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8

“”
(The Standard Theory)

Syntactic Structures
1960

Syntactic Structures

1965
Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Chomsky 1965)
“The Standard Theory” (
)

“ ” 235

8.1

8.1.1 (features)

(features) 2
(Chomsky 1965:

81) )“ ”
syntactic features (

(animate), (human)

“ ”
Syntactic Structures

2

1) (
8.1.2)
2) (Subcategorization Rules)

236 8 [+N, Common]
N

(context free)
(context sensitive)

V [+V, Transitive ] / NP _ ]

- Transitive ] / _ #

NP NP

( Transitive )

(

Transitive )

2

(Strict Subcategorization
Rules)

NP

(Selectional Restriction Rules)
(Chomsky 1965: 91)

“ ” 237

[+V]

[ [+Abstract ] - Subject / [ N, Abstract] Aux _
[ [-Abstract] - Subject / [ N, - Abstract] Aux _
[ [ Animate] - Object/ _Det [ N, Animate]
[ [-Animate] - Object / _Det [ N, - Animate]

[ Abstract, -

Subject] [ Abstract]
[ Animate]
[ Animate, -Object]

[ Animate] [ Abstract]

(Chomsky 1965: 95)

[ + Abstract] Aux _
[ - Abstract] Aux _

[+V] CS/ _Det [ Animate]

_Det [-Animate]

Complex Symbol (CS
)

238 8 )
8.1.2 (Lexicon)

(Lexicon)

(

Syntactic Structures

(features)
sincerity, [+N, +Det__ , - Count, + Abstract, ...]
boy, [+N, +Det __ , + Count, +Animate, + Human, ..]

“”

(generate)

[+N,-Count, +Abstract] M Q the [+N, +Count, +Animate, +Human]

boy (

+N) boy + Count

- Count boy

“ ” 239

8.1.3 1957 (

Syntactic Structures)
8.1.3.1
“”

(Katz and Postal 1964) -
(Katz-Postal Hypothesis) -

“The only contribution of transformations to
semantic interpretation is that they interrelate
Phrase-Markers”
“

”
(Chomsky 1965: 132)

240 8 )
(
1957 ( Syntactic
Structures)

1957

3 (substitution) (deletion)
(adjunction) (1965: 144)

(recoverability of deletion)
(dummy

element)

8.1.3.2
(Generalized Transformations)

(Cyclic Application)

( Syntactic Structures) “ ” 241
1957

1965

(cycle) (
)
1

S1 3
S2
2
S3 1

S2 2 S3
S1 3

242 8

(Fillmore 1963)
8.1.4 (Recursive Rule)

(S)

(S

)

(Recursive)

NP that S

( ) that
that ( 11
complementizer)
(1965: 137) ()
(S)
(1965: 225)

NP

(infiniteness) “ ” 243
(cyclic)
8.2
“”
(creativity)

( van Riemstijk &Williams 1986 172)

3 Aspects
(Syntactic Component)
Component) (Semantic
(Chomsky 1965: 132-141) (Phonological Componenet)

244 8 (Syntactic Component)
8.2.1

8.2.1.1 2
(Base Component)

2

8.2.1.1.1 Categorial
(Phrase Structure Component
Component)

relation) (grammatical function/ grammatical
2

1 “ ” 245
Branching

Rules ( )

(Subcategorization Rules)

(context free)

(context sensitive)

2

(Strict Subcategorization
Rules)

(Selectional Restriction Rules)

(grammatical function)
(Chomsky 1965: 69-71)

1 (Chomsky 1965: 139)
(context free)

246 8

NP S S
VP VP VP
NP
V

8.2.1.1.2 (Lexicon)

(

)

(feature)

(Chomsky 1965: 36)

deep

structure ( )
(abstract structure)

(semantic component)

8.2.1.2 “ ” 247
(Transformational Component)

(Transformational Rules)

(Singulary Transformations)
1

“ ” (Filter) ” (well-
“

formed) (Chomsky 1965: 139)

“”

Surface Structure ( )

248 8 (Semantic Component)
8.2.2

(Projection Rules)
(Katz and Fodor 1963)
(Katz and Postal 1964)
8.2.3 (Phonological Component)

(cyclic)
(Chomsky and Halle 1968)

(Generative Phonology)
(Chomsky and Halle 1968)

Aspects of the Theory of Syntax

“ ” 249

8.3

8.3.1

Baker (1978: 93-94)

S NP Aux VP

NP that S

NP (Det) (Adj) N

N count

+count plural

VP V (NP) (PrepP)

Aux Tns (M) (have) (be)

PrepP Prep NP

Pres

Tns Past

John [N, +Human, ..]
Bob [N, + Human, ...]
hit [V, ___NP]
see [V, ___NP]

250 8

the [Det]
believe [V, ____NP, ..]
man [N, +Count, +Human, ....]
boys [N, +Count, +Human, ....]

(Passive)
NP - Aux - V - NP - X
1 23 45
4, 2, be + en + 3, 0, 5 + by + 1 (

)

(Affix Hopping)

X- Tns - M -Y
en have
ing be
V

12 3 4

1, 0, 3 +2, 4 ( )

( (affix) )

“ ” 251

NP S VP
N Aux
John Tns

Pres V NP
S
believe

that

Bob hit the man.

Passive

John Pres believe that Bob hit the man

---- ----- ----- ---------------- ---

NP Aux V NP X

12 3 4 5

252 8

NP S VP
N Aux
John Tns

1 Pres V NP
2 believe

that S
3

Bob hit the man.

4 5

Passive

that Bob hit the man Pres be en believe by John

-------------- --- -- -- ----- --- --- -----

4 2 be +en + 3 0 5 + by + 1

(Affix Hopping)
(affix) ( 2
)

“ ” 253

1:

that Bob hit the man Pres be en believe by John

------------------- --- ----------------

X Tns be Y

1 23 4

that Bob hit the man be+ Pres en believe by John
-------------- --- -- --------------
1 0 3+2 4

2: by John
that Bob hit the man be+ Pres en believe ---------
------------------- ---- --------
Y
X en V 4
1 23

that Bob hit the man be+ Pres believe +en by John

1 0 3+2 4

(Morphophonemic Rules)

be+Pres is
believe+en believed

254 8 S VP
Aux
NP

that S is V by NP
Bob hit the man believed John

8.3.2

Sornhiran (1978)

S NP VP
NP N (QUANT) (DET) (MOD)* Prt
NP S’

(Particle) ( 1)
QUANT
CL NUO
(Pre.NU) NUC CL(NUO)

PreNU “ ” 255
, CL , NUc
DET , NUo
DEM
) DEM

MOD (CL)

S’ IND
COMP
PP , IND

S'

(CL) ADJ

PP

(Modifier)
COMP S

P NP

(Extraposition from NP)

X - [NP NP - S] - Y
1 23 4
1 2 0 4+3

256 8

NP

()

(Quantifier Shift)

DET
X - [NP N - QUANT -Y - - Z] -W

MOD

1 2 3 4 5 67

1 2 0 4 5+3 6 7

()
(Determiner Shift)

QUANT

X - [NP N - DET -Y - MOD - Z] - W
1 23 4 5 6 7

1 2 0 4 5+3 6 7

()

()

“ ” 257

X - [NP N - QUANT -Y - MOD -Z] - W
12 34 5 67

X - [NP N - -Y - MOD QUANT -Z- W
1 20 4 5 + 3 67

258 8

-----------------

( 8)
1. “ (feature)”

“”

2. (Strict Subcategorization Rules)

(Selectional Restriction Rules)

3. -

4. “ ” 259
(Cyclic
Application)

5. (Recursive Rule)

6.

(grammatical function)

7.

8.3.1

7.1 John saw the boys.
7.2 The boys were seen by John.

8.
8.3.2

8.1
8.2
8.3

9

(Generative Semantics Theory)

(Generative Semantics

Theory) 1960

Lakoff) 1970
Postal)
(George
9.1
(James McCawley) (Paul

(John Robert Ross)

(interaction) (syntactic structure)
Syntactic Structures

261

1963 (Jerrald Katz)
(Jerry Fodor) (Katz and Fodor 1963)

Rules) (Projection

1) 2
(semantic markers)

2) (distinguishers)
(idiosyncratic
property)

262 9
(grammatical markers)

( ) (Selectional Restrictions)

(marker) (Katz and Fodor 1963: 186)

bachelor

noun

(Human) (Animal)

(Male) [who has the (Male)

first or lowest

[who has [young academic [young fur seal

never knight degree] when without a

married] serving mate during the

under the breeding time]

standard of

another knight]

263
“bachelor”

2

(semantic markers)

( ) (Human), (Male), (Animal)

(distinguisher) []

[who has never married]

()

< > <(Physical Object) (Social

Activity)>

“colorful”

“bachelor” (path) (
)

bachelor noun (Human) (Male) [who has
never married]

(amalgamate)

(Projection Rules)

-

264 9

2

(amalgamate) -
(Katz and Fodor 1963: 198-9)

(head)
(Modifier)

-

(Newmeyer 1980: 77, Fodor 1977: 68-70, Katz and
Fodor 1963: 197-204)

NP S VP
Det N NP
V
Vtr Det N
Adj N

the man hit the colorful ball

265

(Amalgamation)

colorful ball

( -) the colorful

ball - the man

-

hit the colorful ball

-

hit the colorful ball

colorful

(adjective) 2

1) (Color) [ Abounding in contrast or variety of bright
colors] <(Physical Object) (Social Activity)>

2) (Evaluative) [Having distinctive character, vividness
or picturesqueness], <(Aesthetic Object) (Social
Activity)>

ball 3

1) (Social Activity) (Large) (Assembly) [For
the purpose of social dancing]

2) (Physical Object) [Having globular shape]

266 9

3) (Physical Object) [Solid missile for projection by
engine of war]

colorful 2
1) 2)

ball 3 1)

2) 3) (

)

-

(colorful) (ball)

colorful 2 ball 3

colorful ball

6 (2 x 3)

( ) colorful 2

(Aesthetic Object) (Social

Activity) 23

ball (Physical Object)

colorful ball 4

1) (Social activity) (Large), (Assembly)
(Color), [[Abounding in contrast or variety of
bright colors] [For the purpose of social dancing]]

267

2) (Physical object) (Color) [[Abounding in
contrast or variety of bright colors] [Having globular
shape]]

3) (Physical Object) (Color) [[Abounding in
contrast or variety of bright colors] [Solid missile for
projection by engine of war]]

4) (Social Activity) (Large) (Assembly)
(Evaluative) [[Having distinctive character,
vividness or picturesqueness] [For the purpose of
social dancing] ]

4

1) ( )
2) ( )
3)
4)

“the” colorful ball
[Some contextually definite]
“the colorful ball” -
[Some contextually definite]

“hit” 2 the colorful ball
(striking) 1) (collision) 2)
(Katz and Fodor 1963: 202)

268 9

1) (Action) (Instancy) (Intensity)
[Collides with an impact] <Subject: (Higher Animal)
V (Improper Part) V (Physical Object), Object:
(Physical Object)>

2) (Action) (Instancy) (Intensity) [Strikes
with a blow or missile] <Subject: (Human) V
(Higher Animal), Object: (Physical Object),
Instrumental: (Physical Object)>

the colorful ball
ball
hit (Physical Object)

ball
hit “ball” 2) 3) 2

(Physical Object)
hit the colorful ball

ball ( 2 )
4 (Katz and
Fodor 1963: 203-4)

1) (Action) (Instancy) (Intensity)
[Collides with an impact] [Some contextually
definite] (Physical object), (Color) [
[Abounding in contrast or variety of bright colors]

269

[Having globular shape] ] <Subject: (Higher
Animal) V (Improper Part) V (Physical Object)>
2) (Action) (Instancy) (Intensity)
[Collides with an impact] [Some contextually
definite] (Physical object) (Color) [
[Abounding in contrast or variety of bright colors]
[Solid missile for projection by engine of war]
]<Subject: (Higher Animal) V (Improper Part) V
(Physical Object)>
3) (Action), (Instancy) (Intensity) [Strikes
with a blow or missile] [Some contextually
definite] (Physical object) (Color) [
[Abounding in contrast or variety of bright colors]
[Having globular shape] ] <Subject: (Human) V
(Higher Animal)>
4) (Action) (Instancy) (Intensity) [Strikes
with a blow or missile] [Some contextually
definite] (Physical object) (Color) [
[Abounding in contrast or variety of bright colors]
[Solid missile for projection by engine of war] ]
<Subject: (Human) V (Higher Animal)>

4 “hit the colorful ball”

270 9 ()
1)
2) ()
3)
4) (Projection Rule)
(Katz and Fodor 1963:
205)
1) 2

2) 1 (Type 1 Projection Rules)
(kernel sentence) (
)

2 (Type 2 Projection Rules)

1

- colorful ball -
ball
colorful (
)
hit the colorful ball
2

271

1

(Katz and Postal 1964)

“Katz-Postal Hypothesis” (

-)

2
(Katz & Fodor 1963)

2
(Insertion Rule)

do (Inflections)

1 Syntactic

Structures

272 9

(recoverability of deletion)

2 (recursiveness)
1
(Underlying
Structure/ Deep Structure) -” 2
“

1) (Weak Form):
(Projection Rule)

2) (Strong Form):

1965
-

273

“-
”

(Semantic Structure)

(Generative

Semantics)

274 9

9.2

(George Lakoff) (John Robert Ross)
McCawley) 1965 (James

“ -” (Strong Hypothesis)

(all meaning differences are represented in deep
structure)

(morphological derivation)

(
) (occurrence restriction/selectional restriction)

(Lakoff 1965)

consider/ considerate

275

John considers Mary's feelings.
John is considerate of Mary's feelings.

(grammatical relations)

consider considerate John

( John ) Mary's feeling

( Mary’s feelings )

( ) (selectional restriction)

VERB [

Adj]

'sampai' 'arrive' 'to'
derivation) (morphological

thick ( )
) The sauce thickens.
thicken (
thicken "become thick"
"become"

276 9 (

(abstract inchoative 2 Pro-verb)
Fodor 1977)

NP S VP
it S Aux V
past +V
+PRO
for the sauce + INCHOATIV
to be thick

Raising) (Subject
for to (for to deletion)

(Subject Raising)
(The sauce)

NP S VP S
Aux
Det N past V for to be thick
The sauce +V
+PRO
+ INCHOATIVE

2 Inchoative Verb

for to (for to deletion) 277
(Inchoative)
(Inchoative) for to
(Inchoative) "thick"

"thick"

NP S
Aux VP
Det N past V
The sauce
thick
[+ INCHOATIVE]

(lexical decomposition)

(
)

kill
CAUSE + BECOME + NOT + ALIVE

break
CAUSE + COME ABOUT + BE + BROKEN
kill

278 9

V V
V

VV

VV

CAUSE BECOME NOT ALIVE

( Newmeyer 1980: 139)

(presupposition)
(speech act)

(semantic representation)

-

(presupposition)

(speech act)

(conjoin)

(Morgan 1969) (Ross

1970) John doesn't realize that his
fly is open. ( Newmeyer 1980: 146)

279

PRE I (
) John’s fly is open

SAY I YOU (
)

John doesn't realize that his fly is open.
John’s fly is

open.
(Symbolic Logic)

280 9

(argument) (proposition)
(predicate)

()

(semantic representation)
(McCawley1970)

The man killed the woman.

S

Proposition NP: x1 NP: x2

x1 killed x2 the man the woman

(variable) (bound) x2) (
(indices) ) (argument)
( x1
(proposition)

/ 281
representation) (semantic
(universal semantic primes)

(derive)
(Interpretive Rules)

9.3

1970

(mechanism)
(indices)
(trace)

(Logical Form)
/

GPSG-Generalized Phrase

282 9

Structure Grammar (Gazdar, Klein, Pullum and Sag 1985)
(Montague Semantics)

(Richard Montague)
HPSG- Head Driven Phrase Structure

Grammar (Pollard and Sag 1994)
(Situation Semantics)
(Jon Barwise)

(John Perry)
(Barwise and Perry 1983

GPSG- Generalized Phrase

Structure Grammar HPSG- Head Driven Phrase

Structure Grammar

(Lexicase)

(Pragmatics)

(Speech Act)

(Presupposition)

283
(Gazdar 1979)

____________________

1. ( 9)
1963
1963
2. the honest woman

(“the” , “honest” adjective,
“woman” )

the [Some contexually definite]
honest (Evaluative) (Moral) [innocent of illicit
sexual intercourse] <(Human) & (Female)>
woman (Physical Object) (Human) (Adult)

(Female)