ทฤษฎีไวยากรณ์

84 4

“morphology”
“morphemics”

(Nida 1946: 1)

(morphology) (syntax)

(grammar)

4.2

(3) (morphemics) (word)
(morph)

(morpheme)
(4) (grammar)

4.2.1 85
“ ”

1

–er

worker, dancer, runner, singer, walker 1

“”

()

“ ”“ ”(
)
smaller, bigger, wider, deeper, cleaner
–er –er

“” “” –er
4.2.2 ”

“

1

(allomorph)

86 4

intolerable (/in-/), intangible(/in-/), indecent (/in-/),
impossible (/im-/), impractical (/im-/), impersonal (/im-/),
income (/i -/), incomplete (/i -/)

/ in-/ (alveolar)
/ im-/ (labial)
/ i -/ (velar)

3

allomorph) (phonologically conditioned
4.2.3 ”

“

1 -na fi-

2 -so ka- 87
3 -ri po- 3

1 /-na~fi-/ 3
/-ri~po-/ 2 /-so~ka-/

allomorph) (morphologically conditioned
4.2.4 ”

“

The run in their stockings run They run, Their run,
pear pair
(
) () ()

run He runs quickly. He runs

88 4
the business.

4.3

(1) berry
cranberry, raspberry cran, rasp

1946) (Nida

blackberry (Arnoff 1976: 10-11)
black ‘ ’ black

(“The basic tack is to give
morphemes underdetermined meanings, with contextually
determed allo-meanings.”)

(2)
-er

hammer, ladder, otter, hadger, under, bitter, Roger

89

-er dancer, singer, worker slide,
er

(3) /sl/
slush, slip, slime, slipper, slick

/sl/

(4)
1

boys,

girls, birds boy, girl, bird
=

(5)

2

du au du restaurant au

restaurant (from the restaurant, to the restaurant) du

de + le (from + the( )) au = à + le (to

90 4

+ the ( )) de + la

à + la = de la maison, à la maison (from the house, to the

house) du au

‘portmanteau’

(2 )

(6)

took, ran run
2
take

take took run ran
take run

////

4.4

4.4.1 91
phoneme)
(segmental
(suprasegmental phoneme )

(high tone) (Cuicatec)
(suffix)
(Ngbaka)
(Belgian Congo)

- (prefix)
(root)
4.4.2
(suffix)

92 4

(stem)

1-2

/s/, /z/, / z/

/pen/ (pen), / ks/ (axe), /yuniv rsiti/
(university), /piys/ (piece)

:V C

V / -/ alone
C /- / cats
CV /ri-/ receive
CVC /p n/ pen
CVCV /l v / lava
CVCVC // hammer
CCV // glow
CCVC // step
CCCV // spray
CCCVC // strike

) (

93

V / -/
CV //
CVC //
CVCV //
CCV //
CCVC //
CVCVC //
CVCVCV //

4.5

4.5.1

3 (additive

morpheme) (replacive morpheme)

(subtractive morpheme)

94 4
4.5.1.1

re-

receive, return, react, -

(prefix)

(suffix) –er
dancer, writer, organizer -

/- -/ (infix) /- -/ (
/ ) / /( / /)

/ / ‘of a dockyard’
/ ‘dockyard’

(Nbaka) (suprafix)
(reduplicative)

(Tojolabal):

‘to enter’ ‘to enter little by little’

95

(Samoan):

‘he loves’ ‘they love’

(San Blas) :

‘to rise and fall’ ‘to rise and fall

successively’ ( )

‘to rise

and fall successively ( )

:

( )‘ ’

( )‘ ’

( )‘ ’

/ /‘ ’ set ‘to go around’

setet ‘to go around and around’ (

) lok ‘to boil’ loklon ‘to boil continuously’ (

/k/ /n/)

4.5.1.2

4.3
took

96 4

2
( take)

took take (1946)

(nasalization)
:

take (present) took (past) / /
// //

safe (noun) save (verb) / /

/ / // noun verb

bath (noun) bathe (verb) / /

//

goose (singular) geese (plural) / /

// / /

( )
take + / / / / took

//

97

4.5.1.3

1946: 75) ( Nida
(base form)

mauvaise / / mauvais / / ‘bad’
‘happy’
heureuse / / heureux / / ‘big’
grande / ãd/ grand / ã/ ‘cold’
froide /f wad/ froid /f wa/ ‘hot’
chaude / od/ chaud / o/ ‘small’
petite /ptit/ petit / pti/ ‘good’
bonne /b n/ bon /b / ‘fat’
grasse /g as/ gras /g a/

98 4

e
/n/

(nasalization)

4.5.2

3 (successive

morpheme) (included morpheme)

(simultaneous morpheme)

4.5.2.1

1 -
-- bird-s, re-ceive, book-
store

4.5.2.2

/pa/ ‘present tense’ 99
(Zoque) /hapya/

‘benefactive’
4.5.2.3

meet you /t/ meet

/y/ you /t / kiss you /s/
/y/
/y/ / / buzz you /z/

lead, you / / lead you /d/ /d/

/d / meet, kiss, buzz,

meet: /miyt~ miyt / ~ /
kiss: /kis~ki /
buzz: /b z~b /
lead: / liyd~liyd /

you: / ~ ~ ~

4.5.3

100 4

(root) (stem)
(affix)

4.5.3.1

hat, house, people

likely, hand handful (root) hat hats, like
1
(stem)
man manly, friend friends, bookstore bookstores 2
1
bookstores
2

4.5.3.2

(

4.5.1.1)

lavar
‘to wash’, limpiar ‘ to clean’, guisar ‘to cook’, permitir ‘to

101

permit’

–ism
socialism, Buddhism, pragmatism

I do not like this kind of ism.

re-ceive, con-cept, ab-norm, read-er, dis-gust receives,
conceptual, abnormal, readers, disgusted

4.5.4

4.5.4.1 (Derivational morpheme)

–ness happy, good, empty

adjective happiness, goodness, emptiness

noun

un- unhappy, undo re- return, reproduce,

repay

102 4 (Inflectional morpheme)
4.5.4.2

dogs, walked, girl’s

/ / pueri //

puero

/ /~/ / He sees. She walks.

4.6 2

2 morphophonemic change

(Gleason 1955: 82)
(base form)

103

(assimilation) (dissimilation)
(metathesis) (loss of
consonant phoneme)
phoneme) (loss of vowel
(palatalization)

4.6.1 (Assimilation)

2

(base form)3 > (>
/ -/ )
//
in-
/ / imperfect / /

//
// / /

3 (base form)

incomplete / -/ indirect / -/ impossible / -/
/ -/

/ -/ / -/

104 4

4.6.1.1
(progressive vs. regressive assimilation)

> >
gitdi > gitti ‘he went’

>>

/ / (handkerchief) > / /, / /

(line-wood) > / /, / / (income) > / /

4.6.1.2 (contiguous vs.
non-contiguous assimilation)

2 //
/ / income ( / / / /), / / / /
/ / / /)
(

2

105

hoz~hez~hÖz ‘toward’
a parthoz ‘toward the shore’
a kerthez ‘toward the garden’
a fÖlthÖz ‘toward the earth’

‘toward’ / /

// // / / /Ö/

/Ö/

4.6.1.3
(partial vs. complete assimilation)

n

>m / / impossible / / //

2

(/ />/ /)
(/ />/ /) illegal (/ />/ /)4 illiterate

(/ />/ /) irregular (/ />/ /) irrational (/ />/ /)

4 in-
/ -/
in- (/ -/)

106 4 (Dissimilation)
4.6.2

2

/- / ‘hair’ / /
// // //
//
// (aspirated) /
/ / //
/

/ / //

/tim/ ‘house’ + /mo/ ‘big’ --> /tinmo/ ‘palace’ (/n/
/m/)

/rag/ ‘water’+ /gumi/ ‘fast’ --> /radgumi/ ‘waterfall’ (/d/
/g/)

/dab/ ‘man’ + /mo/ ‘big’ --> /dadmo/ ‘giant’ (/d/
/m/)

107

4.6.3 (Metathesis)
>
2
tapya > taypa
arela > alera

>> >
>,

/ / ‘dance’ + / / ‘doer, performer’ /prakesti/ ‘dancer’

(ts > st)
/malat/ ‘work’ + /si/ /malasti/ ‘worker’ (ts > st)
/promin/ ‘speak’ + /si/ /promisni/ ‘speaker’ (ns > sn)

108 4 (Loss of consonant

4.6.4
phoneme)

/och/ ‘to enter’+/caan/ ‘behind’ /ocaan/ (ch ) ‘put
behind’
/sh/ ‘tense prefix’ + /sutut/ ‘to whirl around’ /sutut/ (sh

) ‘He whirls around.’
/s/ ‘3rdsg. possessive’ + /huun/ ‘paper’ /suunil/ (h )
‘its paper’

4.6.5 (Loss of vowel phoneme)

1)
2) 3)

gu da + o --> gu do ( // )
ndaya + o --> ndayo ( // )
narugo + o --> narugo ( // )
naru ho + o --> naru ho ( // )

109
4.6.6 (Palatalization)

/y/
act + -ion action / / / /
//

/malat/ ‘walk’ + /-is/ ‘past tense’ /malat is/ ‘walked’ ( > )
/tidak/ ‘see’ + /-is/ /tidat is/ ‘saw’ ( > )
/wilad/ ‘hunt’ + /-is/ /wilad is/ ‘hunted’ ( > )
/pilas/ ‘give’ + /-is/ /pila is/ ‘gave’ ( > )

4.5.2.3

4.7

(morph) (allomorph)

110 4 (compound word) (complex
(morph)
(lexeme)
word)

4.7.1

“ ”
13
10
2 1

1

4.7.2 (allomorph)

(allomorph)
(Gleason 1955: 61)

( dogz, / / ) //
cats, / / pieces 3

//
/ /, / /, / /, / /, / /, / / / /

//

111
(phonologically conditioned allomorph )

( 4.2.2)

-en

ox oxen
ox /-en/
(morphologically conditioned allomorph)
( 4.2.3)

4.7.3 (Lexeme)

(phoneme) (morpheme)

die, dies, died, dying

4 1 DIE man men
2(
) MAN
MAN
DIE

112 4

The dying man does not want to die.
8 7 dying die

4.7.4 (Compound word)

,, 2
housewife , , aircraft, waterfall,

2 “ ”, “ ”
“”

4.7.5 (Complex word)

(affix) beautiful (beauty + -ful)
happiness (happy + -ness) indirect (in- + direct)

plays, played
_______________________________

113

( 4)

1. 1 1
1

1)
2)

3)

4)

5)

6) He is studying medical science.
7) The flowers bloom in spring.
8) You are a jack-of-all-trades.
9) Don’t you believe in laisser-faire.
10) These pineapples are sweet and juicy.

2.

melodious graciousness
glorious preciousness
spacious laboriousness

114 4

famous tenaciousness
homophonous curiousness
superstitious
curiosity
tenacity
piety
variety

3.

3.1)
( Language Files, The

Ohio State University 1979: 54-55)

1) ninasoma ‘I am reading.’
2) unasoma ‘You are reading.’
3) anasoma ‘He is reading.’
4) nilisoma ‘I was reading.’
5) ulisoma ‘You were reading.’
6) alisoma ‘He was reading.’
7) nitasoma ‘I will read.’
8) utasoma ‘You will read.’
9) atasoma ‘He will read.’
10) atanipenda ‘He will like me.’
11) atakupenda ‘He will like you.’
12) atampenda ‘He will like him.’

115

13) atatupenda ‘He will like us.’
14) atawapenda ‘He will like them.’
15) nitakupenda ‘I will like you.’
16) nitampenda ‘I will like him.’
17) nitawapenda ‘I will like them.’
18) utanipenda ‘You will like me.’
19) utampenda ‘You will like him.’
20) tutampenda ‘We will like him.’
21) watampenda ‘They will like him.’
22) atakusumbua ‘He will annoy you.’
23) unamsumbua ‘You are annoying him.’
24) atanipiga ‘He will beat me.’
25) atakupiga ‘He will beat you.’
26) atampiga ‘He will beat him.’
27) ananipiga ‘He is beating me.’
28) anakupiga ‘He is beating you.’
29) anampiga ‘He is beating him.’
30) amekupiga ‘He has beaten you.'
31) amenipiga ‘He has beaten me.’
32) amempiga ‘He has beaten him.’
33) alinipiga ‘He beat me.’
34) alikupiga ‘He beat you.’
35) alimpiga ‘He beat him.’
36) wametulipa ‘They have paid us.’
37) tulikulipa ‘We paid you.’

116 4

3.2)

1) You have read. 4) You have beaten us.

2) I have beaten them. 5) We beat them.

3) They have annoyed me. 6) I am paying him.

3.3)

1) atanilipa 4) nimemsumbua
2) utawapiga 5) tutasoma
3) walikupenda 6) nitakulipa

5

(Traditional Grammar)

5.1

Traditional Grammar tradition

20

118 5

5.2

5.2.1
5

onomatopoeia 'the creation

of names'1

1 crash, tinkle, bang

() meow,
neigh, bow-wow

grammar 119
writing the art of

(429-347 B.C.)

(truth)

(Herndon 1970: 8)

onoma
"the name of one who performs an action"

rhema "the name of an action, and the relationships of
the ideas or meanings expressed by each" (Herndon 1970: 8)

2
noun verb

("Good Greek words")

the Bow-Wow theory

120 5

(384-322 B.C.)
aer " "

2 noun verb
syndesmoi onoma
rhema syndesmoi
conjuction

2

(Dionysius Thrax) 1
The Art of Grammar

400
20

31

2 3
""
"" " "
"" (figures of speech)

2

Herndon (1970: 8)

121

8

noun, verb, participle, conjunction, preposition, article,

pronoun, adverb adjective noun

5.2.2

(MarcusVarro)

4

noun, verb, participle, adverb

Nouns are those with case inflections. Verbs are

those with tense inflections. Participles are those with case and

tense inflections. Adverbs are those with neither. (Robins 1989:

58-59) adjective case noun

noun

6 (Priscian)
18 3

8 noun, verb,

3

Herndon (1970: 9)

122 5

participle, pronoun, adverb, preposition, interjection,
conjunction

article interjection
(Robins 1989: 39, 66)

(Thomas of Erfurt) 8

noun 2 ""

" (n men substantivum n men adjectivum)

(Robins 1989: 89-90)
5.2.3

(The Middle Ages)

(universal)

" " (accidental)

(vernacular) (Lyons 1968:
16)

123

(Lyons 1968: 17)
5.2.4

. . 1660 Grammaire
Générale et raisonnée

(logical and

rational system)

(The French Academy)

"" "

"

(good usage)

124 5

(the human mind) (Lyons 1968: 18)

(Samuel Johnson) (John

Wallis) (Robert Lowth)

(Lindley Murray)

(Herndon 1970: 11)

1)
2) ( )

3)
4)

(Herndon 1970: 51-52)

125

5.3

18 1)
4
)
(Orthography) 2) (Prosody)
(Etymology) (
3) (Syntax) 4)
(Murray 1824: 13 Downey 1991: 28)

126 5 2
19 Etymology

Orthography Prosody

Syntax

William Dwight
Whitney (1877) Essentials of English Grammar

I. Language and Grammar ( )

II. The Sentence; the Parts of Speech (

)

III. Inflection ( )

IV. Derivation and Composition (

)

V. Nouns ( )

VI. Pronouns ( )

VII. Adjectives ( )

VIII. Verbs ( )

IX. Adverbs ( )

X. Prepositions ( )

XI. Conjunctions ( )

XII. Interjections ( )

XIII. Syntax: The Simple Sentence ( :

)

127

XIV. Compound and Complex Sentences (
)

XV. Infinitive and Participle Constructions (
)

XVI. Interrogative and Imperative Sentences
()

XVII. Abbreviated and Incomplete Expressions
()
(Wachtler 1991: 41)

19 parsing
(the

grammatical description of each word in the sentence)
. . 1900
(Downey 1991:

29)

128 5
5.3.1

8 4 noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb,
preposition, conjunction, interjection

"A noun is typically defined as the name of a
person, place, or thing." "A verb is a word that expresses action
or a state of being."

"An adjective is defined as a word that modifies a
noun." "A preposition is a word that is used to show a
relationship between a noun or pronoun and some other word in a

4

adjective

19

(Sweet 1891)

adjective

Accidence morphology

6 noun, pronoun,

adjective, numeral, verb particle particle

adverb, conjunction, preposition interjection (Sweet 1891:

301-444) 9

noun, pronoun, adjective, numeral, verb, adverb, conjunction,

preposition, interjection

numeral adjective

129

sentence." "An interjection is a word or

exclamatory sound that has no grammatical relationship to other

words in a sentence." (Herndon 1970: 53-58)

(grammatical categories)

( 2.2)

3 (three grammatical

persons) (First person)

(Second person)

(Third person)

(singular) (plural)

5.1

Singular Plural

First person I go We go

Second person You go (Thou goest) You go

Third person He goes/She goes/It goes. They go

130 5

He goes. go

thing-things, cat-cats,
child-children, sheep-sheep, deer-deer
(gender)
3

Masculine ( ) Feminine ( ) Neuter
()
Masculine Feminine man, boy, lion Masculine
woman, girl lioness Feminine
Neuter gender house, book, food

Feminine ship, moon
Common gender
person, parent, teacher, friend, servant, child, baby, bird, deer,
camel (Trivedi 1958: 7)

(case)

131
5.2

Singular Nominative boy
Plural Genitive boy's
Accusative boy
Dative boy
Instrumental boy
Nominative boys
Genitive boys'
Accusative boys
Dative boys
Instrumental boys

(redundancy)

(genitive)

132 5

3

2

(Conner 1968: 170)

(aspect) verb

inflections which indicate the distinctions, e.g. preterit I have

led. Imperfect I was leading. (Conner 1968: 181)

perfect I have

done it. progressive continuous I am doing i

(mood) mode

indicative mode, imperative mode subjunctive mode

mood 5.3 5.3
(voice)

active passive voice

5.3 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SEE

( verb to see

)5

5

Herndon (1970: 56-57

133

Indicative Mood Passive Voice
Active Voice

Singular Plural Singular Plural

Present Tense we are seen
you are seen
I see we see I am seen they are seen

you see you see you are seen

he/she/it sees they see he/she/it is seen

Present Progressive: I am seeing, and so on

Present Emphatic: I do see, and so on

Past Tense

I saw we saw I was seen we were seen

you saw you saw you were seen you were seen

he/she/it saw they saw he/she/it was seen they were seen

Past Progressive: I was seeing, and so on

Past Emphatic: I did see, and so on

Future Tense

I shall see we shall see I shall be seen we shall be seen

you will see you will see you will be seen you will be seen

he/she/it will see they will see he/she/it will be seen they will be seen

Future Progressive: I shall be seeing, and so on

Present Perfect Tense

I have seen we have seen I have been seen we have been seen

you have seen you have seen you have been seen you have been seen

he/she/it has seen they have seen he/she/it has been seen they have been seen

Present Perfect Progressive: I have been seeing, and so on

Past Perfect Tense

I had seen we had seen I had been seen we had been seen you

had seen you had seen you had been seen you had been seen

he/she/it had seen they had seen he/she/it had been seen they had been seen

Past Perfect Progressive: I had been seeing, and so on

Future Perfect Tense

I shall have seen we shall have seen I shall have been seen we shall have been seen
you will have seen you will have seen you will have been seen you will have been seen
he/she/it will have seen they will have seen he/she/it will have been seen they will have been seen

Future Perfect Progressive: I shall have been seeing, and so on