e-Digest PSIS 2017

SAINS SOSIAL

for other students (Baghcheghi, Kohestani & Rezaei, 2011). Many teachers
report that cooperative learning has revitalized their classrooms environment,
rekindled the enjoyment of learning and the pleasure of teaching (Metha &
Kulshrestha, 2014).

In a successful group learning environment teachers’ pay careful
attention to the work process and interaction among students. Slavin argues,
"It is not enough to simply tell students to work together. They must have a
reason to take one another's achievement seriously". He developed a model
that focused on external motivators, such as rewards and individual
accountability practiced established by the teacher. He found that group tasks
with individual accountability produced stronger learning outcomes.

Furthermore, Elizabeth Cohen from Stanford University's and her
colleagues developed Complex Instruction. This method was carefully
designed activities requiring diverse talents and interdependence among group
members. The complex instructions required teachers to pay attention to
unequal participation, a frequent result of status differences among peers, and
are given strategies to bolster the status of infrequent contributors. Roles are
assigned to encourage equal participation, such as a recorder, a reporter, a
materials manager, a resource manager, a communication facilitator, and a
harmonizer. Both task and maintenance roles and outcomes are emphasized.
The instructor observes and intervenes if necessary to ensure that the process
is followed.

Williamson and Rowe (2002) observed that students in cooperative
learning were more willing to ask instructors questions either during class or
office visits. Students that were mixed with different learning styles, races and
gender tend to have higher understanding of the material and remember more
than those in homogeneous groups (Wenzel, 2000).

For teachers, cooperative learning gives a number of advantages. It
reduce teachers work load by decreasing assignments when are done
cooperatively. Disruptive behaviors among students are reduced, students
perform higher thinking and reasoning skills. Students exhibit competitive
performance and higher academic achievement. Weak students’ are able to get
help when they are in trouble. Advices from peers are much valuable because
students are facing the same experience and task with similar learning process.
240 e-Digest PSIS 2017

SAINS SOSIAL

Students are able to get clearer understanding thus reduce the number of repeat
explanation by the teachers.

2.0 PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study is to determine; firstly, the usage of
cooperative learning on students’ achievement using Group Investigation (GI)
and Student Teams Achievements Divisions (STAD); secondly, to determine
students attitude using cooperative learning on case studies of Taiwan, China,
India and Pakistan on tourism geography course. This study was conducted at
Polytechnic Sultan Idris Shah, Malaysia on 42 semester one students of
Tourism Management program. This study was aim to improve practical
teaching skills using cooperative technique.

3.0 METHODOLOGY

The Kemmis & Mac Taggart (1998) model was used in this action
research. Four steps were used in this research consisting of planning, acting,
observing and reflecting. Observation form was used by the research to
observed students attitude and their development progress during the
investigation period. A pre-test and post-test were conducted on the students to
measure the cooperative learning score for tourism geography course. The
scores were than compared. Questionnaires on students’ attitude were
distributed before and after involving in cooperative learning.

The data were collected by means of questionnaire form which consists
of open ended and semi-structured questions. After questions have been
developed using principles of question constructions, the researcher pilot tests
the questions. This helps determine the capability of the students
understanding the questions. The participants in the pilot test provide written
comments on the survey and the researcher modifies based on the feedback.

e-Digest PSIS 2017 241

SAINS SOSIAL

4.0 FINDING

A paired sample t-test was conducted to compare mean score of pre-
test and post-test on the effectiveness of using cooperative learning on the
students. This test was used to evaluate the mean value differences that was
significant between pre-test and post-test. To test the hypothesis the mean of
pretest was 61.3, mean post-test was 79.2, the differences the mean is 10.9
with a significance value of 0.00 <0.05. This value proved that the is a
difference in mean value among students who had undertaken cooperative
learning. Therefore, this result indicated that cooperative learning showed
improvement in students’ examination results.

Table 1 : Pretest and Post test result.

Test N Min St.D t df. sig.
Pre-test
Post-test 42 61.3 10.98 -0.125 28 0.000

42 79.2 10.13

Secondly, a survey was conducted on the students to look into changes
in students attitude before and after involvement in cooperative learning. A
two scale of attitude questionnaire developed by Aiken (1996) was distributed
to all students before and after conducting cooperative learning to measure
students attitude towards the given case study task on tourism geography. Data
was recorded and analyzed using mean, frequency and standard deviation.
Table 2 describe the result of students attitude towards cooperative learning.
The mean score was 3.26 before involving in cooperative learning experience
and 4.1 mean after involving in cooperative learning for a period of eight
weeks lesson. This result proved that students have improve their attitude on
cooperative learning and agreed that cooperative learning boost their inner self
confident in their daily lesson. Students feel more appreciated by their peers
and teachers because they able to contribute in their lesson activities. They are
able to voice out thoughts and able to exchange facts and information actively.

242 e-Digest PSIS 2017

SAINS SOSIAL

Teachers were very much impression because students are more focus and
highly devoted to compete and contribute in group work.

Table 2 : T –test on cooperative learning

Students’ Attitude N Mean Std. T df. Sig
3.26 0.83 -4.443 28
Case study of Tourism Geography 4.0 0.51

Before 42

0.000

After 42

5.0 DISCUSSION

This study proves that cooperative learning methods result better
achievement than the traditional teaching method. Explanation by peer groups
are much more effective than explanation made by teachers during peer
discussion sessions due to higher peer interactions. Peers tends to have higher
motivations and students feel more comfortable to repeat questioning and
answer during task given. Students are able to memorized, and retain longer
information and improve their attitude and performance ability. They feel less
pressured during group work and tend to interact actively in group task.
Cooperative learning able to create accountability and interdependence skills
(Zakaria & Ikhsan 2013). Students were willing to help and cooperate with
each other to promote each other’s learning. These attitudes help to build
group identity and create a conducive environment to students (Slavin, 1996).

However, teachers need to be aware that not all students preferred not
to work in group, meaning that cooperative learning is not for everyone (Arra,
D’Antonio, & D’Antonio, 2011). Teachers need to be patients and avoid
discouragement while guiding students on cooperative activities since
performance quality varies between groups and time frame. In this study
students that are willing to exchange and receive comments are most likely
prefer cooperative learning. Therefore teachers need to always monitor

e-Digest PSIS 2017 243

SAINS SOSIAL

students’ progress and alert of their response and adjust according to students
best interest. Teachers must always prepare their lessons with clear
instructions and structured teaching process continually in every cooperative
lessons. Teachers must allow students to express their anxiety in variety of
ways as they are actually trying to adjust social skill between them. Praise,
reward and recognitions must always be given continuously to students to
avoid emotional failures. Even a little praise will help a lot especially on poor
performance students. The praise give them a first start of hope to instill better
achievement in future group or individual tasks. This will boosts the average
students to perform better. For excellent students it built an effort of leadership
and mutual cooperation. Team’s feedback process is a critical component to
the cooperative learning experience that help teachers to adjust next lessons
and provide clearer structured lesson instructions.

6.0 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATION WHAT ARE
THE ELEMENTS

In short cooperative learning approach is highly structured, clear
expectations, high teacher involvement, on-going monitoring, careful teams
rotation of roles, supportive peer interaction, conducive environment. This
approach deliver strong support and encouragement through systematic
classroom interaction from both teachers and students. Therefore, training and
continuous professional development are needed for teachers, and
collaboration among teachers should be encouraged through holding regular
meetings to ensure the success of cooperative learning approach in daily
lessons. Furthermore, this approach allows to bland many kinds of students
creativity thus satisfies teachers and students through connectivity and
cooperative which enable to make learning more fun with good memories to
promotes the success of all the students.

244 e-Digest PSIS 2017

SAINS SOSIAL

REFERENCES

Aiken, L.R. (1996). Rating Scales and Checklist: evaluating Behavior, Personality
and attitudes. London: John Wiley and Sons.

Arra, C. T., D’Antonio, M. D., & D’Antonio Jr., M. (2011). Students’ preferences for
cooperative learning instructional approaches: Con-siderations for college
teachers. Journal of Research in Education, 21, 114-126.

Baghcheghi N., Koohestani H. R., and Rezaei K., (2011). A comparison of the
cooperative learning and traditional learning methods in theory classes on nursing
students'communication skill with patients at clinical settings. Nurse Education
Today, 31 (8) 877–882.

Hermann, K. J. (2013). The impact of cooperative learning on student engagement:
results from an

in R. Hertz-Lazarowitz and N. Miller (eds.). Interaction in Cooperative Groups: The
Theoretical Anatomy of Group Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge
UniversityPress. intervention,” Active Learning in Higher Education, 14(3)175–
187.

Johnson, D. W. & Johnson, R. T, 2009. “An educational psychology success story:
social interdependence theory and cooperative learning,” Educational
Researcher, 38 (5) 365–379.

Johnson, D.W. & Johnson, R.T. (1989). Tard a Cooperative Effort : A response to
Slavin: Educational Leardship, 46 (7 )80-81.

Kemmis, S & McTaggart, R. (1988). The ActionResearch Planner. 3rd ed. Geelong:
Deakin University.

Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (1990). The Action Research Reader. Victoria: Deakin
University.

Mehta, S., & Kulshrestha, A. K., (2014). Implementation of Cooperative Learning in
Science: A Developmental –cum-Experimental Study. Education Research
International, 7(2).

Slavin, R.E. 1996. Research on cooperative learning and achievement: What we
know, what we need to know. Contemporary Educational Physchology, 21, 43-
69. Doi: 10.1006/ceps/1996.004

Stevens, R., & Slavin. R., (1995). The Cooperative elementary school: Effects on
students achievement, attitudes and social relation. The American Educational
Research Journal, 32, 321–351.

Zakaria & Iksan, (2007). Promoting cooperative learning in science and mathematics
education: a Malaysian perspective. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science
and Technology Education, 3, (1)35–39.

e-Digest PSIS 2017 245

SAINS SOSIAL

Wenzel, T. (2000). Cooperative Student Activities as Learning Devices. Analytical
Chemistry, 72, 293-296.

Williamson, V.M., Rowe, M.W. (2002). Group Problem-Solving versus Lecture in
College-Level Quantitative Analysis: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly. Journal
of Chemical Education, 79 (9) 1131-1134.

246 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

COMPARISON OF LEACHATE TREATMENT USING CYPERUS
JAVANICUS, GRAVEL AND AERATIONS SYSTEM FOR CONSTRUCTED

WETLANDS

Hafizulhadi Bin Rahim
Jabatan Kejuruteraan Awam
Politeknik Sultan Idris Shah

[email protected]

Ruhil Hayati Binti Jaafar
Jabatan Kejuruteraan Awam
Politeknik Sultan Idris Shah

[email protected]

ABSTRACT
This study investigate the reduction of Fe, PO4-P, COD, and NH3-N by
using Cyperus Javanescus as a plants in a constructed wetland systems by
comparing it to unplanted system (aerations and gravels) on different leachate
concentrations (25 % v/v and 50 v/v). The study shows that the 50%
concentration of landfill leachate has the highest reduction on all parameters.
The study also find that by using Cypruss Javanescus as plant it has help the
reduction of all studied parameters except for the Fe reduction which the
aeration has performed better. On the duration of treatment it show that the
result varied on different types of treatment and landfill leachate
concentration. The Plants system has the highest reduction on almost all
parameter on the 10th days of the study for landfill leachate 50% except for Fe
that the aeration system performed better. It also found that the plant system
will perform better as time increase. The final result for all parameters treated
by system using the Cyperus Javanescus has significant reduction compared
to Aerations system and gravel system except for the Fe on landfill leachate 50
% concentration.
Keywords: Cyperus Javanescus , constructed wetland, lanfill leachate,

e-Digest PSIS 2017 247

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Malaysia is one of the developing country that facing the problem of disposing
solid waste materials. Mostly in Malaysia the solid waste materials is dispose trough
the used of landfill method. Landfill is an engineered waste disposal site facility with
specific pollution control technologies designed to minimize potential impacts.
Landfills are usually either placed above ground or contained within quarries and pits
Landfills are sources of groundwater and soil pollution due to the production of
leachate and its migration through refuse (Esmail et al, 2009). The importance of
landfills is influenced by the ever increasing urbanization, forcing people to live with
the quantity of the growing solid waste.

Leachate be defined as a transparent liquid through solid waste and contains
suspended or dissolved substances (Tchobanoglous et al, 1993). Landfill leachate (LL)
is a liquid that has percolated through solid waste and has extracted, dissolved, and
suspended materials that may include potentially harmful materials. Types of solid
waste, physical, chemical, and biological activities that occur in the solid waste
determine the quality of leachate. The quantity of LL seeping from the landfill is
proportional to the build-up of LL within the landfill, alternatively called leachate
mound. LL can cause serious problems since it able to transport contaminating
materials that may cause a contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water
(M.A. Warith, 2003).

The major potential environmental impacts related to LL are pollution of
groundwater and surface water. The risk of groundwater the pollution is probably the
most severe environmental impact from landfills because historically most landfills
were built without engineered liners and LL collection systems. More recently,
regulations in many countries have required the installation of liners and LL collection
systems as well as a plan for LL treatment. (Peter Kjeldsen et al, 2002)

Constructed wetlands are artificial wastewater treatment systems consisting of
shallow (usually less than 1 m deep) ponds or channels which have been planted with
aquatic plants, and which rely upon natural microbial, biological, physical and
chemical processes to treat wastewater. They typically have impervious clay or
synthetic liners, and engineered structures to control the flow direction, liquid
detention time and water level. Depending on the type of system, they may or may not
contain an inert porous media such as rock, gravel or sand.

According to United States Environmental Protection Agency (2001), LL after
being slowed by a wetland, as the water moves around plants, allowing the suspended
sediment to drop out and settle to the wetland beds. Usually nutrients from fertilizer
applications, manure, leaking septic tanks, and municipal sewage that are dissolved in

248 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

the water are often absorbed by plant roots and digest by microorganisms in the soil.
Other pollutants stick to soil particles. In many cases, this filtration process removes
much of the water’s nutrient and pollutant load by the time it leaves a wetland.

Robinson (2005), mentions that aerated lagoons are used to treat weak leachate
and then the process continue with passing the leachate trough leachate across a
purpose planted reed bed before discharge to a watercourse.

This paper focus on reduction of Fe, PO4-P, COD, and NH3-N for different LL
concentration ( 50% and 25%), reduction of Fe, PO4, COD, and NH3-N for different
types of media (Aerations, sand Gravels, and plants) and the effective duration for
reductions of Fe, PO4-P, COD, and NH3-N.

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Sample preparations

In this study the LL was taken from the primary treatment pond of the Pancang
Bedena Landfills, Sungai Besar, Selangor. The sample was then diluted with distilled
water into two concentrations which 50% LL: 50%: distilled water and 25% LL: 75%
distilled water. The characteristic of the LL were given in Table 1.

Table 1: The initial LL characteristic diluted with distilled water for to be used in the study.

Parameter Sample ratios

(LL : Distilled water)

25 50%:50%
%:75%

pH 7.50 7.72

Phosphorus, PO4-P 2.58 5.67
(mg/l)

Ammonia Nitrogen, 11.13 23.40
NH3-N (mg/l) 11.67 102.67

COD (mg/l)

Iron, Fe (mg/l) 0.65 1.14

e-Digest PSIS 2017 249

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

2.2 System constructions

The study system was carried out by constructing 6 systems. In this study, laboratory
scale horizontal subsurface flow (HSSF) constructed wetlands models was built as in the
Table 2.

The treatment system was build using polypropylene container with dimension of 37.5
cm x 24 cm x 22.5 cm. The inlet was PVC pipe that than been pull out after the LL was fully
up to the required level. The outlet was a standard polypropylene pipe that has been closed.
The plant that been used was Cyperus Javanicus which is a common plant that has coarse
perennials with short rhizomes and culms green that can be found in paddy field and also
along many fresh water stream in Malaysia. The plant has been taken from the area of Parit
Baru, Selangor and each plant high is not more than 60 cm.

Table 2: The characteristics of systems

Systems Characteristic

A (Aerations) 25 % LL concentration 6
cm high from bottom level

Aerations pump (12 volt)

B (Aerations) 50% LL concentration 6
cm high from bottom level

Aerations pump (12 volt)

C (Gravels and 3 cm of mines sand (top)
mines sand) 3 cm of 0 – 30 mm
Gravels (bottom)

25 % LL concentration

D (Gravels and 3 cm of mines sand (top)
mines sand) 3 cm of 0 – 30 mm

250 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

Gravels (bottom)
50 % LL concentration

E (Cyperus 3 cm of mines sand (top)
Javanicus, 3 cm of 0 – 30 mm
gravel and gravels (bottom)
mines sand)
25 % LL concentration
F (Cyperus
Javanicus, Cyperus Javanicus
gravels and
mines sand) 3 cm of mines sand (top)
3 cm of 0 – 30 mm
gravels (bottom)

50 % LL concentration

Cyperus Javanicus

The plant than has been arrange as in the Figure 1. The plants were been set
about 1 week before the experiment was started to make sure that the plant is grow
healthy. Then the LL is pour in the model trough the inlet just after the dilution with
the distilled water is made. The LL was poured in the model until it up to the level of
6cm from the bottom of the all the water then been left stagnant without any
disturbance. All the system then was put under a sheltered and open air area but
without any control of temperature or humidity.

e-Digest PSIS 2017 251

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

Figure 1: Model of constructed wetlands (top – top views and bottom – side views)

Table 3: The equipment and method used for each parameter in the studies

Parameter Equipments Methods

pH HANNA Standard
HI991300 procedures

Phosphorus Hach Method
8048
PO4-P Spectrophotometer phosver3
(ascorbic
(mg/l) DR5000 acid)

Ammonia Hach Method
Nitrogen, Spectrophotometer 8038
NH3-N DR5000 nessler
(mg/l) method

COD Hach Method
(mg/l)
Spectrophotometer 8000

DR5000

Hach DRB200
reactor

Iron (mg/l) Hach Iron total,
Spectrophotometer method
DR5000 8008
ferrover
method

252 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

2.3 Sampling and analysis

The initial LL characteristic was measured after the dilution of LL for each
systems and been used as a control values on 0 days. For the 5th and 10th days about,
150 ml sample of LL from each system was taken by opening the outlet pipe and put it
in a sampling bottle. All measurement of the parameter was conducted by using
equipment at Politeknik Sultan Idris Shah and being done on the same days as the
sample taken. The measurement of the LL parameter of all studied systems was done
by using equipments and methods as in the Table 3. The result of the study was
analysis using Statplus v2.5 software.

The significant of data was analysed by using one-way ANOVA to reveal
significant differences between Aerations, Gravels and Plants on the reduction of
study parameter. Statistical significance differences of the data were tested and
compared at P≤0.05 (95% levels of significance).

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 4 show the all the average data for all parameter and types of treatment that
has been done. The pH value for all treatment system varied from pH 6.43 to pH 7.74.
In the table it show that the pH value of system that contain gravel has an acidic
condition for 5th and 10th days except for Plants system + LL 25% that has only pH
7.11 on the 10th days. The 0 days has the control value of each parameter that been
used in this experiment.

3.1 The reduction of Fe, PO4-P, COD, and NH3-N for different LL concentration (LL
50% and LL 25%)

The average reduction of Fe, PO4-P, COD, and NH3-N for different LL
concentration (50 % and 25 %) and is show in the Figure 2.The Gravels system has
the middle value of the reduction for the Fe for both LL 50 % and LL 25 %
concentration that was at -106.36 % and -6.36 %. For the Plants system it show that it
give the lowest reduction for both LL 50 % and LL 25 % concentration that was at -
169.50 % and -69.93 %. It show that 50 % of LL give the best reduction for Fe in the
Aerations system but for both Gravels system and the Plants system it show that 25 %
LL perform better. In overall, for the Fe reduction if shows that LL 25 % has
performed better to reduced it.

Table 4: Average data for removal efficiency all parameter and types of treatment

e-Digest PSIS 2017 253

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

PARAMETER AERATIONSS + LL AERATIONSS + LL
25% 50%

Days 0 5 10 0 5 10

7.5 7.18 7.5 7.52 7 7.74
pH ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01

Fe (mg/l) 0.65 0.55 0.43 1.14 0.74 0.43
±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02

2.58 1.94 1.52 5.67 4.23 4.21
PO4-P (mg/l) ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02

COD (mg/l) 11.7 25.3 68.33 102.7 118.00 119.3
±0.7 ±0.7 ±0.7 ±0.7 ±0.7 ±0.7

11.13 3.81 ± 1.30 ± 23.40 7.78 ± 8.85 ±
0.015 0.015 ± 0.015 0.015
NH3-N (mg/l) ±
0.015
0.015

PARAMETER GRAVELS + LL 25% GRAVELS + LL 50%

Days 0 5 10 0 5 10

7.5 6.67 6.86 7.52 6.53 6.93
pH ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01

Fe (mg/l) 0.65 0.33 1.09 1.14 3.66 2.24
±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02

2.58 2.41 2.34 5.67 2.88 1.68
PO4-P (mg/l) ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02

COD (mg/l) 11.7 17.7 138.0 102.7 150.0 331.7
±0.7 ±0.7 ±0.7 ±0.7 ±0.7 ±0.7

NH3-N (mg/l) 11.13 2.26 ± 0.97 23.40 14.28 7.32
±

0.015 0.015 ±0.015 ±0.015 ±0.015 ±0.015

PARAMETER PLANTS + LL 25% PLANTS + LL 50%

Days 0 5 10 0 5 10

pH 7.5 6.67 7.11 7.52 6.43 6.69

254 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01

Fe (mg/l) 0.65 1.81 0.84 1.14 4.34 3.71
PO4-P (mg/l) ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02
COD (mg/l)
NH3-N (mg/l) 2.58 2.26 1.37 5.67 1.92 0.67
±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02 ±0.02

11.7 16.3 28.0 102.7 27.7 132.3
±0.7 ±0.7 ±0.7 ±0.7 ±0.7 ±0.7

11.13 6.30 3.10 23.40 4.36 1.24
±
±0.015 ±0.015 ±0.015 ±0.015 ±0.015
0.015

On the reductions of COD the LL 50 % give the highest reduction for all
Aerations system, Gravels system and Plants system which was at -10.39%, -89.72%,
and 14.72% compared to the LL 25% that give -200.95 %, -378.10 % and -60.00 %
respectively. Overall it has shown that the LL 50 % has performed better in reduction
of COD.

On the reduction of PO4-P, the LL 50 % give the lower reduction on Aerations
system at 17.05 % but higher value for Gravels system and the Plants system which
was at 39.88 % and 51.46 %. For LL 25 %, aeration systems give the highest value at
21.96 % followed by the Plants system at 19.72 % and lastly the Gravels system at
5.21 %. Overall the LL 50 % gives the best reduction for all type of system being test
to reduce the PO4-P compared to LL 25 %. The value of reduction for NH3-N using
LL 50 % shows that the Plants system has the highest reduction at 58.69 % followed
by Aerations system was at 42.97 % and lastly the Gravels system at 35.90 %. For LL
25 % the reduction of NH3-N was highest for Gravels system was at 57.02 % followed
by the Aerations system at 51.37 % and lastly by Plants system at 38.52 %. Overall it
shows that LL 25 % has performed well compared to LL 50 % in the reduction of
NH3-N.

All the analysis of p-value has p ≥ 0.05 meaning that the removal different between
LL 50 % and LL 25 % was not significant.

3.2 Reduction of Fe, PO4-P, COD, and NH3-N for different types of media (Aerations,
Gravels, and Plants)

e-Digest PSIS 2017 255

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

The average reduction of Fe, PO4-P, COD, and NH3-N for different types of
media (Aerations, Gravels, and Plants) is show in the Figure 2.

The percentage of reduction for Fe shows that the aerations treatment method
give the highest reduction for both 50 % and 25 % LL concentration which was at
32.36 % and 16.32 %. Due to the acidic pH of the LL concentration for Gravels and
Plants system that maybe has made the iron in the gravels and sand leach out.
According to Iron Oxide Technologies (2009) aerobic ponds is the dominant process
to control Fe removal in the waste water treatment process. These show that for Fe
reductions the Plants system not very suitable to be used but this may be due to the
used of gravel and sand that contain high Fe. Mostly in Selangor there are mines
activity for iron and tin and according to a studies done by Sahibin Abd. Rahim et al
(2007) the iron content of the studied range from 12000.8 mg/kg to 92213.0 mg/kg in
one of the mines soil sample. David W. Et al (2011) stated that iron leaching in soil
will occur at below pH 7.5.

For PO4-P the Plants system has the highest overall reduction, which was for
LL 50 % at 51.46 % and the LL 25 % at 19.72 % a little bit lower than the aeration
system LL 25 % at 21.96 %. The Gravels system also has a higher reduction on LL 50
% at 39.88 % compared to the aeration system LL 50 % at 17.05 %. This showed that
the Plants system has advantage in reduction of PO4-P compared to the Aeration
system and Gravels system. Kadlec and Wallace (2009) stated that the constructed
wetland was capable to remove the PO4-P in the short or in the long run because it was
nutrient that been need for the growth of a Plants.

The Plants system gives the highest reduction of COD in both LL 50 % and LL 25 %
which was at 14.72 % and -60.00 % compared to other system being tested. According to S.C.
Ayaza and L. Akca (2001), it shows that the removal of COD was at 90 % removal efficiency
by using Cyperus plant systems but in this study the achievement of the reduction was 14.72
% only. Overall it show that the Plants system has better result on COD because the it has the
highest reduction on LL 50% and slightly lower reduction on LL 25 %.

For the best system to reduce the NH3-N, the Plants system has a good reduction on
both LL 50 % and LL 25 % at 58.69 % and 38.52 %. For Gravels system the reduction on LL
50 % was at 35.90 % and LL 25 % was at 57.02%

256 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

Figure 2: Average reduction percentage of Fe, COD, PO4-P and NH3-N according to
different level of LL concentration and types of treatment systems.
For aeration system the reduction also good that was for LL 50 % was at 42.97 % and LL 25
% was at 51.37 %. Overall result the Plants system was the best options because it has higher
on LL 50 % but only slightly lower for the LL 25 %. Kadlec and Wallace (2009) mention the
Plants utilized nitrate and ammonium then decomposing it and release nitrogen back into the
water
The result of Tukey-kramer test for differences between means reveal that is there is
insignificant different between reduction of Fe, PO4-P, COD, and NH3-N for different types
of media (Aerations, Gravels, and Plants). It has shown that the plant and gravel system can
perform well compared to the aeration system.

e-Digest PSIS 2017 257

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

3.3 The effective duration for reductions of Fe, PO4-P, COD, and NH3-N.
The average reduction of Fe, PO4-P, COD, and NH3-N for different system

and duration is show in the Figure 3.
There was no reduction of Fe on the 5th day for most of the system due to the

leaching of the Fe from the mines sand. The only reduction of Fe happen to Aerations
+ LL 25 %, Aerations + LL 50% and Gravels + LL 25 % which was at 15.46 %, 35.19
% and 48.97 % each. For other system the value was negative meaning that there are
leaching of iron has been added to the value of Fe. On the 10th day only Aeration +
LL 25 % and Aeration + LL 50% still has reduction but the other system has negative
value. For the 10th days also the Fe value for Gravels + LL 50 %, Plants + LL 25 %
and Plants + LL 50 % has increase slightly but not for the Gravels + LL 25 % that has
been decrease. Overall it shows that for the removal of Fe, the aeration system was
the best method no matter what duration of the treatment but for other systems it takes
time for the Fe to decrease.

Figure 3: Average reduction percentage of Fe, COD, PO4-P and NH3-N according to
duration of the treatment.

For reduction PO4-P it shows that the all system has decreased level. For both
5th and 10th days the Plants system has the highest reductions for PO4-P for LL 50 %
and LL 25 %. It shows that also as time prolong the reduction of PO4-P by Plants will

258 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

also be increase. The reductions of COD only happen on the 5th days for Plants + LL
50 % system. For others system it show that the COD level has been increase.

Overall it shows that the COD level will increase as the duration prolong for
all system. The conclusion for COD removal is the Plants + LL 50 % will perform the
best below 5 days duration. This even applies to the other system as well.

The reduction of NH3-N also increase as time prolong as for all system. The
Plants + LL 50 % system has the highest reduction of NH3-N on 5th and 10th days. On
the 10th days the reduction of NH3-N for Aerations + LL 25, Gravel + LL 25% and
Plants + LL 50 % is almost the same at 88.32 %, 91.32 % and 94.70 %. Overall it
shows that Plant system can perform better on LL + 50 % as the time increase. But for
Aeration and Gravels system both perform more on the LL + 25 % as the time
prolong.

4.0 CONCLUSION

As a conclusion this study has show that the level of concentration of LL 50 %
has the higher reduction for all the parameter being tested even though the different is
not significant. It also shows that the Cyperus Javanescus has perform better on the
reduction of COD, PO4-P and NH3-N but not for Fe in short run. It also shown that the
plant and gravel system can performed as well and better compared to the aeration
system except in Fe reduction The Cyperus Javanescus system also it will perform
better if the duration of the treatment increases more than 10th days.

The PO4-P and NH3-N reduction on all system is increasing as time prolong.
Furthermore it shows that the Cyperus Javanescus system has successfully treated
COD, PO4-P and NH3-N within 10th days compared to the Aerations system and
Gravels system. This has proven that the use of Cyperus Javanescus can be an
alternative and a cheap way to treat the landfill leachate compared to the highly cost
aerations system that consume electricity and need a well skilled worker to maintained.

Through this study it show that the used of mines sand would likely will lead
to the increasing level of Fe in the effluents. This study also has shown the short
duration of the experiment maybe has affected the result. Another important aspect of
this study that has been affecting it was the control of humidity and wind velocity of the
systems that should be done to make sure that an accurate condition can be monitored
and also reducing the effect of evaporations LL from the all systems.

e-Digest PSIS 2017 259

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

REFERENCES

David W., Adrian C., Carl W. and Jean R. (2011). Soil pH. Colorado State University
Extension. CMG GardenNotes:222

Esmail al-Sabahi, S. Abdul Rahim, W.Y. Wan Zuhairi, Fadhl Al Nozaily & Fares Al Shaebi
(2009). Leachate Composition and Groundwater Pollution at Municipal Solid Waste Landfill
of Ibb City, Yemen. Sains Malaysiana

Iron Oxide Technologies (2009). Enhanced Iron Removal for Recovery from Aerobic
PondsUsing Retrofit Lasaire Aeration. State College, Pennsylvania.

Kadlec R.H. and S.D. Wallace (2009). Treatment wetlands second edition. Taylor and
Francis Group, Boca Raton, USA. ISBN 978-1-56670-526-4.

L. Renee (2001). Constructed Wetlands: Passive Systems for Wastewater Treatment.
Technology Innovation and Field Services Division. US EPA.

M. A. Warith (2003). Solid Waste Management: New Trends in Landfill Design. Emirates
Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 8, No.1.

Peter Kjeldsen, Morton A. Barlaz, Alix P. Rooker, Anders Baun, Anna Ledin, and Thomas H.
Christensen (2002). Present and Long-Term Composition of MSW Landfill Leachate: A
Review. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 32(4):297-336.

Robinson (2005). Landfill Leachate Treatment. The 5th International Conference on
Membrane Bioreactors. Cranfield University.

S.C. Ayaza And L. Akca (2001). Treatment of Wastewater by Natural Systems. Environment
International 26 :189 -195.

Sahibin Abd. Rahim, Tukimat Lihan, Zulfahmi Ali Rahman, Wan Mohd Razi Idris, Azman
Hashim, Sharilnizam M. Yusof & Liow Hai Yin (2007). Uptake of Fe, Mn And Cu By
Nepenthes Sp. In Ex-Mining Soil At Pelepah Kanan, Kota Tinggi, Johor. Sains
Malaysiana 36(2)(2007): 123-132

Tchobanoglaus, G. Thiesen, H., dan Vigil, S.A. (1993). Intergrated Solid Waste Management
New York U.S.A : Mc Graw Hill

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2000). Constructed Wetlands Treatment of
Municipal Wastewaters. National Risk Management Research Laboratory Office of Research
and Development.

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2001). Function and Values of Wetlands.
Office of Water.

260 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

THE POTENTIAL OF PILI ERECTUS AND ACTIVATED CARBON AS AN OIL
FILTER IN TREATING RESTAURANT WASTEWATER

Khairool Anwar Bin Alias
Jabatan Kejuruteraan Awam
Politeknik Sultan Idris Shah,
[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Waste water generated by domestic activities in areas such as housing and
many restaurants area that produce pollution. Restaurants area contributed to oil
production is channelled directly into drains or waste sources without any treatment.
This study emphasizes the use of filters of natural substances that act as filters for
restaurants wastewater. Since human hair is very cheap and not easily biodegradation
this study uses the Pili Erectus (Human hair) as a filter media to reduce oil, activated
carbon are removing taste and odor from water and other parameters that are
undesirable in water. This study was conducted to study the effectiveness separation
of liquid, solid recovery and oil using Pili Erectus from wastewater restaurants, to
remove unpleasant smell of waste cooking oil using activated carbon and to determine
the filter base parameter of oil such as Oil and Grease (O&G), pH, Turbidity,
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Total Suspended Solid (TSS). Model filter
placed under the sink in a restaurant and wastewater taken before the model is
installed and after filtered wastewater is also taken to be studied in laboratory. Lastly,
Pili erectus and activated carbon has the advantages of absorbing oil and removing
odor because studies show a reduce in oil and grease parameter readings.

Keywords : Biodegradation, activated carbon, COD and TSS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Although sustainable development has been a priority in current levels of
resources consumption and wastes production of have not been reduced. Together
with climate conditions and limited ground or surface water sources, industries and
households are the main culprits which cause water pollution and water shortage.

Oil pollution, particularly of sea and river, and navigable waters, has excited
more public concern than any other waste or spilt material. Oil pollution has steadily
increased with the increased oil consumption. These oily wastes are one of the major
pollutants of the aquatic environment. The special attention has been focused on the
discharge of waste water and oily water it regulatory restriction has become stricter.
Organic toxic waste of oil and grease (O&G) causes ecology damages for aquatic

e-Digest PSIS 2017 261

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

organisms, plant, animal and carcinogenic for human being. They discharge from
different sources to form a layer on water surface that decreases dissolved oxygen.
O&G layer reduces biological activity of treatment process where oil film formation
around microbes in suspended matter and water. This lead to decrease dissolved
oxygen levels in the water. Then oxygen molecules are difficulty to be oxidative for
microbial on hydrocarbon molecules and cause ecology damages to water bodies. The
conventional techniques that separate oil and water have been proposed as effective
and cost competitive alternative to conventional oil removal technologies but in
present the commercial use of filtration in waste water treatment is currently limited
by their low efficiency as well as high capital and operating cost.

The remaining oil causes clogging of pipes in treatment units that need
cleaning and sometimes replacement of pipes. This lead to increase maintenance and
inspection cost. Microbial activity plays significant role in performance, strength
purification process, and elimination of pretreatment process in wastewater treatment
plant depending on enzyme costs. Environmental studies described prevention of fat
blockage or filming in waste systems before discharging wastewater into sewage
system. Next, untreated water will continue to flow into the rivers and ocean that will
cause the aquatic life could be dangers and live hoods of the affected to fisherman.

With based on innovation, creativity and high value-added in order to keep the
country competitive, pollution is an importance element that need to be addressed.
Innovation refers to the creative ideas translate in concreted and improve the
information, knowledge, action, service, product design, delivery and management.
Accordingly as many innovative products have been developed to address the
growing problem of pollution spread in everyday life.

2.0 RESEARCH PROBLEM

Industrial growth has accelerated the emission of several of oily waste from
sources. These oily waste are one of the major pollutant discharge them to the
drainage, water stream and aquatic environment. So, we can see that much of
domestic activities from residential area and restaurant, much of them just throws
small rubbish and washes directly their oily dishes into the sink. Usually, at restaurant
they only have filtration inside the sink that can separate the waste from water while
the oily and waste water just flow to the drainage. Sometimes, it can cause clogged
because has other small particle are not filtrate. Other than that, not only oil, detergent
and chemical are used for home plant to kill the pest it also directly flows to water
steam. Thus, in the filtration can cause unpleasant smell just because mix up of waste
such as oily, waste water and rubbish.

Besides that, the changing of generation lifestyle has also introduced many
chemical purify water, they also can produce a lot of negative impact upon to the
262 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

water stream. In typical of oily waste and waste water separation treatment process by
adding materials dosing of chemical is add into water can enhance pollution in water
thus contribute to the poor surface water quality. The pollution that can cause problem
to environment is odor pollutant and water pollutant that create by human.

One ways to overcome the pollution in surface water is have to treat waste
water at the source point. This can be accomplishing by construct a filter at the source
is alternative to conventional oil removal technologies present use layer of membrane.
The uses of biodegradable microorganisms enable this system to current limited by
their low maintenance due to its biological regeneration. Finally, this system serves as
a sustainable, effective and economic filtration method in various water and
discharges the good improvement of water quality.

3.0 OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH

The objective of this study is to :

 To study the effectiveness separation of liquid, solid recovery and oil using Pili Erectus.
 To remove unpleasant smell of waste cooking oil using activated carbon.
 To determine the filter base parameter of oil such as oil and grease (O&G) pH,

Turbidity, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Total Suspended Solid (TSS).

4.0 RESEARCH SCOPE

The study will be conduct at the Sungai Besar, Selangor Darul Ehsan. For this
purpose selected restaurant are chosen as the study area. This study emphasis the use
of filters of natural substance which is pili erectus and activated carbon are use before
and after the bio filter applied under the sink that act as filter restaurant waste water
and oily water. The filtration function to reducing the flow of oil from waste water
and determine the effectiveness of the filter parameter on the result of Oil and Grease
(O&G), pH, turbidity, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Total Suspended Solid
(TSS).

5.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Absorption and adsorption are two mechanisms that a sorbent utilizes to
absorb liquids. The absorption mechanism allows liquids to penetrate into porous
spaces of the material, whereas adsorption does not allow penetration into the material
but accumulates liquids onto their surfaces. Oil sorbent materials can be categorized
into organic natural, inorganic mineral and synthetic organic (Adebajo et al., 2003).

e-Digest PSIS 2017 263

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

Unrefined oils are filtered only lightly to remove large particles. Some, such as
sesame or olive oil, may appear cloudy or have visible sediment after sitting. This
does not compromise quality. Unrefined oils have more pronounced flavors, colors
and fragrances than refined oils. Are best used unheated in dressings or with low heat
sautéing or baking. Their natural resins and other beneficial particles burn easily and
develop unpleasant flavors and unhealthy properties if overheated. Refined oils
naturally refined oils are more thoroughly filtered and strained than unrefined, usually
with some additional heat but without harsh or damaging chemicals. Refining reduces
the nutrient level and flavors. It also removes particles and resins and makes naturally
refined oils more stable for longer storage, more resistant to smoking, and a good
choice for high-heat cooking and frying (Karana et al., 2011).

Emissions from commercial cooking may contribute to exceed of the Federal
PM2.5 air quality standards in certain regions. Commercial cooking processes are
important contributors of secondary organic aerosols (SOA) and organic carbon (OC)
and elemental carbon (EC). SOA is formed from the condensation of gaseous organic
emissions at ambient temperatures, sometimes following photo-chemical processes
(Cabada et al, 2002).

The following classification has been developed specifically for use in oil spill
response. It considers general toxicity, physical state and changes with the
weathering.

Class A: light, volatile oil
Class B: non-sticky oil
Class C: heavy, sticky oil
Class D: no fluid oil
It is essential to recognize the dynamic nature of this classification. Some oils
can rapidly undergo extensive modifications of properties, whereas other may remain
relatively unaffected over long period of time. For this reason, oil can often will
change characteristics sufficiently to rank in more than one of the above oil class over
time. In addition, type of oil can changed with the time of day, becoming fluid during
exposure to sunlight and solidifying during night and morning oil hours (A.Breauel,
1981).

Human hair or known as pili erectus is one can be important physical evidence
at a crime scene. Hair normally falls from the body over the course of a day. It will
stick to a number of materials, especially fabric and clothing. Hair is not easily
destroyed, even with exposure to moisture and decomposition of accompanying
tissue. Deposition of oils on hair has been claimed to have a beneficial protective
effect. Oil-based hair conditioners are thus believed to help prevent moisture loss
from hair, which causes dryness and loss of elasticity (A. S. Rele and R. B. Mobile,
1999).

264 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

Activated charcoal is electrically nonpolar and, consequently is capable of
adsorbing organic, as well as inorganic, vapours and gases. It has an internal sub
microscopic structure consisting of tiny capillary passages not greatly larger than the
size of the molecules that are adsorbed. This structure is created in the manufacture of
the adsorbent by burning out part of the charred substances to form the internal
surface. This is the process of activation of ordinary charcoal (Marsh, 2006).

Activated carbon does not bind well to certain chemicals, including alcohols,
glycols, ammonia, strong acids and bases, metals and most inorganics, such as
sodium, iron, lead, arsenic, fluorine, and boric acid The capillary passages of the
active material contain an almost unbelievable amount of surface area. Activated
charcoal that is good quality activated charcoal will remove odour absolutely 100%
(Karanfil, 2006).

GAC are used in both liquid and gas phase applications and in both fixed and
moving systems. They have the advantages of being harder and longer lasting than
powdered activated carbons, clean to handle, purify large volumes of gas or liquids of
a consistent quality, and can be reactivated and reused many times. GAC are used
where there is a single product to be refined or produced continuously in large
quantities. In gas phase applications GACs have the advantage of having sufficient
flow with an acceptable pressure drop through the carbon bed (Roop Chand, 2005).

Advantages of powdered activated carbons are their lower processing costs
and their flexibility in operation. Powdered activated carbons are mainly used for
liquid-phase adsorption. They are added to the liquid to be treated, mixed with the
liquid and, after adsorption, are removed by sedimentation and filtration. Powdered
activated carbons are generally used in batch process as the amount added can be
easily altered and powder can be easily removed (Bansal, 2005).

The extrusion process, together with the raw material used, ensures that the
end product is hard and suitable for heavy duty applications. The extruded pellet form
gives a low system pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content
which is an important consideration in the gas-phase uses (Meenakshi Goyal. 2005).

6.0 METHODOLOGY

A methodology is a set of ideas or guidelines about how to proceed in
gathering and validating knowledge of a subject matter. It typically encompasses
concepts such as paradigm, theoretical method phases and quantitative or qualitative
techniques. Methodology is a delineative reference of activities to solve a problem
with designing a model. Methodology also involving the process of occupied to
achieve the fixed objective. This chapter will discuss about model design, sampling,
instrument used, study procedure, collection of data and analysis.

e-Digest PSIS 2017 265

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

Refer to the flowchart for research methodology:

•Study the problem statement
•Material that absorb most of oil
Preliminary Study

•Collected the information and data for Literature Review

Collection of •As a reference source for this project
literature review

Conducting •Designation of Oil Filter Model
Research •Preparation of Human Hair and Activated Carbon

Conducting •Oil and Grease (O&G)
Experiment •The Value of pH
•Turbidity Test (NTU)
•Total Suspended Solid (TSS)
•Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Data Analysis •The result was observed
•Make a discussion with group member
•Make a conclusion
•Discuss about recommendation for this project

266 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

7.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

7.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the design and the installation process of the oil filter. It
also shows the analysis and the data from the tests that have been run for the sample.
The parameters that involved in this study are the determination of pH value, Oil and
Grease (O&G), Turbidity test (NTU), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Chemicals
Oxygen Demand (COD). All the parameters are carried out to determine the filter is
function properly.

7.2 Oil and Grease

THE ADSORPTION OF OIL USING PILI ERECTUS
AND ACTIVATED CARBON

Total amount of oil and 1.2 Blank
grease (mg/l) 1 20 g
40 g
0.8 60 g
0.6
0.4 20 g 40 g 60 g
0.2
Type of samples
0
Blank

Figure 1: Result Oil and Grease value using different weight of Pili Erectus and wastewater
from restaurant

The presence of oil in the water base of kitchen sink might cause clogged in
many parts of pipe sewage system because of suspended particle and waste of oil.
Furthermore, the wastewater and oil also may reduce the oxygen supply to the aquatic
life on the water surface. The chart 4.1 shows which blank sample is the higher
reading because the water has no treatment of filter and the reading is 1.16 mg/l. The
following sample are also getting decreases where sample 60 g reading is lower which
is 0.017 mg/l than sample 20 g which reading is 0.313 mg/l The actual reading of
sample 40 g also getting decrease where the reading is 0.16 mg/l from sample 20 g
and the different reading between the two sample is 0.143 mg/l.

This shows our objective in adsorption of oil was accept by using organic
material of Pili Erectus is the most effective way in adsorption of oil. The more the
weight of Pili Erectus is use and from this we can suggestion to reduce use of
chemical additive for treatment waste of oil.

e-Digest PSIS 2017 267

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

7.3 pH

THE ADSORPTION OF OIL USING PILI ERECTUS
AND ACTIVATED CARBON

Total amount of pH Value 5

4.95 Blank
20 g
4.9 40 g
60 g
4.85 20 g 40 g 60 g
Blank

Types of samples

Figure 2: The result pH value using different weight of Pili Erectus and wastewater from
restaurant

The pH is a measure of the acidic or basic (alkaline) nature of a solution. If the
pH of water is too high or too low, the aquatic organisms living within it will die and
can also affect the solubility and toxicity of chemicals and heavy metals in the water.
The experimental process found that the pH reading for sample 20 g is 4.95 slowly
dropped to 4.93 for sample 40 g and continuous decrease to 4.90 for sample 60 g. The
blank sample reading is close to reading sample 20 g which is 4.98.

During the experiment is carried out there is error occur happen in pH test.
This is because our reading of pH value in category of acidity. The pH machine is not
accurate where the sensor detect of pH is not function very well. But overall data
shows that the wastewaters of the restaurant is not to acidity and are not to toxicity.

268 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

7.4 Turbidity

THE ADSORPTION OF OIL USING PILI
ERECTUS AND ACTIVATED CARBON

Total amount of turbidity 1000
(NTU)
500 Blank
20 g
0 40 g
60 g
Blank 20 g 40 g 60 g

Type of samples

Figure 3: The result Turbidity (NTU) using different weight of Pili Erectus and wastewater
from restaurant

Turbidity is the cloudiness or haze of fluid caused by individual particles of
suspended solid that are generally invisible to the naked eye. The measurement of
turbidity is an important test to determine the quality of water. The term of turbidity
can also be applied to transparent solids like plastic and glass. The amount of light
scattered is influenced by many aspects of the particles like color, shape, and
reflectivity.

The results of turbidity obtained before and after sample being filtered are
constantly decreased. The sample of 20 g was slightly decreased from blank sample
which is 904 NTU to 682 NTU. While for sample 40 g and 60 g continuous decrease
which is 655 NTU and 654 NTU. During the experiment, the color from sample 20 to
sample 60 g from clear change to cloudiness because of suspended particle in the
water sample that might affect the turbidity of the sample.

e-Digest PSIS 2017 269

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

7.5 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

THE ADSORPTION OF OIL USING PILI ERECTUS
AND ACTIVATED CARBON

Total Amount of COD (mg/l) 150 20 g 40 g 60 g Blank
20 g
100 Type of samples 40 g
60 g
50

0
Blank

Figure 4: The result Chemical Oxygen Demand using different weight of Pili Erectus and
wastewater from restaurant

The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measurement of the oxygen required
to oxidize soluble and particulate organic matter in water test based on chemical
decomposition of organic and inorganic contaminants, dissolved or suspended in
water. Higher COD levels mean a greater amount of oxidizable organic material in the
sample will reduce dissolved oxygen (DO) levels which effect discharged wastewater
on the environment.

In addition, the result shows the first data of blank sample that without filter is
114 mg/l is higher than sample 20 g is 101 mg/l. It also getting reduced after has been
treated of filter due to presence of Pili Erectus and activated carbon filter. For sample
60 g is increase than sample 40 g which is 123 mg/l and 108 mg/l. This is because, the
increases COD for both sample because of too much amount of organic compound in
wastewater. It can destroy aquatic life in the stream if COD too much and not good
condition for water quality.

270 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

7.6 Total suspended solid (TSS)

THE ADSORPTION OF OIL USING PILI ERECTUS
AND ACTIVATED CARBON
Total Amount of TSS
(mg/l) 800 20 g 40 g 60 g Blank
600 20 g
400 Type of samples 40 g
200 60 g

0
Blank

Figure 5: The result Total Suspended Solid using different weight of Pili Erectus and
wastewater from restaurant

The last parameter that we test is total suspended solid (TSS). TSS process
was carried out in 3 hours. The result after do the treatment by using filter to know
total amount of suspended solid in the wastewater is decrease from blank sample to
sample 60g. We can conclude that blank sample is the most higher from others which
the reading is 740 mg/l. The reading for sample is 60g is the most less of suspended
solid from sample 20g and sample 40g which he reading is 270 mg/l. For sample 20g
and 40g also getting decrease constantly where the reading for both is 300 mg/l and
288 mg/l.

The decrease of TSS is related to the amount of pili erectus and activated
carbon and it also are might flow into the sample during the water flow. The effect
decrease of TSS is can avoid from happen clog in the sewage pipe system at the
kitchen sink. Each of residents must make sure suspended solid are not to throw
directly in the sink it must throw in the dustbin.

e-Digest PSIS 2017 271

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

8.0 CONCLUSION
The conclusion obtain, as overall the objective of the study on the

effectiveness separation of liquid, solid recovery and oil using Pili Erectus as filter for
O&G, to remove unpleasant smell of waste cooking oil using activated carbon and to
determine the filter base parameter of oil and grease such as pH, Turbidity, Chemical
Oxygen Demand (COD) and Total Suspended Solid (TSS) has successfully proved.
As we can conclude that this study has proven that the material we used as water filter
to treat the restaurant wastewater can reduce the parameters that have been tasted. As
we know there are to many restaurant around the Sungai Besar and the contents of oil
and other food waste in the water content is higher and caused a lot of pollution to the
water base such as river or drainage nearby. In the production of the filters, Pili
Erectus was used as the main medium for the purpose of oil and grease adsorption and
activated carbon as a medium for remove unpleasant smell wastewater.

Pili Erectus is believed to be an excellent adsorptive for oil & grease. In term of
filtering system, the natural material can minimize the contamination of surface water.
Furthermore, the wastewater that has being filtered by using natural material never
bring contaminated to the aquatic environment. All the data obtained from the
analysis carried out have been useful in designing the filter. Existing membrane filters
in the markets with high costs have also been used as guidance toward the
construction of new filters by using medium that was mentioned earlier. With the
establishment of this design, it is expected that it may encourage the use of sinks for
residential filter to solve the problems of pollution, clogging pipe and reduce the
workload of the sewage plant as the impact derived from the results.

272 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

REFERENCES
Marsh (2006). “Activated Carbon”, Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0824753443.
Cabada, Harry and F.Rodriguez-Rei (2012). “Filtration & Separation”. Nigerian Journal of
Technology, 46(3) pg5-9.
Adebajo, W.D. and Symons, G.E. (2003), Sewage Works Journal, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 16-22.
Bansal (2005). “Applicability of Carbon Adsorption to the Treatment of Hazardous Industrial
Waste, Carbon Adsorption Handbook”, Cheremisinoff, P.N.; Ellerbusch, F, Ann Arbor
Science Publishers, Michigan, 2005.
Roop Chand (2005). “Activated Carbon Adsorption of Organics from the Aqueous Phase”,
Ann Arbor Science, Michigan, 2005.
A.S. & R.B. Mobile (1999). “Characterization of the human hair keratin-associated protein 2
(KRTAP2) gene family”. Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 132: 1806–1813.
A. Breauel (1981). ‘Handbook Vegetable Oils and Fats’, Alfaprint, Karishamn, pp. 96-97
Karanfil (2006). “Quality characteristics of edible linseed oil”. Agricultural and Food
Science, 15, 402-413.
Shimomura, Y. and Christiano, A.M., (2010). “Biology and genetics of hair”. Annual
Review of Genomics and Genetics 11, 109-132.

e-Digest PSIS 2017 273

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

DEVELOPMENT OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT THICKNESS DESIGN BY USING
APPLICATION OF VISUAL BASIC (PROCEDURE OF PUBLIC WORK
DEPARTMENT, MALAYSIA)

Tuan Noor Rafidah Binti Tuan Hassan
Jabatan Kejuruteraan Awam
Politeknik Sultan Idris Shah
[email protected]

Norasyikin Bin Yaakub
Jabatan Kejuruteraan Awam
Politeknik Sultan Idris Shah

[email protected]

Shawalrina Binti Zainal Abidin
Jabatan Kejuruteraan Awam
Politeknik Sultan Idris Shah
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Various method of designing flexible pavement layer thickness was conducted
in previous study and one of the methods that can be used in Malaysia is Public Work
Department (PWD) Procedure. The objective of this study is to improve the delivery
of the curriculum as well as innovation to enhance understanding and motivation
towards students and lecturers. Software of Visual Basic has been applied to design a
flexible pavement thickness according to Public Work Department (PWD) Procedure.
Before this study is produced, the calculation process is manually by using a
calculator and take a long time with the use of various formulas and tables related
thereto. However, after the study is implemented, lecturers and students are no longer
need to take a long time to calculate or refer the formulas and tables which is related
to the calculation because this application helped users to make the calculations
automatically with the correct answer. Thus, the process of teaching and learning
(T&L) becomes easier and efficient. This study is not only as an effective teaching aid
for lecturers but also helps ease the burden of student's learning process, especially
when they want to make revision or self-training in preparation for the exam. Students
will be able to check the correct answer for each step in the design by comparing their
answers that has been calculated manually. As a conclusion, with the implementation
of this application, the T&L can be carried out more smoothly and the level of student

274 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

understanding towards the topic of flexible pavement design can be enhanced from
time to time.
Keywords: Thickness design, procedure of PWD, teaching and learning

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Recently, there is a lot of variability in guide to design a pavement. Although
all kinds methods available, but still pavement suffers damage caused by unstable
thickness. It is critical to determine the most appropriate pavement thickness for a
given traffic level and subgrade condition. The pavement must provide smooth riding
quality with adequate skid resistance and have adequate thickness to ensure that
traffic loads are distributed over an area so that the stresses and strains at all levels in
the pavement and subgrade are within the capabilities of the materials at each level.
The performance of the pavement therefore related to its ability to serve traffic over a
period of time (Gunalaan & Hidayu, 2014).

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Flexible Pavement
According to Fred et.al. (2012), the top layer of a flexible pavement is referred
to as the wearing surface. It is usually made of asphaltic concrete, which is a mixture
of asphalt cement and aggregates. The purpose of the wearing layer is to protect the
base layer from wheel abrasion and to waterproof the entire pavement structure. It
also provides a skid resistant surface that is important for safe vehicle stops. The
individual layers for typical thickness is shown in Figure 2.1. These thicknesses vary
with the type of axle loading, available materials and expected pavement design life,
which is the number of years the pavement is expected to provide adequate service
before it must undergo major rehabilitation.

Figure 2.1: Typical flexible pavement cross section

e-Digest PSIS 2017 275

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

2.2 Pavement Design
According to T.D. Ahuja (2011), for economic and efficient construction of

highways, correct design of the thickness of pavements for different conditions of
traffic and subgrades is essential. Some arbitrary thickness of pavements were used
which lead to costly failures and wastage as in some cases the thickness of pavements
was insufficient and in other cases expensive. Hence, judicious method of designing
and calculating the crust thickness on the basis of estimation of traffic loads and
bearing capacity of subgrade etc., will lead to economical construction of roads.

The statement has been supported by Gunalaan & Hidayu, (2014) which stated
that effective pavement design is one of the important aspects of project design. The
pavement is the portion of the highway, which is most obvious to the motorist. The
condition and adequacy of the highway are often judged by the smoothness or
roughness of the pavement. Deficient pavement conditions can result in increased user
costs and travel delays, braking and fuel consumption, vehicle maintenance repairs
and the probability of increased crashes. The pavement life is substantially affected by
the number of heavy load repetitions applied, such as single, tandem, tridem and quad
axle trucks, buses, tractor trailers and equipment.

276 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

2.3 Flexible Pavement Design Methods
According to Ahuja (2011), there are some of the standard methods for flexible
pavement design:
1. Empirical methods

i) Group Index Method
ii) California Bearing Ratio Method
iii) California Resistance Value or Stabilometer-method
iv) Mc Lead Method
2. Some-empirical methods; Triaxial Method
3. Theoretical method; Burmister Method

Besides that, Gunalaan & Hidayu, (2014) are also stated in their study that the
input parameters in flexible pavement design are identified and have been used in
obtaining different pavement layer thickness by conducting various pavement design
method, that is Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85 Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR), AASHTO
Method and Asphalt Institute Thickness Design Programme (SW-1).

The finding from this study indicate that thickness from Arahan Teknik (Jalan)
5/85 Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) gave better results than the others because it produced
more thinner flexible pavement layer compared to the two other design method.
Besides that, the cost is more effective because the cost of material will be reduced.

Table 2.1 shows the comparison in layer thickness between JKR Standard and
Asphalt Institute Design Standard (SW-1 Programme). It is shown that total layer
thickness from Asphalt Institute Design Standard (SW-1 Program) gave the thicker
pavement layer with 16.34 percent difference compared to JKR Design Standard.

Table 2.1: Comparison in layer thickness between JKR Standard and
Asphalt Institute Design Standard (SW-1 Programme)

e-Digest PSIS 2017 277

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

This study also found that AASHTO Design Standard and Asphalt Institute
Design Standard gave the same thickness of asphalt layer compared to JKR Design
Standard which is more thinner (Figure 2.2). Besides that, Figure 2.3, shows clearly
that AASHTO Standard gave the highest value in base and sub base layer thickness
compared to the other standard. Asphalt Institute recorded the second highest value in
the base and sub base layer thickness and followed by the JKR Design.

Figure 2.2: Differences in Asphalt Layer Thickness Figure 2.3: Differences in Base and Sub base Layer
Thickness

2.4 Conceptual Framework of Flexible Pavement Thickness Design
The conceptual framework of study is the system of concepts, assumptions,

expectations, beliefs, and theories that supports and informs the research which is a
key part of design (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Robson, 2011). Miles & Huberman
(1994) defined a conceptual framework as a visual or written product, one that
explains, either graphically or in narrative form, the main things to be studied which is
the key factors, concepts, or variables and the presumed relationships among them.
Therefore, the conceptual framework for this research is shown as follow:

278 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

A D
Analysis Design

I D
Implemen- Development

tation

E
Evaluation

Figure 2.4: Conceptual Framework
(Source: ADDIE Model Design Instruction)

3.0 METHODOLOGY

The methodology for this research has been focused on development of
flexible pavement thickness design by using the application of Visual Basic (VB).
The design development of this research is referring to the Manual on Pavement
Design from Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) “Arahan Teknik Jalan 5/85” design procedure
as it is the best method in the previous study. In this study, a comparison between
manual calculation and VB software method will be done by using a questionnaire.
The obtained data will be analyzed by using Statistic Package for Social Science
(SPSS) 21. The flow chart methodology for this research as shown in Figure 3.1 :

e-Digest PSIS 2017 279

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

Literature Review

Review Pavement Design Input Parameter by
using procedure from Manual on Pavement

Design JKR
Find the problem and determine the

objectives

Designing thickness of flexible pavement by
using the application of Visual Basic (VB)
software

Implementation of flexible pavement
thickness design that has been developed

Comparison by using testing & questionnaire

Manual calculation VB Software
method method

Result

Discussion & Conclusion
Figure 3.1: Flow Chart Methodology

280 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

3.1 Input Parameters

For each design standard, input parameters must be determined before
designing flexible pavement layer thickness accordingly. In this research, input
parameters that will be used to design new flexible pavement layer thickness are as
follows:

i. Initial Daily Traffic Volume (ADT)
ii. Percentage of commercial vehicle, Pc
iii. Annual growth rate, r
iv. Equivalent factor, e
v. Design life, x
vi. Subgrade CBR value (%)
vii. Equivalent Standard Axles (ESA)
viii. Ideal hourly capacity, I
ix. Roadway factor, R
x. Traffic reduction factor, T
xi. Material used in each road layers
xii. Corrected Equivalent Thickness, TA’
xiii. Structural numbers, SN

3.2 Visual Basic (VB) Programming

This research will be developed by using the application of Microsoft Visual Basic 2008.
Visual Basic provides a convenient method for building user interfaces. Besides, Visual Basic
can interface with code written in C, for efficiency. Visual Basic 2008 also is the most mature
version yet of the most popular programming language for building Windows and web
applications. In modern software development, however, the language is only one of the
components we use to build applications (Evangelos, 2008).

3.3 Designing Process

e-Digest PSIS 2017 281

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

3.3.1 Design Life
The design period refers to the span of time between the initial passing

of user traffic until the fatigue limit of the pavement whereby a strengthening
overlay is required. Currently, a design period of twenty years is stipulated in
the Road Note 29.Adesign period of only ten years is to be specified.

However, as an initial study has indicated that it would be economical
in terms of initial capital outlay and also with respect to the total cost.

3.3.2 Traffic Estimation
The equivalent 8.16 tonne standard axle load applications shall be

obtained through the following procedure:-
1. The initial Average Daily traffic ADT (bothways) was estimated
2. The percentage of commercial vehicles Pc was estimated. The
commercial vehicles referred to are the medium and heavy goods
vehicles with unladed weight exceeding 1.5 tonne.
3. The rate of annual traffic growth (r) was estimated. If there are
different rates of annual growth over the design period, then the
different rates of annual traffic growth are applied for the calculation
of traffic volume for each period.
4. The initial annual commercial traffic for one direction, Vo is obtained
by :

Vo= ADTx 0.5 x 365 Pc/100 ( equation 3.1)

where;
ADT = Average Daily Traffic
PC = Percentage of commercial vehicles

5. The total number of commercial vehicles for one direction (Vc ) is obtained by:

( equation 3.2)

282 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

where;
Vc= total number of commercial vehicles for x years
Vo = initial yearly commercial traffic
r = rate of annual traffic growth

Figure 3.2: Thickness Design Nomograph (JKR,1985)

6. The total traffic volume at the end of the design period should be checked to ensure that
the maximum capacity has not been exceeded.

7. The total daily one-way traffic flow of both non-commercial and commercial vehicles
at the end of the design period (Vx) is calculated as follows:

Vx= V1(1 + r) x ( equation 3.3 )
where;
Vx = volume of daily traffic after x years in one direction
V1 = initial daily traffic in one direction
x = design period (year)

8. The Equivalence Factor (e) was estimated. Equivalence Factor has been estimated using
information from Table 3.1 to Table 3.4.

e-Digest PSIS 2017 283

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

Table 3.1: Guide for Equivalence Factor
Table 3.2: Maximum Hourly Capacity Under Ideal Condition

Table 3.3: Carriageway Roadway Reduction

Table 3.4: Traffic Reduction Factor

9. The total equivalent Standard Axles (ESA) applications is given by :

ESA= V x e ( equation 3.4)

10. The traffic information necessary for design shall be obtained from the publicationby

Unit Perancang Jalan, Kementerian Kerja Raya entitled 'Traffic Volume-Peninsular

Malaysia'.

11. For highways with three or more lanes per direction, the values on traffic estimation

shall be based on 80% of ADT. This is to accommodate the distribution of traffic over

the whole carriageway.

12. The maximum hourly traffic volume, is calculated as follows:

c=IxRxT ( equation 3.5)

where;

c = the maximum one way hourly capacity

I = the ideal hourly capacity as in Table 3.2

R = the roadway factor as in Table 3.3

T = the traffic reduction factor (Table 3.4)

13. Assuming that maximum hourly capacity, c reflects 10% of the 24 hours capacity, then

the one way daily capacity is as follows:

284 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

C = 10 x c ( equation 3.6)

where;

C = the 24 hours for one way traffic capacity

c = the maximum one way hourly capacity

14. If the traffic estimate for the design period exceeds the daily capacity, C, then the

number of years, n, required to reach the daily capacity which is as follows:

( equation 3.7)

where;
n = the period required to reach capacity
C = the 24 hours for one way traffic capacity
r = the rate of annual traffic growth
15. The CBR of the subgrade shall be taken as that of the layer (s) underlying within 1 m
below the subgrade surface. In the case of varying CBR within the 1 m depth of the
subgrade , especially when soil stabilization has been undertaken, the mean CBR is
determined as follows :

( equation 3.8)

where;
CBR1,CBR2,... CBR is CBR of soil strata 1,2...n
hl,h2...hn is thickness of soil strata 1,2...n in cm when
h1+ h2+...+ hn= 100 cm
16. After determining the mean CBR and ESA, the corrected equivalent thickness TA’, is
obtained from Figure 3.2.

17. The thickness of the various layers shall be obtained by using a formula as follows:

TA’= a1D1+ a2D2+...+ anDn ( equation 3.9)

e-Digest PSIS 2017 285

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

where;
al,a2... an are the structural coefficients of each layer as shown in Table 3.5.
D1D2... Dn are the thickness of each layer as shown in Table 3.6.

Table 3.5: Structural Layer Coefficients Table 3.6: Minimum Layer Thickness

For cement treated base course, the total bituminous layers overlaying it should not be
less than 15 cm
18. The thickness for each layer was determined using Table 3.7.
19. The minimum thickness of bound (bituminous) layer in order not to exceed the critical
tensile strain at the base of the bituminous layer shall be based on Table 3.8.

Table 3.7: Standard & Construction Layer Table 3.8: Minimum Thickness of
Thickness Bituminous Layer

286 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

4.0 RESULTS
4.1 Development of Flexible Pavement Thickness Design

The flexible pavement thickness design has been developed as shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: The main menu

Figure 4.2: Views Message Value SN < TA' Figure 4.3: Views Message Value SN >
TA'
(Thickness value fails and need to try and
error again)

e-Digest PSIS 2017 287

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

4.2 Analysis of the effectiveness of the application to users
A total of 108 respondents have tried this application during the process of teaching and
learning (T&L) in the class of Highway and Traffic Engineering (semester 3) and Highway
and Transportation in Environmental Engineering (semester 5) consisting of students of civil
engineering at the Politeknik Sultan Idris Shah. After using this application, all respondents
have answered questionnaires to give a feedback. The data that has been analyzed are shown
as follows:

Figure 4.4: Gender Figure 4.5: Application Is Easier Than
Manual Calculation

288 e-Digest PSIS 2017

KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

Figure 4.6: Accurate and Avoid Figure 4.7: Simpler and Save
Calculation Errors Time

Figure 4.8: More Understanding Figure 4.9: Attractive in T&L
about Design Method process

Figure 4.10: Motivation and Figure 4.11: Satisfaction
Inspiration e-Digest PSIS 2017 289