Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire - 667 pages.

430 phoenix ate steps to improve relations. He refused to support a
rival claimant, Tiridates, although the usurper tried
phoenix Legendary bird that had the capacity to be repeatedly to overthrow Phraates. In the negotiations that
born again from its own ashes. Its appearance was con- followed with Rome, Phraates neglected to give back the
sidered an omen of impending death and the start of the legionary standards that had been captured over the
new era, as in late 36 C.E. when bird’s appearance was years. To force matters, Augustus ordered Tiberius to
believed to prophesy Tiberius’s death. The phoenix was organize an army and march it to Armenia. Not desiring a
adopted by Christians as a symbol of the resurrection. war, Phraates took the unpopular step of restoring the
Lactantius, in de Ave Phoenice (On the phoenix), gave it a standards to the Romans in 20.
special significance to Christ.
Relations with Augustus remained cordial. Around
Phraataces (d. 4 C.E.) King of Parthia from 2 B.C.E. to 10 or 9 B.C.E., Phraates even sent his four sons to Rome.
4 C.E. His motivation was probably fear of assassination or
The son of King PHRAATES IV and an Italian slave girl who usurpation. Phraates, however, was sent a gift by Augus-
had been a gift to the monarch from Augustus, Phraataces tus, a slave girl named Thesmusa, who bore him an ille-
was initially considered illegitimate, Phraataces became a gitimate son, PHRAATACES. He loved her, eventually
genuine heir when Phraates married the slave, made her marrying her and changing her name to Thea Musa.
his queen and changed her name from Thesmusa to Thea Phraataces thus became heir apparent and in 2 B.C.E.
Musa. Phraates replaced his sons with Phraataces, send- murdered his father for the throne.
ing them to Rome as willing hostages of Augustus. As the
designated successor to the Parthian throne, Phraataces Phrygia A region of west-central ASIA MINOR. Phrygia
no longer needed his father, murdering him in 2 B.C.E. He was an ancient state, conquered repeatedly but never los-
then began to meddle in the affairs of Armenia, demand- ing its intellectual vitality until quashed by the Persian
ing as his price for peace the return of his brothers. Empire. Roman occupation placed the country in the
Augustus refused, sending Gaius Caesar to the East. province of Asia, later giving a portion of its eastern sec-
Unable to rely upon his nobles, who viewed him as ille- tion to GALATIA. During the years of the Roman Empire,
gitimate and an upstart, Phraataces made a settlement Phrygians were considered slow and stupid. In the sec-
with Rome that secured the recognition by the Roman ond century C.E., Phrygia was the birthplace of the apoca-
Empire of Parthia as a prominent state in the world. lyptic Christian movement of MONTANUS.
Despite this tacit acceptance by Rome, Phraataces was
never successful in gaining the support of his own aris- Piazza Armerina A site in Sicily known for its large,
tocracy. In 4 C.E. he was ousted from power and probably fourth-century C.E. imperial villa. It was originally
murdered by Orodes III. believed that Piazza Armerina had been built for Emperor
Maximian, but recent work has shown that it dates more
Phraates III (d. 57 B.C.E.) King of Parthia from 70 to 57 likely to the reign of Constantine the Great (306–337
B.C.E. C.E.). Architecturally it is sprawling, with baths, audience
Phraates succeeded Sinatruces as king and throughout chambers and numerous rooms. Most were positioned at
the 60s had dealings with Pompey the Great, who was different axes from the others, forming a less structured
settling the question of the East for Rome. His view of style both in terms of the interior and exterior. See also
Roman power in the region shifted from friendly to hos- SPLIT; TIVOLI.
tile and he was one of the monarchs of Parthia to inter-
fere in the neighboring realm of Armenia. He was Picenum One of the regions of Italy, situated on the
assassinated by his two sons, Orodes and Mithridates. Adriatic coast, on the opposite side of the peninsula from
Rome. Picenum spread along the Adriatic and was sur-
Phraates IV (d. 2 B.C.E.) King of Parthia from 38 to 2 rounded by Umbria, Samnium, and Apulia. The region
B.C.E. was conquered by the Romans in 268 B.C.E. and was later
Phraates murdered his father, Orodes, and took the one of the 11 districts of Italy.
crown. Early troubles characterized his reign, for he
could not bring all of the Parthian nobles into his politi- Picts A wild people living in northern Britain (BRITAN-
cal camp. Many he slaughtered, some fled the country. NIA), especially in CALEDONIA. Called “Picts” by the
Only when he had purged the vast domain of unreliable Romans, for their habit of painting their bodies, they
aristocrats and massacred most of his own family did he were probably related to the Caledonians or MAEATAE by
sit with confidence upon the throne. Phraates staved off blood, sharing in their hatred of Rome. In the many wars
the invasion of Parthia by Marc Antony in 36, when his with the Roman army, from 296 C.E. onward, the Picts
General Monaeses handled operations in the field and were frequently allied with the Scots. Constantius I was
administered a humiliating defeat to Antony. Following planning an expedition against them when he died in
the battle of Actium in 31, Augustus had taken immedi-

306. Constans defeated them in 343, and Lupicinus, the Piso,G
 aius
Calpurnius 431
general of Julian, campaigned from circa 359 to 360
against them. Magnus Maximus was hailed by his troops as the Adriatic and Ionian. Inventive solutions were
in 383 after crushing them. When Constantius III left the found to stop local pirates, such as the Liburnians of
islands in 407, however, all of Britain was subject to Epirus, who were hired to build Roman ships. Although
attack by the Picts, Scots, and Saxons. this strategy was effective for over two centuries, by the
middle of the third century C.E., Roman military strength
Pincian Hills See HILLS OF ROME. had declined to such a state that from around 253 to
268 the BLACK SEA was infested with the raiding vessels
Pinus, Cornelius (fl. late first century C.E.) Painter of the GOTHS, who roamed the coasts of Moesia, Thrace,
Pinus worked with Attius Priscus on Emperor Vespasian’s and Asia Minor, burning and destroying everything in
Honos and Virtus Temple. The two were considered the their wake. The Roman recovery begun by Empero r
finest painters in Rome during their age. Claudius II Gothicus helped end the Black Sea instabil-
ity, and a return to a more healthy empire was achieved
piracy Robbery at sea. The citizens of many nations by Diocletian.
ravaged the sea-lanes of the Mediterranean, and the
Romans were no exception to the suffering caused by A new bout of piracy, however, was felt in the north.
piratic attacks. Rome’s problem was made more acute by The gifted admiral CARAUSIUS was named by Diocletian
the rise of the Republic and the acquisition of overseas to clear the sea-lanes on the coasts of Gaul, Britain, and
possessions. The Roman NAVY had never been invulnera- Germany. Germanic raiders were increasingly menacing
ble, as the First Punic War demonstrated in the third cen- the provinces there. He succeeded in his task, but by 287
tury B.C.E. When fighting was necessary against the he was declared a usurper by the imperial government.
pirates of Illyria, the easiest solution was to wage a land But Carausius remained in possession of Britain and
war in Dalmatia. But as the naval arm of the Roman mili- northern Gaul, and only in 293 was his reign ended, as
tary developed, it became possible to take the struggle ALLECTUS, his own minister, murdered him.
directly to the pirates. This policy proved only moder-
ately successful in the second century B.C.E. and early in Henceforth pirates from Germany and along the
the first. From 79 to 68 B.C.E., numerous sorties were entire North Sea coast sailed with impunity. In the early
attempted throughout the Mediterranean, but a lack of fifth century larger invasions of Britain commenced, and
organization in the Senate and the absence of gifted admi- the isle passed out of Roman control. It was a similar
rals made them ultimate failures. story in the Mediterranean. There the Imperial Navy,
debilitated by years of disuse and unable to respond to
All of this changed in 67, when pirate squadrons the challenge of the new VANDAL nation in Africa, saw
from CILICIA were virtually in possession of the Mediter- King Geiseric of the Vandals launch his fleets against
ranean. The Senate, realizing that drastic action was nec- Sicily in 440. The western Mediterranean was now his, as
essary, finally appointed POMPEY THE GREAT, giving him the Roman Empire in the West crumbled.
vast powers and the task of clearing the seas. Sectioning
off the Mediterranean, he used every ship that he could Pisidia Country of wild hill people stretching across
find, strangling the freedom of movement for the Cili- the inland southern regions of ASIA MINOR. Pisidia was
cians while battling them on the water and destroying always trouble to any force of occupation, for its inhabi-
their land bases. Within months his job was finished, and tants were fiercely independent. Attached to the Roman
piracy had been dealt a severe blow. province of GALATIA, Pisidia was subjected to a rigorous
campaign of pacification and Romanization as colonists,
The many years of relative peace on the seas were a veteran Italians, were planted in the territory, centering
testament to Pompey’s success. In 40 B.C.E., however, themselves around ANTIOCH (2), a colony founded by
Sextus POMPEY took up the life of a buccaneer in his effort order of Augustus.
to combat the Second Triumvirate. His ships and men
soon dominated the western Mediterranean, pillaged the Piso, Gaius Calpurnius (d. 65 C.E.) Focal figure in the
west of Italy and occupied Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Pisonian Conspiracy of 65 C.E., the most famous and wide-
This eventually threatened the vital grain supplies of ranging plot against Emperor Nero
Rome. Sextus was not defeated until 36 at the battle of Piso came from the ancient and noble house of the
NAULOCHUS. His vanquisher was Marcus AGRIPPA, the Calpurnii and thus enjoyed a reputation among the pop-
lieutenant of Octavian (AUGUSTUS). ulace that far outweighed his achievements. According to
Tacitus, Piso used his eloquence to defend his fellow citi-
With the founding of the Roman Empire, the Impe- zens, was generous and gracious in speech but lacked
rial Navy stretched its control over the entire Roman earnestness and was overly ostentatious, while craving
world, from the North Sea to the Red Sea, including the the sensual. But his public image convinced many in the
Channel and the Mediterranean and Black seas, as well various ranks of society in 65 C.E. to propose him as their
candidate to replace Nero on the throne. When the entire

432 Piso,
GnaeusC
 alpurnius UMVIRATE to secure for himself the consulship. As a
result of this position he became closer to Caesar and
affair was exposed, Piso refused to make a desperate secured the triumvir’s marriage to his daughter CALPUR-
attempt at winning popular support. Returning to his NIA, but earned the lasting enmity of CICERO by refusing
home, he opened his veins and killed himself. In the to prevent his exile. From 57 to 55 B.C.E. he served as
hope of having his wife, Satria Galla, spared, Piso filled governor of Macedonia. In what was viewed as a very
his will with flattery toward Nero, but his testament unsuccessful term, Macedonia was damaged by Thracian
prompted only torture and death for those who had sup- invasions; upon Piso’s re t u rn to Rome he did not ask for
ported him. a triumph. Cicero, who himself re t u rned in 51, vented
his fury against Piso in his In Pisonem. This speech was
Piso, Gnaeus Calpurnius (d. 19 C.E.) Consul in 7 deliberately cruel, and Cicero made it worse by publish-
B.C.E. ing it. Both in defense of Piso and to demonstrate that a
A successful imperial official whose career and life were client of Caesar could not be maligned, a pamphlet,
destroyed by his running feud with GERMANICUS, Piso probably written by Sallust, was circulated attacking
came from the nobility, enjoying the friendship of the Cicero. Piso held the post of censor in 50. During the
emperors Augustus and Tiberius. He was by nature arro- Civil Wars (See CIVIL WAR, FIRST AND SECOND TRIUMVI-
gant, unpleasant, and violent, a manner made worse by RATE) he preferred to assume a neutral stance, while rely-
his marriage to the high-born and beautiful PLANCINA. In ing on his Caesarean associations to smooth his path
18 C.E. he made himself very useful to Tiberius by accept- with the victors.
ing the post of governor of Syria. Succeeding Creticus
Silanus, Piso understood that he was to act as a counter- Piso, Lucius Calpurnius (2) (d. 32 C.E.) Consul in 15
weight to Germanicus, who had been granted the B.C.E. and a successful general in the service of Emperor
IMPERIUM MAIUS, with total control of the East. Piso took Augustus
Tiberius to mean that he should work against Germani- Piso had the rare distinction of a natural death. He served
cus, and thus, from the start, attempted to undermine probably with P. Sulpicius Quirinius in Galatia, where
both his authority and his command of the legions there. both tried to establish Roman control over the region. In
A bitter hatred developed in Agrippina the Elder, Ger- Thrace, however, he gained his greatest victory. Sum-
manicus’s wife, even as Germanicus tried to keep the situ- moned to the territory around 13 (or 12) B.C.E., Piso
ation from erupting into a serious hostility. found the tribes there in revolt. Three years of fighting
were needed before the Thracians could be pacified. For
It was unfortunate that Germanicus should die under his success Piso was given triumphal honors in Rome.
suspicious circumstances in 19. Germanicus supposedly The exact date of his assuming his duties as PREFECT OF
accused Piso and Plancina of his murder as he died, and THE CITY is unclear. He succeeded Statilius Taurus, possi-
Agrippina not only carried on a campaign of charges but bly in 12 C.E., before the death of Augustus. During that
also included Tiberius and Livia in her accusations. Piso time he earned the title pontifex and the reputation of
did little to help his own cause by offering a sacrifice of being tactful and subtle in the execution of his broad
thanks to the gods upon Germanicus’s demise. A trial fol- powers. Piso died in 32 C.E., and Tiberius gave him a lav-
lowed before the Senate, and Piso expected Tiberius to ish funeral.
come to his aid. The emperor, however, proved moderate
in his dealings with the proceedings. The important Piso Licinianus (d. 69 C.E.) Adopted heir of Emperor
charge of poisoning broke down under scrutiny, but this Galba—briefly—in 69 C.E.
inadequacy proved unimportant because it was obvious Piso Licinianus was a young nobleman, descended from
that the Senate and the Roman people viewed Piso as the Crassus on his paternal side and from Pompey on the
agent of Germanicus’s death anyway and were unforgiv- maternal. Although he possessed no experience in gov-
ing of his treatment of their popular general. ernment, Galba admired his impressive lineage and what
was said to be excellent character. Other candidates had
When Plancina requested that she be allowed to con- been available, the most important being Otho, who had
duct a separate defense, Piso had but one avenue of served as governor of Hispania Lusitania and was of the
escape. After listening to the vicious comments of the opinion that he alone deserved to be Galba’s successor.
Senate he went home, and was found dead the following Piso, however, had the support of Cornelius LACO, prefect
morning, presumably by his own hand. The death left of the Praetorian Guard, and on January 10, 69, was pre-
unanswered questions about Piso’s guilt in Germanicus’s sented before an unenthusiastic Guard. Galba refused to
passing and the degree of Tiberius’s involvement in the see that the grumblings of the Guard were only a fore-
actions of Piso while in Syria. shadowing of brutal events that would come to pass on
January 15. Under the guidance of Otho, the Praetorians
Piso, Lucius Calpurnius (1) (fl. mid-first century
B.C.E.) Consul in 58 B.C.E.
A friend and partisan of Julius CAESAR, Piso used his ties
to Caesar and the members of the newly formed TRI-

assassinated every major figure in the imperial circle, Placidia,
Galla 433
including Galba and Piso, who met his end in the Temple
of Vesta, where he had fled in the vain hope of escaping Placentia City in Gallia Cisalpina about 40 miles
the blades of the assassins. southeast of modern Milan; founded as a Roman colony
circa 219 B.C.E. and located on the Via Aemilia, on the
Pisonian Conspiracy The most famous of many plots right bank of the Po River. In 69 C.E., it was the scene of
to remove Nero from the throne, involving every level of intense fighting in the prelude to the first battle of BEDRI-
Roman society and crushed so pitilessly that a pall of ACUM; and much of the city was damaged.
gloom lingered over the remainder of Nero’s reign.
Already in 62 C.E., there had been talk among those of The first bitter skirmish was fought in April between
senatorial rank, in the nobility and among the Equestri- the converging forces of Emperor Otho and General
ans (EQUITES), that Nero was a disaster, both politically CAECINA ALIENUS, a supporter of the claimant VITELLIUS.
and morally. By 65, Rome had endured the terrible fire Knowing that his troops were too few to oppose success-
and the persecution of the Christians. The small groups fully the larger columns of Vitellius, Otho dispatched
of conspirators united, some favoring the Republic and Annius Gallus and Vestricius Spurinna to northern Italy
others a new emperor, but all agreeing that Nero had to to do what they could. With only three cohorts of the
die. Seneca was suggested as a replacement, until it was Praetorian Guard and some legionaries and cavalry,
decided that Gaius Calpurnius PISO was the best possible Spurinna barricaded himself into Placentia. Caecina
choice. arrived with his army, pushing his units into action.
Amazingly, despite damage to the town, the Praetorians
A list of members in the conspiracy reveals the extent repulsed Caecina so successfully that his frontal assaults
of Nero’s unpopularity. There were the consul Plautius had to be abandoned. As the Othonians lacked enough
Lateranus; the prefect of the Guard Faenius Rufus, joined troops to exploit their advantage, the battle of Placentia
by several tribunes and centurions of the Guard; senators served only to attract the armies of both sides and thus
Afranius Quintianus and Flavius Scaevinus; the knight ensure the first battle of Bedriacum.
Antonius Natalis, as well as Seneca and Lucan. There
were certainly many others involved, a fact that helped to In 270 C.E., Emperor Aurelian was severely defeated
ensure the failure of the conspiracy. The date of the assas- near Placentia by the JUTHUNGI, who had invaded Italy.
sination was to be during the Circensian Games (see Another engagement, fought in early 456 C.E., ended the
LUDI) in late April. This date was probably set too far in reign of Emperor AVITUS. MAJORIAN, a claimant to the
the future, for details of the coup leaked through a freed- throne in the West, found a patron in RICIMER, the MAGIS-
woman, Epicharis, who tried to enroll Volusius Proculus, TER MILITUM, and in 456 moved with an army into Italy to
an officer of the fleet at Misenum. Proculus informed depose Avitus. Gathering forces, the emperor accepted
Nero, but Epicharis died before any names could be battle near Placentia. Unpopular with many elements of
extracted. the government and army, he was unable to hold together
his units, and the result was a crushing defeat. With his
On the night before the fateful day, the freedman general killed, Avitus fled to Placentia, becoming a
Milichus, in the service of Scaevinus, informed on his bishop, but was slain a short time later.
master. One by one the plotters were arrested, and many,
such as Lucan, Natalis, and Scaevinus, told of the others Placidia, Galla (d. 450 C.E.) Mother of Valentinian III
in the hope of staying alive. Nero responded to the plot and Augusta from 421 to 450
by ordering the death of everyone involved. Some met Placidia was one of the most formidable figures of the
their end heroically. Piso, Seneca, and Lucan committed fifth century C.E., the daughter of Emperor Theodosius
suicide. In all, 19 were put to death and 13 exiled. and Empress Galla, born and educated in Constantinople
Equally, membership in the plot was used as a charg e before moving to the West with her half-brother Hono-
against some of Nero ’s later victims, as a useful tool for rius around 395. Living in Rome, Galla Placidia was pre-
execution or murd e r. Tigellinus, the perfect of the sent in 410 for the sack of the city by Alaric and the
Guard, was also given a free hand in hunting down the Visigoths.
emperor’s potential enemies, a task that he fulfilled with
enthusiasm. As a member of the imperial family she fascinated
her barbarian captors, eventually being forced to marry
Pituanius, Lucius (early first century C.E.) Astrologer Alaric’s successor, ATHAULF, in 414. Galla gained consider-
in Rome during the reign of Tiberius (14–37 C.E.) able influence over her husband. Athaulf departed for
In 16 C.E., as part of the emperor’s campaign against Spain with Galla Placidia and their young son, Theodo-
astrologers in Italy, Pituanius was hurled to his death sius. The son died, followed by Athaulf himself. The
from the Tarpeian Rock as a warning to others. princess returned to the status of bargaining tool, this
time in the hands of Wallia, the new Visigothic ruler.
See also ASTROLOGY.
Her predicament would have continued had the
Visigoths not faced difficulties in Spain and suffered mili-
tary reverses at the hands of CONSTANTIUS III, Honorius’s

434 Plancina,
Munatia sar’s assassination in 44, Plancus established colonies at
Raurica (Augst) in 44 and Lugdunum (Lyon) in 43. As
reliable lieutenant. Through negotiations Placidia was head of Gallia Transalpina, Plancus was initially on the
returned to her half-brother, who made her wed Constan- side of the Republic in the war against Marc Antony, but
tius in early 417. This union must have been disagreeable deserted in 42 to Antony’s cause. This transfer of alle-
to Galla Placidia, although it produced another son, giance dealt a cruel blow to Republicanism and caused, in
Valentinian III. When Honorius accepted Constantius as large part, the death of Decimus BRUTUS ALBINUS. As a
his colleague in power, she became Augusta in 421. All lieutenant of Antony, he pursued his master’s interests,
seemed well, until Constantius suddenly died. A dis- refusing to help Fulvia and Lucius Antony conduct the
agreement soon surfaced with Honorius, who apparently PERUSINE WAR against Octavian (AUGUSTUS) in 41 B.C.E.,
developed a passion for Placidia. losing two legions anyway to Marcus Agrippa via defec-
tions.
In 423, Galla Placidia departed for Constantinople,
and Honorius died soon after. After the usurper John had As was the case with other followers of Antony, Plan-
been crushed, she and Valentinian III sailed for Rome in cus was unable to bear the influence of Cleopatra and,
425, where he was to sit upon the Western throne while before Actium, offered his services to Octavian. Not only
she ruled in his name. Her influence was at first unques- did Plancus bring with him great experience in politics
tioned and supreme. Around 433, however, the MAGISTER and war, he also revealed details of Antony’s will that
MILITUM AETIUS emerged as a potential rival. Galla Placidia were confirmed by Octavian’s later seizure of the docu-
tried to replace him with the magister militum BONIFACE ment. Used against Antony, the will was of help in sway-
but failed and lost her power. Defeated, she retired to pri- ing public opinion to Octavian’s side. After Antony’s
vate life as her son came under the influence of Aetius and defeat and death, Plancus was a firm adherent of the
his courtiers. She died on November 27, 450. regime of Octavian, proposing that the month Sextilis be
changed to Augustus (August). That Augustus trusted
Plancina, Munatia (d. 33 C.E.) Wife of Gnaeus him was seen by his position of respect, his lavish spend-
Calpurnius Piso ing on Roman buildings and his position as censor in 22.
Munatia Plancina was probably the granddaughter of the He was a friend and patron of literary figures, including
famous Munatius Plancus. From a wealthy and presti- Horace, who addressed one of his odes to him. Others
gious family, she married Piso, a friend of AUGUSTUS and viewed him harshly. Velleius Paterculus called him a vile
TIBERIUS, while she gained the status of client to LIVIA, an traitor. The tomb of Plancus was a round structure at
association of great importance later. In 18 C.E., Tiberius Gaeta, now part of a castle.
appointed Piso to be governor of Syria, no doubt with
instructions to watch GERMANICUS, who had been ap- Plancus Bursa, Titus Munatius (fl. first century
pointed to the East. Livia perhaps ordered Plancina to vie B.C.E.) Tribune of the Plebs in 52 B.C.E. and the brother of
with Germanicus’s wife, AGRIPPINA THE ELDER. This she Lucius Munatius Plancus
did, and a bitter hatred erupted between the two parties. Titus was involved in the politics of 52 and had a hand in
Thus the death of Germanicus under suspicious circum- the burning of the Curia following the death of CLODIUS
stances was immediately attributed to Piso and Plancina. PULCHER. Put on trial, he was condemned despite the
help of POMPEY THE GREAT. Banished, he nevertheless
Plancina certainly sensed that Piso was doomed, for a returned in time to fight for Marc Antony at the battle of
trial was set before the Senate. As his political future was MUTINA in 43.
ruined, she used her ties to Livia to secure for herself a
secret pardon and then asked for a defense separate from Platonism See NEOPLATONISM; PHILOSOPHY.
his, this despite her friendship with the known poisoner
Martina, who had died suddenly before she could testify Plautianus, Gaius Fulvius (d. 205 C.E.) Prefect of the
at the proceedings. Piso killed himself, and Plancina was praetorian guard during the reign of Septimius Severus
pardoned in 20. Thirteen years passed before Tiberius Coming from Africa, Plautianus possibly was related to
was willing to move against her. The hatred of Agrippina Severus and thus gained a favorable position in the Prae-
and the protection of Livia had shielded her from torians. He was eventually named co-prefect, with Aemil-
Tiberius’s cruel nature, but by 33 both were gone. Con- ius Saturninus, but murdered him sometime around 197
demned for the old crime, she killed herself. C.E. or earlier. Henceforth he ran the Guard by himself,
jealously watching for any possible rivals. As with the pre-
Plancus, Lucius Munatius (fl. first century B.C.E.) fects who preceded him, Plautianus made himself indis-
Consul in 42 B.C.E. and a supporter of Julius Caesar, Marc pensable to the emperor and so acquired both influence
Antony and then Augustus over his master and control over every element of govern-
Plancus began as a legate in the army of Caesar during ment. The historian Dio condemned his corruption by
the Gallic Wars, becoming Caesar’s closest client and
friend. Through the dictator’s patronage he received the
proconsulship of Gaul. As governor, sometime after Cae-

writing that he wanted everything, demanded everything Pl
 e
 b
 e
 i
 a
 n
 s
 435
and took everything, leaving no province or city unplun-
dered. Severus surrendered sway over the empire to him, nothing until 48, when the empress married another
and the consular insignia as well, giving him a consulship paramour, Gaius Silius, in a mock ceremony, an act that
in 203, with Geta, the emperor’s younger son. brought her indiscretions to light. Because of his uncle,
Lateranus was spared by Claudius but was ousted from
In 202, Plautianus became attached officially to the the Senate. In 65, he became one of the ringleaders in a
imperial family through the marriage of his daughter plot to assassinate Emperor Nero. He despised the tyrant,
Plautilla to Geta’s brother, CARACALLA. As a gift to his despite the emperor’s restoration to him of his rights lost
child he had 100 Romans, of all classes, castrated to act in the Messallina affair. When the plot was uncovered,
as her private eunuchs. Caracalla, however, resented the the punishment of death was hurried in his case. Later-
prefect, loathed the daughter and was probably responsi- anus reportedly met his fate (at a site in the modern Porta
ble, in 205, for organizing the plot to destroy Plautianus. Maggiore) with bravery and silence. Tacitus described
Accused of conspiring to murder the emperor, Plautianus him as a big man, firm and resolute in character. Juvenal
was stripped of his offices and put to death. wrote of his luxurious palace on the Caelian Hill as an
example of fallen wealth.
Plautilla (d. 211 C.E.) Wife of Caracalla, from 202 to 205
Daughter of the Praetorian Prefect G. Fulvius PLAU- Plautius Silvanus, Marcus (fl. early first century C.E.)
TIANUS, she was betrothed to Caracalla in 200, she wed Consul in 2 B.C.E. and a successful general in the service of
him in 202, their union proving unhappy, for the imperial Augustus
heir loathed her and resented Plautianus. The perfect fell Marcus Plautius Silvanus held the post of proconsul of
from power in 205, and she learned of his death when Asia before becoming the legate of Galatia. There he pos-
bits of his beard were given to her. She and her brother sibly fought with the local tribesmen, perhaps the Isauri-
Plautius were banished to Lipara, where they lived in ans. In 6 C.E. he marched to the aid of Tiberius in
constant dread. In 211, Caracalla came to the throne and Pannonia with badly needed reinforcements, spending
they were slain. Although her father lavished many gifts the next three years campaigning in Pannonia and
upon her, the stories of her wanton habits and adulteries Illyricum. For his victories he received the ornamenta tri-
were probably untrue. umphalia in 9. Plautius’s two children achieved notoriety.
His son, Plautius Silvanus, committed suicide in 24
Plautius (d. 211 C.E.) Son of Plautianus, prefect of the rather than face condemnation for shoving his wife out of
Praetorian Guard a window. A daughter, Plautia Urgulanilla, married
When his father fell from power in 205 and was exe- Claudius. His mother, Urgulania, was a friend of Livia.
cuted, Plautius and his sister Plautilla were exiled to
Lipara. In 211, he and Plautilla were put to death by Plautius Silvanus Aelianus, Tiberius (d. 62 C.E.)
order of Caracalla, newly ascended to the throne. Consul suffectus in 45 and ordinarius in 74 C.E. and a suc-
cessful general and governor
Plautius, Aulus (fl. first century C.E.) Consul in 29 C.E. Plautius was a legate during the invasion of Britain in 43
and the conqueror of Britain for Emperor Claudius in 43 C.E., where Claudius showed him favor, possibly because
Aulus Plautius had served as the governor of Pannonia, Plautia Urgulanilla, a relative, had once been married to
when Claudius chose him in 43 to lead the Roman inva- the emperor. Appointed legate of MOESIA by Nero, Plau-
sion of Britain. Using superior Roman legions, he tius achieved success along the lower Danube, despite the
defeated the British and Belgic tribes in southern Britain, limited number of troops at his disposal. Much of the
capturing the capital of Camulodonum. Over the next Danube was pacified under his administration, as more
four years he systematically pacified the old kingdom of than 100,000 tribesmen were relocated to the south bank
Cunobellinus, returning to Rome to accept a deserved of the river. Treaties were made with local chieftains, and
OVATIO. According to the historian Tacitus, in 57 he sat in a massive corn supply was made available to Rome. Nero
judgment on his wife, Pomponia Graecina, to determine was typically unwilling to give him any honors, an over-
her guilt or innocence on charges of believing in foreign sight that Vespasian corrected. The new emperor gave
cults (externa superstitio); he found her innocent. him a second consulship in 74, the ornamenta triumphalia
and the governorship of Hispania Tarraconensis. Upon
Plautius Lateranus (d. 65 C.E.) Nephew of Aulus Plau- his return to Rome after serving as governor in Spain (c.
tius, the conqueror of Britain in 43 C.E. 74), Vespasian made him PREFECT OF THE CITY.
In his time, became embroiled in two major scandals,
with Empress MESSALLINA in 48 C.E. and in the PISONIAN Plebeians Also called Plebs; the general populace of
CONSPIRACY in 65. Claudius’s chief secretary was aware Rome, separate from the elite class of the PATRICIANS.
that Lateranus had become Messallina’s lover but did Although tradition stated that Romulus divided the
Roman people into two distinct classes, the differences

436 Pliny
theE
 lder phy, humanity, zoology, botany, medicine, mineralogy, art,
and architecture. In his preface, Pliny wrote that he con-
between the Plebeians and the Patricians were not actually sulted 100 authors and 2,000 volumes, having amassed
felt until the time of the early Republic. According to law 20,000 individual facts. But as Pliny enlarged his work
and custom, the Plebs could not enter the priestly col- with each new discovery, the total number of books listed
leges, hold magistracies or marry into the class of the is over 4,000, and the facts were correspondingly higher.
patricii. They did command certain rights, including posi- Although his approach was unscientific, he nevertheless
tions in the army. The status of the Plebeians was greatly succeeded in compiling a stunning array of data on the
aided by increased organization, to the extent that they important, the trivial and even the absurd, and helped
could challenge the Patricians as a legitimate order. The preserve many fragments of ancient works that would
plebeius ordo soon had its own assemblies, magistrates, and otherwise have been lost.
officials, including TRIBUNES and AEDILES. As the Patricians
dwindled in number by the end of the Republic, the Ple- Pliny the Younger (Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secun-
beians filled the vacuum. In the imperial epoch “Plebeian” dus) (c. 61–122 C.E.) Writer
actually referred to those of the lowest social strata. Born at Comum, Pliny was adopted by his uncle, PLINY
THE ELDER, thus receiving an excellent education at
See also SOCIAL CLASSES. Rome, including instruction by QUINTILIAN. After serving
with a legion in Syria, he embarked upon a senatorial
Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus) (c. 23–79 career. As an ADVOCATUS, he prosecuted several imperial
C.E.) Writer, cavalry commander, and one of the greatest provincial officials for extortion. He was a PRAETOR in 93,
encyclopedists in Roman history next serving as prefect of the aerarium militare and pre-
Pliny was born at Comum, the son of an Equestrian, and fect of the aerarium Saturni from c. 94 to 100 and as con-
received his education probably at Rome. Pursuing an sul in 100. Pliny enjoyed Trajan’s favor and trust, sitting
Equestrian career, he helped create the harbor at Ostia for on the imperial board of advisers, the CONSILIUM PRIN-
Claudius, drained the Fucine Lake and spent 12 years CIPIS. He was sent to Bithynia as a special legate in 110,
with the legions, mainly in Germany. Leader of a cavalry where he died in office.
squadron, he later (54–68 C.E.) wrote on cavalry tactics.
Pliny’s historical notoriety lies in his extensive com-
On the accession of Vespasian in 69, he found an munication with friends and the Emperor Trajan. Two-
imperial patron, first in the new emperor and then in his hundred and forty-seven letters, written between 98 and
son Titus, whom he had known from his days in Germa- 108, survive, including 121 dispatched to Trajan from
nia. He was given a procuratorship, and he also served as before and during his period in Bithynia. His epistulae
an adviser to Vespasian and Titus. Awarded the prefect- were filled with details of the social, political, historical,
ship of the fleet at Misenum, he was there in the summer and domestic events of the time, each centered on a
of 79 when Mount Vesuvius erupted. On August 24, he major theme or idea, especially on government, Chris-
sailed from Misenum to Stabiae to observe the volcano. tianity and the works of his uncle. Aside from the letters,
Poisonous gases killed him as he attempted to gather he also attempted poetry and oratory, and in 100 deliv-
more information for his scientific works. His death was ered Panegyricus to Trajan in the Senate on reception of
recorded by his nephew and adopted son, PLINY THE his consulship.
YOUNGER.
Plotina, Pompeia (d. 121/122 C.E.) Empress from 98
As a writer, Pliny used his vast energies and insa- to 117
tiable curiosity to author numerous histories and studies. The wife of Trajan, Plotina was known for her humility,
Regrettably, only the Natural History survives. Other virtue, and dignity. Dio wrote that when she entered the
works included: De iaculatione equestri, the analysis of imperial palace she exclaimed: “I would leave here the
horse tactics; De vita Pomponi Secundi, a biography of same woman as I now enter.” In 100 she was offered
Pomponius Secundus, a friend and patron; and Bella Ger- the title Augusta but refused it and could not be con-
maniae, a 20-volume history of the wars between Rome vinced to accept the honor until five years later. She bore
and the German tribes down to 47 C.E., later used by Tac- Trajan no children, but at his death in Cilicia in 117, she
itus in both his Annals and Germania. Pliny also wrote played an instrumental role in Hadrian’s adoption as suc-
Studiosi, a three-part guide on oratory; Dubius Sernio, an cessor. Upon her death, he consecrated two temples in
eight-volume treatise on suspect or doubtful language or her honor, in the Forum of Trajan and in Nîmes.
linguistic forms; and A fine Aufidi Bassi, or From Where
Aufidius Bassus Left Off, a continuation of the Roman his- Plotinus (205–270 C.E.) Neoplatonic philosophers
tory of Bassus in 30 books, covering possibly the reigns Plotinus was probably born in Egypt but spoke Greek.
of Claudius and Nero with the civil war of 69, composed After deciding to pursue philosophy, c. 232–233, he spent
in the more liberal times of the Flavians, from 71 to 77.

While knowledge of these works comes only from
descriptions by Pliny the Younger, Pliny’s masterwork
survived: the Naturalis Historia, 37 books with a preface,
index and collections pertaining to the cosmos, geogra-

11 years studying with Ammonius Sarcas in Alexandria. Polemo,
MarcusA
 ntonius 437
In an attempt to learn Eastern or oriental thought, he
joined the expedition of Emperor Gordian III against Per- brother of JUPITER and NEPTUNE. He was married to Pros-
sia (242–245). In 244–245, he moved to Rome, remain- erpina, whom he abducted from the Upperworld. His cul-
ing there as a teacher until his death in Campania. tic rites included the sacrifice of a black sheep, with his
supplicants averting their eyes from the traditionally
Of central importance to Plotinus was the idea of the gloomy statue of the god, wielding his staff over his
One, the source of all things, from which all creation domain. Temples or altars to Pluton were very rare in the
flowed. Individual unification with the One was possible Roman world, for the Romans were reluctant to give
through intense contemplation. It was the duty of all per- prayers to such a fearsome deity.
sons, he believed, to strive toward this goal. Most of Plot-
inus’s doctrines were written only after 255. Fifty-four of See also GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME.
his essays were assembled by his student PORPHYRY and
published early in the fourth century under the title poetry One of the most popular and important forms
Enneads. Augustine is said to have quoted the pagan of self-expression among the Romans. Few peoples pro-
philosopher on his deathbed. duced the variety or the number of geniuses in poetical
writing than the Romans did. From the time of Cicero,
See also NEOPLATONISM. poets played an important role in describing and defining
society, in verse ranging from the epic to the elegiac,
Plutarch (Lucius [?] Mestrius Plutarchus) (before bucolic, satiric, and erotic. Like the social system of the
50–after 120 C.E.) Historian, writer, and one of the most time, one could find a poet to satisfy one’s tastes, be it
popular and widely read authors of the ancient world grand as Virgil, raucous as Catullus or biting as Juvenal.
Plutarch was from Chaeronea, born sometime during the
reign of Claudius (41–54 C.E.) He studied at Athens and See LITERATURE for a discussion of poetry in literary
knew Egypt and Italy. Despite a successful tour as lecture r history. See also the individual poets included in this
at Rome, Plutarch spent most of his years in Chaero n e a , volume.
Boeotia, and perhaps as a procurator in Achaea, under
Trajan and Hadrian. Noted for his devotion to the gods, he first century B.C.E. CATULLUS, Gaius Helvius CINNA,
s e rved for 30 years as a priest at Delphi. Among his Cornelius GALLUS, HORACE, Aemilius Macer,
friends were Sosius Senecio and FAVORINUS. Domitius Marsus, OVID, Sextus PROPERTIUS, Albius
TIBULLUS, L. VARIUS RUFUS, VIRGIL.
Plutarch was a prolific author. Most of his writings
a re collectively known as the Moralia; its 78 separate first century C.E. Caecius Bassus, Titus Calpurnius
compositions include works of moral philosophy on Siculus, Saleius Bassus, CORNELIUS SEVERUS, C.
Aristotle, Plato, Epicureanism, Stoicism, and atheism Valerius FLACCUS, Grattius, JULIUS CEREALIS, JUVE-
and dialogues concerning the intelligence of animals NAL, LUCAN, Marcus MANILIUS, MARTIAL, Publius
(De sollertia animalium), the genius of Socrates, and the POMPONIUS SECUNDUS, STATIUS, SULPICIA.
nature of Platonism. Other titles included Advice on Pub-
lic Life, On the Fortune of the Romans, and Roman Ques- second century C.E. Lucius Arruntius Stella,
tions (Quaestiones Romanae), as well as treatises on the HADRIAN, OPPIAN.
raising of children, marriage, divine fortune, and dia-
tribes against Stoicism. But Plutarch’s most famous work third century C.E. COMMODIAN, M. Aurelius NEME-
is his Lives, 23 paired biographies of Greek and Roman SIANUS, Q. Seremus Sammonicus.
historical figures, notable for their vivid, anecdotal narr a-
tive style and historical detail. Written in the first cen- fourth century C.E. AUSONIUS, Postumus Avienus,
tury C.E., Plutarch’s Lives prefigures the great second CLAUDIAN, Gaius Vettius JUVENCUS, PALLADAS,
century C.E. movement to formalize the synthesis of PAULINUS OF NOLA, Publilius Optatianus PORFY-
Rome and Greece. RIUS, PRUDENTIUS, QUINTUS OF SMYRNA, SYNESIUS
OF CYRENE, TIBERIANUS.
Pluton Roman name for the god of DEATH, or the
underworld. Confused with the older god of the dead, fifth century C.E. Flavius MEROBAUDES (2).
Orcus, Pluton, or Pluto, allowed the Romans to make ref-
erence to this feared deity without having to say his Polemo, Marcus Antonius (c. 88–145 C.E.) Noted
dreaded name: Hades. “Pluton” came from his association Greek rhetorician and Sophist
as the giver of wealth, for he controlled all that came Polemo came from Laodicea but spent most of his life at
from the earth. In this way he was similar to Dis Pater, SMYRNA. As one of the leading orators of his generation,
the wealthy god of death. According to the Romanized Polemo was an associate and friend of Emperor HADRIAN,
Greek pantheon, Pluton was the son of Saturn and the accompanying him on the imperial tour of Greece. In a
cause of improving the status of his adopted city of
Smyrna, he spoke before the emperor, winning his favor
at the expense of the rival city EPHESUS. This speechmak-
ing was both a professional and a personal challenge, for
Ephesus was represented by Polemo’s archenemy, FAVORI-
NUS. In 130, the Athenians asked Polemo to give an ora-

438 Polemo
I With his host of Visigoths, Alaric passed over the Italian
Alps, probably captured Aquileia and moved toward
tion at the start of the Olympics in Athens. He claimed as Milan, where a terrified Honorius demanded that Stilicho
his greatest pupil Aristides. come to his aid. Stilicho was busy that winter, defeating
another barbarian ruler, Radagaisus, before moving to
Polemo I (d. 8 B.C.E.) King of Pontus Italy in February of 402.
Son of the great orator Zeno of Laodicea and a reliable
client to Marc ANTONY, Polemo was appointed him ruler To prepare for Stilicho, Alaric maneuvered his forces
of Cilicia Tracheia around 39 B.C.E. As Antony later gave to Hasta (Asti) and then took up a position at Pollentia
that domain to Cleopatra, he was forced to find a new (Polenza). Stilicho advanced, accepted the confrontation
kingdom for Polemo, settling on the vacant throne of and a great slaughter ensued. Details of the battle are
Pontus. This was a more than suitable gift, for not only unclear, except that the losses on both sides were heavy.
did Polemo now control Pontus, but Antony gave him as At day’s end, Stilicho had the upper hand but refused to
well parts of Bithynia, the Upper Euphrates and Armenia exploit it. Instead, he negotiated a Visigothic withdrawal
Minor. Polemo remained loyal to Antony, serving as a from Italy. While he could claim that Rome was saved,
watcher on Parthia’s northern flanks during Antony’s war Stilicho knew that Pollentia was only a temporary
with the Parthians in 36. Just as the Romans fared poorly, reprieve.
so too did their allies and Polemo was captured by the
Medes. Returned to his country, the king took an oath of Pollio, Gaius Asinius (c. 76 B.C.E.–5 C.E.) Consul in
allegiance to Antony before the campaign of ACTIUM and 40 B.C.E., governor and a literary figure
then watched the Armenian frontier while his master was A supporter of Julius Caesar, Pollio held the rank of PRAE-
away fighting Octavian (c. 32–31 B.C.E.). TOR in 45 and was governor of Hispania Ulterior around
the time of Caesar’s assassination in 44. In the subsequent
When word arrived that Antony had been destroyed division of the Roman world into armed camps, Pollio
at the battle of Actium, Polemo took immediate steps to threw in with Marc ANTONY, marching two legions from
negotiate for peace with Octavian (AUGUSTUS). The new Spain for his use. He backed Lucius Antony in the PERU-
master of the Roman world perceived Polemo’s value and SINE WAR (41) but was more enthusiastic as the representa-
allowed him to retain Pontus, removing Armenia Minor tive of Antony in the negotiations with Gaius Maecenas
from his control. As part of his attempt at organizing the leading to the TREATY OF BRUNDISIUM in 40. After serving
East, Augustus seized the kingdom of the BOSPORUS as consul in 40, he was given 11 legions by Antony and
through his lieutenant, Marcus Agrippa. Polemo was then sent to campaign against the Parthini tribes in the Balkans.
granted the region through a forced marriage to the wid- As proconsul of Macedonia, Pollio crushed the Parthini in
owed Queen Dynamis (c. 16 B.C.E.) The union proved Illyricum in 39 and triumphed in that year, or perhaps 38.
unsuccessful, and Dynamis fled to the nearby Sarmatian A falling out then took place with Antony, and Pollio, feel-
tribes. The next years were spent trying to subdue the ing that Octavian (AUGUSTUS) was too young to deserv e
chieftain Aspurgus. Campaigning incessantly, Polemo fell his loyalties, retired from public life, refusing to help
in battle. either side. During the reign of Augustus and following
Antony’s death, Pollio did not offer submission to the
Polemo II (fl. first century C.E.) King of Pontus emperor, nor did he seek his downfall. This coolness
The son of POLEMO I and his second wife, Pythodoris, remained a characteristic of Pollio until his death.
Polemo ruler of the domains of Pontus and the BOSPORUS
kingdom, given to him in 39 C.E. by Emperor Claudius. In matters of literature, Pollio was both a patron and
In 41, Claudius took away the territories of the Bosporus a contributor. He began the first public library in 39
to bestow them upon Mithridates. As compensation, B.C.E., decorating it with portraits of famous authors. He
Polemo was given the Cilician districts of Alba, Cennatis, gave exhibitions of his own art collections and initiated
and Lalassis. After losing the Bosporus to Claudius, the system of recitations by invitation. Oratory was his
Polemo was forced to surrender the Pontic kingdom as area of expertise, and he spoke as a declaimer and often
well, to Emperor Nero in 64–65. Having had Pontus delivered orations of a legal or political nature. So effec-
annexed by Rome, he retired to his Cilician holdings and tively did he attack the Troy Games that Augustus can-
there lived out his remaining years. celled them. A dislike of rhetoricians was evidenced in
his criticism of Cicero and in the fragments of speeches
Pollentia City about 20 miles inland from the Adriatic preserved by Seneca the Elder.
coast of central Italy; site of a military engagement fought
on April 6, 402 C.E., between the armies of ALARIC and Pollio was a poet who was overshadowed by some of
the VISIGOTHS and the MAGISTER MILITUM STILICHO. By the his generation’s greats: Catullus, Cinna, Horace, and Vir-
autumn of 401, Alaric felt confident enough to mount an gil. His tragedies were published and possibly performed.
invasion of Italy with the hope of inducing Emperor Hon- Another style that he pursued was erotic composition. Of
orius to surrender large sections of the Danubian frontier. greater note was Pollio’s history of the Civil War, from
around 60 to 42 B.C.E. Of a highly independent nature,

the historiae covered the battles of Pharsalus and Thap- Pompeia 439
sus, the death of Cato, the death of Cicero, and the battle
of Philippi. upon his return to Smyrna faced arrest during a pagan
festival. Refusing to give up his creed, Polycarp was
Pollio, Publius Vedius (d. 15 B.C.E.) Equestrian of low burned alive. According to Eusebius’s Chronicle, Polycarp
birth and official under Augustus was martyred in 167 or 168 during the time of Marcus
Pollio was renowned for his immense wealth and cruel Aurelius. Other sources probably more correctly put the
nature. It was written that at his estate in Campania he date as 155 or 156, with the actual day traditionally listed
kept a pool of man-eating lamprey. Any servant or slave as February 23. He died at the age of 86.
with whom he was displeased was thrown into the pool.
Augustus was visiting one day when a slave broke a crystal Polycleitus (fl. first century C.E.) Freedman in the ser-
goblet. Pollio ordered him fed to the lampreys, but Augus- vice of Nero (ruled 54–68 C.E.)
tus tried to dissuade him. When the imperial attempts Also called Polyclitus, he was sent in 61 C.E. to Britain to
failed, Augustus called for the remaining goblets and broke observe the actions of the legate SUETONIUS PAULINUS,
them himself, thus saving the unfortunate cup bearer. Pol- while attempting to ease the rebellious spirit of the local
lio died in 15 B.C.E., leaving most of his property to Augus- tribes following the bitter war with BOUDICCA. Polycleitus
tus, including his famous estate of Pausilypon (“grief- infuriated the legions in Britain, representing as he did
relieving” in Greek) situated at modern Posilipo, between the class of former slaves (freedmen). Further, the Britons
Puteoli and Naples. Pollio declared in his will that some treated him with contempt. He reappeared in 67 as the
monument should be erected there. On the pretense that assistant of the corrupt Helius in his administration of
he was initiating the project, Augustus razed the estate to Rome during Nero’s trip to Greece.
erase the memory of this unpleasant man.
pomerium Also pomoerium, a space traditionally left
Pollio, Rufrius (d.c. 47 C.E.) Coprefect of the Praetorian within a city wall to denote the boundary of the original
Guard foundation. According to custom, a pair of oxen, one a
Pollio served with Catonius JUSTUS during part of the bull, the other a heifer, drew a plough around the area of
reign of Emperor Claudius. Pollio was probably the com- a desired city. This marking of upturned earth was the
mander of the cohorts of the Praetorian Guard that pomerium. No buildings could be constructed in a set dis-
accompanied Claudius on his British campaign of 43 C.E. tance from the pomerium, so as to clearly define the
As a reward for his services, he was granted a statue in 44 beginnings of a community. The pomerium of ROME was
and given the right to sit in the Senate with the emperor. of considerable political importance for it symbolized the
He was put to death later by Claudius, perhaps before 47. termination of power for any who held the IMPERIUM
upon entrance into the city. The great exception to this
Polybius (d. 47 or 48 C.E.) Freedman in the service of rule was Augustus (ruled 27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.), who held the
Emperor Claudius rank of proconsul given to him for life by the Senate. The
Aside from his probable duties as A LIBELLUS, Polybius pomerium was expanded several times, in the first century
headed the recently created “literary office,” the a studiis, B.C.E. and in the first century C.E.; Julius Caesar did it in
concerned with all matters of literary importance. His 44 B.C.E., Augustus in 8 B.C.E. and Claudius in 49 C.E.
power during the years 42–43 C.E. was made clear by
SENECA’s letter to him, Consolatio ad Polybium, a message Pomona Roman goddess of the fruit trees. Pomona
of condolence on the death of his brother. Seneca used bore the title pomorum patrona, or patron of fruit, and
flattery and obvious exaggeration to implore Polybius to was considered important as one of the divinites of
help in recalling him from exile. The freedman was also nature. She had her own member of the FLAMENS, the Fla-
noted for his translation of Virgil into Greek and Homer men Pomonalis, who presided over all of her ceremonies.
into Latin. He was killed by Messallina, despite the fact According to Roman legend her beauty attracted other
that she was sleeping with him. gods of nature, including Silvanus.

Polycarp (c. 69–115/6 or 167/8 C.E.) Bishop of See also GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME.
Smyrna and a leading Christian figure in Asia in the second
century C.E. Pompeia (1) (fl. first century B.C.E.) Second wife of
Polycarp was a staunch defender of orthodox CHRISTIAN- Julius Caesar
ITY. Beyond that, and his martyrdom, few details of his Daughter of Quintus Pompeius and granddaughter of
life survived. He authored an extant Epistle to the Philippi- Sulla, Pompeia wed Caesar in 67 B.C.E. but was divorced
ans, concerning their keeping the faith intact. At a very by him in 61, on suspicion of adultery with CLODIUS PUL-
old age he visited Rome to discuss Easter traditions and CHER, who reportedly dressed as a woman and violated
the sacred BONA DEA rituals just to seduce her. Caesar
refused to testify against her at the divorce. When asked
why he had initiated such proceedings, he commented,

440 Pompeia A house from Pompeii (Courtesy Fr. Felix Just, S.J.)

according to Suetonius, “I cannot allow members of my Roman architecture were introduced only slowly, aided in
house to be accused or under suspicion.” large measure by an earthquake in 62 C.E., which was
recorded by Tacitus and Seneca. The severe damage
Pompeia (2) (fl. first century B.C.E.) Daughter of Pom- caused by this natural calamity allowed rebuilding in a
pey the Great and sister of Sextus Pompey completely Italian style. Thus, in 79, a perfect example of
Pompeia was betrothed in 39 B.C.E. to MARCELLUS, son of a first-century-C.E. Roman community was locked away,
Octavia, sister of Octavian (AUGUSTUS), but the marriage awaiting discovery by the modern world.
plans were later terminated.
Begun simply as a market town, Pompeii became a
Pompeianus, Ruricius (d. 312 C.E.) Commander of major economic center and then an industrial city. Pros-
Emperor Maxentius’s cavalry and infantry in 312 C.E. perous, it relied upon business and the continued expan-
In charge of VERONA and the surrounding area of Venetia sion of its commerce for survival, unlike the quiet town
during CONSTANTINE the Great’s invasion of Italy, Pom- of Herculaneum, which was situated nearby. Wealth
peianus found himself besieged at Verona by Constantine allowed the most modern buildings, and production
and with an effective attack broke through the siege lines techniques to be employed in Pompeii—multistoried
and rode for help. The nearest available reinforcements structures, workshops, villas—and fostered a vibrant,
were gathered and marched back to Verona, where Pom- changing social system.
peianus hoped to trap Constantine. He had Constantine’s
forces caught between himself and the city walls. Unfor- See also BATHS; CAMPANIA; HERCULANEUM; STABIAE;
tunately, Constantine was too good a general to panic in and especially VESUVIUS.
the face of the charge. He gave battle while holding the
lines of circumvallation secure. Pompeianus fell during Suggested Readings: Andrews, Ian. Pompeii. New York:
the battle. Cambridge University Press, 1978; Biel, Timothy L. Pom-
peii. San Diego, Calif.: Lucent Books, 1989; Caselli, Gio-
See also MILVIAN BRIDGE. vanni. In Search of Pompeii: Uncovering a Buried Roman
City. New York: P. Bedrick Books, 1999; D’Avino, Michele.
Pompeianus, Tiberius Claudius (fl. second century The Women of Pompeii. Naples: Loffredo, 1967; Mourit-
C.E.) Consul in perhaps 167 and 173 C.E. and a one of the sen, Henrik. Elections, Magistrates, and Municipal Élite:
most reliable general in the army of Emperor Marcus Aurelius Studies in Pompeian Epigraphy. Rome: L’Erma di
Despite only senatorial-level origins, he was the Bretschneider, 1988.
emperor’s choice to marry Annia LUCILLA, the emperor’s
daughter, widowed after the death of Lucius Verus. Wed Pompey, Gnaeus (d. 45 B.C.E.) Eldest son of Pompey the
in 169, they were not happy together, but Pompeianus Great, by his third wife, Mucia
remained a fixture at court. When COMMODUS succeeded Gnaeus was a loyal officer to his father, joining him in
to the throne in 180, Pompeianus tried to convince him the CIVIL WAR OF THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE against Julius
to continue the MARCOMANNIC WAR against the Germans, Caesar. During the DYRRHACHIUM campaign in 48 B.C.E.,
but the new ruler refused. Unable to bear the depths to he burned part of Caesar’s fleet and harassed the ships of
which Commodus reduced the office of emperor, Pom- Marc Antony. After Pompey’s defeat and eventual death as
peianus left the city of Rome. Following the successful a result of the battle of PHARSALUS, Gnaeus fled to Africa,
murder of the emperor in 192, Pompeianus returned to
Rome and was offered the throne. He refused in favor of
Pertinax, who was killed in 193. Again Pompeianus’s
name surfaced, and again he declined.

Pompeii History’s most famous victim of a volcanic
eruption and, aside from Rome itself, the best preserved
archaeological site in the entire world. At the time of its
burial by Mount Vesuvius at 10:00 A.M. on August 24, 79
C.E., Pompeii, southeast of Naples, was a thriving city
and an ancient one. In existence since the eighth century
B.C.E., it was built as a market community in Campa-
nia by the local Oscans, who were subsequently influ-
enced by the Greeks, Etruscans, Samnites, Italians, and,
finally, by the Romans. Actual inclusion in the Roman
franchise did not come until after 89 B.C.E., so Pompeii
was a latecomer to Romanization. Full Latinization and

where he became one of the leaders of the declining Pom- Pompeyt
 heG
 reat 441
peian cause. When the Pompeians were dealt another
blow at THAPSUS in 46, Gnaeus sailed away to the Balearic Antony’s lieutenant, put him to death. Years afterward,
Islands, where he was joined by his brother, Sextus. Both crowds drove Titius from the theater, having never for-
then tried to gather support in Spain, where Caesar given him.
arrived in 45. The resulting battle of MUNDA, while
fiercely contested, ended with Caesar’s triumph. Gnaeus Pompey the Great (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus)
again escaped, but there were no more safe havens for (106–48 B.C.E.) Political and military leader
him. In a few weeks he was hunted down and beheaded. Called Magnus (the Great), he played a major role in the
terminal period of the Republic and was a legitimate
Pompey, Sextus (d. 36/5 B.C.E.) Younger son of Pompey claimant for absolute control of the Roman world. Aptly,
the Great by his third wife, Mucia, and a gifted pirate leader Plutarch wrote of him, “More worship the rising than the
from circa 43 to 36 B.C.E. setting sun.”
Sextus Pompey gained position among the Pompeians
only after the death of his father in 48. Joining his Pompey was the son of Pompeius Strabo. Born on
brother, Gnaeus, in the Balearic Islands after the defeat at September 30, 106 B.C.E., he first appeared in 83 B.C.E.
THAPSUS in 46, Sextus subsequently served in Spain as a in the service of the dictator Sulla. Organizing an army
general in the legions against Caesar. There, the battle of in Picenum, he won battles for Sulla and was sent as a
MUNDA was lost in 45, and Gnaeus was captured and exe- p ropraetor to Sicily and Africa, where he vanquished Cn.
cuted. Titus Labienus and most of the Pompeians either Domitius and King Iarbos. Despite his age and the cruel
were killed or surrendered. Sextus escaped to the remain- nature of his victories, Sulla reluctantly allowed him a
ing Pompeian fleet, where he acted as a rallying point for triumph, giving him the name Magnus in 81. Anxious to
the remnants of Pompey’s followers. After the assassina- maintain his political momentum, Pompey joined Catu-
tion of Julius Caesar in 44, Sextus was won over to the lus in defeating Lepidus in 77, before assuming procon-
cause of the Republic by Marcus Lepidus. The year after, sular powers to assist Metellus Pius in his Spanish war
the Senate gave Sextus command of the fleet with control against Sertorius and his successor, M. Perperna. Return-
over the Italian coast. This cooperation ended soon after, ing to Italy, Pompey helped finish off the forces of Spar-
when the newly formed SECOND TRIUMVIRATE of Antony, tacus and compelled the Senate to grant him a
Octavian, and Lepidus produced its list of proscribed consulship in 70, this despite his Equestrian (EQUITES)
names. Sextus was on it. origins and his total lack of senatorial experience. VARRO,
it was said, had to give him a guidebook on the pro c e-
Taking Sicily, and with a vast fleet of ships at his dis- dures of the Senate. As consul, however, he proved char-
posal, Sextus began to menace the sea-lanes of Rome for acteristically gifted, working with his bitter rival,
profit. The Mediterranean became a dangerous place, as Crassus, to amend the Sullan constitution, restore the
he threatened all seaborne traffic and launched raids on status of the censors and, pleasing the optimates, repair
the entire Italian coast. Further, he provided a haven for the power of the tribunes.
all those condemned by the new triumvirs. An alliance
was formed briefly with Marc Antony (c. 41–40) but was Having carefully nurtured his political connections,
broken by the favorable terms given Antony at the Con- Pompey now vexed the Roman establishment by using
ference of BRUNDISIUM in 40. By 39, Sextus was endanger- his popularity to increase his influence. In 67, the lex
ing the vital corn supply of Rome. Octavian and Antony Gabinia was passed, providing him with a rare IMPERIUM
decided to meet with this pirate king. In the spring of 39, to hunt down and destroy the pirates marauding the
a conference was held at Misenum, resulting in the Treaty Mediterranean Sea. Three months later he had annihi-
of MISENUM. By its terms Sextus agreed to respect Italy, to lated their strongholds and had driven the buccaneers
leave the corn shipments alone and to cease all hostilities. from the sea (see PIRACY). His imperium was extended to
In return he was given a position of respect and the include the East, where he concluded brilliantly the
promise of an augurship and a consulship. Clearly, every- Mithridatic War. Following the suicide of Mithridates VI
one knew that war would erupt again. In 38, Octavian of Pontus in 63, Pompey, on his own initiative and with-
reopened the struggle, needing to remove Sextus as a out relying upon the Senate’s approval, made his own set-
destabilizing force in the West. Campaigns were launched tlement of the East. He founded client states, reorganized
against Sicily, followed by two years of defeat. Finally, Judaea, established colonies and claimed Syria for Rome.
after careful preparations by Marcus Agrippa, another In large measure, subsequent Roman policy in the East
offensive was launched in 36, culminating in the battle of was based upon this systematic adjustment.
NAULOCHUS. Sextus was badly defeated and fled to Asia
Minor, where, because of his continuing popularity in Pompey triumphed once more in 62. Disbanding his
Rome, Antony allowed him to live in peace. When Sextus army, he asked the Senate to find land on which to settle
tried to regain his lost political fortune, M. Titius, his troops and, more important, to accept his overhaul of
the Eastern lands. Viewed as overly ambitious as well as
too wealthy, Pompey found enemies in the Senate; Cato
Uticensis and Lucullus led the opposition to his ACTA in
the East. Sensing that he had no other means of securing

442 Pomponius,S
 extus political acumen, as did Caesar. He wavered between the
optimates and the triumvirs, much as he did between his
senatorial approval, Pompey took the dramatic step in 59 toleration of bloodshed and his attempts at government
of entering into a TRIUMVIRATE with CRASSUS (1) and the reform.
rising Julius CAESAR. Marrying Caesar’s daughter JULIA (2)
in 59, Pompey found Caesar a reliable ally as consul. Pompey married five times. His first two wives were
Regret soon surfaced when Pompey, even as a member of Antistia and Aemilia. His third wife, Mucia, bore him
the triumvirate, could not sustain his prestige in Rome. Gnaeus and Sextus, but in 59 B.C.E. he wed Julia, the
While Caesar was conquering Gaul (see GALLIC WARS), daughter of Julius Caesar. She died in childbirth in 54.
Pompey was beset in Rome by troubles from the unpre- Two years later Pompey married Cornelia, the daughter
dictable and dangerous CLODIUS PULCHER. Beginning in of Metellus Scipio, who remained with him and wit-
58, Clodius refused to recognize Pompey’s status. Defeats nessed his murder in 48 at the hands of the Egyptians.
in the Senate followed, when he could not gain military
authority to accompany his supervision of the grain sup- Suggested Readings: Greenhalgh, Peter. Pompey, the
ply. Another blow came when he was unable to bring the Republican Prince. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson,
Republic to subsidize the return to Egypt of the fallen 1981. ———. Pompey, the Roman Alexander. Columbia:
King Ptolemy XII Auletes. University of Missouri Press, 1981; Leach, John. Pompey
the Great. Dover, N.H.: Croom Helm, 1986. Rawson,
A recovery was launched in 56 at the successful Con- Beryl. The Politics of Friendship: Pompey and Cicero. Syd-
ference of LUCA with his fellow triumvirs, and with ney: Sydney University Press, 1977; Seager, Robin. Pom-
another consulship (with Crassus) in 55. Julia died in 54, pey: A Political Biography. Berkeley: University of
bringing irreparable damage to the relationship between California Press, 1979.
Caesar and Pompey, a rift accentuated by the death of
Crassus at the battle of CARRHAE in 53. Controlling Spain Pomponius, Sextus (fl. second century C.E.) Jurist and
for five years, Pompey sent lieutenants to act as his repre- one of the most prolific of the Roman legal writers
sentatives there, while he stayed at Rome to deal with the Born probably during the reign of Domitian (81–96 C.E.),
political crisis of Clodius. Summoning the unscrupulous Pomponius was instructed in law by such teachers as
tribune, Annius MILO, Pompey allowed a vicious struggle Pegasus and Octavenus and had as his contemporary the
to erupt with Clodius, which ended only with Clodius’s great Salvius Julianus. He thus wrote during the time of
death in 52. Having wed CORNELIA (2), daughter of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius (117–161
Metellus Scipio, Pompey found new alliances in the sena- C.E.). Although Pomponius was greatly respected, he held
torial party against Caesar. They ensured that he held the no official post or title. Preferring to write and teach, he
consulship of 52 alone. Although he did fight corruption nevertheless received instructions from Hadrian to orga-
in the government, Pompey used the imperium given to nize a commentary on the praetor’s Edict that totaled per-
him to seize the upper hand in the inevitable conflict haps more than 150 books. To this impressive study were
with Caesar. Thus he demanded the recall of Caesar from added 300 other works on the IUS CIVILE, SENATUS CONSUL-
Gaul before the consulship of 48, and in 50 he took over TUM, various readings (Varias lectiones), and a large num-
the command of the Republican forces being arrayed ber of legal treatises. The influence of Sextus Pomponius
against his onetime father-in-law. was considerable, as he was often quoted as part of the
legal reorganization under Justinian.
Civil war began. Officially, it was a confrontation of
the Republic against Caesar. Realistically, Pompey was See also LAW.
dueling with Caesar for the fate of Rome. Departing
Italy for Greece, Pompey spent 49 B.C.E. preparing his Pomponius Proculus, Titus (d. after 176 C.E.) Consul
many LEGIONS for battle. This strategy left Spain wide in 150 and 176 C.E. and a relative of the imperial family of
open for attack, and Caesar demolished the Pompeian Marcus Aurelius
cause there. Finally coming to grips with his enemy in Pomponius was also one of the more reliable generals of
G reece, Pompey defeated but did not annihilate Caesar at the emperor. Of a noble line, he embarked upon a senato-
DYRRHACHIUM in 48. Controlling a much larger army, rial career, becoming governor of Spain during the reign
Pompey again collided with Caesar, this time at PHARSALUS of Antoninus Pius, then a legate in Moesia Inferior and a
on August 9, 48. The Pompeians were routed by Caesar’s proconsul of Asia. Under Marcus Aurelius, Pomponius
superior legions, and Pompey fled. Sailing to Egypt and its held the position of staff member, helping to organize the
u n p redictable Ptolemaic rulers was his final miscalcula- campaigns against the Germans in 168 and against the
tion. On September 28, 48 B.C.E., he was murdered when Sarmatians in 174.
he landed in Alexandria. His head was offered to Caesar as
a gift, with the words: “Dead men do not bite.” Pomponius Secundus, Publius (fl. first century C.E.)
Consul suffectus in 44 C.E. and a notable poet and tragedian
Pompey the Great was a genuine prodigy and a
superb general. He applied these skills to his career and
was propelled to the virtual dictatorship of Rome. Unfor-
tunately, he was unable to match his martial prowess with

Pomponius Secundus possessed a reputation for being a Pontus 443
fine individual of great intellect. Nevertheless, he was
accused in 31 of aiding a friend (or perhaps the son) of important decisions on the nature of worship, and ensured
SEJANUS during that prefect’s fall from power. Through the that every undertaking of the state was accompanied by
defense of his brother Quintus, Pomponius was allowed the proper propitiating ceremonies. Finally, they organized
to live with his brother. There he engaged in literary pur- the calendar to place all appropriate holidays and thus
suits, surviving the reign of Tiberius. He was a consul in exercised considerable influence over Roman society.
44 and had his work booed by an audience in Rome in
47, for which they were rebuked by Claudius. Emperor See also PRIESTHOODS.
Claudius appointed Pomponius governor of Germania
Superior in 50. Remaining there from 50 to 51, he in- Pontius Pilate (d. after 37 C.E.) Procurator of Judaea
flicted a serious defeat upon the CHATTI, receiving tri- from 26 to 36 C.E.
umphal honors. Pliny the Elder was a friend of his, Few Roman officials of his rank gained the fame of Pon-
writing a biography in his honor. tius Pilate, even though his time of administration was
fraught with troubles and unrest. Appointed to the terri-
Pontifex Maximus Supreme head of Rome’s state reli- tory of Judaea as successor to Valerius Gratus, Pilate
gion. According to Roman custom, the Pontifex Maximus introduced himself in Jerusalem by carrying images of
was the leader of not only the PONTIFICES but also the Emperor Tiberius on his standards, in violation of Jewish
entire religious establishment, including the colleges of law. Only after severe complaints of the populace did he
priests and the VESTAL VIRGINS. This gave him vast pow- remove them.
ers. During the Republic, the office was considered one of
the grandest posts available. Aside from the priesthoods This debacle was followed by his equally unfortunate
and the Vestals, the pontifex fixed the calendar and festi- attempt to improve the city’s water supply. He ordered an
vals, had absolute authority in questions of doctrine and aqueduct constructed but used money from the sacre d
was, in large measure, above the jurisdiction of the Senate treasury of the Jews to do it. Outbursts of violence fol-
and the People of Rome. He required, however, political lowed, rioting that he suppressed with extreme measures.
allies to attain the post, which was held for life, and the His subsequent condemnation of Jesus was probably a
support of the pontifices for his own actions. conciliatory gesture to the insulted Jewish establishment,
although he showed a personal leaning toward Jesus.
It was believed that the Pontifex Maximus was first A round 36 C.E. an uprising of the Samaritans was crushed
appointed by the kings of Rome or possibly by the pontif- with such ferocity that they appealed to L. Vitellius, gov-
ices. Later, during the Republic, he was elected by the e rnor of Syria and Pilate’s nominal superior. The com-
tribes. Julius Caesar combined his position as dictator plaint was passed on to Rome, and Emperor Tiberius
with that of pontifex, making himself superior religiously, summoned him home. He reached Rome just after
as he was politically and militarily. Henceforth the Roman Tiberius’s death in 37, fading at that point from history.
emperors made certain that the title of Pontifex Maximus According to Eusebius, Pilate committed suicide. Histori-
was included in their numerous titular powers. The last cal sources varied as to their opinions of him. Josephus
emperor to serve as pontifex was Gratian (reigned and Philo were extremely hostile to Pilate, while Christian
367–383 C.E.), who instituted extreme anti-pagan activi- chronicles took a more sympathetic view.
ties, including the termination of the seat of the Pontiff.
Pontus A land situated along the southern shore of the
See also PAGANISM; PRIESTHOODS. Black Sea; its name derived from the Greek for the vast
inland sea, the Pontus Euxinus. Pontus first appeared in
Pontifices Members of the one of the largest and most the Anabasis of Xenophon but became an actual kingdom
important of the priestly colleges in Rome. According to during the fourth century B.C.E. By far its greatest ruler
tradition, the pontifices (sing., pontifex) originated when was Mithridates VI, who extended the domain into ASIA
King Numa appointed six Patricians to aid him in the MINOR, bringing Pontus into direct confrontation with
sacred duties of his office. Their name came from the idea Rome. He died in 63 B.C.E. at the hands of his own son,
of building a bridge over water, or the divine stream. Pharnaces, whose ambitions were destroyed by Julius Cae-
When the monarchy was abolished by the Romans, the sar at the battle of ZELA in 47 B.C.E. Thenceforth Pontus
religious aspect of the king was given to the PONTIFEX MAX- was dependent upon the goodwill of Rome. Its most
IMUS. Increasing in number throughout the Republic, the notable later monarchs were POLEMO I and his son, PO-
pontifices eventually numbered 16, by order of Julius Cae- LEMO II. Polemo I was an ally of Marc Antony but survived
sar, and both Plebeians and Patricians were eligible for the political catastrophe of Actium in 31 B.C.E. to retain
entry, as elections passed into the hands of the Senate. The his throne under the auspices of Augustus. Gaius Caligula,
duties of the pontifices extended into every facet of Roman in 39 C.E., made Polemo II the king of Pontus and the
RELIGION. They conducted the rites and sacrifices neces- Bosporan kingdom, but Nero, in 64–65, forced him to
sary to keep the gods and goddesses happy, rendered retire to a small Cilician realm. Pontus was annexed and
attached to Galatia, where it gave Rome not only strategic
watch over Armenia but vast mineral wealth as well.

444 Poppaea,S
 abina Probably from Spain, Porcius displayed natural gifts for
RHETORIC but preferred to teach. Porcius claimed as his
Poppaea, Sabina (d. 65 C.E.) Empress from 62 to 65 C.E. students Ovid, Florus, and Fulvius Sparsus. So attached
and the second wife of Emperor Nero were they to their instructor that they reportedly drank
Poppaea was the daughter of Titus Ollius and grand- cuminum (cumin) to acquire his paleness.
daughter of the famed proconsul Poppaeus Sabinus. Her
mother, of the same name, was hounded to death by Mes- Porfyrius, Publilius Optatianus (fl. fourth century
sallina in 47. According to the historian Tacitus, Poppaea C.E.) Poet and panagyricist
was a stunning beauty whose charms, wealth, and appar- Porfyrius was probably the governor of Achaea (Greece)
ent modesty hid a licentious nature, ambition, and an in the early years of the fourth century, before being
inability to love anyone. exiled by Emperor Constantine the Great. In an attempt
to have his banishment lifted, he composed a skillful pan-
Her first husband was the PREFECT OF THE PRAETO- egyric to Constantine, sometime before 325. Perhaps sent
RIAN GUARD, Rufrius Crispinus. Although she bore him a as part of the emperor’s jubilee, the poems offered praise
son, she became adulterously involved with Marcus OTHO. to Constantine, while mentioning both Apollo and
Accounts varied as to her affair, for the writer Suetonius Christ. Using ingenious wordplay, Porfyrius obtained his
re p o rted that Otho acted merely as a screen for Nero, who goal. Constantine recalled him, and he served twice as
had developed a passion for the woman, a story repeated urban prefect, in 329 and 333.
by Tacitus in the Histories but corrected in the Annals.
There, Tacitus had Poppaea engaged with Otho because of Porphyry (233-c. 305 C.E.) Neoplatonic philosopher and
his youth and high position of favor with the empero r. As writer
it was, she left Crispinus, married Otho and soon attracted Also known as Porphyrius, he was born either in Tyre or,
Nero. Otho’s position as a friend was sacrificed in favor of less likely, in Batanea in Palestine. Originally called
Poppaea’s role as mistress. Nero appointed Otho the gov- Malchus, a Greek form of the Syrian-Phoenician name for
ernor of Hispania Lusitania, a post that he retained until king (melech), he became “Porphyry” while studying
69, when he supported Galba against Nero. Poppaea under Cassius Longinus in Athens. From 262 to 263 he
remained behind in Rome; in 62, Nero divorced Octavia, was a devoted pupil of Plotinus in Rome, who led him
his first wife, and married Poppaea. into full acceptance of NEOPLATONISM. Subsequently Por-
phyry taught at Rome, counting IAMBLICHUS as one of his
As empress she was ruthless. Even before the union students.
with Nero she had pushed for the removal of his mother,
AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER, and now had the limitless Around 300 he edited PLOTINUS’s Enneads and wrote
resources of an empire at her disposal. She sat on Nero’s a biography of his deceased master. These writings,
council, exercising influence in equal parts with the Prae- however, were only two books in a collection that even-
torian Prefect TIGELLINUS. Nero was totally devoted to tually numbered 77 works. Philosophically, Porphyry
her, granting her title of AUGUSTA, calling their newborn focused on the nature of the soul in its need to find a
daughter by the same name after her birth in 63. In 65, way to the One so clearly shown by Plotinus. He penned
Poppaea was expecting another child when Nero kicked studies on philosophy, biographies of great philoso-
her in the stomach during a fit of rage. She died from the phers and treatises on Plato, Theophrastus, and Aristo-
injury, and Nero grieved over what he had done. He dei- tle. There were also technical compositions, including
fied her and had her embalmed instead of cremated in the those on music, astrology, logic (the Isagoge), embryol-
normal Roman manner. Public mourning masked private ogy, the philology of Homer, and an analysis of Ptolemy’s
rejoicing, while Otho never forgot his wife, cherishing Harmonica.
her even when he became emperor in 69.
Porphyry studied all of the religions of his time,
Porcia (d. 43 B.C.E.) Daughter of Cato Uticensis especially those popular in Asia. While he viewed them
Porcia was twice married, first to Marcus BIBULUS, consul all with a careful eye, he singled out CHRISTIANITY for spe-
in 59 B.C.E., and then to Brutus, the assassin of Caesar, cial attack. Porphyry apparently respected Christ as a
whom she wed in 45. It was said that she convinced her teacher but considered the ambitions of the Christian
husband to reveal the plot to murder Caesar by stabbing Church to be illogical, contradictory, and unpatriotic. In a
herself in the thigh to prove her inner resolve. Porcia was 15-book treatise, Against the Christians, he expounded
present at the Conference of Antium in 44, journeying upon his ideas of anti-Christianity, earning the immediate
back to Rome while Brutus sailed to the East. Growing response of Christian theologians, including EUSEBIUS OF
ill, she killed herself, perhaps through poisonous vapors, CAESAREA. In 448, his writings on the subject were
in 43, although some accounts put her death in 42, after banned and, like much of his other literary achievements,
the demise of Brutus. survive only in fragments.

Porcius Latro, Marcus (d. 4 C.E.) One of the most
famous rhetoricians in the time of Augustus

portorium A kind of customs duty or tax placed upon praepositus sacri cubiculi 445
incoming or outgoing goods at a harbor, at the gates of
many cities, at tolls, or on the frontiers of the empire. authority of his son Saloninus. Postumus was to work in
The portorium (pl. portoria) was not a protective tariff but cooperation with young prince’s preceptor, Silvanus. A
was seen as a useful source of revenue. Normally, as was disagreement with Silvanus escalated into violence in
seen in the Gallic provinces, it was levied at 2 to 2.5 per- 260, as Postumus besieged Saloninus and his guardian at
cent of the value of the goods. This increased in some Cologne. Both were captured and put to death as Postu-
regions, especially on the imperial frontiers, where the mus extended his control over Gaul, Spain, and Britain.
levy might be as high as 25 percent. The primary target of
revenue collection through the duty was the often lucra- Gallienus tried without success to destroy the usurper,
tive trade with the East, notably along the Red Sea and most notably in 265, but neither claimant to the throne
through Palmyra, both of which had substantially higher could devote their complete attention to the other. The
levies. Most goods were subject to the portorium, with the Roman Empire was beset with internal usurpations and
few exceptions being animals and vehicles, as well as all t e rrible barbarian invasions. Ironically, the inroads of the
military equipment used by the legions and the personal G e rmanic tribes gave Postumus a chance to solidify his
property of the emperor or materials owned by the gov- hold over the West, for each victory brought further
ernment in general. support from the populace. He thus issued coinage with
the title “RESTITVTOR GALLIARVM.” This claim of hav-
Collection of the portorium was originally the task ing restored Gaul was rendered inaccurate in 268, when
of customs officials who worked in customs offices LAELIANUS attempted his own revolt. Although put
(stationes) attached to legionary posts or frontier sta- down, the uprising seemed to have weakened Postumus’s
tions. Eventually, the task was given to civil servants, position. He and his son were killed by the troops some-
such as the publicani, the traditional tax collectors. In time in 268. A colleague, Victorinus, succeeded him in the
the early empire conductores and in the later empire West. The accounts in the Historia Augusta are generally
procuratores assumed the work of collecting revenue, unreliable.
l a rgely in order to prevent the threat of fraud that was
always present with the publicani. Under Emperor Potamon of Alexandria (fl. late first century B.C.E.)
Tiberius, the entire empire was divided into five cus- Philosopher
toms districts. Potamon was noted for founding his own school of phi-
losophy based on Stoicism, Platonism, and certain ele-
Portunus God of communication, identified by the ments of Peripatetic teachings. Called the Eclectic
Romans with the Greek god Palaemon, and variously School, Potamon’s institution was able to gain wide
described as the patron of harbors (portus) and gates acceptance.
(porta); often confused with Janus, the god of doorways.
The festival held in honor of Portunus was the Portuna- Pothinus (d. 48 B.C.E.) Eunuch in the Egyptian royal
lia, each August 17. The date of the festival may have palace of Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra
been associated with the dedication of his temple along Pothinus was in charge of Ptolemy’s funds and in 48
the Tiber near the Aemilian bridge. The Tiber may have B.C.E. became a leader in the Alexandrian uprising against
been associated with Portunus, given the proximity of the Julius CAESAR. His role was short-lived, however, for Cae-
temple and the water as well as the similarity of date for sar put him to death out of fear that he would kidnap
the Portunalia and the Tibernalia. Ptolemy and use him as a rallying point for the already
aroused Egyptians.
See also GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME.
praepositus sacri cubiculi The title of the grand
Postumus, Marcus Cassianus Latinius (d. 268 C.E.) chamberlain in the imperial palace. According to cus-
Usurper and ruler of Gaul from 260 to 268 tom, the praepositus sacri cubiculi was a eunuch who
Born to an obscure family in Gaul, Postumus rose was in charge of the entire private palace staff of
through the ranks to be appointed by Emperor Valerian eunuchs in attendance upon the emperors. They were
as commanding general of the Gallic and Germanic fron- p resent in the years of the middle empire and became
tiers, with control over the legions of Germania Inferior commonplace in the late empire. Because of the close-
and Superior. His main task was to protect the borders ness to the imperial family that was inevitable in the
from the hostile Germans. This he did so well that in office of chamberlain, the eunuchs came to amass con-
259, when Valerian was defeated and captured in battle siderable wealth and influence, much as the freedmen
against the Persians, GALLIENUS, his successor, retained had in the first century C.E. By the fifth century, the
Postumus in his post. praepositus sacri cubiculi could dominate his master and
dictate not only palace affairs but also many facets of
However, one change in his assignment was made. imperial policy.
Gallienus placed the entire Western theater under the

446 Praetextatus,
VettiusA
 gorius From around 149 B.C.E., it was required that all prae-
tors serve out their entire period of service within Rome.
Praetextatus, Vettius Agorius (c. 310–384 C.E.) The principal reason for this was the adoption of the
Praetorian prefect of Italy, Africa, and Illyricum in 384 and QUAESTIONES or quaestiones perpatuae, the standing crimi-
leading pagan intellectual nal courts. This helped to ensure a smoother operation of
Praetextatus was born in Rome and embarked upon a the entire system. Praetors then had the right to make
highly successful career in government. From 362 to 364 changes in the law, issued in the annual Edict of the Prae-
he served as proconsul of Achaea, having received his post tor. But such reforms were rare and never took place with-
from fellow pagan, the Emperor Julian. Already a noted out the permission of the SENATE, meaning the emperor.
pagan, he convinced Emperor Valentinian I not to enforce The edicts were naturally important sources for the devel-
the imperial ban on night sacrifices. Praetextatus was opment of the law of Rome and were codified by the emi-
urban prefect for Rome in 367–368, where his administra- nent jurist Salvius JULIANUS at the order of Emperor
tion was famous for its fairness. Although he was decidedly HADRIAN in the second century C.E. With the start of impe-
anti-Christian, he aided Pope Damasus, returning to him rial ruler under AUGUSTUS (ruled 27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.), the
the Basilica of Sicininus. Once he said to Damasus that, if praetors suffered a decline. Much of their burden was
made pope, he would certainly become a Christian. His placed in the hands of the PREFECT OF THE CITY (praefectus
Praetorian prefecture was marked by his inquiry into the urbi) and especially the PREFECT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD
destruction of pagan temples in Italy by Christians. When (praefectus praetorio). The collections of the edicts sig-
he died in late 384, he was preparing to become consul. nalled the effective end of praetorian influence in law.
Roman law now progressed through the JURISTS, the CON-
Throughout his life Praetextatus had been a staunch SILIUM PRINCIPIS, and the Praetorian prefect. Under Tiber-
pagan. Aconia Fabia, his wife of 40 years, was equally ius, election to the praetorship was transferred to the
devoted to the tenets of PAGANISM. He held numerous Senate. Each praetor was entitled to have six lictors; to bear
priestly offices, including augur, pontifex Solis (to his the proper insignia of the toga praetexta; and, upon com-
beloved sun god), quindecimvir, hierophanta, and pater pletion of their terms, to travel to the senatorial provinces
patrum. As a friend of SYMMACHUS he enjoyed immense to assume the role of PROCONSUL. Although virtually mean-
popularity with the pagans of Rome. The Vestals pro- ingless by the fourth century C.E., the praetors remained
posed to erect a statue in his memory. Praetextatus until the very end of the Roman Empire in the West.
brought an excellent literary mind to his duties and
beliefs. He made a translation into Latin of Themistius’ Praetorian Guard The imperial guard of the Roman
commentary on Aristotle’s Analytics. MACROBIUS made Empire. Created by Augustus to act as a special, elite
him the central figure of the Saturnalia, and he was force for his protection, the Praetorians became a lasting
known by the later writer, Boethius. influence upon Rome and its emperors.

praetor At first, a title used to denote a CONSUL; later it HISTORY
came to signify the magistrates whose duties centered on
the field of justice in Rome. In the Republic, the powers The term Praetorian came from the tent of the legate of a
of the praetor were originally the province of the Patri- legion in the field—the praetorium. It was the habit of
cians, but in 337 B.C.E. members of the Plebeians were many Roman generals to choose from the ranks a private
elected to the praetorship by the comitia centuriata. force of soldiers to act as bodyguards of the tent or the
Throughout the Republic, praetors increased both in person. In time, this cohort came to be known as the
number and in breadth of jurisdiction, but their position cohors praetoria, and various notable figures possessed
weakened in the days of the empire. From 242 B.C.E. one, including Julius CAESAR, Marc ANTONY, and Octavian
there were at least two praetors elected each year, and (AUGUSTUS). As Caesar discovered with the X Legion, a
more were added by Sulla, making eight. Julius CAESAR powerful unit more dangerous than its fellow legions was
increased their number to 10, 14, and then 16. Their desirable in the field. When Augustus became the first
duties centered on the trying of cases, conducting legal ruler of the empire in 27 B.C.E., he decided such a forma-
business, and issuing edicts at the end of their term, tion was useful not only in war but also in politics. Thus,
which normally lasted one year. The two basic types of from the ranks of legions throughout the provinces,
praetor were the praetor urbanus and the praetor inter Augustus recruited the Praetorian Guard.
peregrinos, later called the praetor peregrinus. The praetor
urbanus was a legal expert for Rome, handling civil cases The group that was formed initially diff e red greatly
that fell within the jurisdiction of the IUS CIVILE (civil from the later Guard, which would murder emperors.
law). Any cases involving foreigners or any dispute aris- While Augustus understood the need to have a protec-
ing from the IUS GENTIUM (international law) fell into the tor in the maelstrom of Rome, he was careful to uphold
area of the PRAETOR PEREGRINUS. He was thus a reliable the Republican veneer of his regime. Thus he allowed
source for legal decisions regarding the place of the PERE- only nine cohorts to be formed, each of 500 to 1,000
GRINI in Roman law and the relations between Rome and men, and only three were kept on duty at any given
other states.

time in the capital. While they patrolled inconspicu- PraetorianG
 uard 447
ously, in the palace and major buildings, the others were
stationed in the towns surrounding Rome; no threats DIOCLETIAN, in 284, reduced the status of the Praeto-
were possible from these individual cohorts. This sys- rians; they were no longer to be a part of palace life, as
tem was not radically changed with the arrival of two Diocletian lived in Nicomedia. A new corps of guards, the
Praetorian prefects in 2 B.C.E., Q. Ostorius SCAPULA and Jovians and Herculians, replaced the Praetorians as the
Salvius Aper, although organization and command were personal protectors of the emperors, a practice that re-
improved. mained intact with the tetrarchy. By the time Diocletian
retired in 305, the Castra Praetoria seems to have housed
Augustus’s death in 14 C.E. marked the end of Prae- only a minor garrison of Rome.
torian calm. Through the machinations of their ambitious
prefect, Lucius Aelius SEJANUS, the Guard was brought In 306, when MAXENTIUS, son of the retired emperor
from the Italian barracks into Rome itself. In 23 C.E. MAXIMIAN, was passed over as a successor, the troops took
Sejanus convinced Tiberius to have the CASTRA PRAETORIA matters into their own hands and elevated him to the
(the Camp of the Praetorians) built just outside of Rome. position of emperor in Italy on October 28. When CON-
Henceforth the entire Guard was at the disposal of the STANTINE the Great, launching an invasion of Italy in 312,
emperors, but the rulers were now equally at the mercy of forced a final collision at the MILVIAN BRIDGE, the Praeto-
the Praetorians. The reality of this was seen in 31 when rian cohorts made up most of Maxentius’s army. Later, in
Tiberius was forced to rely upon his own cohors praetoria Rome, the victorious Constantine abolished the Guard.
against partisans of Sejanus. Though the Praetorian The soldiers were sent out to various corners of the
Guard proved faithful to the aging Tiberius, their poten- empire, and the Castra Praetoria was pulled down. For
tial political power had been made clear. over 300 years they had served, and the extirpation of the
Praetorians was a grand gesture, inaugurating a new age
On campaign, the Praetorians were the equal of any of imperial history.
formation in the Roman army. Seldom used in the early
reigns, they were quite active by 69 C.E. They fought well The following list indicates the relationships between
at the first battle of BEDRIACUM for OTHO. Under DOMITIAN various emperors and their Guard.
and TRAJAN, the Guard took part in wars from Dacia to
Mesopotamia, while with MARCUS AURELIUS, years were Augustus 27 B.C.E.–14 C.E. created the
spent on the Danubian frontier. Throughout the third Praetorian Guard
century C.E., the Praetorians assisted the emperors in var- Tiberius
ious crises. 14–37 C.E. allowed Sejanus to gain
Caligula power as prefect
From the death of Sejanus, who was sacrificed Claudius
for the DONATIVUM (imperial gift) promised by Tiberius, 37–41 C.E. murdered by the Guard
the Guards began playing an increasingly ambitious Nero 41–54 C.E. proclaimed emperor by
and bloody game. At will, or for the right amount of Galba
money, they assassinated emperors, bullied their own Otho the Guard
p refects or turned on the people of Rome. In 41, GAIUS Vitellius 54–68 C.E. deserted by the Guard
CALIGULA was killed by conspirators from the senatorial 68–69 C.E. murdered by the Guard
class and from the Guard. And the Praetorians placed Vespasian 69 C.E. elevated by the Guard
CLAUDIUS on the throne, daring the Senate to oppose 69 C.E. deposed by the Guard and
their decision. Titus
then killed
It is important, however, not to overestimate the Domitian 69–79 C.E. reduced the size of Guard
place of the Praetorians in the imperial government. They Nerva
could slaughter emperors but played no role in adminis- after victory in 69
tration, as did the personnel of the palace, Senate and Hadrian 79–81 C.E. served as Praetorian
bureaucracy. Further, it was often the case that, after out-
rageous acts of violence, revenge by the new ruler was Commodus prefect, then as emperor
forthcoming. For example, in 193 C.E. DIDIUS JULIANUS 81–96 C.E. murdered by his prefects
purchased the empire from the Guard for a vast sum. Pertinax 96–98 C.E. humiliated by Guard
Later that year Septimius SEVERUS marched into Rome, Didius Julianus
disbanded the Praetorians and founded a new formation and died
from his Pannonian legions. Even VESPASIAN in 69, who Septimius 117–138 C.E. founded the
had relied upon the disgruntled cohorts dismissed by Severus
VITELLIUS, reduced their ranks in number when ascending FRUMENTARII
the throne. Unruly mobs in Rome fought often with the Caracalla
Praetorians in MAXIMINUS’s reign (c. 235–236) in vicious 180–192 C.E. murdered by his prefect
street battles. in a plot

193 C.E. murdered by the Guard
193 C.E. purchased empire from

the Guard

193–211 C.E. disbanded Guard and
created a new one from the
Pannonian Legions

211–217 C.E. murdered in a plot by
his Prefect Macrinus

448 Prasutagus 217–218 C.E. first prefect since Titus Evocati after 16 years of service, retirement was
Macrinus to become emperor possible but most soldiers chose to stay in this
Elagabalus honorary unit.
Balbinus 218–222 C.E. murdered in the Castra
Pupienus Praetoria by the Guard Centurions soldiers transferred to the Guard after
Gordian III service in the legions, the VIGILES or the URBAN
238 C.E. murdered by the Guard COHORT.
Philip 238 C.E. murdered by the Guard
Aurelian 238–244 C.E. proclaimed emperor by Tribunes officers, also from the legions and usually
Florian of the Equestrian class, who commanded a cohort.
Probus the Guard but killed by his prefect, Centurions could (rarely) be promoted to the tri-
Carus Philip the Arab buneship.
Numerian 244–249 C.E. another prefect to
Diocletian become emperor Procurators a rank of the Equestrians
Maxentius 270–275 C.E. murdered by the Prefects available to Vigiles and urban cohorts; the
Constantine G u a rd
276 C.E. prefect who became highest rank of the Praetorian Guard.
emperor
276–282 C.E. killed by Praetorian The training of Guardsmen was more intense than in
troops after a revolt the legions because of the amount of free time available,
282–283 C.E. probably poisoned by when a cohort was not posted or traveling with the
Prefect Aper emperor. It followed the same lines as those elsewhere.
283–284 C.E. poisoned by Aper Equipment and armor were also the same, with one
284–305 C.E. effectively broke the notable exception—specially decorated breastplates,
power of the Praetorians excellent for parades and state functions. Thus, each
306–312 C.E. last emperor to Guardsman probably possessed two suits of armor, one
command the Guard for Roman duty and one for the field.
306–337 C.E. disbanded the Guard
and destroyed the Castra Praetoria For what was expected of them, the Praetorians were
given substantially higher pay. They were paid by a sys-
ORGANIZATION AND tem known as sesquiplex stipendum, or by pay-and-a-half.
CONDITIONS OF SERVICE Thus, while the legionaries might receive 225 denarii, the
Guards received 375. Domitian and Severus increased the
Although there were obvious similarities, the Praetorian stipendum (payment) to 1,500 denarii distributed three
Guard was unlike any of the other LEGIONS in the Roman times a year, in January, May, and September. Upon retir-
army. Its cohorts were larger, the pay and benefits better, ing, a soldier of the Praetorians was granted 20,000 ses-
and its military abilities were reliable. As conceived by terces (5,000 denarii), a gift of land and a DIPLOMATA
Augustus, the Praetorian cohorts totaled around 9,000 reading “to the warrior who bravely and faithfully com-
men, recruited from the legions in the regular army or pleted his service.” Many chose to enter the honorary
drawn from the most deserving youths in Etruria, EVOCATI, while others reenlisted in the hopes of gaining
Umbria, and Latium. In time, the pool of recruits ex- promotion and possible high positions in the Roman
panded to Macedonia, the Spanish provinces and state.
Illyricum. Vitellius formed a new Guard out of the Ger-
man legions, while Septimius Severus did the same with Prasutagus (d. 61 C.E.) King of the Iceni tribe in Britain
the Pannonian legions. He also chose replacements for for much of the first century C.E., and husband of the famous
the units’ ranks from across the Roman Empire, under- Boudicca
mining once more the primacy of Italy. For many years Prasutagus enjoyed a peaceful reign as a
client of Rome. Seeking to ensure the continuation of his
Around the time of Augustus (c. 5 C.E.) each cohort domain and the safety of his family after his death, he
of the Praetorians numbered 1,000 men, increasing to named as his heir “Caesar.” Unfortunately, upon his
1,500 at the time of Severus—a highwater mark. As with death in 61, the land of the Iceni was plundered, his
the normal legions, the body of troops actually ready for widow flogged and his daughters violated by the Romans.
service was much smaller. The ranks of the Praetorians These crimes caused the terrible war that ended in the
were, in ascending order: destruction of Iceni.

Miles regular soldier prefect of the city Known as the praefectus urbi, or
Immunes After five years, these soldiers were urban prefect; the administrator of Rome during most of
the empire. The prefects had originally been appointed to
allowed to serve in the Equite singulares (cavalry act as deputies to the kings of Rome or the CONSULS. By
branch) or as SPECULATORES (special agents). custom they exercised their powers in the city only dur-
Principales legionary administrators

ing the so-called Feriae Latinae, or Latin Festival, an prefecto
 ft
 he
Praetorian
Guard 449
event held each year in Mount Albanus that demanded
the presence of the consul. In effect they ensured that banded the Praetorians in the late third century C.E., he
Rome was not left without some sort of magistrate. could not completely eliminate the power of the prefect.
In the later years of the empire, the office was still impor-
AUGUSTUS expanded the duties of this limited office. tant enough to make the praefectus praetorio a key gov-
His praefectus urbi, as of 29 B.C.E., was to be a leading cit- ernment administrator.
izen who would govern Rome not just when the consuls
were away but at all times. He would also decide all cases In 27 B.C.E., Augustus established the Praetorian
of law that fell within the jurisdiction of the city, up to Guard. For 25 years it functioned without the need of a
the one-hundredth milestone from Rome. He was respon- supreme office, its tribunes answering directly to the
sible for maintaining order in the burgeoning metropolis, emperor. In 2 B.C.E., however, Augustus appointed two
with the Roman police, the URBAN COHORTS, at his dis- prefects, Q. Ostorius SCAPULA and Salvius Aper, so that
posal. Also wielded by these officials was the IMPERIUM; neither one would become overly ambitious. The pair
they were among the few holders of the title within the directed the affairs of the Guard with moderation. Every-
POMERIUM, the area denoting the original foundation of thing changed with the rise of Strabo’s son, SEJANUS, to
the city. the prefectship in 14 C.E. This gifted, grasping prefect
made himself so useful to TIBERIUS that vast ministerial
The first prefect of the city was MESSALLA CORVINUS, authority was handed to him. Although destroyed in 31,
appointed in 25 B.C.E. He lasted only six days before he transformed the influence of the prefect. The prefect-
stepping down, because of either dislike for the post or ship became the highest attainable posting for members
incompetence. In marked contrast to such a brief tenure of the Equestrian Order, bearing with it both influence
was Lucius Calpurnius Piso (2), who succeeded STATIL- and prestige. At the same time, the emperors found it
IUS TAURUS circa 12 C.E. and remained urban prefect convenient to delegate certain perhaps unpleasant tasks
until his death in 32. In its early history, the office was to their prefects, knowing that they would not refuse.
used by the emperor as a counterweight to the often Because of this unique role, the prefects amassed more
ambitious PREFECT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD—as in 31 and more power.
C.E., when Tiberius relied upon Urban Prefect Corne-
lius LACO to arrest and imprison Praetorian Prefect In the first century C.E., BURRUS helped guide Nero’s
SEJANUS. Generally, however, just as the urban cohorts imperial policy, while the infamous TIGELLINUS destroyed
could not match the martial strength of the Praetorian it. TITUS became prefect for his father VESPASIAN. Through-
Guard, neither could the prefect of the city compete out the second century there were further developments,
with the prefect of the Guard in imperial influence. This beginning with the aggrandizement of the Equestrian
was especially the case from the second century C.E. class by HADRIAN. As the knights rose in prominence, so
onward. did the prefecture. Septimus SEVERUS, emperor at the start
of the third century, did much to widen the scope of the
The role of prefect of the city did grow, however, in prefectship, adding to it legal duties, to coincide with its
legal affairs. He began with his own court, but his area of martial and bureaucratic aspects. Great jurists such as
jurisdiction expanded continually, so that eventually ULPIAN and PAPINIAN became prefects.
much of Italy appeared at his bench. With the founding
of Constantinople, it was decided that another urban pre- Then, in 217, the prefect MACRINUS took the dramatic
fect should be created, and in 359 the praefectus urbi took step of having Caracalla assassinated ensuring his own
up duties in the East that were almost identical to those selection as emperor. The possibilities were obvious, and
of his Roman counterpart. The office continued until the generals in the provinces spent much of the century not
end of the Roman Empire, and that of the Eastern capital only fighting the barbarians pouring across the frontiers
until even later. but also battling each other for the throne. The Praeto-
rian Guard, led often by its prefects, did much to increase
prefect of engineering The praefectus fabrum, a post the chaos of the third century. DIOCLETIAN put to death
within each legion for the commander of all engineers. It by his own hand the Prefect Aper in 284, envisioning a
eventually came to symbolize any appointed official sent total reform of the imperial system, and the Praetorian
out with the task of construction. Guard was reduced in status. Stripped of his dangerous
military role, the prefect was empowered with broader
prefect of the grain See ANNONA. administrative tasks, overseeing the entire tax system,
with control over most of the imperial finances.
prefect of the Praetorian Guard The commander of
the PRAETORIAN GUARD; over time, the post evolved into When Constantine abolished the Praetorians in 312,
one of the most powerful in the Roman Empire. Its politi- he freed the prefects to play a new part in the Roman
cal influence was such that, even when Diocletian dis- Empire. The provinces were divided into dioceses, in turn
g rouped into the four so-called Praetorian prefectures:
Gaul, Illyricum, Italy, and the Orient. Each prefect had
mastery over all of the dioceses and governors within his

450 prefecto
 ft
 he
watch

jurisdiction, the two most powerful being Italy and the C. Septicius Clarus Hadrian
East. In essence, there was no non-military government Marcius Turbo Hadrian
activity that did not involve the prefects. They had their Gaius Maximus Hadrian, Antoninus Pius
own treasuries, paid and supplied the armies, named and Tattius Maximus Antoninus Pius
removed governors, and made various decrees of a public Fabius Cornelius
nature. Prefects also exercised extensive legal privileges, Antoninus Pius
hearing all appeals from the lower courts. From the pre- Repentinus Antoninus Pius, Marcus
fect there was no appeal, not even to the empero r. Furius Victorinus
Aurelius
Because he possessed no military role, the prefect Macrinus Vindex Marcus Aurelius
was adorned with the mighty symbols of his office. He Bassaeus Rufus Marcus Aurelius
rode in a golden chariot, wore an ornate purple robe (dif- Tarutenius Paternus Marcus Aurelius, Com-
ferent from that of the emperor only in that it went to his
knees and not to the floor), used a tripod silver bowl for Tigidius Perennis modus
holding petitions, carried a sword, and was honored by Cleander Commodus
his audience with a required bent knee. Lucius Julianus Commodus
Aemilius Laetus Commodus
Following are the Praetorian prefects during the Commodus, Pertinax,
empire. Flavius Genialis
Tullius Crispinus Didius Julianus
PREFECTS OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD Veturius Macrinus Didius Julianus
2 B.C.E.–312 C.E. G. Fulvius Plautianus Didius Julianus
Papinian Septimius Severus
Name Emperor Served Septimius Severus
Publius Aper Augustus Marcus Opellius Septimius Severus,
Quintus Ostorius Macrinus
Augustus Caracalla
Scapula Augustus Ulpius Julianus
Valerius Ligur Augustus, Tiberius Julianus Nestor Caracalla
Lucius Strabo Tiberius Valerius Comazon Macrinus
Lucius Sejanus Tiberius, Caligula Macrinus
Macro Eutychianus
M. Arrencinus Caligula Antiochianus Elagabalus
Claudius Ulpian Elagabalus
Clemens Claudius Iulius Paulus Severus Alexander
Rufrius Pollio Claudius P. Aelius Vitalianus Severus Alexander
Catonius Justus Claudius Philip the Arab Maximinus
Rufius Crispinus Claudius, Nero Gaius Julius Priscus Gordian III
Lusius Geta Nero Aurelius Heraclianus Philip
Burrus Nero Florianus Gallienus
Faenius Rufus Nero Carus Tacitus
Ofonius Tigellinus Galba Aper Probus
Nymphidius Sabinus Otho Carus, Carinus,
Cornelius Laco Otho Aristobulus
Plotius Firmus Vitellius Hannibalianus Numerian
Licinius Proculus Vitellius Constantinus Chlorus Numerian, Diocletian
Publius Sabinus Asclepiodotus Diocletian
Junius Priscus Vespasian Rufius Volusianus Diocletian
Tiberius Julius Vespasian Publius Cornelius Diocletian
Vespasian Maxentius
Alexander Vespasian Anullinus
Arrius Varus Domitian Maxentius
Arrecinus Clemens Domitian
Titus Domitian prefect of the watch The head of Rome’s fire
Cornelius Fuscus Domitian brigades, the VIGILES. Called the praefectus vigilum, his
Casperius Aelianus Nerva duties included maintaining the readiness of the Vigiles
Norbanus Trajan both for fires and any other natural or paramilitary emer-
Petronius Secundus Trajan gencies that might arise. Over the years the prefect of the
Casperius Aelianus Trajan watch also developed certain legal powers but was never
Suburanus a match for the PREFECT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD or for
Claudius Livianus the PREFECT OF THE CITY.
S. Sulpicius Similis



452 Priapus ian frontiers. When Otho conspired to murder Galba and
assumed the throne, he was accepted by the LEGIONS,
Priapus A male divinity of fertility, eventually consid- Primus included. VITELLIUS, however, the master of the
ered the protector of gardens and orchards. According to German Legions, started a second civil war, and despite
legend, Priapus, the son of Dionysus (BACCHUS) and an offer to assist in his campaigns, the Pannonian Legions
Aphrodite (VENUS), was born at Lampsacus on the Helle- were left out of the battles. Otho was defeated at the first
spont; hence he was also called Hellespontiacus. He was battle of Bedriacum in Cisalpine Gaul, near Verona on
worshiped throughout Asia Minor as a major deity of April 14, and Vitellius assumed the throne.
nature, patron of gardens, flocks, vines, bees, and some-
times even fish. As the cult traveled into Greece and Italy, Vitellius was despised, and the legions supported VES-
Priapus retained his obvious potency, but his power was PASIAN in a bid for power. Primus, aided by Cornelius Fis-
restricted to that of guardian of gardens. Asses were tradi- cus, the procurator of Pannonia, used his considerable
tionally sacrificed to him, while his statues and images oratorical skills to gain the absolute devotion of his men
were normally that of a dwarf with enormous genitalia. Dalmatia and Illyricum soon joined the cause. Without
Such notables as CATULLUS, HORACE, and TIBULLUS wrote waiting for Vespasian or any of his lieutenants, Primus
poems called priapea, dedicated to him. ordered that the war should be taken to Italy. On October
27, the Vitellian forces were crushed at the second battle
See also GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME. of Bedriacum. Together with Cerealis, Vespasian’s brother-
in-law, Primus captured Rome and, despite the Senate’s
priesthood Collectively, the trained servants of the acclamation of Vespasian as emperor, the city was sacked.
various cults and temples of Rome. According to the his- The general now ruled the capital, appointing officials
torian Dio, there were four major priesthoods in Rome at with the help of Arrius Varus, his cavalry commander. In
the start of the empire: the PONTIFICES, the augurs, the December, 69 C.E., the arrival in Rome of Mucianus, Ve s-
QUINDECIMVIRI and the SEPTEMVIRI. His statement was pasian’s true lieutenant, ended Antonius’s power.
correct, but during the reign of Augustus (27 B.C.E.–14
C.E.) other priestly colleges were reinvigorated or resur- princeps An unofficial but important title that meant
rected as part of the emperor’s campaign of promoting the “First Statesman.” In the Republican era the princeps was
Roman state religion. Thus, there were the ancient SALII used to give honor to special leaders or figures. POMPEY
of Mars, the Fratres Arvales or ARVAL BRETHREN, and, of THE GREAT was called princeps out of recognition for his
course, the VESTAL VIRGINS. victories for the state and his position within Rome. Oth-
ers received the name, including CICERO for the Catiline
As was traditional in Rome there was no sharp sepa- Affair in 63 B.C.E. Julius CAESAR won the title from Cicero
ration between the religious and the secular powers. Any in 49. As all of these great figures possessed the name
priest could hold a magistracy, and the PONTIFEX MAXIMUS princeps within the framework of the Republic, it was
and Flamen Dialis sat in the Senate. Further, as the post natural and astute of Augustus to choose the name for
was normally held for life, it was possible for one priest himself. In this regard, princeps allowed him to define his
to serve in several different orders while fulfilling his position—“first statesman” of the new Republic, who
duties to each. Specific regulations were enforced, guided the ship of state with a firm but respectful hand.
depending upon the circumstances or the requirements of
office. The importance of the various priesthoods was While princeps carried with it no actual political
considerable in shaping Rome’s religious life. power, such as IMPERATOR or the TRIBUNICIA POTESTAS, it
was still a badge of prestige and status for the emperors.
See also RELIGION; AUGURS AND AUGURY; FLAMENS; From the reign of GAIUS CALIGULA (37–41 C.E.) it was par-
GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME; PAGANISM. ticularly meaningless, a mere titular possession.

Primus, Marcus Antonius (fl. mid-first century C.E.) See also PRINCEPS IUVENTUTIS; PRINCEPS SENATUS.
Adventurer, plotter and legate of the VII Galbiana Legion in
Pannonia princeps iuventutis Latin for “prince of youth.” Dur-
Primus was active in the year of the Four Emperors, 69 ing the Republic the appellation princeps iuventutis was
C.E. Tacitus wrote that Marcus Antonius Primus “pos- used to describe the chief of the Equestrian Order (EQUI-
sessed uncommon eloquence; an artful and insidious TES). Its use changed with the beginning of the empire, as
enemy, he had the art of involving others in danger.” He it ceased to hold any political significance but came to be
was also to prove one of the most active of Vespasian’s a designation of honor for certain princes of the imperial
adherents during his drive for the throne of Rome. Nero family who were obviously chosen as heirs. Thus, Gaius
disliked Primus and exiled him. Primus, however, and Lucius, sons of Marcus AGRIPPA, received from the
attached himself to the next emperor, GALBA, who early in Equestrians silver shields and spears, as they were being
69 C.E. succeeded the dethroned Nero. By his wits Primus raised to succeed AUGUSTUS. Henceforth, the princeps
managed to get command of the VII Galbiana Legion,
joining the III and VIII legions on the Pannonia and Illyr-

iuventutis was a common title, although it became tradi- Priscus,C
 lutorius 453
tional in some instances to grant the prince the rank of
Caesar or junior emperor at the same time as the princeps From Bithynia, Priscus came to the attention of Septimius
iuventutis. It was also adopted as a title by several emper- Severus in 194 when that general was attempting to cap-
ors, especially DOMITIAN. ture Byzantium, the city on the Hellespont, holding out
in favor of the rival imperial claimant Pescennius Niger.
princeps senatus A term used during the late Republic The engines devised by Priscus were very strong and
to honor the leading senator, chosen by the CENSORS. It were positioned along the entire length of the city wall;
meant “first senator” and was considered very presti- they were helpful in preventing the capture of the site for
gious. Augustus (ruled 27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.), in his reorgani- almost three years. When Byzantium finally fell, Priscus
zation of the Senate, laid claim to the title; subsequently was condemned to die, only to be spared by Severus. The
it was used by the emperors. new emperor wisely retained his services as a builder of
siege engines. In Severus’s campaign against the Parthi-
Prisca and Maximilla (fl. second century C.E.) Chris- ans, Priscus created numerous siege devices for the
tian leaders assault on Hatra. His designs were so excellent that
Leaders in the apocalyptic movement of Montanism. among the works destroyed by the Parthians only his
They assisted MONTANUS in spreading his prophecies that were left standing.
a heavenly Jerusalem would soon descend upon Pepuza
in Phrygia. Priscus (2) (fl. second century C.E.) Officer of the
legions in Britain
Priscillian (fl. fourth century C.E.) Christian heretic Around 185–186, Priscus was chosen by the legionaries
whose sect gained popularity in the West, most notably in as emperor. He declined the nomination with the state-
Spain ment: “I am no more an emperor than you are soldiers.”
Priscillian was a Spanish layman, probably of a wealthy or
noble family, who began to preach a severely ascetical, Priscus (3) (c. 305–396 C.E.) Neoplatonic philosopher
pseudo-Christian creed sometime in the early- to mid- Possibly born in Epirus, Priscus was a student of Aede-
370s. His exact aim and the tenets of his theology were not sius at Pergamum. He taught at Athens before joining
fully pre s e rved. Clearly, however, he was influenced by Maximus of Ephesus as one of the major influences in
GNOSTICISM, with his call for vegetarianism and adhere n c e the intellectual development of Emperor JULIAN THE
to strict living. Priscillian found support among many of APOSTATE. He was invited to Julian’s court in Gaul when
the Spanish bishops but was opposed by Christian ortho- the prince was Caesar and served as adviser during his
doxy. In 380, at the Council of Saragossa, the prelates who reign as emperor from 361 to 363. Traveling with Julian,
were his antagonists managed only to have his sect con- Priscus was at his side in Antioch in 362 and during the
demned, and his patrons retaliated by ordaining him as Persian Campaign in 363. He was also present at Julian’s
the bishop of Avila. Drawn into the matter by appeals from death. Returning to Antioch, Priscus enjoyed the favor of
the orthodox, Emperor Gratian sided with Priscillian. Jovian but was put on trial with Maximus of Ephesus by
Emperor Valens. Acquitted in 370 or 371 on charges of
Unfortunately, Gratian was murdered in 383, and conspiracy, Priscus was allowed to go home to Greece,
Magnus Maximus, his successor, had to cultivate the where he taught for many years.
goodwill of the orthodox Christians. At the Council of
Bordeaux in 384, he allowed Priscillian to be condemned See also NEOPLATONISM.
and, when the sect’s followers appealed, listened to
charges of sorcery. A tribunal of laymen, headed by Mag- Priscus (4) (fl. fifth century C.E.) Greek historian from
nus Maximus’s Praetorian prefect, found Priscillian guilty. Panium in Thrace
St. MARTIN OF TOURS protested vehemently against the use Priscus became a teacher of rhetoric before joining the
of a secular court, to little avail. Priscillian was executed embassy sent in 449 to ATTILA the Hun. He helped org a-
in 385. A controversy erupted over the death, the result nize the meeting with Attila and presented the emperor’s
of a lay committee, but the sect only increased in number gifts to him. As a writer, Priscus composed a secular his-
throughout Spain. Steps were taken to reduce its impact, tory in seven books of contemporary events and a his-
including the Council of Toledo in 400, aimed at bringing tory of Byzantium. Although extant only in fragments,
back into the church all less-stringent Priscillianists. it was used by such chroniclers as John Malalas and
Procopius.
Priscus (1) (fl. late second century C.E.) Designer of
siege engines Priscus, Clutorius (C. Lutorius Priscus) (d. 21
C.E.) Roman knight and poet
Priscus received money from Tiberius for the beauty of
Ode to Germanicus, upon the latter’s death in 19 C.E. In

454 Priscus,G
 aius
Julius in Cappadocia, in 163 he helped Lucius Verus conquer
Armenia, destroying Artaxata, the Armenian capital. Iron-
21, however, he supposedly composed another poem, in ically, Verus took the title Armeniacus. Priscus was
preparation for the demise of Drusus, Tiberius’s son who replaced by Martius Verus.
had recently fallen ill. His hope, so the subsequent accu-
sation claimed, had been to gain an even greater reward Priscus Attius (fl. first century C.E.) Artist in the time
from the emperor. The Senate condemned him to death, of the Flavians (69–96 C.E.)
angering Tiberius, not because they had killed someone With Cornelius Pinus, Attius painted the Temple of
but that they had shown such haste in doing so. Honor and Virtus for Emperor Vespasian. The writer
Pliny the Elder noted that Priscus painted in a fashion
Priscus, Gaius Julius (fl. mid-second century C.E.) very close to the old style.
Brother of Emperor Philip the Arab and a beneficiary of his
sibling’s rise to power Probus, Marcus Aurelius (c. 232–282 C.E.) Emperor
In 244, when Philip had succeeded Gordian III and had from 276 to 282 and one of the rulers of the late third
concluded a peace treaty with the Persians, Priscus was century
named by him to be governor of Macedonia. Later he was Born at Sirmium, Probus achieved great success as a gen-
made Praetorian prefect of the East, with full powers to eral in the service of Emperor AURELIAN. Details of his
administer the Eastern provinces. His style of rule, how- early career, including his position as tribune under Vale-
ever, was extremely harsh, as he collected taxes aggres- rian, are related by the Historia Augusta (see SCRIPTORES
sively. This caused civil unrest in the East, culminating in HISTORIAE AUGUSTAE) and thus present serious problems
the rise of usurpers. of reliability and accuracy.

Priscus, Javolenus (Gaius Octavius Tidius Tas- After working for Aurelian along the German fron-
sianus Lucius Javolenus Priscus) (fl. second century tier, Probus held the post of commander in Syria and
C.E.) Leading jurist Egypt. This office apparently continued through the
Aside from being the head of the Sabinian school of law, reign of TACITUS (2) and in 276, upon the emperor’s
he was legate in Britannia, Germania Superior, and Africa, death, Probus refused to recognize the claim of FLORI-
and proconsul of Africa. Among his writings were Epistu- ANUS. P roclaimed as emperor by his own troops, Probus
lae and extensive analyses of previous legal experts. avoided an actual battle with Florianus, causing instead
mass defections in his opponent’s army. Florianus was
Priscus, Junius (d. 39 C.E.) A praetor and victim of murdered by his own troops as Probus became master of
Emperor Gaius Caligula the Roman world. Proceeding immediately to Rome he
Reputed to be very wealthy, Priscus was charged with var- gained confirmation from the Senate, although his sup-
ious crimes and put to death. Discovering that Priscus, in posedly good relations with the senatorial elements in
fact, possessed little wealth, Gaius lamented: “He fooled government had recently fallen under suspicion. Crises
me and thus needlessly died when he might as well have along the Rhine and Danubian frontiers called for imme-
lived.” diate attention. The Franks were defeated, followed by
the Vandals and Burgundians. Two years of fighting cul-
Priscus, Lucius Neratius (fl. early second century minated in 278 with the final repulse of the Vandals
C.E.) Influential jurist and one of the last heads of the and Probus’s laying claim to the title of Restorer of
Proculean School of Law Illyricum (Restitutor Illurici). Marching to the East, he
Priscus’s time of greatest power came during the reign of c rushed a number of local uprisings and a usurpation by
Trajan, when he sat on the CONSILIUM PRINCIPIS. It was one of his lieutenants, Julius Saturninus. After negotiat-
widely reported that Trajan considered him an excellent ing a truce with Persia, Probus returned to the West to
choice as his successor, once saying that he entrusted the put down two more rebels, Proculus and Bonosus. This
provinces to Priscus, should anything happen to him. accomplished, he made preparations in Rome for a long-
Under Hadrian he retained his position as legal adviser awaited campaign against Persia. Unfortunately he
with other notables, such as Juventius Celsus and announced that in the future the legions would be
Salvius Julianus. Priscus was mentioned frequently in disbanded as there would be peace in the empire. Wo rd
the Digest. soon arrived that the troops in Raetia and Noricum
had elevated CARUS to the purple. Probus sent a detach-
Priscus, Statius (d. after 163 C.E.) Consul in 159 C.E. ment to murder him, but they defected, and the emperor
and one of the most successful generals in the reigns of Mar- himself was slain by his own mutinous legionaries
cus Aurelius and Lucius Verus in 282.
Priscus was governor of numerous provinces, including
Dacia, Moesia, Britannia, and Cappadocia. While serving Probus, despite his fatal error with the army, had
proven himself a gifted ruler. He was able to defeat the

barbarians repeatedly, celebrated a rare triumph in Rome, Proculeius,
Gaius 455
had the political power necessary to retain the support of
the Roman government and did much to restore the proconsul Title denoting the governor of a province
provinces economically. He thus had a major part in the (holding his imperium, or authority, in place of the
revival of the Roman Empire that would be completed by Consul) during the Republic, the head of a senatorial
Diocletian. province during the empire. According to custom, a pro-
consul held his post for one year, surrendering his
Probus, Marcus Valerius (fl. late first century C.E.) authority to a successor and departing within 30 days of
Grammarian from Berytus his expired term. He was, in official circumstances,
Probus wrote very little and took on a limited number of accompanied by six lictors, 12 if he had once served as
students. As an author, he specialized in commentaries consul. An important difference between the proconsuls
on such writers as Horace, Virgil, Lucretius, and Persius, of the Republic and the empire was in power over troops.
making critical and useful annotations. A large collection A proconsul in the Republic commanded any legions in
of works attributed to him were not genuine. When he his province, while an imperial proconsul had no units
did teach, it was orally. Suetonius called him the last of available to him.
the grammarians.
See also IMPERIUM PROCONSULARIS for details of his
Probus, Petronius (d. 388 C.E.) Praetorian prefect in power in terms of the imperial system.
the latter half of the fourth century
P robus was born around 328, perhaps at Ve rona. After Procopius (326–366 C.E.) Usurper in the East from 365
serving as quaestor and praetor, he became proconsul to 366
of Africa in 358. Throughout much of the reign of Probably related maternally to JULIAN. Procopius was
Valentinian he held the post of Praetorian prefect; born to a wealthy family in Cilicia, and under Emperor
Illyricum in 364, Galliarum in 366 and Illyricum, Italy, CONSTANTIUS II was an imperial secretary and tribune,
and Africa from 368–375. He was also consul in 371. He reaching a position in the schola notariorum. When Julian
married a daughter of Q. Clodius Olybrius. During his became emperor in 361, he was promoted to the rank of
administration he faced several crises. In 371, Sirmium COMES and held a command in the army during Julian’s
was under attack by the Sarmation tribes and the Quadi; Persian campaign in 363. Apparently named by Julian to
years of fighting apparently followed, with much of be his successor, Procopius was bypassed in favor of
Illyricum devastated. Ambitious rivals schemed to have JOVIAN upon Julian’s death in 363. He did not force the
him removed, using his ruthless financial policy as evi- claim but returned instead to private life, discharging the
dence of his unsuitability for office. He survived such duty of cremating Julian at Tarsus. Because of the doubts
assaults, remaining as prefect until the time of Valen- of Emperor Valens, Procopius went into hiding, but in
tinian II. 365 was back at Constantinople, where the local units,
unhappy with Valens, proclaimed him emperor on
From 375 to 383 Probus held no post, but in 383 he September 28. Valens quickly recovered, and Procopius
received the prefectship of Illyricum, Italy, and Africa was put to death on May 27, 366.
once more. A Christian, he authored poems dedicated to
Emperor Theodosius. Considered one of the greatest Proculeans The Proculiani or Proculeiani, members of
statesmen of his era, Probus received praise from such one of the leading schools of law in Rome. The name
intellectuals as Ausonius, Symmachus, and Ammianus derived from the eminent jurist of the first century C.E.,
Marcellinus. Ammianus wrote of his vast wealth, his fair PROCULUS. The Proculeans, students of the law school of
disposition, and his charity. Probus was buried in a sar- that name, were bitter opponents in Rome of the Sabini-
cophagus behind the altar in St. Peter’s. ans. Differences between the two apparently originated in
the Augustan period (27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.), between Ateius
Proclus (c. 412–485 C.E.) Neoplatonic philosopher of the CAPITO and Antistius LABEO. The two disputed the nature
fifth century of law; Capito held a more conservative view than
From Lycia, Proclus studied in Rome and in Athens, and Labeo’s. Proculus adhered to Labeo and his less conserva-
as a Neoplatonist he centered on pseudo-mysticism, the- tive outlook. They feuded with the Sabinians until the
urgy and vague magical tenets. He developed a reputation time of Hadrian, when the organizational centralization
for miraculous works and took over the leadership of the of Roman law merged the two. Lucius Priscus was proba-
Athenian branch of the Neoplatonic movement. Proclus bly the last head of the Proculean School.
authored numerous treatises on philosophy, including
commentaries on Plato. He is best known today for his Proculeius, Gaius (fl. late first century B.C.E.) Member
Elements of Theology (Stoicheiosis Theologike). of the Equestrians (Equites)
A friend and confident of Emperor Augustus, he was
See also NEOPLATONISM. used in 30 B.C.E. with the freedman Epaphroditus, as
ambassador to Cleopatra.

456 Proculus taxes. All troops in the province had to be paid and
accounts had to be maintained. Elsewhere, a procurator
Proculus (fl. mid-first century C.E.) One of Rome’s most might be concerned more exclusively with tax collection
respected legal experts or with the legal formalities connected with the taxes.
Little is known with certainty about Proculus. He cen- Because of the trust and responsibilities given to them,
tered himself in the tradition of M. Antistius Labeo, com- the procurators were generally chosen from the ranks of
posing a Notae (a collection of notes) on him. Aside from the Equestrians (EQUITES). While freedmen were, from
his inclusion in numerous parts of the Digest, Proculus time to time, placed in a procuratorship, the office
voiced his legal views in his Epistulae (Letters). The emerged as a bastion of Equestrian political expansion.
PROCULEANS of the Proculean School named themselves Procurators thus survived the administrative changes of
after him. the second century C.E. In the fourth century C.E., with
the termination of imperial and senatorial designations,
See also JURISTS; LAW. they served as representatives of the central government
in mints and mines.
Proculus, Licinius (fl. first century C.E.) Prefect of the
Praetorian Guard during the brief reign of Otho in 69 C.E. See also PONTIUS PILATE; RES PRIVATA.
Proculus was one of two prefects, with Plotius Firmus, to
be elected by the Praetorians themselves, following Prohaeresius (d. 367 C.E.) Christian rhetorician
Otho’s succession. He enjoyed a position of favor with the Also known as Proaeresius, he studied RHETORIC at
emperor, using it to convince Otho to give battle at BEDRI- Athens and Antioch, becoming a teacher in the Athenian
ACUM. The Othonian cause was crushed, but Proculus school. Famed for his eloquence, he received an honorary
was pardoned by VITELLIUS. Praetorian prefecture from Constans and was given a
statue by the Romans. When Emperor Julian the Apos-
Proculus, Volusius (fl. first century C.E.) An officer of tate, in 362, forbade Christians from teaching, Prohaere-
the imperial fleet at Misenum sius was given a special dispensation; nevertheless he
Proculus was reportedly unhappy at being passed over for resigned his post in protest of the imperial policy. He
reward, despite his help in the murder of Agrippina the claimed among his pupils Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil,
Younger in 59. In 65 C.E., hoping to win his support in and Eunapius.
the growing PISONIAN CONSPIRACY, the woman EPICHARIS
invited Proculus to satisfy his desire for vengeance by Propertius, Sextus (d. 15 B.C.E.) Elegiac poets
joining the plot to murder Nero. He reported her words Born between 54 and 49 or 47 B.C.E. at Assisi in Umbria,
to Nero but, because there was no witnesses, could not he was educated in Rome, showing early on a capacity for
prove the charge. poetry. Propertius subsequently developed into a premier
elegiac and erotic poet, surpassing Tibullus in his skills as
procurator An agent of the emperor, with varying an adherent of the Alexandrine style. Through the suc-
amounts of power throughout the years of the Roman cess of his book of elegies, devoted in the main to his
Empire. Procurators fulfilled a number of tasks within love, Cynthia, Propertius acquired the patronage of Gaius
the imperial civil administration, especially in the MAECENAS. Although certainly a client and addressing
provinces. By far the most common duty for a procurator works to him, the poet never seemed to enjoy familiarity
was to act as governor of a minor province or territory. with the circle of literary giants around Maecenas, which
His powers were those of any other governor of an impe- included Virgil and Horace. Ovid, however, repeatedly
rial possession, with control over the law and local gov- mentioned Propertius in a very favorable light. As a
ernment, as well as the troops at hand. The most obvious writer, Propertius underwent a fascinating transforma-
examples were to be found in Mauretania and Judaea. tion. Always original and imaginative, he nevertheless
Procurators assigned to senatorial provinces fulfilled dif- moved away from his characteristic nervousness into a
ferent duties; there they cared for imperial estates and forceful manner and perhaps even a didactic one in his
properties within the region. They had no other authority last book (IV), where he treated various topics of Roman
within that provincial jurisdiction. In 23 C.E., Tiberius history. Beset throughout his life with poor health and
had a procurator in Asia, Lucilius Capito, tried and con- catastrophe, he lost his father, home and the woman he
demned for overstepping his rights by laying claim to loved—which possibly had an influence on his frequent
some prerogatives of the governor. Usurpations became a mention of death. The date of his death is unclear and is
frequent occurrence in the late first century C.E., most placed sometime in the years between 16 and 2 B.C.E., but
notably in areas of financial concern. probably closer to 15.

Finances were the other major task of the procurator. proscription From the Latin proscriptio, a list of indi-
When assigned to an imperial province with a legate viduals who, for various reasons and crimes, have been
(legati pro praetore), they acted as the financial overseer.
Their equivalent in the senatorial domains was the
QUAESTOR, but the procurator had to do more than collect

declared criminals. They were often those who lost in a provinces
oft
 he
Roman
Empire 457
major power struggle, such as the losers in the political
and military conflicts following the death of Julius Caesar with Carthage, when Rome seized control of extensive
in 44 B.C.E. Among the proscribed at that time was Cicero. overseas territories. The Senate was reluctant to enter
Victims of proscription lost their property and had a death into direct administration of a new territory because of
sentence passed upon them. Anyone responsible for the cost in military personnel and administration, but the
killing them received a re w a rd. The sons and grandsons of provinciae helped to establish important frontier buffers
the proscribed were banned from public office. safeguarding the imperial interior and its swiftly develop-
ing trade and lines of communications. The loose system
Prosper (Prosper of Aquitaine) (fl. fifth century of assigned authority for a magistrate thus became under-
C.E.) Christian theologian and historian stood to be an overseas territory administered by a magis-
A follower of strict orthodoxy as symbolized by his trate supported by a staff. The number of provinces
patron, Augustine, Prosper composed polemics against increased steadily during the first century through the
the Pelagians and semi-Pelagians, and poems on various campaigns of POMPEY THE GREAT and Julius CAESAR.
other subjects. The main work of Prosper was his Chroni-
cle. A continuation of the effort of Jerome, the Chronicle During the Republic, the governance and size of the
included a brief epitome of Jerome’s own history and then provinces was never concretized in law. Rather, provinces
recorded events from around 379 to 455. Prosper wrote were formed out of newly conquered territory, with the
his book in Rome but subsequent revisions were made in general establishing the specific terms for its foundation
Africa; final versions included the story of the Vandal in consultation with members of the Senate. Actual
Kingdom of Africa. administration was also loose in structure and subject to
abuse and corruption. Customarily, cities and communi-
protectores Precursor of the PROTECTORES DOMESTICI; ties in the acquired province were permitted to retain
they were organized probably during the reign of Gal- local government and traditions. All, however, were sub-
lienus (c. 260–268 C.E.) as part of his reform of the impe- ject to the edicts and even the whims of the governor. He
rial armed forces. Membership among the protectores was governed through his provincial staff, which included
based upon holding the rank of tribune in the PRAETO- quaestors and legates, as well as a variety of members
RIAN GUARD and on other positions in the legions, includ- from the civil service. As postings to often distant provin-
ing the centurionate. Based within the Castra Praetoria, ciae were considered undesirable, assorted incentives
the p rotectores were not divorced from the Praetorian were given to governors and their friends (cohors). Lax
Guard and thus did not offer a counterweight to the oversight permitted severe abuses of the local population,
guardsmen. It was Diocletian and Constantine the Great so that many governors and their associates returned far
who made an abrupt change in the structure of imperial wealthier than when they left Rome, although overly
palace politics. obvious corruption could be prosecuted by the Senate
under the laws of repetundae (or retrieval of lost money
provinces of the Roman Empire While termed the by people in the provinces). The two most important
Imperium Romani (the empire of Rome), the Roman functions of government were to maintain peace—either
Empire was, in fact, a conglomeration of far-flung territo- by watching the frontier or keeping the cities and town
ries, client-states, and regions that fell under Roman pacified—and to collect taxes. The latter task was left to
authority over the course of centuries. These acquired quaestors or towns themselves, and surpluses were
territories were divided for geographical and, especially, almost never reported to Rome as any excess taxes found
administrative purposes into provinces. The history of their way into the coffers of the governor and his friends.
the Roman Empire—as distinct from the history of Rome Roman taxation, both direct and indirect, were often
or Italy—is one told by the events and the development oppressive, becoming even more so in the later empire.
of the provinces and the vast populations who lived
under Roman imperial subjection. The long-standing system of provinces in the Repub-
lic was brought to an end by Emperor Augustus (r. 27
As the city of Rome expanded its influence in Italy, B.C.E.–14 C.E.). As part of his extensive political settle-
the conquest of territory made it necessary to devise ment with the Senate following the battle of Actium in 31
some structure for magistrates to administer justice and B.C.E., Augustus was granted control over his own provin-
oversee public tranquillity. It was in this sense that the cia, which contained such extensive and important terri-
term provincia first came into use, to designate the task or tories as Gaul, Syria, and Hispania. These he governed
specific jurisdiction granted to a magistrate by the Senate through legati pro praetore (or legates) who represented
in the form of an IMPERIUM. Until the time of the First his interests. From this ad hoc structure emerged the
Punic War (264–241), all provinciae were situated in Italy. recognition of the division of all provinces into one of
That changed throughout the long and bitter struggles two types, imperial and senatorial. The senatorial
provinces (broadly the smaller and more established
provinces) were governed by proconsuls, assisted by
quaestors and legates. Even senatorial provinces were
subject to imperial will, for Augustus and his successors

458 provinceso
 f
the
RomanE
 mpire

possessed the IMPERIUM MAIUS, giving them the right to Germania Superior c. 90 C.E.
intervene in senatorial affairs. The most prestigious Hispania Citerior 197 B.C.E.
of the senatorial provinces were Asia and Africa, although Hispania Ulterior 197 B.C.E.
it was traditionally accepted that appointment to the Illyricum
larger imperial provinces was a more certain way of guar- Italia 11 B.C.E.
anteeing advancement to higher office in Rome. All new Lycia et Pamphylia c. 27 B.C.E.**
provinces added after 14 C.E. were designated imperial Macedonia
provinces, a custom that did not change. Mesopotamia 43 C.E.
c. 146 B.C.E.
Egypt was a unique province in that it was held tech- Moesia c. 116 (abandoned by
nically “subject to the Roman People.” In reality, Augus- Noricum Hadrian; reconstituted
tus held Egypt as his own, which was logical given its Raetia in 197 and lost in the
strategic access to the Red Sea and, above all, its central Sardinia et Corsica third century)
role in supplying grain for the empire. Senators were for- Sicilia
bidden to enter Egypt without direct imperial consent, Syria c. 6 C.E.
and administration was in the hands of a prefect assigned Thracia c. 15 B.C.E.
from the ranks of the Equestrian class. after 15 B.C.E.
227 B.C.E.
The system established by Augustus remained essen- 211 B.C.E.
tially unchanged until the late third century, when Dio-
cletian inaugurated the system of the Tetrarchy in 293 64 B.C.E.
C.E. and the redistribution of the provinces into 12 ad- 46 C.E.
ministrative units termed dioceses. The new system all
but excluded senatorial participation and represented the ** Gallia Comata was reorganized by Augustus, c. 27
climax of an imperial structure that had gradually ended B.C.E., into three provinces: Gallia Aquitania, Gal-
the role of the Senate in the imperial machinery of state. lia Lugdunensis, and Gallia Belgica. Together, they
The diocesan system became more complex throughout formed the so-called Tres Galliae.
the fourth century C.E., keeping pace with the centraliza-
tion of imperial government in the hands of the emperors ** Italia came under the control of Rome over the
and their bureaucracy. course of several centuries, from the fifth century
to the third century B.C.E. It was unified com-
The provinces in existence prior to the reforms of pletely under Augustus around 27 B.C.E.
Diocletian were as follows:
Suggested Readings: Balsdon, John P. Romans and Aliens.
Name Year of Initial Creation Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979;
Barker, Graeme, John Lloyd, and Joyce Reynolds. Cyre-
Achaea 27 B.C.E. naica in Antiquity. Oxford, U.K.: B. A. R., 1985; Bower-
Aegyptus 30 B.C.E. sock, Glen W. Roman Arabia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harv a rd
Africa 146 B.C.E. University Press, 1983; Braund, David. Rome and the
Alpes Atrectianae et Friendly King: the Character of the Client Kingship. Lon-
second century C.E. don: Croom Helm, 1984; Curchin, L. A. Roman Spain.
Poeninae c. 54 C.E. Conquest and Assimilation. London: Routledge, 1991; De
Alpes Cottiae 14 B.C.E. Alarcão, J. Roman Portugal: Introduction and Gazetteer.
Alpes Maritimae 114 C.E. Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1988; Dyson, Stephen L.
Armenia Major 38 C.E. The Creation of the Roman Frontier. Princeton, N.J.:
Armenia Minor 129 B.C.E. Princeton University Press, 1985; Drinkwater, J. F.
Asia Roman Gaul: The Three Provinces, 58 B.C.–A.D. 260.
Assyria 116 C.E. (abandoned Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983; ———. The
by Hadrian) Creation of the Roman Frontier. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
Bithynia et Pontus 65 B.C.E. University Press, 1985; Julius Caesar. The Conquest of
Britannia c. 43 C.E. Gaul. New York: Penguin, 1982; Keay, S. J. Roman Spain.
Cappadocia 17 C.E. London: British Museum Publ., 1988; King, Anthony.
Cilicia 72 C.E. Roman Gaul and Germany. Berkeley: University of Cali-
Cyprus c. 27 B.C.E. f o rnia Press, 1990; Millar, Fergus. The Roman Empire and
Cyrenaica 74 B.C.E. Its Neighbours. 2nd ed. London: Duckworth, 1981;
Dacia 107 C.E. Parker, S. Thomas. Romans and Saracens: a History of the
Galatia 25 B.C.E. Arabian Frontier. Philadelphia: American Schools of Ori-
Gallia Cisalpina 82 B.C.E. ental Research; Winona Lake, Ind.: Distributed by Eisen-
Gallia Comata 27 B.C.E.* brauns, 1986; Price, S. R. F. Rituals and Power: the Roman
Gallia Transalpina 121 B.C.E. Imperial Cult in Asia Minor. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge
Germania Inferior c. 90 C.E. University Press, 1984; Randsborg, Klavs. The First Mil-

lennium A.D. in Europe and the Mediterranean: an Archae- PtolemyX
 IIA
 uletes 459
ological Essay. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University
P ress, 1991; Sullivan, Richard. Near Eastern Royalty and declared a “Friend of Rome,” receiving from the Senate as
Rome, 100–30 B.C.E. Toronto: University of Toronto Pre s s , well a scepter and a beautiful purple robe. In 40, how-
1990; Wacher, J., ed. The Roman World 2 vols. London: ever, he was summoned to Rome by Gaius Caligula and
Routledge, 1987; Whittaker, C. R. Frontiers of the Roman put to death. Various sources ascribed this murder to his
Empire. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, wealth, his robe or to some imaginary offense. Maureta-
1994; Wightman, Edith M. Gallia Belgica. London: Bats- nia was quickly seized by Rome.
f o rd, 1985.
Ptolemy, Claudius (f. second century C.E.) Astronomer,
Prudentius (Aurelius Prudentius Clemens) (c. mathematician, and geographer
348–410 C.E.) Christian poet who specialized in apologet- Claudius Ptolemy, or Ptolemaeus, lived in Alexandria
ics and hymns when the city was still the heart of the Roman Empire’s
Born in Spain, at the site of modern Saragossa, he studied scientific life. Little survived to detail his life, except that
law and was both a lawyer and government official. he was Egyptian; only his monumental works stand as
Despite a high position of respect in Rome, he spent his his personal legacy. Ptolemy’s most famous treatise was
last years devoted to composition. Among the many his mammoth study on astronomy, the Almagest. Written
works of Prudentius were Apotheosis; Peristephanon, in in 13 books, it covered the entire extent of knowledge of
praise of martyrs; Psychomachia, a view of spiritual strug- the heavens, relying upon numerous ancient authorities,
gles between good and evil; Cathemerinon, hymns for such as Menelaus and Hipparchus. Its mathematical com-
each day; and the famous contra Symmachum, a polemic putations were extensive. So impressive was the Almagest
composed to refute the speech delivered by the pagan that it served as the accepted and definitive effort on the
SYMMACHUS during the debates and struggles over the subject for the next millennium, even in the eras of Islam
return of the pagan Altar of Victory to the Senate. and the Byzantines. When combined with his many other
astronomical studies, the Almagest provided a thorough
Ptolemais Name given to numerous towns in Africa presentation of the stars, geometrical systems, orbits, and
and Egypt that were founded under Ptolemaic influence constellations. Ptolemy thus knew something about vir-
during that dynasty’s three-century rule of the Egyptian tually every science. One of his branches of expertise,
kingdom. Two cities named Ptolemais were especially geography, resulted in a detailed (but now inaccurate)
interesting, one in Africa and the other in Cyrenaica. geographical guide to the ancient world. All of his writ-
Ptolemais in Egypt was situated along the Nile, south of ings, however, were clear, methodical and important from
the Faiyum and north of Thebes. As it was originally a a historical perspective in their preservation of sources
Greek colony, its inhabitants steadfastly retained their from antiquity.
Greek heritage and lifestyle. This was important to
Emperor Hadrian, who, in 130 C.E., founded the city of See also ASTROLOGY; MATHEMATICS.
ANTINOPOLIS just above Ptolemais. Many residents of the
new community were drawn from Ptolemais, specifically Ptolemy XII Auletes (d. 51 B.C.E.) King of Egypt from
because of their Hellenic cultural ties. Ptolemais in Cyre- 80 to 51 B.C.E.
naica was also a Greek colony, established probably in the Called officially Neos Dionysos, but popularly known as
third century B.C.E. It was positioned to the east of Auletes, he was the illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX Lath-
Cyrene along the coast and was probably very wealthy. yrus, who died in 80 without any designated heir. With
The city possessed theaters, an odeon, an amphitheater the support of the Alexandrian political parties, young
and villas of exceptional beauty. Water was supplied Ptolemy was elevated to the throne, taking the name
through ingenious cisterns and decorated underground Ptolemy XII (because Ptolemies X and XI had reigned for
vaults. brief periods when his father was off the throne, regain-
ing it a few years before he died in 80). This accession
Ptolemy (d. 40 C.E.) King of Mauretania took place without the blessings of the powerful Roman
The son of King JUBA II and ruler of Mauretania from 23 statesman Sulla, engendering the first thoughts of a possi-
to 40 C.E., Ptolemy was related to the imperial family ble Roman seizure of Egypt. This threat hung over
though his mother, Cleopatra Selene, the daughter of Ptolemy’s rule for many years and was partially resolved
Marc Antony. During the final years of Juba’s reign, in 59 B.C.E. Through the help of Pompey and Julius Cae-
Ptolemy assumed greater importance to his kingdom and sar, Ptolemy was given full status as the recognized head
was thus well prepared to fulfill the duties of his office. of Egypt by the Roman Senate in 59. This recognition
His relations with Rome were always excellent. After aid- came at the price of 6,000 talents of gold, and in order to
ing in the destruction of the brigand Tacfarinas he was pay vast bribes Ptolemy had to apply a ruthless taxation
program to his own easily enflamed subjects. In 58, he
fled Egypt, journeying to Rome to demand help in recov-
ering the throne.

460 PtolemyX
 III Pulcheria, Aelia (399–453 C.E.) Augusta from 414 to
453 and the sister of Emperor Theodosius II
Pompey pressed the Senate to send troops to Egypt Pulcheria ran the Eastern Empire as regent for her
to win back the country, and had full approval for the brother, while earning a reputation for saintliness that
consul Lentulus Spinther to march. Unfortunately, the resulted in her canonization. She was the daughter of
SIBYLLINE BOOKS declared such a venture untimely. It was Emperor Arcadius, growing up in Constantinople and liv-
not until 55 that Ptolemy could find a means of returning ing as the elder sister of the imperial heir. When Arcadius
home. The Roman official Aulus GABINIUS was offered died in 408, Theodosius succeeded to the throne and
10,000 talents to forget the cause of Mithridates in both lived for the next six years under the fair adminis-
Parthia. Gabinius accepted and reinstated Ptolemy but tration of the Praetorian Prefect ANTHEMIUS. In 414, how-
was then fined the money he received, a punishment for ever, Anthemius was removed from his post. On July 4,
taking such a treasure. Ptolemy remained in Egypt until 414, Pulcheria was proclaimed Augusta, taking control
his death in 51. His children were CLEOPATRA, ARSINOE, over virtually all aspects of her brother’s education. She
PTOLEMY XIII, and PTOLEMY XIV. also introduced strict Christian practices into the court,
eventually convincing her brother to condemn Nestorian-
Ptolemy XIII (d. 47 B.C.E.) King of Egypt, brother of ism.
Cleopatra, and son of King Ptolemy XII Auletes
Ptolemy XIII tried but failed to win the throne of his Theodosius married the formidable EUDOCIA in 421;
country from Cleopatra and Julius Caesar. In 51 B.C.E., with her elevation to the rank of Augusta in 423, she was
Ptolemy XII died, leaving his heirs Cleopatra and on equal terms with Pulcheria. The next years were spent
Ptolemy, who was probably barely 10 years old. amidst intrigues as Eudocia quietly battled Pulcheria for
Although they were to rule Egypt together, a group of control of the palace, and the ambitious eunuch and
ambitious advisers surrounded both. The result was a chamberlain, Chrysaphius ZSTOMMAS, sowed discontent
tense political struggle for power within the palace. By between them. Pulcheria refused to take the bait of open
48, Cleopatra had been ousted from Alexandria through war, retiring to a private life in the Palace of the Heb-
the maneuverings of Ptolemy’s cunning counselors, domon in Constantinople. Eudocia was subsequently
such as POTHINUS and Theodotus. As she refused to give forced out of the Eastern capital, going to Jerusalem and
up so easily, the queen organized an army. Egypt stood leaving Zstommas to reign supreme during th 440s.
on the verge of civil war when Pompey arrived on
September 28, 48 B.C.E. Pompey the Great had just lost By the year 450, the officers of the army had risen
the battle of Pharsalus and had fled to Egypt with Caesar up and defeated the eunuch. Pulcheria emerged once
in hot pursuit. Ptolemy’s adviser recommended murd e r- more as the main influence with Theodosius. He died in
ing Pompey as an act of goodwill to Caesar. While the July of that year, leaving no appointed heir, although he
removal of such a foe was politically advantageous to was leaning toward the reliable soldier, MARCIAN. To en-
Caesar, the shameful manner of his death virtually con- sure a smooth transition of power, Pulcheria married
demned Ptolemy. By the time Cleopatra became Caesar’s Marcian. She died a virgin in 453, having left a lasting
lover, all of Alexandria was up in arms, and the Roman mark on the East and on Christianity, with her support of
dictator was besieged. Sensing that it was to his advan- orthodoxy and with her leadership at the Council of
tage to send Ptolemy away from the palace, Caesar even- Chalcedon in 451.
tually allowed him to depart. Ptolemy joined his army,
engaged at the time in trying to stop the advance of Pulchra, Claudia (d. 26 C.E.) A cousin of Agrippina the
Mithridates of Pergamum. The young king showed Elder
flashes of real military talent, but he was no match for Claudia’s persecution in 26 C.E. marked the beginning of
Caesar, who faced him in the battle of the NILE in Febru- the end for Agrippina. Charged with adultery and the
a ry of 47. There the Egyptians were routed, and Ptolemy attempted assassination of Tiberius with poisons and
fell in the fray. incantations, she was condemned through the skillful
oratory of Domitius AFER. Agrippina’s angry response
Ptolemy XIV (d. 43 B.C.E.) King of Egypt against Tiberius for allowing the trial to proceed only
The youngest son of King PTOLEMY XII AULETES of Egypt, made Agrippina’s position more dangerous.
and the brother of CLEOPATRA and PTOLEMY XIII, Ptolemy
was placed on the throne with Cleopatra by Julius Caesar, Pupienus (d. 238 C.E.) Senator and coemperor (with
in 47 B.C.E. Officially he was to be her consort, but as he Balbinus) in 238 C.E.
was only 10 or 12 years old at the time, she was the true Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus was possibly of low
power in the land. He was presumably murdered by her birth, although the details of his life are rendered unclear
sometime after Caesar’s assassination, probably in 43 by the wholly unreliable account in the Historia Augusta
B.C.E. (see SCRIPTORES HISTORIAE AUGUSTAE). According to the

historian Herodian, Pupienus held numerous posts as Pylades 461
governor, including that of Germania Inferior and Asia.
When the Senate determined to be rid of Emperor Max- nization were made by Augustus, Nero, and Vespasian,
iminus I Thrax, a committee of 20 was organized to pre- each granting some new privileges. Under Nero, Puteoli
pare Italy for invasion. Both Gordians, whom the Senate was known officially as Colonia Claudia Augusta Nero-
had supported, were killed in 238, and Pupienus was nensis. Such honors could not disguise the reality that
raised with BALBINUS to the throne. from the reign of Claudius the port, despite its excellent
harbor, was eclipsed as the commercial entry into Rome
Even though the two colleagues were to be complete by OSTIA. As the residents of Puteoli watched their eco-
equals, Pupienus was the less popular of the two. To nomic livelihood dry up in favor of Ostia and coupled
ensure their acceptance, the grandson of GORDIAN I, Gor- with the growing independence of foreign markets, inter-
dian III, was made Caesar. This done, Pupienus set out to nal feuding between the populace and the magistrates
northern Italy, where he collected an army. It proved to be erupted. In 58 C.E., riots and threats of arson brought
unnecessary, for Maximinus was slain by his own men. the appointment of Gaius Cassius. He was replaced by
Returning to Rome with a German bodyguard, Pupienus the SCRIBONII BROTHERS who arrived with a cohort of the
infuriated both Balbinus and the PRAETORIAN GUARD with Praetorian Guard, striking suitable terror into the popu-
his ovation. As relations between the two rulers deterio- lace. Puteoli was sacked in 410 by Alaric and in 455 by
rated, the Praetorians plotted their deaths, fearing that Geiseric and again by the Huns in 545.
they were about to be replaced by the Germans. They
thus stormed the palace, kidnapped the two emperors Pylades (fl. first century B.C.E.) Actor
and murdered them in the CASTRA PRAETORIA. Pylades was reportedly very old in 2 B.C.E. He quarreled
with the other notable performer, Bathyllus, but was
Puteoli One of the major ports in Italy, on the Tyrrhe- exiled from Rome and Italy for pointing out, with a mid-
nian Sea coast of CAMPANIA; a gateway for commerce from dle finger, a spectator who had hissed at him. In 18 B.C.E.
Alexandria and from Spain and much of the western he was allowed to return to Rome. He commented to the
Mediterranean. Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli) was founded emperor when rebuked for his feud with Bathyllus that:
by the Greeks, who were living in nearby Cumae at the “It is fortunate for you, Caesar, that the people should
time (c. 521 B.C.E.) and named their new community devote their time to us.” Pylades was also the name of
Dicaearchia. Popular usage turned it into Puteoli, proba- two pantomime actors, one a favorite of Emperor Trajan
bly from its many wells (puteus, well). Roman occupation (98–117 C.E.) and the other popular in the reign of Perti-
came in 194 B.C.E. with colonists. Further efforts at colo- nax (193 C.E.).

Q

Quadi A Germanic tribe of Suebi racial stock, situated tried by a magistrate or, under certain circumstances, a
in the area of the Main River late in the first century B.C.E. special board summoned to handle the matter. This com-
Moving into southeastern Germany, they came into con- mission, called a quaestio, was not permanent. In 149
tact with the MARCOMANNI, IAZYGES, and other minor peo- B.C.E., a major change was made as the term quaestio per-
ples, such as the Osi. Subsequently, they developed close petua was now applied to the committee. At first presiding
ties with both the Marcomanni and Iazyges while estab- over civil cases, the quaestio assumed the bulk of criminal
lishing themselves as a powerful tribal state. Under their cases. Formed of senators, its jurors were non-senatorial,
chief, Vannius, the Quadi exercised considerable influ- normally of the Equestrian class (EQUITES). Individual
ence over the western Danubian frontier in the first half quaestiones w e re established to oversee various criminal
of the first century C.E. Around 50 C.E., however, Vannius jurisdictions, including veneficia (witchcraft and poison-
and the Quadi were assailed by a barbarian confederation ing), MAIESTAS (treason), and peculatus ( c o rruption). As
of the HERMUNDURI, Lugii and others. Vannius fell in bat- part of the reorganization of the entire governmental sys-
tle while countering two usurpers, his nephews Vangis tem, AUGUSTUS retained the quaestiones, adding yet
and Sido. They broke apart the Quadi, as large elements another court for crimes of adultery. While the quaestiones
of Vannius’s supporters fled to the Romans and were set- continued to operate as they had during the Republic, the
tled in PANNONIA. Henceforth the Quadi displayed hostil- trend from the first century C.E. was to take away some of
ity toward Rome. A war was fought with Empero r the functions of law and place them elsewhere. The Senate
DOMITIAN, and the Quadi were a leading force in the MAR- itself assumed some of the duties of the quaestiones as did
COMANNIC WARS in the second century. MARCUS AURELIUS the central imperial administration. More important was
inflicted a terrible defeat upon them in 174. By the end of the creation of widened jurisdictions in law for the PRE-
the fourth century, the Quadi were part of the other Ger- FECT OF THE CITY and the PREFECT OF THE PRAETORIAN
manic states on the march into the Roman Empire. They GUARD, especially with regard to the lower classes of
probably traveled with the VANDALS into Spain. Rome. Thequaestiones lost much of their prestige.

Quadratus, Asinius (fl. early third century C.E.) Sena- See also LAW; PRAETOR.
tor and historian
Probably proconsul of Achaea, Quadratus authored a His- quaestor The lowest ranking magistrate in the CURSUS
tory of Rome in 15 books and a work on the Parthians, HONORUM and the first position taken by all candidates
both in Greek. embarking upon a senatorial career. Quaestors were
probably a creation of the Roman kings, becoming insti-
quaestiones The main criminal courts of the Republic, tutionalized during the Republic. Their numbers
an institution that lasted until the third century C.E. increased with the rise of Rome as an imperial power,
According to early custom, crimes against the state were until the dictator Sulla fixed their number at 20 with a
minimum age of 30. From the earliest days of the

462

quaestorships these officials were closely connected with Quintiliib
 rothers 463
finances in Rome and in the provinces. The quaestores
urbani exercised their authority within the walls of the Republic, the quinarius was never issued in an orga-
Rome, attached to the AERARIUM until their position was nized fashion and mintings were not numerous.
usurped by new officers in the imperial system. Quae-
stores provinciales served the proconsuls in senatorial See also COINAGE.
p rovinces. They managed the finances of the provincial
treasury, acted as deputies to the proconsul and often quindecimviri sacris faciundis Literally, the 15 men
assumed the proconsul’s duties when he was away. for performing the sacrifices, known also as the quindec-
Quaestors were synonymous with the procurators in imviri; one of the main priestly colleges of Rome. The 15
imperial domains. Upon completion of a quaestorship, quindecimviri were in charge of the SIBYLLINE BOOKS and
the newly declared ex-quaestor was promoted regularly thus exercised great influence on the decisions of the
to the SENATE and was eligible for other magistracies. government. Later they monitored all foreign religions or
cults that were allowed to function in Rome after permis-
quaestor sacri palati Quaestor of the sacred palace, sion had been granted by the Sibylline Books. From the
the chief legal minister. Appointed first during the time of Julius Caesar they numbered 16.
reforms of CONSTANTINE THE GREAT in the fourth century,
the quaestor sacri palati had the task of drafting laws and See PRIESTHOODS.
writing the replies of the imperial administration to legal
petitions. He worked normally with the SCRINII for secre- Quintianus, Afranius (d. 65 C.E.) Senator and a mem-
tarial assistance. ber of the Pisonian Conspiracy against Nero in 65 C.E.
The historian TACITUS wrote that Quintianus desired
Quietus, Lusius (d. 117 C.E.) Chieftain of the Moors revenge upon Nero for lampooning his effeminate nature.
under Emperor Trajan When the plot was uncovered, Quintianus hoped to have
A noted cavalry commander and one of the Roman his life spared by implicating the other conspirators,
Empire’s most ruthless officials, Lusius Quietus was origi- including his closest friends. The betrayals did little
nally captain of a native cavalry detachment in the early good, for he was executed.
second century C.E. Condemned for excessive behavior,
he was pardoned by Trajan and put to use in the Dacian Quintilian (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus) (c. 34–100
Wars; he also served the emperor in a series of operations C.E.) Highly respected writer and teacher
in the Parthian Wars. The Moor captured NISIBIS before Born in Calagurris (Calahorra), Spain, possibly the son of
burning and sacking EDESSA in 116. Facing a massive a rhetorician, Quintilian was educated, at least in part, in
Jewish uprising in Mesopotamia and elsewhere, Trajan Rome, perhaps under Remmius PALAEMON and certainly
charged the general with their suppression, which he under Domitius AFER. After returning to Spain (c. 63), he
accomplished mercilessly, assuming the governorship of was summoned by the Emperor GALBA back to Rome in
Judaea. In 117 he held a consulship but the following 68, where he remained for many years. He prospered as a
year was put to death as part of the purge accompanying tutor, becoming the first recipient of a direct salary from
the accession of HADRIAN. the government, because of his rhetorical talents. In high
favor with the Flavians, he also practiced as a lawyer and
Quietus, Titus Fulvius Junius (d. 261 C.E.) Son of amassed vast wealth. He acted as instructor to Domitian’s
General Fulvius Macrianus and younger brother of the two great-nephews, the designated heirs to the throne, as
usurper Junius Macrianus well as to PLINY THE YOUNGER. Among his works were De
In 260 C.E., following the capture and death of Emperor causis corruptae eloquentiae (On the Causes of the Corrup-
VALERIAN at the hands of the Persians, Quietus was pro- tion of Eloquence), declamations, a discussion of rhetoric
claimed emperor in the East with his brother. He and the famed Institutio Oratoria (The Education of the
remained in the Eastern provinces while his father and Orator). Composed in 96, a few years before his death,
brother marched west to enforce their imperial claim. this large treatise outlined the training of a rhetorician in
When both MACRIANUS and his father were killed by the all of its details: early education, proper schooling, sub-
usurper AUREOLUS in ILLYRICUM, Quietus was attacked at ject matter, style, and the nature of speaking. Book 10
EMESA in 261 by ODAENATH, the ruler of PALMYRA, and was particularly important for its information on Greek
was put to death. and Latin writers. A stout defender of Latin, Quintilian
listed the greatest rhetoricians of his time, with his criti-
quinarius A species of Roman silver coinage, in value cal commentary.
roughly one-half of the DENARIUS. First coinage during
Quintilii brothers Dissenters during the reign of
Emperor Commodus (177–192 C.E.)
They earned a reputation for their learning, martial abili-
ties, and wealth. Sextus Quintilius Condianus and Sextus

464 Quintillus,M
 arcus
AureliusC
 laudius (around 2 C.E.) but later divorced her in proceedings that
were so vicious that his reputation was ruined. Tiberius
Quintilius Valerius Maximus were inseparable, agreeing gave him a lavish funeral while lauding his career and
in 182 C.E. that Commodus was an appallingly bad devotion.
emperor. Their dissensions reached the ears of palace
courtiers and both were killed together. The son of Max- Quirinus Name given by the Romans to the deified
imus reportedly escaped, traveling for years to avoid Romulus. The title had a Sabine origin and was possibly
imperial assassins. derived from quiris or “spear.” It had associations with
Mars, the god of war and the father of Romulus. As a
Quintillus, Marcus Aurelius Claudius (d. 270 C.E.) divinity, Quirinus ranked as one of Rome’s most impor-
Brother of Emperor Claudius II Gothicus tant patrons, along with Jupiter, Mars, and Juno. He had a
Named by Claudius to serve as commander in Italy. temple and a festival, the Quirinalia, held on February
When Claudius died in 270, Quintillus served briefly as 17 each year. A Flamen Quirinalis was in charge of all reli-
emperor. His reign, perhaps only a few months, was cut gious ceremonies pertaining to Quirinus.
short by his death, possibly at the hands of his troops.
See also GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME; HILLS OF
Quintus of Smyrna (fl. fourth century C.E.) Poet ROME.
Quintus was known for his sequel to Homer’s Iliad, com-
posed in 14 books. quirites General term meaning citizens of Rome. When
applied to soldiers, as done by Caesar to his troops in 47
Quirinal hill See HILLS OF ROME. B.C.E., it assumed a derogatory sense, stripping them of
their status as fighting men, calling them mere “civil-
Quirinius, Publius Sulpicius (d. 21 C.E.) Consul in ians.”
12 B.C.E. and imperial official under Emperor Tiberius
(ruled 14–37 C.E.) Quodvultdeus (d. 453 C.E.) Bishop of Carthage during
Quirinius came from humble origins in Lanuvium and the mid-fifth century C.E.
served in numerous provincial posts, including as pro- A Donatist, Bishop Quodvultdeus was captured in 439,
consul of Crete and Cyrenaica, where he suppressed the during the invasion by GEISERIC, the king of the VANDALS.
Marmaridae, and perhaps as governor of Galatia and later Strictly enforcing the Arian creed, Geiseric rounded up all
of SYRIA, where he defeated the local Colician Homana- the orthodox bishops and other clergy, put them on
denses (a band of outlaws). Quirinius paid a flattering decrepit ships and sent them out to sea. They reached
visit to Tiberius, in self-imposed exile on Rhodes, and Naples, where the bishop died in exile. He was a friend of
became adviser to Gaius CAESAR in the East in 2 C.E. AUGUSTINE, with whom he corresponded, and the author
Appointed governor of Syria in 6 C.E., he was responsible of sermons and On the Promises and Predictions of God.
for the census conducted in Judaea following the terri-
tory’s annexation. Quirinius married Aemilia LEPIDA

R

Rabirius (fl. late first century C.E.) Architect Gathering an army he invaded Armenia, besieging his
Rabirius’s masterpiece of design was produced at the uncle at Garneae. Through bribery of local Roman offi-
order of Emperor Domitian, who hired him to create the cials, Radamistus lured Mithridates out and had him
DOMUS FLAVIA. He was a friend of MARTIAL. killed. Assuming the throne, the new monarch of Arme-
nia found himself under attack by his own subjects.
Radagaisus (d. 406 C.E.) Barbarian ruler of a loose con- Without support from his father, who had to balance
federation of tribes, mostly composed of Vandals himself politically with Rome and Parthia, Radamistus
Radagaisus led two invasions of imperial provinces in the fled the country, abandoning his own wife. In 58, as an
West, in 401 and 405 C.E. The first onslaught by Rada- act of good faith to Nero, Pharasmanes put Radamistus to
gaisus came at the same time that ALARIC and the Visi- death.
goths were threatening Italy and Rome. Advancing into
Raetia and Noricum, Radagaisus was attached by the MAG- Raetia One of Rome’s smaller Danubian provinces,
ISTER MILITUM. STILICHO and thoroughly defeated. The occupying the alpine territory between GERMANIA Supe-
c rushed tribes withdrew and even had to supply auxil- rior and NORICUM, just north of Italy and just south of the
iaries for use against Alaric. In 405, Radagaisus returned, DANUBE. The original inhabitants were called the Rhaeti
with large elements of OSTROGOTHS. Ignoring the Danu- (or Raeti). Believed to be of Illyrian or perhaps of Tuscan
bian provinces, the host descended on Italy via Aquileia; descent, they lived in northern Italy until the Celts
they then split up into columns, the largest under Rada- pushed them out. Moving to the region of modern Tyrol,
gaisus. Stilicho once more devised a suitable strategy, mas- Bavaria and a part of Switzerland, the Rhaeti proved war-
sacring the barbarians. Throughout late 405 and 406 the like and willing to cross the Alps to make raids into GAL-
forces of Radagaisus were ground down and destroyed LIA CISALPINA.
until he was captured and executed in August 406.
Roman conquest of Raetia came in 16 B.C.E. when P.
See also POLLENTIA. Silius Nerva defeated them in battle. This success was fol-
lowed up by Drusus the Elder and Tiberius in 15, with a
Radamistus of Iberia (d. 58 C.E.) Son of King Pharas- large-scale invasion that brought all of Raetia under impe-
manes of Iberia rial control. Initial policy put Raetia under the care of the
By 51 C.E., Radamistus was eager to have his own throne, governor of Gallia Belgica. After Germanicus depart e d
and Pharasmanes, hoping to avoid losing his own king- Gaul and Germany in 16 C.E., the legate of Gallia Belgica
dom, pointed his son toward MITHRIDATES (1) of Armenia, appointed some kind of officer over the region. Opinions
Pharasmanes’s own brother. Feigning an argument with have varied among scholars as to the exact title of this
his father, Radamistus fled to Mithridates but returned, officer, some favoring a prefect (praefectus civitatum),
unable to bring down that king through conspiracies. while others prefer an equestrian procurator. In any event,

465

466 rationalis insignificant in the affairs of Rome until the late first cen-
tury B.C.E., when Emperor Augustus was looking for an
after the reign of Trajan (98–117 C.E.) a procurator was in ideal location for his Adriatic fleet. With its marshes,
charge. His seat was at Augustus Vindelicorum,with com- accessibility from only one direction by land, and its
mand over auxiliary units. There were four alae (auxiliary position far enough north to defend Aquileia, Ravenna
c a v a l ry)and11 cohorts at first, changing to three a l a e and was chosen.
13 cohorts in the middle of the second century C.E.
Already a MUNICIPIUM in 49 B.C.E., the city under-
Massive upheaval afflicted the province as a result of went major reconstruction and improvement to accom-
the MARCOMANNIC WARS, not only with bitter fighting, but modate its new status. Most important, a canal was dug
also with changes in the administration. A legate (LEGA- from the Po River to the city and then to the coast to
TUS), in charge of the III Italica legion took over the allow small-boat traffic along the route. The subsequent
duties of the procurator. The added troops allowed the harbor, called Classis, came to dominate the economic
frontiers to be watched, especially the area along the de- and political life of the city, for it was its very heart. As
fensive perimeter of the LIMES, where the Rhine met the one of the major ports in the Mediterranean, Ravenna
Danube, as well as the agri decumates. A procurator even- flourished with exports, including wine, ships, and the
tually returned, but under Diocletian, Raetia was divided goods produced throughout northern Italy, especially in
into Raetia I and II, in the diocese of Italia. From the start MEDIOLANUM (Milan).
of the fifth century pressures built up on the Danubian
border, and by the fall of the Western Empire Raetia had While the port held the fleet it remained strategically
ceased to be an imperial possession. essential to imperial naval defenses; but by the fourth
century C.E., the seagoing might of Rome had deterio-
rationalis Chief financial minister of the state, prior to rated. By the fifth century, Ravenna’s fortunes improved
the reforms of Emperor Diocletian and the late empire. as it became capital of the Western Empire. In 404 C.E.,
Among the tasks of the rationalis were the collection of Emperor HONORIUS decided that Ravenna, with its defen-
all normal taxes and duties, the control of currency, and sively advantageous, mosquito-ridden environs and stout
the administration of mines and mints. After the reforms walls, was the safest place to conduct government. He
of Diocletian, the rationalis and the a RATIONIBUS were thus moved there and subsequent emperors lived both
replaced by the comes sacrarum largitionum. there and in Rome. So easily defended was Ravenna that
the barbarian king ODOACER adopted it as his chief city, as
See also FINANCE. did the Ostrogoth Theodoric, the Byzantines and even
the Lombards, centuries later.
rationibus, a Secretary of finance, in charge of main-
taining the accounts and expenditures of the FISCUS. His Reburrus, T. Crispus (fl. late first century C.E.) Archi-
role in the finances of the early empire was considerable. tect
Originally an office held by a freedman, from the second Reburrus was responsible for the design of two superb
century C.E. and the reign of Hadrian, Equestrians (EQUI- amphitheaters, in NEMAUSUS (Nîmes) and ARLES. Both
TES) assumed total control. The a rationibus was rendered were virtually identical in style and both have survived in
unnecessary by the comes sacrarum largitionum of the amazingly fine condition.
fourth century C.E.
rebus, agentes in The imperial courier service that
See FINANCE. replaced the unpopular FRUMENTARII, sometime during
the late third century C.E. under Emperor Diocletian, or
Raurici Tribe residing in Gaul between the SEQUANI perhaps around the year 319 C.E. As a result of the
and the HELVETII. Suffering from the inroads of Germanic reforms of Diocletian, the frumentarii were disbanded;
peoples in Gaul, they joined the Helvetians in their their sinister reputation had ended their usefulness. But
attempted migration to better lands in southern Gaul, the central imperial administration still needed couriers,
sharing in the defeat at the hands of Julius CAESAR in and agentes in rebus filled this task perfectly. Originally
58 B.C.E. In 52 B.C.E. some elements of the Raurici threw they acted as the dispatch carriers for the Roman Empire.
in with VERCINGETORIX but were again routed by Caesar Eventually they assumed a variety of other duties. During
at ALESIA. Subsequently, the tribe was under the influ- the reign of Constantius II (337–361 C.E.), the agentes
ence and control of the Roman administration in Germa- were sent out to the provinces and were expected to
nia Superior, in such cantons as Basel and Augusta monitor the mail and communications and to send back
Rauricorum. reports on the events within their provincial jurisdic-
tions. Their routine assignments brought them into con-
Ravenna North Italian city; in Gallia Cisalpina, a few tact with vast amounts of intelligence, and with the full
miles inland from the Adriatic coast in the middle of approval of Constantius they ferreted out all possibly
marshes. Ravenna may have been founded by the Thes-
salians, although the name was probably Etruscan in ori-
gin. It passed into the hands of the Umbrians and was

treasonous activities. Two were appointed to each r
e
l
i
g
i
o
n 467
province in 357, one in 395 and more again after 412.
Each member of the agentes in rebus was normally pro- Regulus held his office during the fall of the prefect
moted into other branches of government. SEJANUS. Loyal to Tiberius, it was Regulus who sum-
moned Sejanus to face the charges read before the Senate,
The corps, with its known activity of gathering secrets and he also led out the prefect to be arrested by Cornelius
as the frumentarii had, acquired a name for terror. There Laco, prefect of the city. As a reward for his services, he
has been debate as to the extent of their secret police replaced Poppaeus Sabinus as governor of Macedonia and
work, for actual arrests and torture probably did not fall perhaps Achaea in 35. Married to LOLLIA PAULINA, he was
under their authority. However, in the hands of a ruthless forced to see her wed to Emperor GAIUS CALIGULA in 38,
emperor like Constantius II, they could be given consider- although the emperor later divorced her.
able freedom in hunting down information or evidence of
a crime. This facet of their activities overshadowed other, relegatio A form of banishment, less severe than EXSIL-
more mundane aspects, such as carrying letters or verify- IUM, during the Republic and early Roman Empire. It was
ing that a traveler was carrying the right DIPLOMATA while similar to exile except that it did not include the loss of
using the CURSUS PUBLICUS (postal system). citizenship and possessions. The writer Ovid, for exam-
ple, was ordered to live in Tomi, near the Black Sea.
Rebus Bellicis, De An anonymous fourth-century C.E.
work, On Matters of Wars, that was addressed to Emper- religion One of the guiding forces of the life and
ors Valentinian I and Valens. It is concerned chiefly with sociopolitical systems of Rome. Although old and estab-
a series of proposed reforms touching upon the army, lished, Roman religion was ever altered and influenced—
the law, administration in the provinces, and imperial and ultimately destroyed—by the foreign gods and cults
finances. b rought into Rome by the conquering legions and by the
emperors. The Italians, and later the Romans, sprang
Rectus (d. 40 C.E.) A Stoic philosopher from the same agrarian background as the Greeks, and
A friend of Julius KANUS, Rectus was put to death in 40 perceived that nature was controlled by powerful natural
C.E., by Emperor Gaius Caligula as part of his purge of forces. However, the early gods and goddesses of Rome
Stoics and other philosophers. never developed the anthropomorphic tendencies so
obvious in the Hellenic pantheon. Roman deitiesretained
Rectus, Aemilius (early first century C.E.) Prefect of their identification with nature, being worshiped in this
Egypt early in the reign of Tiberius (14–37 C.E.) sense. As there were spirits at work in every corner of
Rectus was overly zealous in the collection of taxes on the cosmos, new gods sprang up and were worshiped,
the Nile. When he sent to Rome far more money than joining such established divinities as Jupiter, Juno, Mars,
expected, Tiberius wrote him: “I expect my sheep to be and Vesta. This accepted idea of adding gods to the cults
shorn, not shaved.” of Rome had the most profound consequences on the
development of Roman religion. It not only made Rome
Red Sea One of the main avenues of TRADE between m o re tolerant of such foreign creeds as Judaism but
the West and the Far East. Ships from INDIA sailed up the also helped ensure the popularity of the gods of van-
sea, passing the Troglodyte Coast on the left and ARABIA quished states.
on the right. Important trading centers were Leuke
Komo, belonging to the Nabataeans, and Arsinoe, oppo- The Greeks arrived in Rome probably before the end
site Pelusium, along the Sinai Peninsula. Roman vessels of the kingly era. Shrines by Tarquinius to Jupiter, Juno,
probably patrolled the region, at least as far as the borders and Minerva elevated these three to the level of supreme
of the province of EGYPT. rulers of the Roman pantheon. Other Grecian imports
included Apollo, Cybele, and Asclepius (Aesculapius).
Regalianus (Regillianus) (fl. third century C.E.) Total victory for the Greeks came only after the Punic
Roman general Wars, when the Romans, now masters of the Mediter-
Regalianus served in the army of the emperors Valerian ranean world, adopted wholesale Greek identities for
and Gallienus. In 260 C.E. was proclaimed emperor. He their gods. Old, titanic forces of nature were replaced by
had supposedly been commander of the legions in new, more human deities, in an ironic replaying of
ILLYRICUM when elevated; unable to hold the loyalty of Greece’s own theological history. Zeus was Jupiter, Hera
his troops, he was murdered. was Juno, Athena was Minerva, Poseidon was Neptune,
and so on.
Regulus, Publius Memmius (fl. first century C.E.)
Consul in 31 C.E. Early in Roman religious history a tendency devel-
oped to link political power with religion. The kings of
Rome probably began this idea, acting as heads of the
priesthoods of Rome while retaining their monarchical
status. In the Republic this system was unchanged, plac-

468 r
e
l
i
g
i
o
n found followers in the ranks of the army and among the
social elite. Oriental faiths soon spread throughout the
ing, as it did, broad authority in the hands of the Pat- Eastern Empire, with Serapis, Elagabalus and even Osiris
rician class. Magistrates formed the priestly colleges, offering choices to the soul-searching Romans. Two inter-
performed the ceremonies of worship and responded to esting trends evolved toward the end of the second cen-
the decrees of the Senate, which decided most questions tury: syncretism and monotheism. Syncretism, the
of a religious or doctrinal nature. But there was no cen- mixing together of one or more deities into a single form,
tralization or institutionalization of the cult of state, a was used in the Mithraic cult, as the god was sometimes
situation made worse by the rise of the Plebeians. Thus, equated with Sol Invictus. The effect of all this was to
while the sacred rites were performed right up until render Roman mythology into a debased and mystical
the end of the Republic, they had lost much of their mode of worship. Monotheism, born perhaps out of
meaning. Mithraic-Solar belief and Christianity, was a partial return
to the prime deity of the cult of state. Sol, sometimes
The fact that the fields of state and religion could be known as Elagabalus in the early third century, was
fused had been proven by the kings, to a lesser extent by respected by the Flavians and placed at the heart of the
the magistrates, and, in terms of literature, by Varro, with Roman religion of state by Aurelian. All that Sol Invictus
his Antiquitates, which combined his studies of human succeeded in doing, however, was to prepare the Roman
and divine antiquities. What was needed was the pres- Empire psychologically for the far more enduring god of
ence of one single figure at the center of the cult. Julius Christianity.
Caesar was certainly in a position to be that figure, but he
died before most of his plan could be realized. The leader This eastern cult, which came to conquer the entire
who did succeed was Augustus. empire, was one of the few creeds actively persecuted by
Rome. After Judaism effectively separated itself from
After becoming master of the Roman world by 27 Christianity, Christians came under attack because of the
B.C.E., the man named Octavian assumed the title of realization that belief in Jesus Christ was exclusive. One
Augustus, an indication of his more than human stature. could not attend Christian services as well as offer sacri-
The title was taken presumably with the approval of the fices to Jupiter. An eternal enmity erupted between Chris-
Roman gods, and he served as the Pontifex Maximus, or tianity and what came to be known as organized
supreme head of all Roman worship, a position retained paganism.
by his successors until the reign of Gratian in the late
fourth century C.E. A revival accompanied his supremacy. In addition, a variety of creeds and cults were toler-
The ARVAL BRETHREN were reinvigorated, and throughout ated by Rome among its subject people, including:
the empire the divine station of the emperor and Rome
was preached to the provinces (see IMPERIAL CULT for Religion or Cult Area of Influence
details).
Apollo Rome
It can be argued that the Augustan religious revival Asclepius Rome and Asia Minor
was neither long-lasting nor successful. The Romans will- Bacchus Rome
ingly participated in the ceremonies necessary for keep- Ceres Rome and Italy
ing the favor of the gods or hailing the glory of their Christianity Roman Empire
empire, but so politically entwined had the gods become Cybele Rome, Italy, Africa, Greece,
that they had lost spiritual impact. For divine inspiration
Rome looked elsewhere, finding its answers in the same Druidism Spain, Gaul
place that the Roman soldier had looked: the Oriental Elagabalus Celtic lands
cults. Unquestionably, foreign deities were popular at all
levels of society, fitting into the Roman system because of (sun god) Syria, the East, and, briefly,
its provisions for individual worship outside of the Rome
nationally revered pantheon. Hermes Trismegistos
Egypt and Roman intellect-
Traditionally, the state of Rome took a dim view of Imperial Cult ual circles
strange cults, refusing at first to let them cross the sanc- Isis
tity of the POMERIUM, or the ancient line of the city. Judaism Roman Empire
Cybele, with her bizarre priests, was not formally Roman Empire
accepted until the time of Claudius, although a temple to Manichaeism Palestine and the lands of
her was allowed on the Palatine as early as 191 B.C.E.
Augustus helped introduce his patron, Apollo. The most Mithraism the Diaspora
important early breakthrough came in the time of Gaius Parts of the Roman Empire
Caligula, who built a temple to Isis in Rome. Henceforth, Osiris
as the Claudian favor to Cybele showed, strange gods and in the East
were welcome. Serapis Social elite, the East, and

Mithraism, with its connection to sun worship, military in the West
arrived also in the first century C.E., from the East. It Egypt, parts of the Roman

Empire
Egypt, Greece, and Rome

Suggested Readings: Beard, Mary, John North, and Simon Res Gestae Divi Augustus 469
Price. Religions of Rome. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1998; Benko, Stephen. Pagan Rome and the Early hoods and Magistracies. Brussels: Latomus, 1972; Taylor,
Christians. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984; Lily Ross. The Divinity of the Roman Emperor. New York:
Burriss, Eli. Taboo, Magic, Spirits; A Study of Primitive Ele- Arno Press, 1975; Turcan, Robert. The Cults of the Roman
ments in Roman Religion. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Empire, transl. Antonia Nevill. Cambridge, Mass.: Black-
Press, 1972; Carter, Jesse Benedict. The Religious Life of well, 1996; Warde Fowler, W. The Religious Experience of
Ancient Rome: A Study in the Development of Religious Con- the Roman People from the Earliest Times to the Age of
sciousness, from the Foundation of the City Until the Death Augustus. London: Macmillan, 1922; Wardman, Alan.
of Gregory the Great. New York: Cooper Square Publish- Religion and Statecraft Among the Romans. Baltimore:
ers, 1972; Cumont, Franz. After Life in Roman Paganism: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982; Watson, Alan. The
Lectures Delivered at Yale University on the Silliman Foun- State, Law, and Religion: Pagan Rome. Athens: University
dation. New York: Dover Publications, 1959; Dowden, of Georgia Press, 1992.
Ken. Religion and the Romans. London: Bristol Classical
Press, 1995; Dumézil, Georges. Archaic Roman Religion. See also ASTROLOGY; DEATH; FESTIVALS; GENIUS; GODS
Translated by Philip Krapp. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins AND GODDESSES OF ROME; LUDI; MAGIC; NEOPLATONISM;
University Press, 1996; ———. Camillus: A Study of Indo- NEO-PYTHAGOREANISM; PAGANISM; PRIESTHOOD.
European Religion as Roman History. Translated by
Annette Aronowicz and Josette Bryson. Berkeley: Univer- Remigius (Remi) (c. 438–533) So-called Apostle of the
sity of California Press, 1980; Ferguson, John. Greek and Franks
Roman Religion: A Source Book. Park Ridge, N.J.: Noyes Noted for his baptism of King Clovis I of the Franks and
Press, 1980; ———. The Religions of the Roman Empire. for converting the Frankish people, Remigius was the son
Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982; Fishwick, of Emile, count of Laon (Laudunum). He studied at
Duncan. The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Reims and was so renowned for his intelligence and holi-
Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire. ness that he was appointed archbishop of Reims at the
New York: E. J. Brill, 1987; Fox, Robin Lane. Pagans and age of 22. He thereafter devoted himself to the spread of
Christians. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988; Glover, Christianity in Gaul (Roman France), establishing sees at
T. R. The Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire. Tournai, Laon, Arras, Therouanne, and Cambrai. On
Boston: Beacon Press, 1960; Grant, Frederick. Ancient excellent terms with Clovis, he brought the ruler into the
Roman Religion. New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1957; faith, traditionally baptizing him in Reims on December
Grant, Michael. Roman Myths. London: Weidenfeld and 24, 498, in the presence of most of the Frankish army.
Nicholson, 1971; Henig, Martin, and Anthony King, eds.
Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire. Oxford, Remistus (fifth century C.E.) Magister militum and
U.K.: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, Patrician
Institute of Archaeology, 1986; Henig, Martin. Religion in Remistus was one of the most powerful figures in the
Roman Britain. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984; Western Empire and a political shield for Emperor AVITUS
Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. Continuity and Change in Roman in 455. The positions of magister militum in praesentalis
Religion. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979; and Patrician were coveted by his lieutenant, the magister
Henig, Martin, and Anthony King, eds. Pagan Gods and militum RICIMER. To seize Remistus’s post and to replace
Shrines of the Roman Empire. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford Uni- Avitus eventually with his own candidate, MAJORIAN,
versity Committee for Archaeology, Institute of Archaeol- Ricimer plotted the assassination of his superior. This he
ogy, 1986; Lyttelton, Margaret, and Werner Forman. The accomplished in 456, while Remistus was at Ravenna.
Romans, Their Gods and Their Beliefs. London: Orbis,
1984; MacMullen, Ramsay. Paganism in the Roman Repentinus, Fabius Cornelius (fl. first century C.E.)
Empire. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1981; Prefect of the praetorian guard
Moeller, Walter O. The Mithraic Origin and Meanings of Repentinus served during the reigns of Antoninus Pius
the Rotas-Sator Square. Leiden: Brill, 1973; North, J. A. (138–161 C.E.), Marcus Aurelius (161–180 C.E.) and per-
Roman Religion. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, haps Commodus (177–192 C.E.). Repentinus succeeded
2000; Ogilvie, R. M. The Romans and Their Gods in the to the prefecture with Furius Victorinus, following the
Age of Augustus. New York, Norton, 1970; Rodwell, War- death (date uncertain) of Tattius Maximus. He was forced
wick, ed. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research to step down following a scandal that he had received his
in Roman Britain; with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Tem- position through the influence of an imperial mistress.
ples in Continental Europe. Oxford, U.K.: B. A. R., 1980;
Smith, John Holland. The Death of Classical Paganism. Res Gestae Divi Augustus A set of inscriptions pub-
New York: Scribner, 1976; Szemler, G. J. The Priests of the lished in Rome following the death of Emperor Augustus
Roman Republic. A Study of Interactions between Priest- in 14 C.E., detailing the political, social, religious, and
architectural achievements of his reign. Written by
Augustus before his death, the Achievements of Divine

470 res
 privata was divided between Rhescuporis and the old ruler’s son,
Cotys. By 19 C.E., Rhescuporis was plotting to take over
Augustus was most certainly a propaganda device but the entire realm. Despite the intervention of Rome, Cotys
characteristically was neither ostentatious nor pompous. was trapped and killed. Emperor Tiberius ordered L.
In clear terms he listed the successes of his regime, its Pomponius Flaccus to bring Rhescuporis to Rome, where
gifts to the Romans and the good services it had rendered he was accused by Coty’s widow, Antonia Tryphaena. For
to the world. The Res Gestae was a brilliant means of his crime he was sentenced to exile in Alexandria and
shaming any who might have questioned the efficacy of later put to death.
the Augustan principate, while preserving for posterity a
record of considerable value. It is also known as the Mon- rhetoric An art form brought to Rome from Greece,
umentum Ancyranum, from a copy of a stone at Ankara. only to suffer a general decline in skill and originality
with the advent of the Roman Empire. Rhetorical speak-
res privata Term used to describe the vast possessions ing, or persuasive speechmaking, that was aimed at
of the emperors. Known officially as the res privata prin- achieving acclaim or some purpose saw considerable
cipis, it was the inevitable outgrowth of the patrimonium development during the Republic, nurturing such profes-
or private holdings of the imperial house, and came to be sional practitioners as Cicero. Training in rhetoric was
a rival to the FISCUS or state domains. Following the vic- available only in a rhetor’s school, and it was considered
tory of Septimius Severus (ruled 193–211 C.E.) over his essential for an educated individual aspiring to public
rivals, Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, he was office to be versed fully in rhetorical oration. This process
confronted with a major crisis in the finances of the changed with the rise of the emperors. No longer was
Roman Empire. Among his solutions was the outright speaking in the Senate or as an ADVOCATUS of the court
seizure of property belonging to his vanquished enemies. the surest road to success. Favoritism and flattery of a
These new estates, coupled with the already extensive ruler became more expedient tools.
lands included in the patrimonium increased the personal
wealth of the Severans to such a degree that an entirely Rhetoric did not die, however, for it found other
new treasury had to be created, the res privata was under avenues of acceptance. The most eminent and, arguably
the care of procurators, with a parallel in the RATIONALIS the least redeeming was the declamatio or recitation in
of the fiscus. Under the later emperors, res privata passed public of literary creations. Declamations had always
into the hands of the comes rerum privatarum. been a useful method of teaching, but they were influ-
enced by a pandering toward fashionable tastes. This cor-
See also FINANCE. ruption was made worse by Asinius Pollio, reportedly the
first rhetorician to give his declamatio to an invited audi-
Rheims Originally the capital city of the Gallic tribe of ence. Composed of the elite of Roman society, the private
the RHEMI, later made the capital of Gallia Belgica. Situ- crowd could reward rhetors who pleased its members
ated just south of the Aisne River and east of LUTETIA with influence and status. No longer was rhetoric aimed
(Paris), in a position close enough to GERMANIA to make at influencing the public good; it was now focused on
control of the Rhine frontier possible, the imperial gover- entertainment and public favor. Over time the declamatio
nor had his residence there, while the Rhemi continued came to be called recitationes, while the original term
to occupy the civitas of Rheims. returned to its more formal legal meaning. Nevertheless,
rhetoric had lost the vitality of its Republican roots and
See also GALLIA. came to be used only by a dwindling number of experts.

Rhemi One of the largest and most powerful Gallic Rhine Called the Rhenus by the Romans, this river
tribes of Gallia Belgica; located near their capital of rises in the Swiss Alps and flows over 800 miles north-
RHEIMS. In 57 B.C.E., Julius CAESAR invaded Gallia Belgica, ward to the sea; one of the great dividing lines between
and the Rhemi (or Rheimi) wisely decided to make an the Roman Empire and the barbarian world. It first came
alliance with Rome. Caesar received from them vast to the attention of the Romans when the German leader
amounts of intelligence concerning the other peoples of ARIOVISTUS crossed westward over the river and menaced
the regions, and the Rhemi also provided him with much of eastern Gaul. Although he was defeated, his van-
scouts. Throughout the GALLIC WARS, the Rhemi quisher, Julius Caesar, perceived the threat coming from
remained steadfastly loyal to Caesar, emerging as the sec- the Suebi and was determined to cross the river. This he
ond leading state in Gaul (GALLIA). They continued to did in 55 B.C.E., using a bridge of boats; he crossed again
enjoy Roman favor, working against the uprising of in 53.
CIVILIS in 69 C.E.
Subsequently, the Roman legions passed over the
Rhescuporis of Thrace (Rhascyporis) (d. c. 19 C.E.) Rhine frequently, especially during the reign of Augustus
King of Thrace (27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.), when imperial policy was aimed at
When his brother Rheometalces died sometime in the
later years of Augustus’s reign (27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.), Thrace

transforming inner Germany into a province. These roads 471
hopes were destroyed with General Varus in 9 C.E. in the
TEUTOBURG FOREST. Domitian’s successful operations Vandal fleet in 456. For this triumph he was promoted to
against the CHATTI in 83 gave Rome an extension into magister militum of the West. Once entrenched in this
Germania Superior that carried beyond the Rhine, the so- position he overthrew Emperor AVITUS in favor of his own
called agri decumates. Using the LIMES along the entire candidate, MAJORIAN, crushing Avitus at Placentia in
border, Rome held this territory for centuries. Then insta- October of 456. By 457 he had the title of patricius, or
bility on the frontiers brought the loss of the agri. Once patrician, presumably receiving it with the blessing of the
more the Rhine was the natural termination point of civi- Eastern court on February 28 of that year. Majorian
lization and Roman influence. Beyond lurked a barbaric became emperor with his help, but when the ruler out-
and increasingly hostile collection of peoples. lived his usefulness, Ricimer deposed him in 461. After
Majorian’s execution, he was replaced by LIBIUS SEVERUS.
Rhodes Most easterly of the islands in the Aegean, sit- Unacceptable to Constantinople, Severus nevertheless
uated off the coast of Caria in Asia Minor. From the time remained on the throne from 461 to 465, solely because
of Vespasian (ruled 69–79 C.E.), Rhodes, known as Rho- Ricimer wanted him there.
dus, was attached to the province of ASIA. The island had
a long history of excellent relations with Rome, helping The magister militum spent the next years scheming
in the Macedonian and Mithridatic Wars. Supporting the against a rival, MARCELLINUS OF DALMATIA, while defend-
cause of Julius Caesar during the Civil War, Rhodes was ing against attacks by GEISERIC, king of the Vandals and
plundered mercilessly by Gaius Cassius in 42 B.C.E. but Alans, who invaded Italy unsuccessfully. In 465 he
was richly rewarded by Augustus for its loyalty. Starting removed Severus (perhaps by poison) and administered
in 6 B.C.E., Tiberius took up residence on the island in a the empire for nearly two years, accepting a new emperor
self-imposed exile from the disappointments of Rome; he only in 467—ANTHEMIUS. To ensure his position in the
would depart to become adopted by Augustus in 4 C.E. new regime, Ricimer married Anthemius’s daughter
Because of their act of crucifying several Roman citizens, Alypia in 467 at Rome. Despite his supremacy in the
the Rhodians were deprived of their independence in 44 empire he carefully avoided participation in the doomed
C.E. by Claudius. Appealing to Nero in 53, they were expedition of 468 against the Vandals of Africa. This lack
given their own government again, although prosperity of concern for the expedition may have led to his rupture
was never actually attained. An earthquake in 155 C.E. with Anthemius in 470. Temporarily reconciled in 472,
flattened most of the island, and henceforth it remained another break took place. With the help of his nephew,
one of the least developed corners of the empire. Gundobad the Burgundian, Ricimer had the emperor put
to death. Another weak successor was adorned with the
Rhoemetalces I (d. 12 C.E.) King of Thrace purple in April of 472, but Ricimer died several weeks
Originally a dynastic ruler, Rhoemetalces was recognized later, leaving the West in total chaos. Of all the magistri
as king as a result of siding with Octavian (AUGUSTUS) militum, Ricimer was one of the most destructive. He
during his war with Marc ANTONY (c. 31 B.C.E.). With the forced Libius Severus to surrender stretches of imperial
help of Roman arms and influence, he was able to remain territory to the barbarians and so routinely murdered his
on the throne, serving as a reliable client to Augustus. royal masters that no coherent policy or stability was ever
Around 11 B.C.E., however, the tribe of the Bessi, under possible while he lived.
Vologaesus, burst upon Thrace, driving Rhoemetalces
from the country and killing his son Rhescuporis. Only Ricomer (d. 393 C.E.) Magister militum from 388 to 393
through direct imperial intervention and three years of Ricomer, or Richomeres, was a Frank by descent, becom-
fighting did he regain his crown. Rhoemetalces returned ing an officer in the service of Emperor GRATIAN. By 377
the favor of the Romans by defeating the rebelling Dalma- he was a comes domesticorum and was sent to Thrace to
tians in 6 C.E. Upon his death, Thrace was divided help Emperor VALENS in fighting the Goths. He was one
between his brother Rhescuporis and his son Cotys. of the few survivors of the battle of ADRIANOPLE in 378.
Appointed magister militum in 383, he took control of the
Ricimer, Flavius (d. 472 C.E.) Magister militum from East, meeting at Antioch the famed orator LIBANIUS, who
456 to 472 and Patrician from 457 subsequently became his friend. Consul in 384, he was
Ricimer was the most pivotal imperial figure in the West- made commanding general of the East (comes et magister
ern Empire during its final years. An Arian of mixed bar- utriusque militiae) four years later. Ricomer was employed
barian blood, he had a Suebian father and a Visigoth against MAGNUS MAXIMUS and emerged as an important
mother who was related to King Wallia of the Visigoths. adviser to the emperor THEODOSIUS I. Ricomer introduced
His rise was typical of the gifted generals of the time, his nephew ARBOGAST to the later Western usurper, EUGE-
reflecting political power gained through his defeat of a NIUS, whom Arbogast would support. Like these two,
Ricomer adhered to PAGANISM.

roads The Romans had learned the value of superb
roadmaking in their expansion in Italy, and later used a

472 Robigus and eastern provinces, providing income for such cities
as Nicopolis and Thessalonica.
vast network of travel routes as one of the most important
aspects of domination of the Mediterranean world and the Several books were published concerning the impe-
Roman Empire. An oft quoted maxim that all roads led to rial roads, including the Antonine Itinerary and the
Rome was, indeed, correct, save that to the Romans all Jerusalem Itinerary. The first is from the late third century
roads led from Rome. According to the Roman system, a C.E., detailing the main transportation routes through the
gilded pillar was placed by Emperor AUGUSTUS in the empire, including the distances. The Jerusalem Itinerary,
FORUM ROMANUM to mark the beginning point of a radiat- of the fourth century C.E., helped Christians find their
ing transportation system clearly marked by milestones way to Jerusalem.
from the Eternal City. No journeyer could ever forget that
he walked or rode upon an imperial domain. See VIAE for major roads in Italy.

The Roman imperial roads were a benefit for all resi- Robigus A Roman deity of nature whose main
dents of the empire and served a wide variety of pur- attributes were destructive powers through rust or blight.
poses. The LEGIONS who most often created the roads He could ruin crops if not appeased with the sacrifice of a
used this efficient network to pass through provinces sheep and a dog. Robigus (also called Robigo) was associ-
quickly to reach frontier posts or crisis spots. By march- ated with Mars, hence all ceremonies in honor of him,
ing through even mountainous terrain and along care- especially the Robigalia, his festival on April 25, were
fully designed ways (viae), there was no place they could under the direction of the Flamen Martialis.
not reach or defend. Campaigns very often centered on
reducing an enemy country by destroying what was wild See also FLAMENS.
or natural. In Britain and Germany the local tribes were
subdued and pacified by relentless roadmaking, cutting Roles A tribal leader of the GETAE, who lived just north
up the tribal boundaries, and isolating the tribes. of the Danube River, near the Black Sea. He came to the
aid of the Roman General Marcius Licinius CRASSUS (2),
Once the legions had finished their tasks, administra- in his war against Deldo and the Bastarnae in 29 B.C.E. In
tors moved into a new province. Soldiers were used once turn, Crassus helped Roles to vanquish a Getae rival
more to refine the communications system, uniting all named Dapyx. Roles visited Augustus later and was hon-
provincial areas to the main thoroughfare before linking ored. Subsequently, Roles and the Getae were stable
them with the interprovincial viae. Progressively com- clients of Rome on the eastern Danube.
plex, this method allowed even the smallest province to
stay directly in touch with the emperor, via the most Roma The divine personification of the city of Rome, a
advanced system in the world at the time for sending means of expressing in religious terms the greatness of
messages and reports—the CURSUS PUBLICUS (the Imperial the Eternal City, of the empire and the Republic. Through
Post). the use of coins bearing the likeness of a beautiful
woman, and through temples erected in her honor, Roma
One of the parallel developments with the cursus was impressed upon the world the status of the Eternal City.
the rise of roadside inns, taverns, and hotels. Mutationes She had a temple in Rome, constructed during the reign
were places where horses were changed, while mansiones of Hadrian, and was worshiped by the Greeks as well.
offered a weary adventurer a bed for the night with food.
Soon the roads were filled with traders and merchants Romanus (fl. late fourth century C.E.) Comes Africae
bringing their wares to new markets. Economic expan- from 364 to 373
sion brought increased wealth to imperial coffers by Romanus was in charge of Africa during the reign of
means of taxes and duties, while fostering the ideals of VALENTINIAN I (364–375 C.E.). He defended LEPCIS MAGNA
internationalism so important to the Pax Romana. from barbarian attack but was accused by the inhabitants
of failing in his duty. The resulting proceedings were sup-
Provinces varied as to how much roadwork was nec- pressed through the use of influence at court. Later
essary to transform them into suitable imperial lands. arrested, he relied upon the political leader MEROBAUDES
Germany, Britain, Africa, parts of Spain and wilder sec- to save him. The writers Ammianus Marcellinus and
tions of Asia Minor, such as Galatia, Cilicia, and Cap- ZOSIMUS were extremely hostile to him.
padocia, all needed extensive amounts of capital and
effort. Regions with long histories needed only minor See also GILDO.
alterations. Among these were the provinces of Asia,
Greece, Macedonia, and even Gaul. Outside of Italy, with Rome Capital of the Roman Empire from the reign of
its famous viae—the Appian, Flaminian, and others—the AUGUSTUS (27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.) until that of DIOCLETIAN
Roman Empire possessed several other important roads, (284–305 C.E.), and one of the most famous cities in his-
including the impressive Via Egnatia, running from the tory. Rome also came to symbolize the achievements of
Black Sea through Macedonia, all the way to the Adriatic the empire in art, history, politics, culture, religion, and
port of Dyrrhachium. It was a lifeline for communica-
tions, not only for Achaea and Macedonia but also for the
entire Danubian frontier. Trade passed from the western

engineering. It was the first of the great urban centers, Rome 473
encountering, centuries before its time, the travails of
crowded life, pollution, and social unrest. Interestingly the Pons Sublicius retained its wooden
material even at a later time, when stone was the princi-
GEOGRAPHY pal medium of construction. This was probably for reli-
gious reasons. Insula Tiberina was important to Rome,
According to the traditions, Rome was founded in 753 and thus two bridges connected it to the two banks—the
B.C.E. by Romulus and his twin brother, Remus. Under Pons Fabricius on the east and the Pons Cestius on the
Romulus’s guidance and that of the succeeding kings of west. The Pons Aemilius which connected the island to
Rome, what was once but a small village of shepherds the Pons Sublicius was the first such bridge of stone. It
grew strong and well organized. Rome was situated in the was built around the middle of the second century B.C.E.,
Italian region of Latium, approximately 16 miles from the marking a change in Roman engineering. Only one other
sea. The two outstanding features of the Roman environ- span was notable from the days of the Republic, the Pons
ment were the Tiber River and the hills. The Tiber flowed Milvius, or the Milvian Bridge, several miles to the north
down from the Apennines in the northeast and made a of Rome along the Via Flaminia.
cursive bend as it reached the Tiber Valley. Near the Capi-
toline Hill there was the important island, Insula Tibe- GOVERNANCE
rina. Over the years additional territory was added until
finally, in the time of King Servius Tullius (578–535 In 509 B.C.E., the Roman kings were ousted in favor of
B.C.E.), Rome comprised the Seven Hills. the CONSULS, the SENATE and the people of Rome. For the
next 478 years the Eternal City was the very heart of the
Primitive Rome was centered around the Esquiline Republic, from which Rome launched its campaigns of
and Quirinal hills. Later, the Capitoline Hill emerged as expansion in Italy and throughout the Mediterranean.
the very heart of the Roman establishment, with its mag- Here, too, the ambitious plotted schemes that came to
nificent temples; the Palatine contained residences and fruition in the first century B.C.E. with CIVIL WARS OF THE
eventually the homes of the emperors. Between them lay FIRST AND SECOND TRIUMVIRATES raging off and on from
the area of the Ve l a b rum, leading to the Tiber. The river 49 to 31 B.C.E. In that final year, at ACTIUM, Octavian
was on the entire western side, with the Pincian Hill to the defeated Marc ANTONY. Within four years he was called
east. To the south of the Pincian, the hills and valleys lead Augustus, and the Roman Empire was born. As PRINCEPS,
all the way to the Caelian Hill. Also in this group were the or first man of the state, Augustus undertook the task of
Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline hills. Upon these were transforming Rome into the foremost city of the world.
g a rdens, baths, the CASTRA PRAETORIA and, at the foot of
the Quirinal, the Subura. Between the Esquiline and The Augustan policy of imperial aggrandizement was
Palantine was a valley, the Velia. To the west was another the end result of careful thought and planning. Rome,
valley, in which the Fora of the Caesars were built. Toward with its many entertainments, glorious structures and
the east, past the end of the Via Sacra, was an open area, tributes to Roman triumphs, was to be a model, the stan-
surrounded by he Esquiline and Caelian hills and used by dard by which every provincial community would be
Nero for his Golden House. The Flavians filled in Nero’s measured. The IMPERIAL CULT was declared officially to be
pond and erected the Colosseum on the site. the cult of Roma et Augustus; as the emperors were to
be worshiped, their abode was to be held in awe.
Beneath the Palatine were two areas of further inter-
est. The Circus Maximus was in a depression between the With the rise of the empire, the city was divided into
Palatine and the Aventine. The Aventine Hill was an 14 smaller regiones, replacing the four that were founded
excellent place to see the separation of classes, for the by Servius Tullius many centuries before; they were
poor lived at the base of the hill, and the wealthy had vil- placed under the care of a magistrate, who, in turn, also
las at the top, with a view of the city. Across the Tiber looked after the so-called vici or districts within each of
were the Vatican and Janiculus hills. The Vatican had its the regiones. They included all of Rome within the Ser-
own Christian history, while the Janiculus played a minor vian Walls, but also went beyond them, even across the
role in Roman events with its early fortress. Tiber. The 14 regiones were I Porta Capena, II Caelimon-
tium, III Isis et Serapis, IV Templum Pacis, V Esquiliae,
Rome relied upon the mighty river Tiber for defense VI Alta Semita, VII Via Lata, VIII Forum Romanum, IX
from the Etruscans but also for the divine patronage of Circus Flaminus, X Palatium, XI Circus Maximus, XII
the god TIBER, called Volturnus. At first all bridges across Piscina Publica, XIII Aventinus, XIV Trans Tiberim.
it were made of wood to allow the Romans to cut them
down in time of attack. As the city grew in power, the A new system of local division could do little to ease
bridges (pons) were built of stone. Numerous emperors the growing congestion in the streets or the constant
sought to improve transportation out of the city with threat of fire. Therefore, over the entire city administra-
additional bridges. Most likely the earliest of bridges was tion the emperor appointed the praefectus urbi, the PRE-
the wooden structure of the Pons Sublicius, spanning the FECT OF THE CITY, charged with trying cases within Rome
Tiber just below Insula Tiberina. and with maintaining the peace, aided by the URBAN
COHORTS. In cases of emergency he could also use the
VIGILES, the firefighters in the capital, formed to contain

474 Rome

A reconstruction of Rome in the early second century C.E. (Hulton/Getty Archive)

any serious conflagration before it could spread, or even was the carpentum or small cart used by the VESTAL VIR-
the dreaded PRAETORIAN GUARD. The Praetorians were at GINS or the ladies of the court. Foot traffic was more than
first not kept in Rome, but from the time of TIBERIUS and the streets could bear, as Rome acquired a lasting reputa-
his Praetorian prefect SEJANUS, the cohorts were stationed tion for dirtiness and squalor, borne out by its housing.
in the Castra Praetoria, east of the Viminal Hill on the Two kinds of structure characterized Roman living. The
Agger of Servius. wealthy occupied the domus, a large suite or inner-city
villa. Frequently they were found on the more fashion-
LIVING CONDITIONS able parts of the Hills of Rome. In marked contrast were
the insulae. These tall apartment buildings housed the
But these efforts fell short of alleviating the terrible con- middle and lower classes, packing them into dirty little
ditions of life. According to the Monumentum Ancyranum, rooms as unsanitary as they were susceptible to fire.
which contains Augustus’s Res Gestae, the number of the
Plebeian class at Rome in the time of Augustus was Ironically, the fire of 64 C.E., in which nearly two-
320,000, not counting women and children. When added thirds of the city was burned, brought some relief. To
to the senatorial and Equestrian classes, the total free Nero’s credit, he ordered that in the future careful consid-
population would have been nearly 700,000. In addition, eration be taken before any rebuilding could proceed. A
the slaves of the city probably equalled the general popu- proper code was instituted in construction: Stone was to
lation, bloating the tally to well over a million. And Rome be the preferred medium of building, with an eye toward
was also the destination of many foreign travelers. Some fire resistance and a height limit. Streets were widened
estimates have placed the combined population at 1.5 and the aqueducts leading into the city were refurbished
million. and improved to provide enough water. Unfortunately,
Nero’s obsession with his Domus Aurea, or Golden
Little wonder that all carts and wheeled traffic was House, overshadowed such genuinely progressive steps.
forbidden in the city during the day. The only exception

The value of Nero’s brutally practical program was Rome 475
seen over the next few centuries, for there was no end to
the ballooning population. If there had been over one the early days of the Republic. Their care was main-
million in the first century C.E., then the total number of tained by the censor and the AEDILES; later Claudius cre-
inhabitants had no doubt surpassed two million by the ated the office of curator aquarum, or head of the water
second century. Inevitably the city grew beyond the old board.
Servian Walls, especially into the Campus Martius, where
Hadrianic apartment complexes have been excavated. In Aside from the Golden House and the reconstruction
the late third century C.E. Emperor AURELIAN constructed of Rome, both springing from the fire of 64, Nero spent
a new wall, this time setting the boundaries of Rome much time and money on buildings of a suitably grand
beyond the Tiber. scope, such as the CIRCUS Gai et Neronis and the Nero-
nian Baths. His original DOMUS TRANSITORIA, linking the
BUILDING/EARLY HISTORY Palatine and the Esquiline hills, was a disappointment for
it could not encompass Nero’s vision of a proper home.
Besides population, another major factor in the crowding The fire made the replacement, the Domus Aurea, possi-
was the incessant series of mammoth building programs. ble, but that palace was appallingly expensive, as was his
Rome, from the time of Augustus, was subjected to con- colossal statue of himself, a typically excessive gesture
stant renovation and rebuilding. From the Capitoline to that lent his name to the FLAVIANS’s gigantic amphitheater
the Aventine hills to the Campus Martius and beyond, all the COLOSSEUM.
the way to the Vatican Hill, emperors erected arches,
columns, baths, circuses, palaces, temples (to themselves, Life in Rome began well under Nero, for he had able
gods or predecessors), theaters, basilicas, and forums. advisers and was stable and moderate under their guid-
Everywhere there was a monument, so many in fact that ance. With the death of Burrus in 62 and the retirement
free spaces were wholly consumed. And yet these archi- of SENECA, a reign of terror descended upon the city,
tectural feats made Rome the envy of the world. made uglier even than that of Tiberius and Gaius Caligula
because of Nero’s obsession with art and music. The
Augustus set the tone. He declared that he found socio-political system was falling apart by 65, when ele-
Rome a city of bricks and left it a metropolis of marble. ments of the Senate and the depleted nobility joined
With the help of Marcus Vipsanius AGRIPPA this boast was forces in the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY. Although crushed, the
true. The status of the Eternal City was celebrated while plot signalled the eventual downfall of Nero, who was
the broad policies of Julius Caesar were completed. With ousted in 68 C.E. What followed was a bloody civil war in
the TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX and TEMPLE OF MARS 69, which ended with the conquest of the city by legions
ULTOR finished, the famed FORUM ROMANUM was altered supporting VESPASIAN. Damage to Rome was extensive,
significantly. Further, the CAMPUS MARTIUS to the north especially on the Capitoline, where a siege had taken
was discovered as a viable part of the city, largely due to place. The chaos in Rome mirrored the situation in the
Marcus Agrippa. There one could find theaters, the PAN- provinces, with rebellions in Germany and in Palestine.
THEON, the Baths of Agrippa and the Basilica of Neptune.
A partial list of Augustus’s other marvels in stone would Vespasian and the Flavian regime arrived in 70, and a
include: the FORUM AUGUSTUM, the CURIA JULIA, the BASIL- reconstruction and return to prosperity were effected.
ICA JULIA, the TEMPLE OF DIVUS JULIUS, and the Theater of The Forum Pacis, or Forum of Vespasian, and the Colos-
Marcellus. seum provided evidence of civic health, while pointing to
the public spirit of administration. Care for the specific
Tiberius initiated little construction, in keeping needs of the city continued under Titus and Domitian.
with his own austere nature. He did finish the Augustan The Baths of Titus gave the Romans yet another sumptu-
p rojects and ord e red the creation of the TEMPLE OF DIVUS ous watering place. Domitian built everywhere in the city,
AUGUSTUS. Of note was the DOMUS TIBERIANA, the first including the FORUM TRANSITORIUM, the Temple of Gens
g reat imperial palace on the Palatine, a plush home con- Flavia (the Flavian Temple), Temple of Minerva and the
sidered inadequate by GAIUS CALIGULA. That emperor not Odeum. He also erected a magnificent palace, the DOMUS
only upgraded the Domus but had the curious habit of FLAVIA, a building that would satisfy the needs of emper-
raising temples to himself. He also allowed Isis to have a ors for years to come.
place of worship on the Campus Martius, and then dese-
crated the Temple of Divus Augustus by placing a bridge Considered harsh and even autocratic, Domitian was
over it to connect the palace on the Palatine with the assassinated in 96 C.E. Nerva ruled for only two years but
Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitol. His adopted Trajan, thus beginning the glorius years of the
successor CLAUDIUS focused on those imperial efforts second century C.E., when Rome would attain its fullest
that would most benefit the city. Aside from improving stature. In many ways the Golden Age of Rome was not
the harbor at Ostia to make the Tiber more accessible, so much an age of municipal opulence but of long-term
he reformed the water system. The aqueducts at Rome bureaucratic and artistic stability. Trajan, Hadrian, Anton-
had always been impressive, providing fresh water from inus Pius, and, in part, Marcus Aurelius ran an empire
that was at its peak. Rome reflected this.

Trajan was the founder of his Baths, the FORUM TRA-
IANI, and innovative market, designed by APOLLODORUS of

Damascus. HADRIAN brought both a Hellenism and an trumpeted an increasing universalism that was offset only
internationalism to the throne. Temples to his predeces- briefly by ANTONINUS PIUS. Hadrian built his dream villa,
sor, his mother-in-law, his niece MATIDIA and Venus were TIVOLI, outside of Rome, in nearby Tibur. Antoninus Pius
sprinkled throughout the city. Loyal to tradition, he spent little money on the city, as did Marcus Aurelius.
rebuilt Agrippa’s Pantheon and gave no credit to himself The former centered his energies on Italy and on the
but honored Agrippa. The reign of Hadrian, however, maintenance of self-government, while the latter faced

plagues, political rebellion, and the terrible MARCOMAN- Rome 477
NIC WARS. Such concerns rendered a beautification pro-
gram impractical. Several developments in the city itself during this
period should be observed. PHILIP THE ARAB celebrated
One result of the era of sound imperial succession the millennial anniversary of the founding of Rome with
was a tendency toward centralization, especially from the the ludi Saeculares in 247. In the early part of the reign of
time of Hadrian. Not surprisingly, the provinces now AURELIAN the JUTHUNGINE WAR made the city nervous for
looked even more eagerly for the city to provide leader- its safety from barbarian attack. Aurelian consequently
ship and guidance. The reign of Commodus was a disas- built his wall. So it went, with soldier-emperors trying to
ter, and his death touched off a bizarre episode in 193, stage a recovery. When it came, its very nature would be
when the Praetorian Guard auctioned off the throne to so momentous that Rome would be unable to withstand
the highest bidder, DIDIUS JULIANUS, a sale that many felt it.
epitomized the social decay of the times.
In 284, DIOCLETIAN became emperor. He recognized
HISTORY FROM 193 the old system of governing as hopelessly inadequate,
given the sheer size of the empire, and that one person
Septimius SEVERUS then marched into Rome with his Pan- was incapable of governing such a domain, especially
nonian legions and, after winning a protracted civil war, from Rome. Diocletian imitated Tiberius and began to
settled down to the business of running the state. Rome travel to the various provinces. A headquarters was estab-
to him was a revered city, much as it had been for Augus- lished at Nicomedia, and the Praetorian Guard was
tus. The title URBS SACRA, or sacred city, was used to downgraded to the rank of the garrison of Rome. New
describe it. Romans paid no direct taxes and, unquestion- reforms were now instigated, not just for Rome but for
ably and for one of the last times, total power rested in the entire empire. Diocletian ended the division between
Rome and in its institutions. Severus’s son CARACALLA imperial and senatorial provinces, placing all of them
took the dramatic step of granting full citizenship to all of under his control. Italy lost all of its privileges, though
the inhabitants of the empire with the Constitutio Rome was allowed to keep many rights and was directed
Antoniniana, an act that would serve to dilute the special by the Senate. By the terms of the tetrarchy established by
status of those who lived in Rome. Diocletian, the two Augusti and two Caesars did not live
in Rome but in widely separated parts of the East and the
Throughout the early centuries of the Roman Empire, West. The closest capital to Rome in the tetrarchy was
additional bridges were erected. The Augustan-era bridge Mediolanum (Milan). Diocletian did not visit Rome, in
was the Pons Agrippae, perhaps created by Marcus Ag- fact, until 303. Two years later he and his colleague MAX-
rippa and positioned in the north of the Campus Martius. IMIAN retired, as GALERIUS and CONSTANTIUS I CHLORUS
To provide easy access to the Circus Gai et Neronis, ascended to the rank of Augusti. Rome was again over-
Emperor Nero ordered the building of the Pons Neronis, shadowed.
or Pons Neronianus, at the eastern edge of the Campus
Martius, pointing in the direction of the Vatican Hill, Then in 306 the opportunity seemingly presented
where the circus was located. Nearby, Hadrian put the itself for the city to regain its honor. Maximian’s son Max-
Pons Aelius, the bridge that would lead right to his mau- entius resented being passed over as one of the Caesars,
soleum, now known as the Castel San Angelo. Two more found support among the Romans and the Praetorian
bridges were built in the third century: the Pons Aurelius Guard, and was raised up as a rival emperor. For six years
Antoninus, or Pons Aurelius, established in all likelihood (306–312) Rome enjoyed a return to glory. At the battle
by Caracalla, and the Pons Probi, built by Probus. of MILVIAN BRIDGE in 312, Maxentius was defeated by
CONSTANTINE the Great, who would go on to conquer all
The assassination of Caracalla in 217 brought the of the empire.
dawn of a new age for the city. For much of the third cen-
tury, the empire was ravaged by barbarian invasions and Constantine built baths, smaller than those of Dio-
usurping generals. Two vital developments contributed to cletian, and an ARCH in Rome, but his long-term policy
the destruction of Rome’s imperial preeminence. First, neglected the city. The Praetorian Guard was disbanded
the emperors were frequently away from the city on mili- ruthlessly and its camp, the Castra Praetoria, was
tary campaigns and getting themselves killed by other destroyed, while CONSTANTINOPLE at the Bosporus be-
generals or in combat with the Goths or Persians. There tween East and West was developed as the New Rome.
would then be a vacuum in the political realm. Second, All that remained to the Romans was the Senate and the
when an emperor did succeed in carving out a place of city’s marvelous art and architecture. The fifth century
relative martial security it became necessary to keep the brought little promise of better things, for so weakened
entire process of government traveling with him, as was had the empire become in the West that in 410 ALARIC
done by GALLIENUS. Rome survived unchanged for a time, and the Visigoths captured and sacked Rome. Forty-five
held in reverence because of its lingering prestige and years later GEISERIC and the Vandals sailed from Africa
because of the need for any new emperor to find allies in and ravaged the city once more.
the old senatorial establishment.
At the same time, a religious revolution was in pro-
cess. Christianity had long been persecuted in the



empire, but Rome attracted Christian leaders and their R
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disciples. Peter was executed, traditionally, on the Vatican
Hill. That site was ever after considered the center of Lidia. The Idea of the City in Roman Thought: From
Christianity in Rome, and the bishop of Rome came to Walled City to Spiritual Commonwealth. Translated by S.
exercise ascendancy over the sees of the West when the O’Donnell. Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
office came to be known as the papacy. The EDICT OF 1982.
MILAN, issued in 312 by Constantine the Great, granted
Christianity a free hand. While Constantinople may have Romulus Augustulus (fl. late fifth century C.E.) Last
been the Christian city, Rome was eventually known as emperor of the Western Empire, ruling from October 475 to
the city of churches, and numerous basilicas and shrines September 476 C.E.
were built to honor martyrs. Domination by the Western Romulus Augustulus (which means “little Augustus”)
bishops brought Rome’s pope into direct conflict with the was the son of the MAGISTER MILITUM ORESTES, who had
patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria, a disagree- been appointed to his post by Emperor Julius NEPOS. In
ment that would last well into the Middle Ages and, in August 475, Orestes used discontent among the Ger-
fact, continues today. manic troops in Italy to depose Nepos, forcing him to
flee to Dalmatia. On October 31, he invested his son
By the fifth century, the Senate was divided into Romulus with the purple. Although the Eastern Empire ,
Christians and pagans, the former holding the majority. under Zeno, refused to recognize him, Romulus was de
But the pagans were ardent and formed an intellectual facto ruler of the West by virtue of the military and
core that was not easily destroyed. With the brilliant ora- political power of his father. Orestes failed to hold his
tory of SYMMACHUS, the final hopes of paganism fell own troops, however, especially after refusing their
before AMBROSE, the brutal bishop of Milan, and before demand to be settled on Italian soil. They found a new
THEODOSIUS I, who won the battle of FRIGIDUS in 394. champion in Orestes’s lieutenant, ODOACER, who be-
Within 100 years of Constantine’s edict, Christianity had sieged Orestes at Ticinum. Odoacer put the magister mil-
brought an end to a cult of worship that had lasted for itum to death in August 476. Entering Ravenna, he
over 1,000 years. deposed Romulus a month later. Surprisingly, the friend-
less monarch was not only allowed to live but was also
Intellectualism was not dead, however. The absence given an estate in Campania (at Misenum) with a gener-
of the emperors with their weighty administrations freed ous annual pension. Surviving until the sixth century, he
the still active Senate and allowed that body to function was a living testimony to the defunct imperial system in
with a remarkable independence with respect to Rome’s the West.
affairs. The Senate encouraged the pursuit of culture and
the mind, even though many cultivated the patronage of Roxolani A people who originally occupied large
the often strict Christian leaders. Symmachus, AVIENUS, s t retches of land in the southern region of Russia, espe-
MACROBIUS, and other writers and orators found a recep- cially to the north of the related tribes of the IAZYGES.
tive and still sophisticated audience. Starting in the second century B.C.E., they were pushed
into the territory of the Iazyges by advancing SARMA-
Founded by Romulus, Rome was, at least techni- TIANS, driving the Iazyges toward the west, while the
cally, last ruled by a Roman in 476—the appropriately Roxolani occupied the lands of the Crimea and the Don.
named Romulus Augustulus. He fell in that year to the By the first century C.E. they had settled on the Danu-
German Odoacer, who was himself overcome by the bian frontier, where they were viewed by the Romans as
powerful Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, in 493. A part of the broader Sarmatian menace. In 62–63 C.E.
succession of masters would follow. There remained, PLAUTIUS SILVANUS suppressed a widespread revolt along
however, the incalculable legacy of Rome to the world the BLACK SEA among the Sarmatian peoples, which
and to history. p robably were the Roxolani. They were the leading force
in the Danubian troubles of 67–68, pushing across the
Suggested Readings: Anderson, James C. The Historical river and necessitating stern military reprisals from
Topography of the Imperial Fora. B russels: Latomus, Rome. Infrequent flareups marked their relations with
1984; Bandinelli, R. B. Rome. The Centre of Power. Lon- Rome, although their ties with the Iazyges farther to the
don: Thames and Hudson, 1969; Champlin, Edward. west were always a concern to the Romans. As part of
Fronto and Antonine Rome. Cambridge: Harvard Univer- his general operations against the Sarmatians, Marcus
sity Press, 1980; Clayton, Peter Treasures of Ancient Aurelius made war upon the Roxolani from 179 to 180
Rome. New York: Random House, 1986. Grimal, Pierre. C.E., claiming the title Sarmaticus in the process. Wi t h
Roman Cities. Translated and edited by G. Michael the rise of the GOTHS in the third century, the
Woloch. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983; Roxolani were amalgamated into the ranks of the bar-
Hibbert, Christopher. Rome: The Biography of a City. barian hosts that would ravage much of the Roman
New York: Penguin, 1985; Scullard, Howard H. From the Empire.
Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D.
68. 4th ed. London: Methuen, 1976; Storoni Mazzolani,