to end the
Statius Priscus (fl. second century C.E.) Consul in 159 hatred of Stilicho in both the Eastern and Western courts.
and generals in the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161–180 C.E.) In 397, Arcadius declared him a public enemy, and the
and Lucius Verus (161–169 C.E.) magister militum in AFRICA, Gildo, revolted. Neither event
He was governor of numerous provinces, including could loosen his hold on the Western Empire, for he was
Dacia, MOESIA, Britain, and CAPPADOCIA. While serving in CONSUL in 400. The following year Alaric invaded Italy,
Cappadocia in 163, he helped Lucius VERUS conquer only to be beaten by Stilicho at the battle of POLLENTIA.
ARMENIA, sweeping into the country and destroying Consul again in 405, the general took to the field once
Artaxata, the Armenian capital. Verus took the title more, this time against Radagaisus, routing the barbarian
Armeniacus. Statius Priscus was replaced by Martius king in 406. Deciding to use Alaric as an ally, he elevated
VERUS. the Visigoth to the rank of magister militum as part of a
plan to take ILLYRICUM. His strategy was ruined by the
Stephanus (d. 96 C.E.) Murderer of Domitian in 96 C.E. emergence of the usurper CONSTANTIUS III in Gaul. Not
Stephanus was a strong freedman in the palace, chosen as only did he have to face a dangerous usurper, but also
the main assassin. He struck Domitian, knocking him Alaric suddenly demanded compensation of 4,000
unconscious while his fellow conspirators completed the pounds of gold. Stilicho convinced the SENATE to oblige.
deed. In the fray that followed, Stephanus was slain.
Fortune turned against Stilicho even more in 408.
Arcadius died, and Stilicho convinced Honorius to allow

him to settle affairs at Constantinople. Already weakened Subura 515
by Alaric’s extortion, Stilicho was accused by members of
the court of plotting to put his son on the throne. When tific outlook of Posidonius, while stressing, sometimes
the troops in Gaul mutinied, murdering their own offi- unsuccessfully, the idea of duty to society. Epictetus was
cers, Stilicho was arrested by Honorius. After hiding most renowned as a teacher; his views on Stoicism helped
briefly in a church, he was executed on August 22, 408. shape later philosophers, especially Marcus Aurelius.
That emperor came the closest of virtually any historical
Many accounts were very hostile to Stilicho, most monarch to the idea of the philosopher king. Considered
notably that of the historian EUNAPIUS. He was, neverthe- the last of the Stoics, he put his faith in the interior
less, an accomplished general who proved skillful in growth of himself, while bowing to the place of all
defeating the hordes then threatening the empire and in creatures within the universe. From the time of Marcus
dealing with them by negotiation and diplomacy. A vehe- Aurelius, Stoicism proved unable to retain its vitality,
ment Christian, he helped destroy PAGANISM both becoming partly absorbed by Neoplatonism and Chris-
through laws and with the burning of the SIBYLLINE tianity. It died out when the Athenian school was closed
BOOKS. in 529 C.E. by Justinian.

stipendium Translated most often as “payment,” gener- Strabo (fl. late first century B.C.E.) Famed geographer
ally the pay given to the Roman soldier. Other meanings Strabo came from Ameseia in Pontus and was born some-
given to it were the length of service expected by the time around 64 or 54 B.C.E. One of the foremost travelers
troops before their retirement, and even a tax. More in the Roman world, Strabo visited numerous countries
specifically, the emeritis stipendis denoted the end of a and provinces and was a friend of Aelius Gallus, the pre-
man’s military duty. fect of Egypt. Educated in Rome, he returned sometime
after 30 B.C.E. and spent a long time in the city. Strabo
See also LEGIONS; DONATIVUM. wrote his vast historical work in 43 books, continuing
the history of Polybius probably down to the fall of Egypt
Stoicism Important philosophical movement founded in 30 B.C.E. None of these volumes survive, unlike his 17
in the third century B.C.E. by ZENO of Citium. Named books on geography that are in their entirety (minus
after the Greek stoa or public meeting place, as in Athens book seven, in existence only as an epitome). Strabo’s
where Zeno taught, the idea of Stoicism was to make the Geography was designed for use by educated readers or
lives of humans as orderly as the cosmos. By adhering to officials.
the guiding principle of nature it was believed possible
for someone to bring a sense of logic and order into exis- See also MELA, POMPONIUS; PLINY THE ELDER; PTOLEMY,
tence. The history of Stoicism, like the ideas of its adher- CLAUDIUS.
ents, followed varied paths of development. Some Stoics
stressed the ideal of virtue, while others used physics and Strabo, Lucius Seius (fl. early first century C.E.) Third
reasoning. Nevertheless it had a profound effect upon the prefect of the Praetorian Guard and the father of the famous
Romans, most notably in its last two eras, the Middle and Praetorian Prefect Sejanus
Late Stoas. Strabo came from a good Equestrian (EQUITES) family and
was appointed by AUGUSTUS in 14 C.E. to succeed Valerius
The Middle Stoa lasted from the second to the first Ligur as sole commander of the Praetorian Guard. Upon
century B.C.E. and was brought to Rome by Diogenes of Augustus’s death in 14, only the consuls preceded him in
Seleucia. Although attacked by Cato, Stoicism found a giving TIBERIUS the oath of allegiance. A short time later,
home in the Roman intellectual environment. Its greatest his son Sejanus was promoted as his colleague, eventually
proponents of the era were Panaetius, Posidonius, and replacing him. As a reward for his loyalty, Strabo was
Scipio Aemilianus, while other Stoics included Scaevola made prefect of Egypt.
and Aelius Tubero. They allowed the philosophy to flour-
ish, and thus it survived the upheaval that led to the Styx The chief river of the Roman underworld received
foundation of the Roman Empire. its name from the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, who
watched the entrance of Hades from her beautiful grotto.
Roman fascination with the Stoic virtues and ethical The river supposedly flowed around the land of the dead
pondering characterized the Late Stoa, roughly the first seven times.
and second centuries C.E. The fact that ethics were im-
portant and pursued actively was seen in the list of prac- See also CHARON; DEATH.
titioners of Stoicism: Rubellius Plautus, Thrasea Paetus,
Helvidius Priscus, Junius Rusticus, C. Musonius Rufus, Subura (or Suburra) A valley in Rome created by
and Q. Junius Arulenus Rusticus. the Esquiline, Quirinal, and Viminal Hills; the area was
heavily populated and described by the writer martial as
Stoicism of this age found expression through three filled with prostitutes, barbers, stores, and vendors.
masters: L. Annaeus SENECA, EPICTETUS and MARCUS Arruntius Stella owned an estate there, with gardens and
AURELIUS. Seneca the Younger accepted the more scien-

516 Suburanus Bellovaci in strength, by their defeat they were forced to
become clients for a time to the smaller Remi. Under
fountains. In the Subura, along the entrance to the FORUM Roman occupation of Gallia Belgica, the Suessiones were
ROMANUM, could be found as well the punishers of slaves allowed to retain their lands. Romanization was pro-
in Rome, their blood-stained instruments hanging on nounced within their territory; their capital, Noviodo-
hooks and awaiting use on the Via Turbina, the tradi- num, was renamed Augusta Suessonum and later became
tional site of death for slaves. known as Suessones (Soissons). The Suessiones were
noted farmer, holding fertile soil just north of the Seine
Suburanus (Saburanus) (fl. late first century C.E.) River and Lutetia (Paris).
Prefect of the Praetorian Guard during the reign of Trajan
(98–117 C.E.) Suetonius (Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus) (69 or
According to Dio, he was given his official sword by the 70–after 103 C.E.) Important Roman historian and influen-
emperor, with the words: “Take this sword and if I rule tial writer
well use it for me, but if I rule poorly, use it against me.” Born in Hippo, AFRICA, Suetonius was educated in law,
probably teaching literature in Rome before serving as a
Suburbicaria Name used in the later years of the lawyer and a member of the staff of PLINY THE YOUNGER,
Roman Empire for the diocese of southern Italy, com- then governor of Bithynia (c. 110–112 C.E.). As a member
prised of Italy’s south, Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia. of the Equestrians (EQUITES), Suetonius returned to Rome
where a position at the imperial court awaited him. He
Suebi Also called the Suevi; a collection of Germanic was a minor secretary and then director of the imperial
tribes occupying large stretches of territory in Germania libraries, both positions most likely under TRAJAN (ruled
Barbara, or “barbaric” Germany. Their domain stretched 98–117 C.E.).
from the Vistula to the Elbe and along parts of the Rhine,
to the Danube. The Suebi were rarely considered by the When HADRIAN became emperor in 117, Suetonius
Romans as a single entity. Rather, it was never forgotten was promoted to AB EPISTULIS, or secretary of correspon-
that they were a confederation of tribes, united for self dence. This post remained his until around 122, when,
defense. The historian TACITUS wrote of them in this with Praetorian Prefect Septicius Clarus, he was dis-
manner, adding that they differed from other Germans in missed by Hadrian for being overly familiar with Empress
the practice of knotting their hair, tying it sideways, or SABINA. It is possible that he was able to return to
allowing it to grow stiffly backward. Hadrian’s favor some years later. He was alive in 130 after
which date there is no record of him.
Rome first encountered the Suebi during Caesar’s
GALLIC WARS. He defeated ARIOVISTUS, king of the Suebi, Suetonius first focused on his writing in the reign of
in 58 B.C.E. but admitted that they were the strongest, Trajan, never stopping from that time on. As the first
fiercest people in the region, wearing only skins in the known Latin biographer, he seemed to deviate con-
winter and refusing to purchase items of luxury from sciously from TACITUS’s chronological style, preferring to
traders. Among the tribes that belonged to the Suebi, the arrange his material and sources in an anecdotal, even
three most powerful were the Hermunduri, Langobardi, episodic manner. Rhetoric overshadowed exactitude.
and the Semnones. All of the chiefdoms convened once a Aside from his works on grammar and history, two col-
year in the sacred groves of the Semnones to declare their lections of biographies most displayed Suetonius’s literary
continued cohesion. This did not always hold true, for talent: De Viris Illustribus (Lives of the Great Men) and De
many Suebi joined Marobodus, and others, with the Mar- Vita Caesarum (Lives of the Caesars). Lives of the Great
comanni, were settled on the lands of the Roman Empire. Men was a Greek-influenced group of biographies on the
major figures of Roman literature. He included grammari-
Fighting between Rome and the Suebi occurred fre- ans and rhetors (De Grammaticus et Rhetoribus); 33 poets
quently. A bitter struggle raged in 97–98 C.E. along the (De Poetis), including VIRGIL, HORACE, LUCAN, and Ter-
Danube, and Marcus Arelius (c. 178) included them in ence; and historians, starting with SALLUST. Unfortunately,
his vast Germanic campaign north of the Danubian fron- only fragments of these biographies have survived.
tier. The tribes were still in existence in the early fifth
century C.E., when they crashed across the Rhine, invad- Preserved virtually in its entirety, with only a few
ing Gaul and pushing all the way to Spain with the other early chapters of Julius CAESAR’s life missing, the so-called
barbarian nations of the era. Twelve Caesars covered the first Roman rulers from Cae-
sar to DOMITIAN. It was dedicated to Septicius Clarus and
Suessiones A large tribe living in GALLIA Belgica dur- relied heavily upon state archives, at least until Suetonius
ing the first century B.C.E.; under their King GALBA (1) was dismissed and lost access to them. This happened
they were forced to defend their lands from Roman inva- perhaps after the Augustan account. For sources Sueto-
sion by Julius CAESAR in 57 B.C.E. Despite a heroic stand nius certainly used the Acts of Augustus, as well as Cre-
at the battle of AXONA, they were defeated utterly and mutius Cordus and Gaius Asinius Pollio. Other sources
forced to submit to Rome. Once second only to the are unclear, as he failed to mention them. Suetonius had a

lasting effect on historical composition. Einhard’s ninth- Sura,
LuciusL
 icinius 517
century Charlemagne and Petrarch’s 14th-century Lives
both looked to Suetonius as their model. A lieutenant in the army of POMPEY THE GREAT. Sulla was
with Pompey in 63 B.C.E. when Jerusalem was captured,
Suggested Readings: Hurley, Donna W. An Historical and distinguishing himself as one of the first soldiers to enter
Historiographical Commentary on Suetonius’ Life of C. the city. Three years later he amazed ROME with a magnif-
Caligula. Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press, 1993; Suetonius. icent gladiatorial show in memory of his father. An
The Twelve Caesars. Translated by Robert Graves. New AUGUR in 57, he was chosen by the SENATE to build a new
York: Penguin, 1979; Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. Suetonius: meeting place, following the destruction of the Senate’s
The Scholar and His Caesars. New Haven, Conn.: Yale CURIA HOSTILIA in 52. His work on the CURIA CORNELIA
University Press, 1984. was aborted by Julius CAESAR, who wanted no interfer-
ence with his CURIA JULIA. Not surprisingly, Sulla joined
Suetonius Paulinus, Gaius (fl. first century C.E.) the Pompeian cause at the start of the CIVIL WAR. Present
Consul in 66 C.E. and general in Africa and Britain at the battle of PHARSALUS, he fled to Africa and was cap-
Suetonius first gained notoriety around 41 C.E., when he tured and put to death after the battle of THAPSUS in 46.
was sent as a legate to Mauretania to put down a violent
local revolt. Although eventually replaced by Hosidius Sulpicia (fl. late first century C.E.) Poetess
Geta, his reputation was so firmly in place that he was She addressed her poems to her husband Calenas and
the obvious choice as governor of Britain in 58. Accord- was considered one of the few women writers of the era.
ing to the historian TACITUS, by 61 he was jealous of the
great General CORBULO in Armenia and thus launched his Sulpicianus, Titus Flavius (d. 197 C.E.) Prefect of the
own campaign against the Druid stronghold of Mona city in 193
(now the island of Anglesey). While his troops conquered Sulpicianus was a participant in the auctioning of the
the isle, hacking down the sacred groves of the Druids, Roman Empire by the PRAETORIAN GUARD. Sulpicianus
word arrived that in his absence, Queen BOUDICCA of the was appointed Pertinax’s successor as urban prefect
Iceni had launched her legendary uprising. Severe fight- shortly after the new emperor’s accession. He was sent to
ing was needed before the Britons could be pacified. the CASTRA PRAETORIA on March 28, 193, to bring the
Ordered to do nothing more by NERO, he was superceded mutinous Praetorians back to order, learning while there
by Petronius Turpilianus. A consulship followed in 66, that Pertinax had been assassinated. Intriguing with the
and in 69, OTHO, looking for generals to bolster his politi- Guard to have himself elevated to the throne, he found a
cal and military position, brought the aging Suetonius rival in the person of DIDIUS JULIANUS. The two of them
out of retirement. Having lost none of his sense of strat- bid for the throne, and Sulpicianus lost. He was allowed
egy, the old officer strongly recommended that the Otho- to live, but in 197, Emperor Septimius SEVERUS put him
nians decline battle with VITELLIUS’s legions at BEDRIACUM to death for being a supporter of Clodius Albinus.
in April of that year. His advice was not heeded, and
Otho was defeated. Vitellius, however, allowed Suetonius Sulpicius Asper (d. 65 C.E.) Centurion of the Praeto-
to return to his quiet life. rian Guard
In 65 C.E., Sulpicius Asper joined the Pisonian Conspir-
See also DRUIDS AND DRUIDISM; 69 C.E. acy bent on murdering Nero. When asked later by the
emperor why he had entered into the plot, he replied, “I
Suillius Rufus, Publius (fl. first century C.E.) Consul saw no other way to reform you.”
in 46 C.E., governor of Asia, and a hated orator in Rome
Suillius was once a QUAESTOR under GERMANICUS, and Sura, Lucius Licinius (d. c. 110 C.E.) Consul in 97,
for this he was banished by TIBERIUS in 24 on a charge 102, and 107 C.E.
of judicial bribery, but was allowed to re t u rn by One of the closest friends of Emperor TRAJAN, he was sent
Claudius. He involved himself in accusations, acting as in 100 as an envoy to the Dacian King DECEBALUS; and he
a delator (see DELATORES) with his excellent skills in commanded a body of troops in Trajan’s Dacian Wars. He
speaking. Acquiring many enemies, he was finally tried was awarded a triumphal insignia but enjoyed greater
for corruption by NERO in 58. Found guilty, Suillius fame for the absolute trust placed in him by Trajan. The
Rufus was exiled to the Balearic Islands. Refusing to act ruler frequently spent days in Sura’s home, without atten-
like a criminal, he made certain that his life there was dants, despite the jealous attacks of fellow courtiers. Sura
pleasant. was also partly responsible for introducing the future
Emperor HADRIAN to Trajan, encouraging the two men to
Sulla, Publius Cornelius (d. 46 B.C.E.) Son of the be on excellent terms. It was Sura who announced to
famous Roman dictator and a minor political figure of the Hadrian that he had been adopted as the royal heir. Sura
late Republic died around 110 and was honored with a statue and a
public funeral.

518 Surenas THE YOUNGER, and were addressed to the most notable
personages of the times. Thus they served as valuable
Surenas (d. 55 B.C.E.) Parthian general documents of the social climate of the fourth century,
Surenas was responsible for the destruction of the Roman although they were often superficial, decorated, and writ-
general Marcus Licinius CRASSUS (1), at the battle of CAR- ten with an eye to posterity.
RHAE in 55 B.C.E. A powerful officer in the Parthian army,
Surenas came to the aid of King ORODES II against his Synesius of Cyrene (c. 370–413/414 C.E.) Bishop of
brother MITHRIDATES (c. 57–56), driving Mithridates out Ptolemais and poet
of the country and ensuring that Orodes became king. Synesius was born in Cyrene and was raised as a pagan,
Thus, when Triumvir Crassus attempted his invasion of studying in ALEXANDRIA under the Neoplatonist HYPATIA.
Mesopotamia, Orodes once more turned to his lieutenant. Despite his PAGANISM, Synesius was chosen to be ambas-
While the king made war upon Rome’s Armenian allies, sador to CONSTANTINOPLE in 399. Before Emperor Arca-
Surenas was given freedom to conduct operations against dius he delivered a speech on the supreme ideal of a
Crassus. Concerned that he might use this triumph to Roman emperor, De Regno. Returning to Cyrenaica, Syne-
seize the throne, Orodes put Surenas to death a short sius married a Christian woman in 403, had three chil-
time later. dren and faced a major decision in 410. Elected bishop of
Ptolemais, he pondered for a long time and then gave up
Symmachus, Quintus Aurelius (d. c. 402 C.E.) Con- his family, was consecrated by Theophilus of Alexandria
sul in 391, prefect of the city of Rome, and one of the greatest and became a prelate. It is possible that he was not yet a
orators in Roman history Christian at the time. A spiritual figure, Synesius proved
Symmachus was the SENATE’s spokesman in the fourth a strong leader. He died in 413 or 414, spared the tragic
century and served organized PAGANISM in the same news of Hypatia’s murder in 415. Synesius authored
fashion, while enjoying a reputation for poetry. He was numerous books. Aside from his letters and hymns he
a member of the old aristocratic family of the Sym- wrote De Providentia on Constantinople; Calvitii En-
machi, which owned estates on the Caelian Hill and in comium, a satire on baldness; Dion, a defense of learning
AFRICA. His education was entrusted to a Gallic teacher and Greek culture; and De Dono Astrolabii, a study of
of RHETORIC. Embarking on a senatorial career, Sym- astrolabes.
machus served as a member of a priesthood (c. 365)
and in 369 was sent to Gaul as a representative of the See also SIDONIUS APOLLINARIS, for a similar career.
Senate to Emperor VALENTINIAN I, meeting and befriend-
ing the writer Ausonius. Presumably for his skills in Syracuse One of the oldest cities on the Italian penin-
speaking he was rewarded in 373 with the procon- sula and, during its Roman occupation, the chief seat of
sulship of Africa. Back in Rome in 376, he spent seve- government for Sicily (SICILIA). Known as Syracusa, this
ral years delivering speeches on various subjects. In 382, famous site in southern Sicily was founded in the eighth
an important cause presented itself, the defense of century B.C.E. near the mouth of the Anapus River, close
paganism. to the Syraco Marsh. Established by Corinthians and
Dorians, Syracuse developed into a major port in the
Symmachus was an ardent pagan who had already Mediterranean. It boasted two harbors, the Great, called
complained during his priesthood that being a pagan was Porto Maggiore, and the Small, Laccius. Athenian and later
very difficult with a Christian imperial government. Carthaginian fleets were stationed there, at least until
Under Emperor Gratian life became even worse. The around 213/12 B.C.E., when Rome captured the island. It
emperor ordered the Altar of VICTORY removed from the was natural for Syracuse to serve as the capital of the
Senate. When Symmachus attempted to have the policy province of Sicily, and considerable effort was spent in
changed, the ruler refused to see him. As Gratian the first century C.E. to restore its economic health. This
increased the official persecution of paganism, Sym- was accomplished through colonists, sent in by AUGUS-
machus emerged as the leading figure in its defense. His TUS, and with numerous building programs. Syracuse was
powers were increased with the prefectship of the city, thus an interesting blend of Greek and Roman designs.
but each attempt at reinstating pagan rights, especially There was a temple of Apollo (sixth century B.C.E.), a
the Altar of Victory, was rebuffed, largely through the temple of Jupiter, and one of the largest amphitheaters
machinations of AMBROSE, bishop of Milan. (third century B.C.E.) in the Roman Empire.

Despite a consulship in 391 and the honorific title of Syria One of the largest and most important provinces
PRINCEPS SENATUS, Symmachus was intermittently ill and of the Roman Empire, the linchpin of imperial concern s
even had to leave Rome in 398, chased out by a mob for in the East. Syria was the protector of the vital provinces
some unknown reason. He was allowed to return home a of ASIA MINOR, the key TRADE routes from the Far East,
short time later, but fell ill again in 400 and died some- and the Roman defense against the Parthian and later Per-
time around 402. Many of his speeches were preserved,
mainly in fragments, but his greatest contribution came
in the form of his 900 letters. Organized into 10 books,
Symmachus’s letters were very similar to those of PLINY

sian Empires. A truly ancient country even before its con- Syria 519
quest by Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C.E.,
Syria’s name was derived from the Aramaic Surja. It came realm, in 93, and other weak domains. Syria did lose two
to be applied to a vast portion of the Middle East, includ- notable sections, aside from Judaea; CILICIA was made
ing the area west of the TIGRIS, east of Asia Minor, and independent by Vespasian in 73, and NABATAEA was
north of the Arabians and Palestinians, who were them- annexed separately by Trajan in 106; and subsequently
selves at times under its jurisdiction. The original inhabi- became the province of Arabia.
tants were Aramaeans, or Syro-Arabians, but throughout
ancient history successive invasions brought Assyrians, A more serious blow to the status of the legate came
Babylonians, Persians, Macedonians, and, after the battle around 194, when Emperor Septimius SEVERUS divided
of Ipsus in 301 B.C.E., the Seleucids of Seleucus Nicator, Syria into two provinces, Syria Coele in the north and
Alexander’s general. Syria Phoenice in the south. His action was merely a con-
tinuation of the provincial reform seen in Britain, born
From 301 to 79 B.C.E., the Seleucids were players in out of concern that too many legions were available to
the political game of the East. Suffering repeated setbacks one general. He had just endured a civil war with Pescen-
they were reduced by the Romans and the Parthians to nius Niger, governor of Syria, and did not want to repeat
just the region of Syria by the first century B.C.E. and the experience or face another crisis, such as Avidius Cas-
were conquered entirely by King Tigranes of ARMENIA in sius presented in Marcus Aurelius’s time.
79. Syria soon fell prey to chaos and bloody sorties from
the surrounding nations. Nabataeans, Ituraeans, Arabs, The changes in provincial government did little to
and Parthians all had designs on the cities or the rich car- curtail the vibrant life of the province. Throughout the
avan routes. Such was the situation encountered by POM- imperial epoch, Syria was the most enduring example of
PEY THE GREAT when he arrived there in 64 B.C.E. He generally positive Roman rule to be found anywhere. In
quickly declared Syria a Roman possession, transforming marked contrast to Egypt, where the Romans pillaged
it into a province for the Republic. But instead of annihi- all available financial and natural resources, Syria enjoyed
lating the host of petty kingdoms throughout Syria, he t h ree centuries of stable rule, careful imperial develop-
compelled them to become clients of Rome with the task ment of culture, and the long-term ideal of economic
of defending the frontiers. The numerous Greek towns he health. If Syria was remarkably different from Egypt, it
allowed to retain their independence, appreciating their was a stern rival in matters of industry and commerce.
influence in Syria as instruments of Hellenization and Linen weaving, agriculture (plums, nuts, and otherfru i t s ) ,
hence civilization. purple-dying, and glass-blowing were the province’s
major source of locally produced income. Of immense
With the founding of the Roman Empire, the vision value was the trade system that crossed the Syrian desert s
of Pompey was proven correct. The client states were still to Antioch, TYRE, PALMYRA, PETRA, and DAMASCUS. While
in existence and still loyal to Rome: CHALCIS, JUDAEA, Egypt had Alexandria, Syria had many other cities, espe-
ARABIA, and NABATAEA. As part of his imperial policy of cially Antioch and Palmyra, that were directly connected
manning hostile frontiers with vassals, AUGUSTUS chose to to PARTHIA, INDIA, and the entire East. Syrian traders and
keep Pompey’s organization while encouraging the Hel- merchants organized caravans, and Roman soldiers were
lenistic cities. The imperial province of Syria at this time, given the task of protecting them from local insurrections
and throughout the first century C.E., stretched from or desert nomads.
Cappadocia to Arabia (including Judaea, from 6 to
66 C.E.), administered by a procurator. After the fall Despite the risk of being ordered to war, as happened
of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., Judaea was made a separate throughout the third century, service in Syria was a happy
province under a Praetorian legate, with its own garrisons one for the legions. In the reign of TIBERIUS there were
taken from a large four-legion command of the legate of four legions: III Gallica, VI Ferrata, X Fretensis, and XII
Syria. The presence of such a sizeable force left little Fulminata. By 74 C.E. the JEWISH WAR had been fought,
doubt as to where Rome felt it faced enemies. The post of and there remained the III Gallica and the IV Scythica.
governor of Syria was considered the most powerful The mid-second century saw three legions there: III Gal-
imperial office in the East. The career opportunities open lica, IV Scythica, and XVI Flavia. The Roman troops
to a successful legate were endless, and authority as gov- became acclimatized to the friendly environment of Syria.
ernor was such that even the IMPERIUM MAIUS could be In fact, in 69 C.E. Governor Mucianus convinced the
questioned, as by Piso of Germanicus in 19 C.E. legions that they should support Vespasian, with the
story that VITELLIUS in Rome planned to replace them
These strengths increased throughout the final years with the Rhine legions, sending the Syrian units to the
of the first and second centuries C.E. Starting with VES- dangerous forts of Germania—that was enough to have
PASIAN in 72 C.E., the clients were absorbed and put them march off to war.
under the administration of the legate at ANTIOCH (1), the
provincial capital. COMMAGENE was one of the first to be Because of the Seleucid tradition, Greek was both the
incorporated. There followed Ituraea, the Jordan-based language of domestic government and the culture
imposed upon Syria. The Greek cities were given the
right to have their own constitutions and had a certain
autonomy. These privileges were kept by the emperors as

520 Syrus,P
 ublilius became part of the diocese of Oriens, but never lost its
place as a first-class possession of a weakening empire.
a tool for introducing civilization to the millions of Syri-
ans in the villages. The sheer number of villages, how- See also ARSACID DYNASTY; BAALBEK; BERYTUS; EMESA;
ever, made the task virtually impossible. Aramaic GALERIUS; IAMBLICHUS; LUCIAN; MANICHAEISM; MAXIMUS OF
persisted in the countryside, as did the native tongue in TYRE; MESOPOTAMIA; NEOPLATONISM; NICOLAUS OF DAMAS-
Egypt. Greek thus became the language of the educated, CUS; PALAESTINA; PAPINIAN; SASSINID DYNASTY; SOL INVIC-
the upper classes, and business. In cities and with the TUS; STOICISM; TATIAN; ULPIAN; VERUS, LUCIUS; ZENOBIA.
help of Rome, Greek did find fertile ground among the
workers of the lower classes. Syrus, Publilius (fl. first century B.C.E.) Syrian-born
actor
Unfortunately, details of the Roman administration Syrus came to ROME during the middle of the first cen-
and sociopolitical life in Syria are limited. Clearly the tury B.C.E. Originally a slave, he acquired his freedom
presence of the legions had an impact, and Latin would mainly through sheer talent, subsequently becoming the
have been spoken in those towns founded by Roman leading performer of his age. Known to Julius CAESAR,
patronage. Most recruits from Syria, a very large group, Syrus defeated the venerable Roman Laberius in a theatri-
would pick up some vulgar Latin through their years in cal competition sponsored by the dictator in 45. Special-
the army. izing in mime, Syrus authored several notable mimes,
including Murmurithon. Praised by such writers as
The calm of Syria was shattered in the third century SENECA the Elder and Petronius, his verses were used in
C.E. In 255–256, SHAPUR I, king of Persia, stormed into education. Some of his sayings became quite famous,
Syria, marching to the gates of Antioch. After the defeat especially “the end justifies the means” and “honor
and capture of VALERIAN (259–260 C.E.), Shapur was among thieves.”
back, this time netting Antioch itself. Although rescued
by ODAENATH of Palmyra, Syria would never again feel
safe. With the reforms of DIOCLETIAN the province

T

Tacfarinas (d. 24 C.E.) Rebel chief in Africa from 17 to By 100, Tacitus had already turned to writing.
24 C.E. Clearly an admirer of the Republic, Tacitus was willing
A Numidian by birth, Tacfarinas became an auxiliary in (or driven) to describe the despotic rule of the emperors.
the Roman army. In 17, he deserted, gathered together a His policy of reporting only verifiable accounts rather
group of followers, ravaged the provinces and became the than rumor or gossip, made his narratives all the more
leader of the local Musulamii. Four Roman generals cam- vivid. His style was fluid and direct, his text a mixture of
paigned against the rebel. Camillus defeated the Musu- poetical color and classical methodology. Ultimately, the
lamii and their Moorish allies in 17, winning triumphal writer’s own independence and vision transcend the
honors, while the new proconsul of Africa, APRONIUS, often bitter, melancholy, and outrageous tales. His extant
helped to thwart a Tacfarinas attack in 20 C.E. Blaesus works are:
used guerrilla tactics against him in 22, and in 24 P. Cor-
nelius DOLABELLA arrived to finish the war. Marching Annals The longest, and perhaps finest, of Tacitus’s
through the country with four flying columns, Tacfarinas writings. His last project, he was possibly working
was trapped by the Romans and killed in battle. on it at his death. It covers the entire Julian
dynasty from after the death of AUGUSTUS in 14
Tacitus (1), Publius Cornelius (c. 55–120? C.E.) Last C.E. to perhaps the death of NERO in 68. All or part
of the great Roman classical historians of 11 books (of 16) are extant; there may have
Little has survived of his own life except for the barest been more. Called also Ob Excessus Divi Augusti
details of a public career. He was probably of Gallic (After the death of the deified Augustus), the
descent, attaining senatorial rank during the reign of VES- Annals was written chronologically, highlighting
PASIAN. Further advancement came after 77, when he the events of each year, often with a list of the
married the daughter of AGRICOLA. He was made a consuls, and including events both in Rome and
QUAESTOR in 81 and a PRAETOR in 88, and received an in the provinces. Tacitus wrote that he hoped to
appointment to the quindecemviri. With a consulship in finish with accounts of the reigns of Augustus,
97, Tacitus had survived the harsh time of DOMITIAN, a NERVA, and TRAJAN, the former for the Annals and
period that saw the death of his father-in-law and a the latter for the Histories, but he never attained
regime whose cultivated despotism left a major mark on his goal.
his writings. Viewed as one of the foremost orators of the
age, Tacitus delivered the funeral oration for L. VERGINIUS Dialogue on the Orators (Dialogus de Oratoribus)
RUFUS in 97. Three years later he prosecuted Marius This treatise was once considered his first book,
Priscus for extortion, receiving help from PLINY the though new dating places it perhaps around 100
Younger. In 112–113, Tacitus became proconsul of Asia, and not in the late 70s, as was theorized. There
dying a few years later. has always been debate about Tacitus’s authorship,
a view now held in scholarly disrepute because of

521

522 Tacitus, Marcus Claudius Tacitus (2), Marcus Claudius (d. 276 C.E.) Emperor
from November 275 to around June 276
the inability to find a contemporary capable of Tacitus is one of the least known emperors because of the
writing it. In the Dialogue, Tacitus pleads the large amount of wholly unreliable information about
decay of oratory, using Ciceronian RHETORIC, him. His reign was detailed in the writings of the SCRIP-
argument, and observation. TORES HISTORIAE AUGUSTAE, EUTROPIUS (1) and others,
Germania (De Origine et Situ Germanorum) Germa- who describe him as an old senator, chosen by the SENATE
nia was a monograph on the peoples inhabit- to succeed AURELIAN and to recreate the constitutional
ing the barbarian lands behind the Rhine. While government of former days, but such accounts were
Tacitus was aware of the great threat posed to the probably inaccurate. Tacitus was most likely a senator
empire by the Germans, his book displayed re- elected by the army in 275 to follow Aurelian. The Senate
markable interest, detail, and even sympathy to- naturally agreed, while Tacitus humbly accepted power.
ward the tribes and their cultures. While much of The new emperor asked that Aurelian be deified and then
his information was inaccurate, Tacitus compared declared his half brother Florian his Prefect of the PRAE-
the Germans to the Romans; although the Romans TORIAN GUARD. The pair then set out against the GOTHS,
naturally fared well, the historian admitted to the who threatened to ravage ASIA MINOR once more. Tacitus
vitality of the barbarians and to the deteriorated won a major victory, taking the title Gothicus Maximus,
ways of his own people. but he died soon after, in June 276, either at the hands of
Historia With the Annals, Tacitus’s most important the army or of natural causes.
work. Composed sometime around 106–107, the
Histories covered the events of the Roman Empire Tamesis (Thames) The most important river in
from 69 to 96, under the rule of GALBA, OTHO, Britain, giving direct access to the sea to the provincial
VITELLIUS, VESPASIAN, TITUS, and Domitian. Unfor- city and port of LONDINIUM (London). The river had
tunately, the latter sections did not survive; all potential in terms of economic growth that was not over-
that remains of perhaps 14 books are books one to looked by the traders there, even before the Roman con-
four and part of book five, roughly the entire civil quest. After the rise of Londinium, the river became even
war and some of the events that followed. It is fas- more valuable.
cinating because of the emphasis placed on the
major and minor players alike, each with their Tapae Dacian site of two battles fought between the
own, often three-dimensional character. Romans and the Dacians, in 88 and 101 C.E. The first bat-
On the Life of Julius Agricola (De Vita Iulii Agri- tle was part of Emperor DOMITIAN’s campaign against the
colae) This biography was published probably in Dacian King DECEBALUS, with the Roman legions under
98. Centering on his father-in-law’s campaigns in the command of Tettius Julianus. Taking place near the
Britain (BRITANNIA), it is the primary source Iron Gates, a deep gorge cut by the DANUBE River about
for the events of Agricola’s life and career. Agri- 100 miles east of modern Belgrade, the conflict was an
cola was more of a laudatio than a mere biog- absolute success for Rome. Not only were the Dacians
raphy. There was, as well, a reminder of the soundly defeated, but also Decebalus’s lieutenant Vezinas,
tyranny of Domitian, contrasted with the loyalty died on the field. While the first battle ended the war, it
of Agricola. did not prevent later struggles. Another war broke out
between Decebalus and Emperor TRAJAN, at the head of
Suggested Readings: Chilver, Guy E. F. A Historical Com- his own LEGIONS. During his advance on Dacia, Trajan
mentary on Tacitus’ Histories IV and V. New York: Oxford fought at the same site. Decebalus was unvanquished.
University Press, 1985; Dudley, Donald R. The World of The conflict continued.
Tacitus. Boston: Little, Brown, 1969; Kraus, C. S., and A.
J. Woodman. Latin Historians. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford Uni- Tarentum, Treaty of Agreement signed in the spring
versity Press, 1997; Mellor, Ronald. Tacitus. New York: of 37 B.C.E. between Octavian (AUGUSTUS) and Marc
Routledge, 1993; Syme, Ronald. Tacitus. Oxford, U.K.: ANTONY. The year 38 had proven an unhappy one for
Clarendon Press, 1958; Tacitus, Cornelius. Empire and Octavian and Antony, for the pirate Sextus POMPEY had
Emperors: Selections from Tacitus’ Annals. Translated by shown himself to be a fearsome opponent to Caesar’s heir,
Graham Tingay. New York: Cambridge University Press, and Antony was in desperate need of troops. Octavian
1983; ———. The Annals of Imperial Rome. Translated had missed a meeting at BRUNDISIUM, blaming Antony for
with an introduction by Michael Grant. New York: Pen- not waiting. By the spring of 37, a new place and date
guin, 1964; ———. Annales. Edited by Henry Furneaux. was set at Tarentum, and Antony arrived with 300 ships
Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1965; ———. De Vita for use by Octavian against Pompey, expecting in return
Agricolae. Edited by R. M. Ogilvie. Oxford, U.K.: Claren- help for his war against PARTHIA. The meeting was fraught
don Press, 1967; ———. Historiae. Edited by H. Heub-
ner. Stuttgart, Ger.: B. G. Teubner, 1978; ———. The
Histories. New York: Penguin, 1989.

with mistrust and tension. A disaster might have oc- taxation 523
curred had not OCTAVIA intervened, bringing the two
stubborn men to the table. In the end, the triumvirate Through the intrigues of RUFINUS, the MAGISTER OFFICIO-
was reaffirmed; the two men promised mutual support RUM, Tatianus’s political position was slowly destroyed. He
and stripped Sextus Pompey of all rights and privileges was forced to watch the execution of his son and was him-
given at MISENUM. The two departed, but suspicions self condemned. Reprieved, Tatianus was exiled to Lycia,
remained between them. w h e rehe remained until Rufinus suffered his own demise.
Tatianus was rehabilitated but reportedly died a blind beg-
Tarsus Also spelled Tarsos; the capital of the province gar. A pagan, Tatianus used legislation to further his own
of Cilicia. Situated in Cilicia Campestris, on the river anticlerical views, refusing to allow criminals to find sanc-
Cydnus, it was probably founded by the Syrians and later tuary among the clergy or for monks to enter towns.
used as a focal colony for the Greeks. The city suffered
from attacks in the first century B.C.E. by Tigranes of Taurus, Titus Statilius (fl. late first century B.C.E.)
Armenia and the famed Cilician pirates. When POMPEY Highly respected general and consul during the later
THE GREAT defeated the pirates in 67 B.C.E., he created the Republic
Cilician province, declaring Tarsus its capital. Tarsus was Taurus became one of the leading supporters of Octavian
highly favored in the imperial administration of AUGUS- (AUGUSTUS) against Marc ANTONY. Considered by the
TUS, due in part to the emperor’s tutor, ATHENADORUS who writer Velleius Paterculus to be second only to Marcus
came from that city, which hosted the imperial legate and AGRIPPA in military importance, Taurus was used in a large
provincial assembly. The first metropolis in Cilicia, Tar- number of operations by Octavian. In 36 B.C.E. he won
sus enjoyed considerable autonomy, including freedom over virtually all of Africa and, in 34 took over the cam-
from taxes. Her prized status was eventually challenged paign against the Dalmatians when Octavian departed for
by the citizens of Anazarbus to the northeast. Two events Rome to assume a consulship. When the Civil War
made Tarsus memorable. In 41 B.C.E., Marc ANTONY e rupted against Antony, Ta u rus made a successful charge
greeted CLEOPATRA there after she had sailed up the Cyd- against enemy cavalry near Actium that convinced
nus in her famous gold barge. And in the first century Philadelphus, king of Paphlagonia, to desert Antony’s
C.E., Tarsus produced its most famous son, the Christian cause. In 29 he was in Spain, suppressing local tribes,
Saint Paul of Tarsus. including the Cantabri and Astures. Consul in 26, he was
given command of the city of Rome of Augustus, when
Tatian (second century C.E.) Christian writer and the- the emperor set out on his tour of the provinces. Taurus
ologian, of Assyrian descent also erected a stone amphitheater in the Campus Martius,
Tatian was educated in Greek RHETORIC and philosophy. the first of its kind in Rome. His heirs included four later
Between 150 and 165, he converted to CHRISTIANITY, consuls and NERO’s third wife, Statilia MESSALLINA.
becoming a pupil of JUSTIN MARTYR. Tatian displayed ten-
dencies toward GNOSTICISM, finding full expression for taxation For centuries, the imperial tax system was a
his heretical views during a trip to the East (c. 172), demonstration of the favored status of Rome and Italy,
when he founded the sect of the Encratites, a Gnostic and mirrored Rome’s policy toward its provinces and sub-
group of ascetics. He wrote two important works, the ject peoples. The government of the Republic followed
Oratio ad Graecos (Address to the Greeks), a vicious con- the Greek model in its program of taxation, in that it had
demnation of Hellenic civilization, and the Diatessaron, a no direct taxes, with the exception of emergencies or
history of the life of Christ that remained a doctrinal extraordinary situations. There were, however, forms of
source for the Syrian Church until the fifth century. indirect revenue enhancement. The most important of
these were the 5% charge on the manumission of slaves
Tatianus, Flavius Eutolmius (fl. late fourth century (vicesima manumissionis) and the harbor tax. Allies or
C.E.) Praetorian prefect of the Orient from 388 to 392 clients of Rome did not pay any taxes either, but fulfilled
From LYCIA, Tatianus served as an ADVOCATUS to various their oaths with troops and with ships.
g o v e rnment officials and was appointed praefectus
augustalis of Egypt in 367. In 370, he became head of All of this changed as the Republic acquired
Syria and the Orient (until 374), earning, according to provinces. Each territory had to yield a fixed sum in
LIBANIUS, the reputation of flogging criminals to death. In direct and indirect taxes, but there was no set method for
381, Emperor THEODOSIUS I summoned him back to court , collection. Whatever local system was in place at the time
and in 388 made him Praetorian prefect. He acted as the could be retained so long as it fulfilled the purpose and
main agent of government while Theodosius was in the was reasonably efficient. A more uniform formula for tax-
West. He was made a consul in 391, while his son Procu- ation was put in place by the imperial regime of AUGUS-
lus became prefect of the city of CONSTANTINOPLE. TUS. The key to taxation was the census used in every
province to determine populations. From those figures
came new quotas. Rome and Italy were, of course, spared
every kind of direct tax but continued to pay indirectly.

524 Templeo
 fA
 pollo Temple of Apollo Large temple erected by AUGUSTUS
(Octavian) on the Palatine Hill in Rome in 28 B.C.E., in
Thus the census was increasingly important to the entire honor of his Greek divine patron, APOLLO. Octavian had
imperial financial system. pledged to construct a suitable place of worship to the
god as part of his vows to avenge the death of Julius CAE-
All Roman citizens were immune to direct taxation SAR. Seemingly, Apollo blessed Octavian in this endeavor,
until the year 217 C.E., when CARACALLA issued the mon- for there was a small temple to the god at ACTIUM, over-
umental Constitutio Antoniniana, by which all residents looking the battle that sealed Octavian’s final victory, in
of the empire were given full citizenship. All were now 31 B.C.E. As a clear indication of his devotion to Apollo,
subject to payment, except for Italy, which retained its Augustus had the temple placed next to his own humble
historic privilege until at least the time of DIOCLETIAN in residence on the Palatine. Dedicated in 28 B.C.E., the
the late third century. That emperor ended Italian sanctuary housed both an image of the god and two
supremacy and instituted direct taxation, the same found libraries, one in Greek and the other in Latin.
in every other province.
Temple of Castor and Pollux A shrine dedicated to
The direct tax, collected from the provinces, was the gods Castor and Pollux (the DIOSCURI), situated
called TRIBUTUM. During the Republican era the tributum prominently in the FORUM ROMANUM to honor the deities
consisted of a fixed amount (STIPENDIUM) or a tithe who, according to legend, came to the aid of the Romans
(decumae). With the dawning of the empire and the appli- in 496 B.C.E. at the battle of Lake Regillus against the
cation of the census, more accurate means of judging pop- Latins. For their help, Aulus Postumus Albinus, the com-
ulation were available. Based upon the census figures, a manding general, promised to build them a place of wor-
number of taxable regions per province (areas eligible for ship in the city. The site was well chosen, and the temple
taxation) was found (the iuga or capita), a group of tax- was completed in 484. In design the sanctuary was of
able units that would vary from census to census. From average size, typically rectangular. It required renovation
the capita was calculated how much was owed in the main in 117 B.C.E., by Lucius Dalmaticus, by which time it had
direct tax, the tributum solis or land tax. Anyone who probably accumulated around it many tabernae veteres, or
owned land paid, but provinces also had to make pay- shops and vendors. The presence of these stalls no doubt
ments in other items or services. These included arms, contributed to the destruction of the temple in 14 B.C.E.,
food, and or other supplies for the legions that defended when a fire struck the Forum. TIBERIUS, in Augustus’s
them or the bureaucrats who administered the cities. For name, dedicated the rebuilt temple, the last structure fin-
those who did not own land there was a different tax, the ished in the Augustan principate, in 6 C.E. GAIUS
tributum capitis, or poll tax. All members of this group CALIGULA, in 40, turned the temple into a vestibule, cut-
who were over the age of 20 or 25, male or female, were ting the temple in two between the statues so that they
liable, but females paid only half. Two forms of the tribu- might act as gatekeepers to his own divine person.
tum capitis existed, one for the country and another for CLAUDIUS returned them to their rightful place in 41. As
the city. Taxes in the city were based on whatever property typical of the decline in Rome, the temple was destroyed
was owned and on wages from a field of work. in the fourth century C.E. and never rebuilt. Of interest
was the 1985 discovery by archaeologists of 86 teeth near
Collection was in the hands of the provincial govern- the ancient entrance to the temple; the teeth belonged to
ment, trickling down to the local community and the the patients of a dentist who operated out of a nearby
exactores, the loathed tax collectors. The treatment given taberna. Popular usage changed the name of the temple to
to Matthew in the New Testament accounts was very typ- Aedes Castoris, or Temple of Castor.
ical, while in some regions any protest against the empire
was often started with the wholesale slaughter the tax Temple of Concord One of the numerous temples
collectors, the most prominent image of imperial tyranny. within Rome’s FORUM ROMANUM; dedicated to the goddess
In the later years of the empire all means were used to Concordia, a minor deity of unity. The first temple was
ensure the acquisition of revenues, the main burden founded by Marcus Furius Camillus in 367 B.C.E.; the site
falling on DECURIONES, or local magistrates. Any arrears chosen was the comitium, or meetingplace of the Patri-
in taxes had to be paid by them, an arduous and expen- cians. A new Temple of Concord was ordered to be built
sive obligation that could lead to imprisonment, torture, sometime after the death of Gaius Gracchus, by the
and even death if not fulfilled. unpopular consul Opimius (c. 121 B.C.E.), and yet
another one was created by TIBERIUS in honor of himself
The indirect system of taxation was considerably and his brother DRUSUS in 10 C.E. In the Forum
adjusted by the fiscal policy of Augustus. Citizens had to Romanum, the temple occupied the position just behind
pay the harbor tax but new taxes were added as well. A the later Arch of Severus, next to the Temple of Vespasian
4% tax on the price of slaves formed the quinta et vices-
ima manicipiorum, while the tax on manumission contin-
ued. The centesima rerum venalium levied a 1% charge on
all goods sold at auction, and the vicesima hereditatum et
legatorum imposed a 5% tax on inheritance of estates over
100,000 sesterces by persons other than the next of kin,
or on all willed legacies.

and the Dungeons of TULLIANUM. African marble was Templeo
 f
Jerusalem,G
 reat 525
used in the construction of the lost temple, and the inte-
rior was apparently well decorated. The SENATE met there Temple of Divus Claudius Temple constructed to
often, including the day in 31 C.E. when it condemned the deified Emperor CLAUDIUS upon the Caelian Hill.
the Praetorian Prefect SEJANUS to death. Emperor NERO probably began construction of the sanc-
Temple of Divus Augustus The sanctuary con- tuary, setting it along the route of the Aqua Claudia, the
structed by Emperor TIBERIUS and his mother LIVIA in 14 aqueduct feeding that part of the city. The emperor appar-
C.E. as part of the ceremonies surrounding the deification ently wished the outside of the temple to be decorated
of AUGUSTUS following his death. Where the temple was with fountains but focused so ardently upon this aspect
positioned has not been verified, but literary evidence of the construction that the temple itself was left incom-
places it between the Palatine and Capitoline hills. Quite plete. VESPASIAN, who came to power in 69 C.E., took
possibly it was placed near the BASILICA JULIA, in the upon himself the task of finishing the building. Despite
Velabrum. Augustus’s temple was an example not only of its impressive arching, the shrine was never a major place
the aggrandizement of the cult of the emperor, the iMPE- of worship.
RIAL CULT, but also of the psychology of Tiberius and
GAIUS CALIGULA. Tiberius ensured that the building was Temple of Divus Julius Small shrine devoted to the
completed and then dedicated other edifices in his name. memory of Julius CAESAR that occupied one of the main
Gaius Caligula seemingly began his reign with a dedica- axis points of the FORUM ROMANUM. It was positioned
tion to Augustus at the temple but then desecrated the directly across the Forum from the TEMPLE OF CONCORD
sanctity of it with a bridge over the temple and connect- and was surrounded by some of the most beautiful edi-
ing his palace to the Capitoline and the TEMPLE OF fices in Rome, the BASILICA AEMILIA, TEMPLE OF VESTA,
JUPITER. CLAUDIUS deified Livia in 41, and put a statue to TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX, and the BASILICA JULIA.
her in the shrine. Caesar’s temple was promised to him by Octavian (AUGUS-
TUS) as his avenger in 42 B.C.E. The site chosen was the
The Temple of Castor (Courtesy Fr. Felix Just, S.J.) very spot where Caesar was cremated after his assassina-
tion. Although work probably began and continued
throughout the 30s, the temple was not dedicated until 29
B.C.E., by Octavian. It was part of his deliberate program
to honor his family, while making Rome more grand.

Temple of Isis The sanctuary of the Egyptian goddess
found in the CAMPUS MARTIUS. Worship of Isis was
brought to Rome from the Nile, finding acceptance
among the inhabitants but kept out of the POMERIUM (the
sacred boundary) by the SENATE to preserve the inviola-
bility of Roman social tradition. In 52 and 48 B.C.E., the
Senate ordered her place of worship in Rome destroyed.
Each time her devotees returned, and a new temple was
decreed in 42 B.C.E. Official support for Isis came during
the reign of GAIUS CALIGULA (37–41 C.E.), when this tem-
ple was ordered built to her in the Campus Martius.
Although still outside the pomerium, Gaius ensured that
Isis was surrounded by other beautiful structures, includ-
ing the PANTHEON and the BATHS of Agrippa. In 80, a fire
destroyed much of the area, but DOMITIAN saw to the
repair of the temple, and a final renovation was made
during the time of SEVERUS ALEXANDER (222–235).

Temple of Jerusalem, Great The center of worship
in JERUSALEM that served for centuries as the heart of
JUDAISM. Its destruction in 70 C.E. had a profound effect
upon the Jewish religion and upon Jewish history. Biblical
scholars consider that there were three such temples in
Jerusalem: the first was Solomon’s temple, built in the
10th century B.C.E; a second was named after Zerubabel,
the local Persian governor at the time of reconstruction
(c. 520 B.C.E.); and the third and most famous was

526 Temple
of
Jupiter
Capitolinus reduced to rubble. The Flavians then repaired the dam-
age, only to have it burned again in 80. Completely
Herod’s temple (c. 19 B.C.E.), an improvement completed restored, the temple served for centuries as one of the
to Herod’s grand design. The last two temples figure leading symbols of PAGANISM in Rome.
prominently in Roman relations with the Jews.
Temple of Mars Ultor Shrine constructed by
In 63 B.C.E., POMPEY THE GREAT captured Jerusalem Emperor AUGUSTUS in honor of Mars Ultor, or Mars the
and desecrated the temple by entering the Holy of Holies, Avenger, and placed in the most prominent position in
though he did not touch anything there. His fellow tri- the FORUM AUGUSTUM. In 42 B.C.E., before the battle of
umvir CRASSUS (1), however, plundered the temple tre a- PHILIPPI, Octavian made a pledge to build a temple to
s u ry of 2,000 silver talents. HEROD THE GREAT became the Mars if he should prove victorious. As both BRUTUS and
king of JUDAEA in 37 B.C.E. and 18 years later began work CASSIUS were killed in the battle, Octavian felt certain that
on redesigning the entire structure. To convince the Jews Mars had been on his side. As Mars was also the sup-
of his plans, he had to finish all preparations for the new posed founder of the Julian gens (or clan), Augustus
temple before touching a stone of the old edifice. In the chose to situate the temple in his own Forum. The
end, the temple complex was very pleasing. Gold covered Forum was dedicated in 2 B.C.E., and the temple itself
the temple, with a sanctuary along Solomonic dimensions, contained statues of Mars, Venus, and the deified Julius
and the stru c t u re was placed on a large platform; the CAESAR—also the legionary standards lost at CARRHAE in
entire area was decorated with gates and columns. Further 55 B.C.E. but restored to Rome in 20 B.C.E. As the
building made the temple a key part of Jerusalem. Avenger, Mars Ultor received gifts from those who had
achieved vengeance upon their enemies, such as GAIUS
During the Jewish Revolt, it was clear to the Romans CALIGULA, who murdered Lepidus in 39 C.E. and, as
not only that Jerusalem was the focus of the entire war, though he had prevented his own assassination, sent
but also that the Great Temple had to be captured. Thus, three daggers in gratitude to the shrine.
when General TITUS laid siege to the city in 70, the entire
operation was aimed at reaching the holy site. There has Temple of Peace Also called the Forum of Peace and
been debate as to whether or not Titus wanted the temple the Forum of Vespasian; the so-called Templum Pacis was
destroyed; JOSEPHUS the historian argued against this, but the creation of Emperor VESPASIAN, who began the work
other sources pointed to Titus’s acquiescence. In any in 71 C.E., and dedicated the entire structure in 75. The
event, the entire building was burned, except for two Temple of Peace was one of numerous architectural pro-
gates, its defenders dying rather than surrendering. The jects started by Vespasian to celebrate both the triumph
vessels of the temple that could be rescued were gathered of Rome over the Jews and the return of tranquility to the
up and carried by Titus’s aides in his triumph in Rome. Roman world. Desiring to find a prominent location for
the sanctuary, Vespasian chose one of the last remaining
Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus The great structure sites available in the vast complex of the Roman forums,
devoted to Jupiter Optimus Maximus (Jupiter Greatest just to the north of the FORUM ROMANUM and to the east
and Brightest) on Rome’s Capitoline Hill. If the broad of the FORUM TRANSITORIUM. Within the temple were
state RELIGION of Rome had an emotional or divine cen- stored the many items removed from JERUSALEM and
ter, it was here, beneath the gilded roof of this vast brought to Rome by TITUS. A fire destroyed the temple in
shrine, where JUPITER, aided by MINERVA and JUNO, looked 192, but Septimius SEVERUS repaired it, placing within it a
down upon the Eternal City. marble model of Rome.

The Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was very old, dat- Temple of Saturn One of the oldest temples in Rome,
ing to 509 B.C.E., when it was dedicated. It was built located in the FORUM ROMANUM and fulfilling both a reli-
under the influence of the Etruscans; altars were erected gious and a political function. Dedicated in 498 or 497
not just to Jupiter but also to Juno and Minerva, the three B.C.E., the Temple of Saturn was near the TEMPLE OF CON-
major deities of the Roman religion: Jupiter as supreme CORD on the southwestern edge of the great Forum
god, Minerva as patroness of the arts and reason, and Romanum. Later, the BASILICA JULIA was constructed near
Juno in her incarnation as Moneta, goddess of finance. it. Aside from the statue of SATURNUS, the government
Here the consuls came upon entering office to sacrifice placed within the shrine the state treasury, or AERARIUM.
white bulls, and it was to Jupiter that a victorious general Subsequently, the treasury was known as the Aerari Sat-
rode in a chariot as part of his triumph. urni.

Because of its position on the Capitol, the temple fig- Temple of Vesta The home of the goddess of the
ured in numerous historical events. It was burned in 83 Roman hearth. As VESTA was both an ancient deity and an
B.C.E. and rebuilt. Emperor GAIUS CALIGULA connected it
to his palace on the Palatine by building a bridge over the
TEMPLE OF DIVUS AUGUSTUS. In 69 C.E., the brother of VES-
PASIAN, Flavius SABINUS, took refuge on the Capitoline
from the aggression of Emperor VITELLIUS. He sealed up
the entrance to the temple and was besieged. As a result
of bitter fighting, virtually the entire structure was

important one in terms of the Roman state, her temple Tertullian 527
was situated in the FORUM ROMANUM, eventually located
near the temples of Castor and Divus Julius, and the Arch pated in the Parthian War, had Caesar not been assassi-
of Augustus. King Numa (c. 700 B.C.E.) was the builder nated. His successor Octavian (AUGUSTUS) used the
of the original temple of Vesta, choosing a round shape, legionaries throughout the civil war with Marc ANTONY,
probably imitating the original circular hut where she but after the battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E. he disbanded
was worshiped. There was no statue of Vesta to be found, the nucleus of the legion. The replacements had no sense
rather she was represented by an eternal flame. Anyone of the original esprit de corps and the unit became once
could enter during the day, but admission was restricted more the Legio X Fretensis. It had a long career during
to the interior, where relics of Vesta were safeguarded, the imperial epoch, including participation in the Jewish
and at night all men were refused entry. War (c. 66–70 C.E.).

Temples of Minerva Three notable sites of worship, Terentia (fl. late first century B.C.E.) Wife of Maecenas
particularly the shrine at the TEMPLE OF JUPITER CAPITOLI- Reportedly a very beautiful woman, Terentia was loved
NUS, that honored this goddess. As Moneta, or patroness desperately by Emperor AUGUSTUS. She may have been
of finance, Minerva had a chapel in the temple of Jupiter one of the reasons for his leaving Rome in 16 B.C.E. to
and two other temples, one in the FORUM TRANSITORIUM tour provinces and was possibly a cause for the deterio-
and one called Minerva Chalcidica, both constructed rating relationship between her husband and the
under the patronage of DOMITIAN, who revered the deity emperor. That Augustus admired her was certain, despite
with fervor. Minerva’s temple in the Forum Transitorium the fact that her brother, Licinius MURENA, was executed
was the principle feature of the area. With columns sup- in 22 B.C.E. for conspiracy against him.
porting the entire forum, the temple itself was dominated
by a statue of the goddess. Domitian died before he could Terentius, Marcus (fl. first century C.E.) Intimate asso-
complete his work, but NERVA finished the project, dedi- ciate of the Praetorian Prefect Sejanus spared by Emperor
cating it in 97 C.E. The first temple of Minerva Chalcidica Tiberius, because of his honest (and ingenious) defense
had been built in 29 B.C.E. by AUGUSTUS, but another tem- When placed on trial for his friendship with the fallen
ple of interest was erected in the Campus Martius by PRAETORIAN PREFECT, Terentius, a knight, refused to deny
Domitian, near the PANTHEON and the BATHS of Agrippa. his status as a client but exclaimed loudly that, on the
contrary, he had pursued the favor of Sejanus. After all,
Tenth Legion One of the most famous legions in the he argued, Sejanus had been honored by Tiberius, and “if
Roman army. Julius CAESAR’s Tenth Legion was involved the emperor did no wrong in having such a friend neither
in the GALLIC WARS and in the CIVIL WAR with POMPEY THE did I; if one such as he was deceived by the Prefect, what
GREAT, as the “Old Guard” of Julius Caesar. The Legio X surprise is there that I was deceived? It is our duty to
Fretensis, as it was known by its contemporaries, was the regard highly all whom the emperor trusts, regardless of
elite inspiration for Roman legions throughout the what kind of men they might be—all that matters is that
Republic. References to its battlefield achievements were they please the emperor.” He was immediately acquitted.
considerable, as the cohorts assumed near-heroic propor-
tions. Caesar first encountered the Tenth in Helvetia, Tertullian (Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullian)
when he arrived in Geneva to assume control of Gaul. He (c. 160–c. 222) Apologist, Christian theologian, and con-
immediately marched the Tenth off to battle against troversialist
migrating Helvetians. Henceforth, the soldiers of the Born in Carthage, North Africa, Tertullian was the son of
legion were ever at his side. One of the earliest and most a Roman soldier, probably a centurion. Raised as a pagan,
dramatic episodes of bravery came in 58 B.C.E. in the he studied law and Latin and Greek literature. He became
struggle with the German chieftain Ariovistus. Facing a a lawyer and adherent to STOICISM before settling in
shortage of cavalrymen, Caesar selected certain soldiers Rome, where he acquired an excellent reputation as a
from the Tenth, and put them on mounts. The legion jurist. Appalled by the state of social decay, he was drawn
subsequently was known as the Legio X Equestris, or to Christianity and converted c. 195–196. He re t u rned to
Legion of the Knights. C a rthage and became a defender of the new faith, also
devoting his time to teaching. According to St. Jerome,
At the battle of PHARSALUS in 48 B.C.E., against Pom- Te rtullian was ordained a presbyter around 200. By 207,
pey, the cohorts served as the anchor of Caesar’s line. however, he had become disillusioned with the African
Positioned on the right flank, where Caesar knew the Church, turning to the Montanist movement, which
main Pompeian blow would fall, the Tenth successfully offered a strict morality and a rigorous lifestyle. He for-
withstood a furious assault, holding the flank long mally joined the Montanists in 211, but even they were
enough for Caesar to make his devastating counterattack not sufficiently rigorist for Te rtullian; he left the here-
and win the day. The legion no doubt would have partici- tical sect and established his own group, called the Te r-
tullianists.

528 tessera (see COLOSSEUM). Bronze tokens, called tesserae frumen-
tariae or tesserae nummariae, were part of the CONGIAR-
While he wrote against Catholic teaching during his IUM or gifts of food given out to the lower classes of
Montanist period, Tertullian did retain many orthodox Rome. Such coins were distributed to the crowds, either
beliefs. His orthodox writings include the famous Apolo- in an orderly fashion or by throwing large quantities right
geticus (c. 197), a popular treatise refuting the charges into the throng, thus giving the more cynical emperors
then being hurled against Christianity; Ad nationes (To amusement. Tesserae were normally minted for special
the nations), an apology on which the Apologeticus was occasions, such as anniversaries of imperial accession or
based; Ad martyres (To the martyrs), in praise of martyrs; for birthdays.
De praescriptione hereticorum (c. 200; Prescription against
the heretics), attacking heresies then facing the faith; De Tetrarchy The system of shared imperial rule estab-
spectaculis (On shows), about pagan spectacles; De ora- lished in 293 C.E. by Emperor DIOCLETIAN. It remained
tione (On prayer); De baptismo (On baptism); De paeni- the accepted, albeit increasingly chaotic, form of govern-
tentia (On penance); De Testimonio animae (On the ment until around 308–309, when it broke apart com-
testimony of the soul), a declaration of the natural recog- pletely. The idea of joint rule of the Roman Empire was
nition of the existence of God; De cultu feminarum (On not original. MARCUS AURELIUS (ruled 161–180 C.E.) had
the apparel of women); and Adversus Marcionem (207; asked the SENATE to elevate Lucius VERUS to the post of
Against Marcion), a relentless criticism, in five books, of coemperor, and other emperors had ensured a stable suc-
the heretic Marcion and his doctrine concerning the cession by appointing their sons as equals in imperial
nature of Christ. power. Diocletian, however, desired a process in which
stability would be guaranteed beyond one or two reigns.
His works as a Montanist include De idolatria (On He understood that the empire was now too vast and
idolatry), a strict interpretation of Christian morality; De complex to be administered by only one man. Help was
carne Christi (On the flesh of Christ); De resurrectione car- needed, and the tetrarchy would provide it.
nis (On the resurrection of the flesh); De fuga in persecu-
tione (On flight in persecution); De exhortatione castitatis In essence, the tetrarchy was a concordia between two
(On the exhortation to chastity); De jejunio (On fasting); senior emperors, each known as an Augustus and two Cae-
De monogamia (On monogamy); Ad Scapulam (To sares, or lieutenant-emperors. They were to be masters of
Scapula), an open letter dated to 212 and sent to the pro- the Roman world, working in close cooperation and labor-
consul of Africa Scapula condemning his persecution of ing for the good of all. Although they might be forced to
Christianity. His last known treatise was De pudicitia (On reside or fight at opposite ends of the provinces, it was
modesty), questioning the measure of Pope Callistus I in understood that they shared in the rank of Augustus and
making more lenient the penance required of Christians. were heads of only one empire, not of an Eastern or West-
e rn terr i t o ry. They would not necessarily be the son of the
Considered the first true theologian of the West, he is reigning Augustus but would be the most qualified officials
distinguished as the first Christian author to compose available. A connection to the imperial family could be
chiefly in Latin. He utilized in his theology a legally exact a rranged through marriage to cement the political union.
mind, creating a comprehensive body of Latin terms that Theoretically sound, the system worked temporarily.
was ideally suited to the spread of the Christian faith
throughout the West and the rapid development of theol- Diocletian laid the groundwork for his great experi-
ogy. His contributions would earn him the eventual title ment by promoting his friend MAXIMIAN to the rank of
of Father of Latin Theology and would influence the the- Augustus (or coemperor), this after Maximian had
ological life of the Western Church for the next millen- defeated the Bagaudae in Gaul, thus proving his worthi-
nium. He mistrusted philosophy, holding it to be the ness for such a high office. By 286 there were two emper-
source of all heresy, using it only as a tool rather than as a ors (or Augusti); during the years of military campaigns
source of truth. that followed, struggles that would have exhausted one
monarch were less taxing on two. In 293, having gained
Suggested Readings: Barnes, Timothy David. Tertullian: A confidence in the arrangement, Diocletian named two
Historical and Literary Study. New York: Oxford Univer- Caesars (or subemperors), CONSTANTIUS I CHLORUS, and
sity Press, 1985; Osborn, Eric. Tertullian, First Theologian GALERIUIS. The provinces were then handed out for each
of the West. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University tetrarch to patrol and administer.
Press, 1997; Rankin, David. Tertullian and the Church.
Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1995; Ter- Aided by Galerius, Diocletian took the East, specifi-
tullian. Apology. Translated by T. R. Glover. Cambridge, cally Bithynia, Arabia, Africa, and Egypt, with Galerius
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998. in ILLYRICUM and Asia, as well as most of Asia Minor.
Maximian, with Constantius as Caesar, possessed Rome,
tessera Ticket or token. Tesserae were used as tickets Italy, Sicily, Western Africa, and probably Hispania. Con-
of admission to game or circuses. Disk-shaped, the stantius was given the troubled regions of Britain and
tesserae identified the seat number and section of a the- Gaul. Soon after the installations, frontier troubles and
ater or amphitheater where the holder would be located

rebellions, most notably in Egypt, Africa, and Britain, Teutons 529
put the tetrarchy to its first test. They all handled mat-
ters easily, justifying Diocletian’s act of placing the twin rivals for supreme control, and in 323 Constantine won
dynasties under the protection of Jove (Jupiter) for him- the battle of ADRIANOPLE. The tetrarchy became only a
self, and Hercules for Maximian. From 293 to 305 the memory.
reign of the four emperors worked effectively. By 303,
Diocletian was preparing to retire but found that Max- Tetricus, Gaius Pius Esuvius (fl. third century C.E.)
imian did not share his desire to give up his exalted Last of the Gallic usurpers
rank. Persuaded by Diocletian in 305, Maximian stepped Tetricus reigned in Gaul from 270 to 273. A senator from
down on May 1. Diocletian re t i red at Nicomedia in an old noble family, he was serving in Gallia Aquitania as
Bithynia, and Maximian did the same at Milan. Galerius governor in 270 when the army proclaimed him emperor.
immediately took up his duties in the East and Constan- His decision to elevate his son to the rank of Caesar did
tius in the West. nothing to help a regime that was soon troubled with bar-
barian inroads along the Rhine and a resurgent central
CONSTANTINE, the son of Constantius, and MAXEN- government under AURELIAN. Tetricus very wisely submit-
TIUS, son of Maximian, soon felt that they were entitled to ted to Aurelian in 273 and was allowed to retire (his son
a place in the new scheme of things; but they were eventually taking his place in the SENATE).
ignored, as the rank of Caesar went to SEVERUS II and
MAXIMINUS DAIA. Both Caesars were political clients of Teutoburg Fore s t Site of a massacre in 9 C.E. in Ger-
Galerius, who was now preeminent. The following year, mania in which the Roman General Quinctilius VARUS
Constantius died at Eburacum (York), and Constantine was annihilated by the Cheruscan leader, ARMINIUS. For-
was hailed by the troops in Britain as his successor. To ever after, the Teutoburg Forest was seen as one of the
avoid civil war, Galerius named Severus the Augustus in worst defeats ever inflicted on a Roman army. After the
the West and made Constantine his Caesar. Maxentius successful campaigns of Drusus the Elder, TIBERIUS and
was angered by this act and, with the help of Rome’s pop- other legates in Germania, Emperor AUGUSTUS decided
ulace and the PRAETORIAN GUARD, declared himself to push for full provincial development of the wild Ger-
emperor. man interior. To accomplish this the emperor appointed
Va rus to be governor. Va rus had a reputation more for
Galerius ordered Severus to march on Italy, only to administration than martial skill and seemed the perfect
have Maximian come out of retirement. Severus was choice for the intense Romanization of the Germanic
defeated and later killed. Galerius took up the campaign, tribes.
failing almost as badly. Meanwhile, Constantine married
Fausta, daughter of Maximian, and the old emperor him- Unfortunately, Augustus was overly optimistic about
self tried to overthrow his son Maxentius, who was forced the temperament of the Germans. When revolts erupted
to flee to Constantine when he failed. The entire fabric of under the leadership of Arminius and his Cheruscans,
government was thus rent. Galerius and his colleagues Varus was ill-equipped to meet the challenge. He rashly
consequently summoned Diocletian from his gardens at departed from his summer camp, moving over impossible
Split and convened the Conference of Carnuntum in 308. terrain and listening all the while to his German advisers.
With Diocletian’s help the tetrarchy was supposedly They led him through the Teutoburg Forest where,
restored. Galerius was to be the Augustus, alongside bogged down by his baggage train and unable to meet
LICINIUS, with Maximinus Daia and Constantine as Cae- any attack, he was suddenly assaulted by the Cherusci
sars. Maxentius was outlawed, and Maximian ordered to and their few German allies.
return to retired life.
As was the case at ADUATUCA many years before, the
Events had taken such a turn that no such easy a Romans put up the best resistance they could, but Varus
solution was possible. Maximian tried to conspire against lost heart and killed himself. His lieutenants fought
Constantine and had to be besieged at Massilia in 310, bravely but were outnumbered and unable to move. A
where he died, possibly a suicide. Maxentius refused to slaughter ensued as three legions were hacked to pieces,
yield Italy, and Maximinus Daia, outraged at being passed the few survivors being placed in wicker cages and
over in favor of Licinius, claimed the title for himself. At burned alive. Rome’s forts east of the Rhine fell to the tri-
one point there were as many as six Augusti: Galerius, umphant Germans, and the empire received a terrible
Maximinus Daia, Maximian, Licinius, Maxentius, and blow to its expansion policy for the region.
Constantine. Maximian’s death pointed the way to a last-
ing political answer, the eradication of the claimants, one Teutons One of the largest Germanic tribes of antiq-
by one. uity. The Teutons, or Teutones, lived in the region of the
Baltic Sea, near Jutland, with the equally extensive Cim-
Precisely what Diocletian had hoped to avoid was bri. Sometime in the late second century B.C.E., both peo-
now inevitable. Galerius succumbed to illness in 311, and ples moved from their northern homes, marching
the following year Constantine crushed Maxentius and through the Celtic peoples of Gaul and hoping to settle in
Licinius defeated Maximinus Daia. That left only two