8. The Agrarian. (2011, August 16). Behind the Scents: Damask Rose . https://theagrarian.wordpress.com/2011/08/16/behind-the-scents-the-damask-rose/ Image References Artvee. (2023). Rosa Damascena Aurora (1817-1824) . https://artvee.com/dl/rosa-damascena-aurora/ Holt Renfrew. (2022). DIPTYQUE Eau Rose Eau De Toilette . https://www.holtrenfrew.com/en/Products/Womens/Beauty/Fragrance/Perfume/DIPTYQ UE-Eau-Rose-Eau-de-Toilette/p/20058750002 Nations Online Project. (n.d.). Map of Iran, Middle East . https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/iran_map.htm Syed, S. (2022, June 8). Benefits of Gulkand-The Summer Cooler . Hands of Gold. https://www.handsofgold.in/benefits-of-gulkand-the-summer-cooler/ 290
Where does it grow? The desert rose is not actually a type of rose! It is part of a different group of plants called the dogbane family, because they are toxic to dogs! ⁵ ⁶ History and Folklore: The Desert Rose Native to sub-Saharan Africa, A. obesum is found in tropical regions around the world, including Arabia and South Asia. The plant grows in sandy, dry soil, and requires warm temperatures and lots of sunlight, but not much water. Scientific Name: Adenium obesum (A. obesum)³ Common Names: Desert Rose or Mock Azalea Active Compounds Betulin, Honghelin, Obeside B, and more.⁸ Is it dangerous? Sap is a milky substance that flows throughout a plant. A. obesum's sap is toxic.⁷ If ingested, it may cause low blood pressure and dizziness. If the sap comes in contact with the skin, it can cause skin irritation. The plant is particularly dangerous to pets since they may be drawn to its bright colour.⁷ Uses in Society A. obesum is often grown as decoration.⁸ In Africa, the plant is traditionally used as medicine to treat tooth decay, wound infections, and relieve joint pain. The plant is also high in antioxidants, which can be used to treat various diseases.⁹ Thus, research is being done to determine how the plant can be used in modern medicine. A. obesum was discovered in Yemen in 1762. Historically, the plant's sap was used to create poison arrows for hunting. The plant also has symbolic purposes. In China, it is thought to bring wealth.¹¹ In India, it symbolizes good luck. In Thailand, it brings "good energy", particularly when planted on a Wednesday.¹¹ Fun Fact! A picture of A. obesum.² - - [1] [1] [1] 10 4 4 A picture of a flower of A. obesum.¹² 291
References 1. Graphic design elements sourced from Canva. 2. Adenium Obesum Plant. [Image] https://tropicsathome.com/product-category/tropical-plants/caudiciform-plants/adenium/. Accessed April 5, 2023. 3. Adenium obesum. Missouri Botanical Garden. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=2761 16#:~:text=Adenium%20obesum%2C%20commonly%20called%20desert,grow%20much%2 0smaller%20in%20containers. Accessed April 1, 2023. 4. Vanzile J. Follow this easy guide to Grow Beautiful Desert Rose Plants. The Spruce. https://www.thespruce.com/grow-desert-rose-plants-indoors-1902974. Published August 16, 2022. Accessed April 1, 2023. 5. Desert Rose: Is it a rose growing in desert? CGTN. https://news.cgtn.com/news/2019-10-10/Desert-rose-Is-it-a-rose-growing-in-desert--KFDXw AaOSQ/index.html#:~:text=Desert%20rose%20(Adenium%20obesum)%20is,water%20in%2 0a%20dry%20environment. Published October 10, 2019. Accessed April 1, 2023. 6. Dogbane family (family Apocynaceae). iNaturalist . https://inaturalist.ca/taxa/47362-Apocynaceae. Accessed April 2, 2023. 7. Desert Rose Poisonous: Are desert roses poisonous or toxic? Plant Care Today. https://plantcaretoday.com/desert-rose-plant-poisonous.html. Accessed April 4, 2023. 8. Hossain A. A review on adenium obesum: A potential endemic medicinal plant in Oman. Beni-Suef University Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences. 2018;7(4):559-563. doi:10.1016/j.bjbas.2018.06.008 9. AL-Ghudani MK, Hossain MA. Determination of total phenolics, flavonoids and antioxidant activity of root crude extracts of adenium obesum traditionally used for the treatment of bone dislocations and rheumatism. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease. 2015;5. doi:10.1016/s2222-1808(15)60879-9 10. Forbes M. Desert Rose Flower: Meaning, symbolism, and colors. Pansy Maiden. https://www.pansymaiden.com/flowers/meaning/desert-rose/. Published July 12, 2021. Accessed April 4, 2023. 11. Meaning and symbolism of Desert Rose. WhenYouGarden. https://www.whenyougarden.com/meaning-and-symbolism-of-desert-rose/. Accessed April 3, 2023. 12. Vienaphi. Adenium Obesum Flower. [Image] https://pngtree.com/freepng/adenium-flower-transparent-background_8367945.html?sol=dow nref&id=bef Accessed April 4, 2023. 292
Name: Rosemary, (Rosmarinus officinalis) → (Salvia rosmarinus) (Habtemariam, 2016) Uses: Cooking, herbal tea, antioxidant, medicinal purposes (Habtemariam, 2016) Flower: White, pink, purple, or blue (Habtemariam, 2016) Origin: Mediterranean region (Habtemariam, 2016) Ideal habitat: Mild winters and warm summer, low to medium rainfall (Wikimedia Foundation, 2023) Active compounds: Flavonoids (phenolic), carnosic acid (terpene) (Habtemariam, 2016) Hazard symptom: Vomiting, spasms, coma, pulmonary edema (Mount Sinai, n.d.) Symbolism: Memory, friendship, love (Nutritional Geography, n.d.) Identification Rosmarinus officinalis is a type of flowering plant also known as rosemary. After 2017, the scientific name of the plant was changed to Salvia rosmarinus with no change in its common name (Wikimedia Foundation, 2023). The plant produces flowers in a range of colours of white, pink, purple, or blue. The plant is known to have a fibrous root system and petal multiples of 3, hence being identified as a monocot plant (Wikimedia Foundation, 2023). The plant itself is a common symbol for friendship, memory, and love (Nutritional Geography, n.d.). History and Folklores The rosemary plant originated from the Mediterranean region in warm habitats with low to medium rainfall and has since been traded worldwide (Wikimedia Foundation, 2023). The name Rosmarinus refers to sea dew in Latin, which corresponds with rosemary’s characteristic of being capable of growing better near ocean while having excellent drought tolerance (Nutritional Geography, n.d.). Legends from Christian mythology has said how the blue colour and prominent scent of rosemary originated from the cloak of Jesus’s mother Mary when she left her cloak on a bush to dry (Nutritional Geography, n.d.). Common Use and Useful Factors Rosemary is commonly used in areas such as in food beverages, medicines, and antioxidants (Habtemariam, 2016). The active compound that allows for this are called flavonoids. It is the compound that gives the plant its unique aroma, and was produced by the plant with the intention of preventing damage to it by others (Habtemariam, 2016). Recent study had found a terpene compound called carnosic acid within the plant. Research had shown that the compound has neuroprotective effects against brain damage and had also shown a positive effect on memory and learning ability (Habtemariam, 2016). Scientists believes the compound could act as a treatment for Alzheimer’s disease which is a type of dementia having to do with difficulty of remembering or thinking (Habtemariam, 2016). Hazard Identification Rosemary is overall a safe plant if taken in a appropriate quantities. Extra care should be made when used with other herbs, supplements, or medication (Mount Sinai, n.d.). People with allergic reactions, high blood pressure, or digestive related diseases such as ulcers should avoid use of rosemary at all cost (Mount Sinai, n.d.). Common symptoms may include includes vomiting, spasms, coma, or pulmonary edema. Nastya C, 2022 Nastya C, 2022 (PNGHUT, n.d.) (Damrosch B., 2017) (Andrei T, 2022) (Wikimedia Foundation, 2023) Remembrance of The Rosemary 293
Citation: Habtemariam, S. (2016). The Therapeutic Potential of Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) Diterpenes for Alzheimer’s Disease. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2016, 2680409–2680414. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/2680409 Nutritional Geography. Rosemary. (n.d.). Nutritional Geography. The integration of physical landscape, culture, and economics. https://nutritionalgeography.faculty.ucdavis.edu/rosemary/ Mount Sinai. Rosemary. (n.d.). Mount Sinai Health System. https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/herb/rosemary Wikimedia Foundation. (2023). Rosemary. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosemary Picture citation: Nastya C. (2022). Premium photo: Purple rosemary flower on white background isolated object watercolor illustration for design. [Photograph] Freepik. https://www.freepik.com/premium-photo/purple-rosemary-flower-white-background-isol ated-object-watercolor-illustration-design_24222709.htm PNGHUT. (n.d.). Watercolor flower wreath - violet picture frame Rosemary Transparent PNG. [Photograph] PNGHUT.com. https://pnghut.com/png/e5JUW9hzAU/watercolor-flower-wreath-violet-picture-frame-ros emary-transparent-png Damrosch, B. (2017). Resolve to grow a better rosemary plant. Your dinner guest will thank you [Photograph] The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/home/resolve-to-grow-a-better-rosemary-plant -your-dinner-guests-will-thank-you/2017/01/03/f97df348-c6e3-11e6-85b5-76616a33048d _story.html Andrei T. (2022). What did Mary the mother of Jesus Christ look like? [Photograph] History of Yesterday. https://historyofyesterday.com/what-did-mary-the-mother-of-jesus-christ-look-like/ Wikimedia Foundation. (2023). Rosemary. [Photograph] Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosemary 294
295
296
Rosemary Canva, 2023. Salvia rosmarinus Native to the Mediterranean Rosemary is much more than a herb you can use to season your food. It has a multitude of health benefits too! Read on to find out how and why you should incorporate rosemary into your life. Rosemary can balance your hormones! Carnosol is an active compound in rosemary that contributes to its anti-oxidant potential (Veenstra et al., 2021). Many studies have shown that inhaling rosemary essential oil reduces stress, either by decreasing cortisol levels or increasing free-radical neutralization (Singletary, 2016). Not only do the compounds in rosemary balance hormones, they also boost and maintain our mood. Rosemary is a great source of Vitamin B6, a compound which increases the release of serotonin and norepinephrine (Facty, 2020). The best way to achieve hormone balance via rosemary is through aromatherapy. The olfactory property of rosemary is known to increase memory, focus and concentration. Add the plant/leaves to your study space to stay focused! Relaxing, stress reducing, mood boosting; rosemary! Carnosol and carnosic acid act in reducing inflammation both topically and internally. Due to these chemicals, consuming rosemary has been shown to decrease oxidative stress and inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract (Veenstra et al., 2021). When added to creams, the rosmarinic acid and 1,8-cineole in rosemary can help with pain and inflammation of the skin (Singletary, 2016). Rosemary connects us to those we love, whether they are from our past, present or future! Rosemary oil is toxic if consumed orally and due to the high oil content of its leaves, vomiting and spasms are possible side effects (Mount Sinai, 2023). An Egyptian and European tradition involves placing rosemary on coffins or near tombs to connect the living to the dead. Giving rosemary to the bride and groom supports their long-lasting love (Kirkby, 2020). English folklore: a plate of flour placed under a rosemary bush would have the initial of a girl’s future husband inscribed. 297
References 15 Health Benefits of Rosemary. Facty. (2020, March 30). https://facty.com/food/nutrition/15- health-benefits-of-rosemary/12/. Kirkby, I. (2020, May 9). Traditional Rosemary Meaning and Symbolism. Izzy Living. https://izzyliving.com/rosemarymeaning/#:~:text=Rosemary%20connects%20us%20to%20those%20who%20have%20p assed%20away&text=It%20is%20also%20saidthat%20it,spanning%20many%20cultures %20and%20countries. Mammoliti, E. (2023). Rosemary. Canva. https://www.canva.com/. Rosmarinus officinalis. (2023). Rosemary. Mount Sinai Health System. https://www.mountsinai.org/healthlibrary/herb/rosemary#:~:text=Because%20of%20their%20volatile%20oil,(fluid%20in% 20the%20lungs). Singletary, K. (2016). Rosemary: an overview of potential health benefits. Nutrition Today, 51(2), 102-112. https://journals.lww.com/nutritiontodayonline/Fulltext/2016/03000/Rosemary__An_Over view_of_Potential_Health_Benefits.9.aspx. Veenstra, J. P., & Johnson, J. J. (2021). Rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus): Health-promoting benefits and food preservative properties. International journal of nutrition, 6(4), 1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8513767/. 298
Pictures retrieved from: https://www.lovingessentialoils.com/blogs/diffuser-recipes/rosemary-diffuser-blends https://www.aveda.ca/product/17757/17178/body/lotion/rosemary-mint-bodylotion?size=6.7_fl_oz%2F200_ml https://aromantic.co.uk/blogs/recipes/fabulous-face-cream https://healthyeating.sfgate.com/rosemary-tea-good-for-10530.html https://www.theknot.com/content/15-herb-bouquets-and-what-they-symbolize 299
300
References Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, March 16). rosemary. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/plant/rosemary Ghasemzadeh Rahbardar M, Hosseinzadeh H. Therapeutic effects of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) and its active constituents on nervous system disorders. Iran J Basic Med Sci. 2020 Sep;23(9):1100-1112. doi: 10.22038/ijbms.2020.45269.10541. PMID: 32963731; PMCID: PMC7491497. Nordqvist, J. (2017). Rosemary: Health benefits, precautions, and drug interactions. Medical News Today. Retrieved from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/266370 301
302
303
304
References Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, January 6). saffron. Encyclopedia Britannica. h p s://www.britannica.com/topic/saffron Grannan, C. (2016, August 30). Why Is Saffron So Expensive?. Encyclopedia Britannica. h p s://www.britannica.com/story/why-is-saffron-so-expensive Madan, C. L., Kapur, B. M., & Gupta, U. S. (1966). Saffron. Economic botany, 20, 377-385. Samarghandian, S., & Borji, A. (2014). Anticarcinogenic effect of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and its ingredients. Pharmacognosy research , 6 (2), 99. Image Refrences Sinano, I. (2012). Watercolor Illustra on of Sa ffron Flowers. Dreams me.c om. Retrieved April 5, 2023, from h p s://www.dreams me.c om/watercolor-illustra on-sa ffron-flowers-isolated-white-background-botanical-art-crocus-sa vus- vintage-style-close-up-image185694309. Daneshvar, S. (2007). A trip with Faraz Saffron Co. Ltd. wikimedia.org. Retrieved April 5, 2023, from h p s://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:860808-Saffronfarm-01-IMG_7707-2.jpg. 305
306
References Fierberg, E. (2018, April 13). Why saffron is the world's most expensive spice. Business Insider. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://www.businessinsider.com/why-saffron-world-most-expensive-spice-2018-4 History of saffron. (n.d.). Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/h/History_of_saffron.htm#:~:text=Saffron% 20was%20used%20by%20ancient,curative%20for%20bouts%20of%20melancholy. Pur Safran . (n.d.). Saffron cultivation – pure saffron – official website - pur safran. Pur Safran. Retrieved April 8, 2023, from https://www.pursafran.com/en/saffron-cultivation/ Schmidt, T., Heitkam, T., Liedtke, S., Schubert, V., & Menzel, G. (2019). Adding color to a century‐old enigma: Multi‐color chromosome identification unravels the autotriploid nature of saffron (crocus sativus) as a hybrid of wild crocus cartwrightianus cytotypes. New Phytologist, 222(4), 1965–1980. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.15715 Serpico. (2010). Saffron8. Wikipedia. photograph. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11822266. Singletary, K. (2020). Saffron. Nutrition Today, 55(6), 294–303. https://doi.org/10.1097/nt.0000000000000449 Sosiedko, A. Saffron Wedding Invitation, Canva.com. Retrieved April 7, 2023 from https://www.canva.com/p/templates/EAE1_t1sTok-saffron-wedding-invitation/ The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2023, January 6). Saffron. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/saffron Why do sadhus wear. (2022, October 25). Why do sadhus wear saffron robes ?: Chamunda Swami Ji. Holistic & Spiritual Healing Centre New York. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://www.chamundaswamiji.com/why-do-sadhus-wear-saffron-robes/#:~:text=In%20Buddhis m%2C%20the%20highest%20state,have%20followed%20in%20His%20footsteps 307
Sage Scientific name: Salvia officinalis full of antioxidant good for oral health, brain function and blood sugar levels main phenolic components are phenolic acids and flavonoids it is commonly used for tooth aches in Caucasian areas Benefits Active compounds Folklore Sage commonly grows shores of the northern Mediterranean where it is mainly used in national foods and as herbs. sage oil can be toxic and can cause irritations on the skin if you are not using it diluted Habitat Warnings 308
References Jakovljević, M., Jokić, S., Molnar, M., Jašić, M., Babić, J., Jukić, H., & Banjari, I. (2019). Bioactive Profile of Various Salvia officinalis L. Preparations. Plants, 8(3), 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8030055 Jennifer Moll, P. (2016, August 3). Can sage help lower your cholesterol? Verywell Health. https://www.verywellhealth.com/add-flavor-andlower-cholesterol-with-sage-4069887 Mahr, W. by S. (n.d.). Sage, Salvia officinalis. Wisconsin Horticulture. Retrieved April 8, 2023, from https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/sagesalvia-officinalis/ Raman, R., MS, & RD. (2018, December 14). 12 health benefits and uses of sage. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/sage 309
Sage In addition to, its culinary purposes, sage has been used over the decades, for cleansing a space, or object of all its negative energy. A traditional practice commonly known as smudging (8). In a metaphysical sense burning sage removes all evil spirits. Its Latin name that gave its scientific name (Salvia officinalis) coinage is Salvere which means "be well/in good health." (8) In a medical sense, research has shown that "sage can also be used to benefit physical, mental, and emotional well-being," says Reshma Patel, PA-C, MMS, CEO and founder of Ananda Integrative Medicine. A number of studies have shown medicinal smokes such as sage have powerful antimicrobial and antibacterial qualities, which can improve mood and cognition. In addition, they can serve as an insect repellent, and can even help with sleep quality by easing insomnia. In final thoughts of any individual, sages have also been used at graves. At the graves of loved ones, it is planted to do away with evil spirits from their bodies, and also in remembrance of the deceased one. Smudging has also been practiced over funerals to aid in the passing on of the deceased. It is truly a sacred plant, culturally and metaphysically blessing the dwellers of the earth; also a healer, a cure-all plant as some may say. A plant truly deserving of its nickname, the "HOLY HERB". The compounds within the plants which are directly involved in the antimicrobial and antibacterial properties of sage are called bioactive phytochemicals (phyto - "of a plant"). In the Salvia species ,phenolics and terpenoids are the main phytochemicals (6). There are a lot of active compounds contributing to these properties. Nonetheless, they all fall under the large family of Terpenes and Phenolics. The main effective Phenolic compounds have been shown to be phenolic acids, carnosol derivatives, and flavonoids (7). The essential oils of members of the sage species are also rich in antimicrobial chemicals. Bioassays (potency tests) have shown diverse biological activity for the plant extract especially antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxic, antiprotozoal, antidiabetic and enzyme inhibitory activities. (7) THE HOLY HERB You might be thinking to yourself, "the holy herb?, what's that?" Well lets... folklore, shall we? For a god, wisdom happens to be the divine meal that is swallowed in one gulp (2). In Greek mythology, 'the holy herb’ was believed to be a powerful agent and a healing ingredient sacred to the gods (1). It was commonly believed to strengthen memory, hence its modern name, 'the sage' or ' a wise man with many memories and discerning wisdom'. Sage plant, Salvia officinalis (scientific name), is a woody perennial (can live for many years) plant with greygreen fuzzy-looking leaves, and a variety of flower colours: pink, blue, white and purple. The sage is native to the northern Mediterranean coast and is frequently used in Mediterranean cooking(3). Its musty flavour is reminiscent of eucalyptus, cedar and mint, with a hint of lemon. Not surprisingly, it is also a member of the mint family (Lamiaceae), along with some common herbs such as lavender, rosemary, basil, oregano, etc. 310
REFERENCES 1. Elle - Sage the holy herb https://ellerepublic.de/en/sage-the-holyherb/#:~:text=In%20Greek%20mythology%2C%20sage%20was,many%20memories%20and%20 profound%20wisdom. 2. . The Seven sages - https://www.maicar.com/GML/SevenSages.html 3. Sage https://www.almanac.com/plant/sage (accessed Apr 7, 2023). 4. Ghorbani, A.; Esmaeilizadeh, M. Pharmacological Properties of Salvia Officinalis and Its Components. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine 2017, 7 (4), 433–440. 5. Nautiyal, C. S.; Nene, Y. L.; Chauhan, P. S. Medicinal smoke reduces airborne bacteria https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17913417/ (accessed Apr 7, 2023). 6. Jassbi, A.R, Zare, S., Firuzi, O.,& Xiao,J. (2016). Bioactive phytochemicals from roots and shoots of Salvia species. Phytochemistry reviews, 15(5) 829-867. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-015-9427-z 7. Hamrouni-Sellami, I., Rahali, F. Z., Rebey, I. B., Bourgou, S., Limam, F., & Marzouk, B. (2012). Total phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant activity of sage (salvia officinalis L.) plants as affected by different drying methods. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 6(3), 806–817. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-012- 0877-7 8. Hickey, K. Smudging 101: Burning sage to cleanse your space & self of negativity https://www.mindbodygreen.com/articles/smudging-101-burning-sage (accessed Apr 7, 2023). 311
IMAGE CREDITS 1. G. S. Pictures; Eye Em, S. M. /; Boogich; EyeEm, W. S. P. /; EyeEm, A. K. /; EyeEm, N. H. /; Miniseries; Palmer, S.; Efetova, A.; GeorgePeters; Kubat, S.; Krivenok, A.; Ren photo; Mme Emil; Susafri; Eye Em, E. L. /; Studio, M.; Siiankovskaia, E.; Garrett, M.; Jose Luis Lago Gomez / EyeEm; Olson, S.; Grill, J. G. I. J.; EyeEm, T. A. /; EyeEm, J. N. /; Images, C.; Studio, R.; Gremlin; Lisa5201; Sullivan, J.; Nicholas, R.; Dimitrov, V. Burning incense sage stick and pebbles stock photo https://www.gettyimages.com/photos/burning-sage 2. Canva.com 312
Active Compound and Toxicity Salvinorin A and Salvinorin B, can cause: • Hallucinations, Disorientation • Anxiety, Paranoia Scientific Name Most known as Sage, its scientific name is Salvia officinalis (Britannica 2023), Sage groups more than 1000 species (Prisinzano 2005). Figure 1 - Salvia officinalis, native to Mediterranean region, other species are found in Central America in cloud forests (Britannica 2023). Tested on rodents for toxicity, study showed minimal to no toxicity for subjects in high doses (Prisinzano 2005). Study was conducted over two weeks only. Further research must be done for more conclusive results (Prisinzano 2005). Medical Use Contains compounds such as thujone, oleanolic acid, and rosmarinic acid. Act as anti-inflammatories to reduce swelling after injuries (Braun 2022). Historically, it has been used as an antibacterial to treat infections and to reduce stress and depression for patients. Sage Figure 2 – Chemical structure of Salvinorin A and B, including other conformations (Prisinzano 2005) References Braun, M. (2022). Exploring the medicinal benefits of salvia: A guide to safe usage. ShunCy. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://shuncy.com/article/howdo-you-use-salvia-for-medicinal-purposes Britannica, Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, March 7). salvia. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/plant/Salvia Prisinzano, T. E. (2005). "Psychopharmacology of the hallucinogenic sage Salvia divinorum." Life Sciences 78(5): 527-531. Cultural significance and Uses Can be eaten, it adds a fresh aroma to Pizza when cooked for example. It can also be smoked, which was historically used by shamans during rituals for its hallucinatory effects (Britannica 2023). 313
SAGO PALM Cycas revoluta The Sago Palm, or Cycas revoluta, is a member of the Cycadophyta phyla, a rather primitive group, having settled into this specific category much earlier than other gymnosperms, such as conifers (Kono & Tobe, 2007). The Sago Palm, along with other cycads, are dioecious, each individual being either a male or female (Hodgson, 2016). They also grow very slowly, taking between 50-100 years to get to its normal height of 6- 10 feet (Prakash et al., 2020). It has stiff, palm-like leaves bound to the apex of the woody and rough trunk (Prakash et al., 2020). Furthermore, they have specialized coralloid roots that grown on the soil surface and house symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria (Restrepo et al., 2020). Uses Toxicity & Active Compound Habitat History Figure 1: A Sago Palm (Cycas revoluta) grown indoors ("Cycas revoluta," n.d.). Figure 2: Palm-like leaves of the Sago Palm ("Cycas revoluta," n.d.). The cycads originated around 280 million years ago before exploding in number during the time of the dinosaurs (Hodgson, 2016). It's very likely that you have seen historical depictions of land dinosaurs walking among and eating cycads! However, when the dinosaurs went extinct, so did many species of cycads, leaving only around 300 species today, including the Cycas revoluta (Hodgson, 2016). Figure 5: A depiction of a land dinosaur feeding on a Cycad (Hodgson, 2016). Figure 4: A Sago Palm typically sold commercially (Hodgson, 2016). Figure 3: Coralloid roots of a Cycad (Chang et al., 2019). Cycads in general, are able to grow in extreme environments, where nutrients are scarce and other plants are not adapted to surviving in (Restrepo et al., 2020). This makes them an easy houseplant for all gardeners! Sago palm, in particular, grow in tropical and sub-tropical areas as well as in areas with very little water, such as on exposed slopes (Prakash et al., 2020). The Sago Palm are also called Japanese Sago, since it originates from the southern islands of Japan, though overharvesting leaves it threatened (Hodgson, 2016). Figure 6: A Sage Palm forest in Kagoshima, Japan (Tom, 2011). In Chinese traditions, Sago Palm seeds are used to treat arthritis and coughs, the shoot tips can be used to reduce blood pressure, as a diuretic, and the young leaves can be used for vomiting (Moawad et al., 2010). Additionally, the parts of the whole plant are also traditionally used as treatment for snake bites, wounds, and to purify the stomach (Prakash et al., 2020). Interestingly, there have even been reports that the leaf extracts in ethanol could be used for treating estrogen-dependent cancers (Moawad et al., 2010). However, perhaps the most well-known use of Sago Palm is its production of starch as sago flour or sago pearl, which is involved in the production of many foods in South East Asia (Mohamed et al., 2008). Figure 7: Sago pearls made from Sago starch are used in Asian cuisines (Shute, 2013). Figure 8: Cycasin, involved in Sago Palm's toxicity ("Sago Palm," n.d.). All parts of the Sago Palm are toxic to humans and other animals and can lead to vomiting and abdominal pain (Forrester et al., 2020). As such, careful processing to remove these toxins are done prior to eating and many indigenous communities have independently adopted different techniques in doing so (Lal, 2003). Of these toxins, the glycoside Cycasin has been identified as one of the major contributors to its toxicity, since it gets converted into the active compound Methylazoxymethanol by an enzyme found in gut microbes, which impairs the liver (Lal, 2003). 314
REFERENCES Chang, A. C. G., Chen, T., Li, N., & Duan, J. (2019). Perspectives on endosymbiosis in coralloid roots: Association of cycads and cyanobacteria. Frontiers in Microbiology, 10, 1888. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.01888 Cycas revoluta. (n.d.). Architectural Plants. https://www.architecturalplants.com/product/cycas-revoluta/ Forrester, M. B., Layton, G. M., & Varney, S. M. (2020). Cycas revoluta (Sago cycad) exposures reported to Texas poison centers. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 38(8), 1611–1615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2019.158446 Hodgson, L. (2016). The plant that outlived the dinosaurs. Laidback Gardener. https://laidbackgardener.blog/2016/12/18/theplant-that-outlived-the-dinosaurs/ Kono, M., & Tobe, H. (2007). Is Cycas revoluta (Cycadaceae) wind- or insect-pollinated? American Journal of Botany, 94(5), 847– 855. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.94.5.847 Lal, J. J. (2003). Sago palm. In Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (pp. 5035–5039). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-227055-X/01036-1 Moawad, A., Hetta, M., Zjawiony, J., Jacob, M., Hifnawy, M., Marais, J., & Ferreira, D. (2010). Phytochemical investigation of cycas circinalis and cycas revoluta leaflets: Moderately active antibacterial biflavonoids. Planta Medica, 76(08), 796–802. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0029-1240743 Mohamed, A., Jamilah, B., Abbas, K. A., Rahman, R. A., & Roselina, K. (2008). A review on physicochemical and thermorheological properties of sago starch. American Journal of Agricultural and Biological Sciences, 3(4), 639–646. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajabssp.2008.639.646 Prakash, V., Kaur, H., Kumari, A., Kumar, M., Bala, R., & Gupta, S. (2021). Phytochemicals and biological studies on Cycas revoluta Thunb.: A review. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 21(3), 389–404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00520-z Restrepo, F. L., Gallegos, D. G., & Moo, P. D. J. S. (2020). Cycads: Ancient plants with bacteria living in their roots. Frontiers for Young Minds, 7, 156. https://doi.org/10.3389/frym.2019.00156 Sago palm. (n.d.). Sago Palm; HorseDVM. http://www.horsedvm.com/poisonous/sago-palm Shute, N. (2013). Sago, an ancient chinese starch, endures in asian cooking. NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2013/05/09/182614622/sago-an-ancient-chinese-starch-endures-in-asian-cooking Tom. (2011). The sago palm, Cycas revoluta, in Japan. Botany Boy. https://botanyboy.org/cycas-revoluta-in-japan/ 315
Scientific Name: Pterocarpus santalinus Active Components: Santalin A and Santalin B found in P.santalinus is found to induce contact dermatitis in some people (Sandra et al., 1996). The fragrance and color of this tree owes to its active compound 'santalin' and the aroma is caused by the presence of the 'terpenes' (Kumar et al., 1974). (PubChem, 2023) Habitat: Red sandalwood is endemic to Southern Ghats of India and is also listed in the IUCN as an endangered species (Noorunnisa Begum et al., ) Applications: Medicinal The leaves of P.satinalinus are used as an ailment for hypernervous activity and the bark is used for tooth and oral treatments (Hutchinson et al., 1958). Varma and Vijayamma in 1991 found that the bark extract had significant hypoglycemic activity; showing that it has anti-diabetic properties and can be used in drug designs for diabetes. P.satinalinus is also used in traditional medicine as a treatment to leprosy, skin diseases and spider poisoning (Navada and Vittal, 2014). A dye is prepared from the heartwood of P.santalinus that is used in molecular biology labs as a stain in light microscopy (Banerjee and Mukherjee 1981). It is also used as a coloring agent in the textile and pharmaceutical industry (Ankalaiah et al., 2017). Industrial Religious P.santalinus is used for statue making and a component in the incense sticks in Buddhism as it is believed to be holy and keeps the evil eye away (Wu et al., 2011). In Hinduism, a powder of the bark of the tree is used and called 'lal chandan' in Sanskrit that is used to apply to the forehead of the devotees after the prayers. It is believed to increase concentration and induce calmness. (Anecdote from Indian folklore). As mentioned before Red Sandalwood is on the verge of extinction and also been registered in IUCN. It has been the most exploited tree in India and is illegally exported to China and Japan to make furniture and musical instruments (Arunkumar and Joshi, 2014). Various measures have been taken by the Andhra Pradesh Government for the conservation of the species such the enforcement of Preventive Detention Act that penalizes the smugglers (TRAFFIC, 2023) . Folklore: A beaded necklace made from the bark of red sandalwood is considered very pure spiritual product and pleases the God that is associated with the moon. People with short temper and who get irritated and stressed easily are recommended to wear these necklaces by astrologers as they can experience calmness and a sense of directionality in their life. (Anecdotes from Indian Astrological Beliefs) A century old red sandalwood tree (Veliyath, 2019) (Canva,2023) (Canva,2023) (Canva,2023) RED SANDALWOOD (Canva,2023) (Canva,2023) (Canva,2023) (Canva,2023) (Canva,2023) (Canva,2023) Lal chandan (Patel,2023) -Ruhani Patel 316
References: Ankalaiah, C., Mastan, T., & Reddy, M. S. (2017). A study on the density, population structure and regeneration of Red Sanders Pterocarpus santalinus (Fabales: Fabaceae) in a protected natural habitat - Sri Lankamalleswara Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 9(9), 10669. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.2869.9.9.10669-10674 Arunkumar, A., & Joshi, G. (2014). Pterocarpus santalinus (Red Sanders) an Endemic, Endangered Tree of India: Current Status, Improvement and the Future. Journal of Tropical Forestry and Environment, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.31357/jtfe.v4i2.2063 Banerjee, A., & Mukherjee, A. K. (1981). Chemical Aspects of Santalin as a Histological Stain. Stain Technology, 56(2), 83–85. https://doi.org/10.3109/10520298109067286 Canva. (2022). Amazingly Simple Graphic Design Software. Canva. https://canva.com Hutchinson, J., & Dalziel, J. M. (1958). Flora of west tropical Africa, Vol 1, crown agents for oversea governments and administrations. Millbank, London, UK. Factsheet on India’s Red Sanders in illegal wildlife trade - Wildlife Trade Report from TRAFFIC. (n.d.). Www.traffic.org. Retrieved April 5, 2023, from https://www.traffic.org/publications/reports/factsheet-on-indias-red-sanders-in-illegalwildlife-trade/ Kumar, N., Ravindranath, B., & Seshadri, T. R. (1974). Terpenoids of Pterocarpus santalinus heartwood. Phytochemistry, 13(3), 633–636. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031- 9422(00)91365-7 Navada, K.K., Vittal, R.R. Ethnomedicinal value of Pterocarpus santalinus (Linn. f.), a Fabaceae member. Orient Pharm Exp Med 14, 313–317 (2014). 317
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-014-0168-0 Noorunnisa Begum, S., Ravi Kumar, K., & Divakara, B. N. (2019). Threats and Conservation. Red Sanders: Silviculture and Conservation, 978-981-13-7626-9, 153–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7627-6_12 Patel, RP (2023). Photo taken from 'ghar mandir' of lal chandan by the author. Porinju Veliyath, PV [@porinju]. (2019, October 6). Found this centuries-old red sandalwood tree while trekking today![Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/porinju/status/1180839637838749696 PubChem. (n.d.). Santalin. Pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved April 4, 2023, from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Santalin#section=2D-Structure Sandra, A., Shenoi, S. D., & Srinivas, C. R. (1996).Allergic contact dermatitis from red sandalwood (Pterocarpus santalinus).Contact Dermatitis, 34(1), 69– 69.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.1996.tb02124.x Varma, R. R., & Vijayamma, N. (1991). Pharmacological studies on Rakthachandana. J Res Ayurved Sidd, 12, 190-199. Wu, S.-F., Chang, F.-R., Wang, S.-Y., Hwang, T.-L., Lee, C.-L., Chen, S.-L., Wu, C.-C., & Wu, Y.-C. (2011). Anti-inflammatory and Cytotoxic Neoflavonoids and Benzofurans fromPterocarpus santalinus. Journal of Natural Products, 74(5), 989–996. https://doi.org/10.1021/np100871g 318
Red Gold - Pterocarpus santalinus Red Sandalwood - Wood History and Cultural Value: Compounds: Conservation: Pterocarpus santalinus, often refered to as Red Sanders is a small hardwood deciduous tree endemic to Southern India. The wood of the Red Sandalwood is called Zitan and is not toxic or harmful to humans in any way. It is a member of the Pterocarpus family which includes other sandalwood trees and similar deciduous trees from across Africa and Asia Pterocarpus santalinus wood has been held in high regard for its properties such as its grain and beauty. Before chemical dyes, Santalinus wood was used to produce red dye and exotic furniture, musical instruments and charms as status symbols and wedding gifts in the Far East. Zitan was also used a carving material for religious idols and icons throughout Indian history Overharvest of the tree's wood to be smuggled to East Asia has caused a large decline in population and distribution even though it is protected today. Commercially available sustainable wood today is from certified plantations and wood lost to storms. Smuggling has decreased due to better enforcement. It was moved by the IUCN from "Endangered" to " Near Threatened" after sustained recovery. It still, however, under threat Fig. 1 (above) - Red Sanders Heartwood Logs The active compound of the Santalin wood is Santalin A, which gives it the distinct red colour that makes it appealing. It also has many different carbohydrates, steroids, tannins, phenols, and glycerides. Fig. 2 (above) Red Sandalwood in Talkona Forest Background: Medical Value: Its uses extend to ayurvedic medicine where its heartwood is used as a cure for inflammation, leprosy and burns. Recent research has highlighted its use in native treatment of diabetes and skin disease among other illnesses. Conclusive evidence is not present but researchers noted a need for further research 2 1 1 1, 6 1, 5 3 3 3 6 1, 5, 6 319
References 1) Dahat, Y. (2021). Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological attributes of Pterocarpus santalinus and future directions: A review. Journal of Ethnopharmacology., 276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2021.114127 2) Harsha Agritech. Round 1 to 5 Sandalwood Logs - Indianmart.com, Retrieved April 1, 2023. https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/redsandalwood-logs-buyers-23196607012.html (*) 3) Pterocarpus Santalinus. Vikaspedia. (n.d.). Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://vikaspedia.in/agriculture/crop-production/package-ofpractices/medicinal-and-aromatic-plants/pterocarpus-santalinus (*) 4) Red sandalwood (pterocarpus Santalinus L.F.): Botanical Painting, botanical.com. Pinterest. (2016, June 25). Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/367817494549438970/ (**) 5) Walpola, B. C., Subasinghe, S., & Yoon, M.-H. (2011). Pterocarpus santalinusLinn. f. (Rath handun): A review of its botany, uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. Journal of the Korean Society for Applied Biological Chemistry, 54(4), 495–500. https://doi.org/10.3839/jksabc.2011.076 6) Zitan. The Wood Database. (n.d.). Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://www.wood-database.com/zitan/ * associated picture ** background image for reference page 320
321
322
Capsosiophon fulvescens is one species of green seaweed that usually grows in South Korea and was historically known to treat stomach problems and hangovers (2). C. fulvescens contains Fe, Se, Ca, Mg, Na, K, and P micro minerals, making it an amazing source of minerals. It's also recognised for its antioxidant properties, due to its ability to collect free radicals that are involved in damaging the human body (3). However, processing and storing seaweed also plays a role in its antioxidant property. For example, vacuum drying preserves seaweed's antioxidant property better than hot air drying (4). Additionally, C. fulvescens was found to have anticancer properties, as it has compounds that can improve the elimination of cancer cells from the body (5). You can enjoy eating this healthy seaweed in traditional Korean dishes like gul-guk-bap or oyster soup (1). Seaweed Seaweed has been long used in cultures in East Asia, particularly Korea, for various uses involving traditional cuisine and medicine (1). There are various types of seaweed that fall into two main varieties: green and red seaweed. Edible seaweed is produced mainly in Korea, where it is harvested in the wild coastal areas and cultivated on man-made farms. There are many seaweed species, and each type has unique benefits to humans including antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammation, and anti-diabetic properties. Capsosiophon fulvescens References Cultural Significance Miyeok-guk is one of the most popular meals in Korean Cuisine. It is a seaweed soup that is traditionally eaten by mothers after labor, which aims to help them to recover and support the newborn. This is why it is also called birthday soup as it marks such a sentimental event. Not only this dish is very comforting, but it also contains antioxidants (3). Sanjeewa, K. K.; Lee, W. W.; Jeon, Y.-J. Nutrients and Bioactive Potentials of Edible Green and Red Seaweed in Korea. Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2018, 21 (1). Go, H.; Hwang, H.-J.; Nam, T.-J. Polysaccharides from Capsosiphon Fulvescens Stimulate the Growth of IEC-6 Cells by Activating the MAPK Signaling Pathway. Marine Biotechnology 2010, 13 (3), 433–440. Kim, E.-Y.; Choi, Y. H.; Lee, J. I.; Kim, I.-H.; Nam, T.-J. Antioxidant Activity of Oxygen Evolving Enhancer Protein 1 Purified from Capsosiphon Fulvescens. Journal of Food Science 2015, 80 (6). Zhang, Z.; Wang, X.; Yu, S.; Yin, L.; Zhao, M.; Han, Z. Synthesized Oversulfated and Acetylated Derivatives of Polysaccharide Extracted from Enteromorpha Linza and Their Potential Antioxidant Activity. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 2011, 49 (5), 1012–1015. Kim, K.-N.; Ahn, G.; Heo, S.-J.; Kang, S.-M.; Kang, M.-C.; Yang, H.-M.; Kim, D.; Roh, S. W.; Kim, S.-K.; Jeon, B.-T.; Park, P.-J.; Jung, W.-K.; Jeon, Y.-J. Inhibition of Tumor Growth in Vitro and in Vivo by Fucoxanthin against Melanoma B16F10 Cells. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology 2013, 35 (1), 39–46. Hwang, E. K.; Choi, H. G.; Kim, J. K. Seaweed Resources of Korea. Botanica Marina 2020, 63 (4), 395–405 Jung, S. A Korean birthday soup for any occasion. https://www.seriouseats.com/miyeok-guk-korean-seaweed-and-brisket-soup (accessed Apr 7, 2023). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Figure 1: Farmed seaweedspecies in Korea. Ref 6. Figure 2: Miyeok-guk soup. Ref 7. 323
Introduction Senna alexandrina, commonly known Alexandrian Senna is a small shrubby plant of the legume family (Fabaceae) cultivated best in sandy and sandy loam soils (Alshehri et al., 2022). It is popular for its medicinal and therapeutic properties in both traditional and modern modes of medicine (Ypey, 2005). The herb is widely used medicinally in its decoction powder form and dried for its tea form using the leaves, and pods. Senna is infamous for its uses as a natural laxative, as well as its antibacterial, anti-fungal, antinflammatory, properties amongst many others (Aldred et al., 2009). Active Compounds & Toxicity Senna alexandrina leaves and pods contain active compounds Senna glycosides/ Sennosides, which are responsible for its laxative effects. After sennosides have been metabolized in the colon by bacteria, it leads to the release of the anthraquinone aglycones. This compound stimulates the colon's smooth muscle, causing increased peristalsis and water retention, allowing easy bowl movements (Vilanova et al., 2018 ). Although the herb itself is not toxic, excessive use can cause severe disrupted gastrointestinal tract, weakened bowl muscles/ diarrhea, and in rare cases: dermatitis (Aldred et al., 2009). Yellow flowers in spring and summer before wilting. Flower has 5 sepals & 5 petals. 2 Pods/fruit of plant. Grows in fall, after flower growth. Ripe after flower wilting. Taproots, edible but has no current medical uses. SENNA Alexandrina Figure 1. S. alexandrina in bloom. The plant is a small dicot shrub of 1– 1.5 m height with pale green, pinnate leaves, yellow 5 petaled flowers, 2 pods containing 11 seeds each, and taproots (Ypey, 2005; Alfakih, 2012). Pinnately compound leaves with opposite paired leaflets. Usually grows in groups of 5-8. Picked before or while the plant is in flower. Figure 2. Indigenous geographic range of S. Alexandria. The blue displays areas Senna species are commonly grown, the red display areas S. Alexandria is native. Red area includes Egypt Sudan, Arab peninsula, Somalia and Nigeria (Alshehri et al., 2022) History Senna alexandrina has a history of use as a laxative; It was first documented medicinally by Arab doctors in the 9th century. The herb's common name is Arabic in origin and comes from the Arabic word "sena," which refers to plant species that have cathartic and laxative properties in their leaves and pods (Lustrea, 2021). 324
References • Aldred, S., Letchford, D., & Nelson, L. (2009). Senna. Journal of Herbal Pharmacotherapy. 7(1), 89-103. • Alfakih, A. (2012). Senna alexandrina var.alexandrina. iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/52349-Senna-alexandrina • Alshehri, M., Quispe, C., Herrera, J., Sharifi-Rad, J., Tutuncu, S., Aydar, E., Cho, W. (2022). A Review of Recent Studies on the Antioxidant and AntiInfectious Properties of Senna Plants. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/6025900 • Lustrea, J. (2021, August 18). Civil War medicinal herb garden - how Senna was used as a remedy. National Museum of Civil War Medicine https://www.civilwarmed.org/senna/ • Randell, R., Barlow, A. (2020). Senna. Flora of Australia. https://profiles.ala.org.au/opus/foa/profile/Senna • Vilanova-Sanchez, A., Gasior, A. C., Toocheck, N., Weaver, L., Wood, R. J., Reck, C. A., Wagner, A., Hoover, E., Gagnon, R., Jaggers, J., Maloof, T., Nash, O., Williams, C., & Levitt, M. A. (2018). Are Senna based laxatives safe when used as long term treatment for constipation in children?. Journal of pediatric surgery, 53(4), 722–727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2018.01.002 • Ypey, A. (2005). Sequel to the Illustrations of the medical crops with their Nederduitsche and Latin descriptions (1813). http://www.biolib.de/oskamp/band7/high/IMG_8445.html 325
Snake Plant The snake plant, scientifically known as Dracaena trifasciata, is commonly seen in homes and office spaces, but its native habitat is in western Africa, accustomed to dry, tropical climates. It is a stemless evergreen perennial with upright, fleshy, pointed, and sword-like shaped leaves with deep green colour and horizontal stripes (Missouri Botanical Garden, n.d.). The word "trifasciata" comes from Latin, which means "marked with three bands," also representing the diversity of snake plants. It is also known as Mother-in-law's tongue or Saint George's sword. Moreover, some people call it Viper's bowstring hemp due to its strong fibres that were once used for bowstrings and are now for construction materials. (Miller, 2019) It is regarded to be relatively safe, but it is slightly toxic. Its leaves' sap contains saponins, a poison that helps kill mosquitoes, but can result in swelling and numbness if taken in large doses. Therefore, it is advisable to keep it away from children and pets. (Frothingham, 2022) Warning! According to Chinese Feng Shui, snake plants can offer the eight important virtues. It can remove resentment and absorb bad energy while giving good fortune. While Nigerians employ snake plants in a ritual to banish the evil eye and view them as spiritual protection (Miller, n.d.) Beliefs Lingeman, J. (n.d.) Snake Plant [Image]. Pinterest 3 Major Benefits of Taking Care of Snake Plants Nirajan (March, 2023) Snake Plant Flower [Image]. Plants Craze Arunothai, T. (n.d.) Snake Plant [Photo]. Canva Once mature, it can produce a cluster of cream-coloured flowers that can develop into small orange fruits; however, it is rare indoors. (Missouri Botanical Garden, n.d.) On a phytochemical screening of ethanol extract of its leaves and rhizomes, it include alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, glycosides, tannins, sterols, and triterpenes. (Qian, n.d.) Dracaena trifasciata BIO B38 APR. 07, 2023 FILTER THE AIR. Snake plants can assist with regulating a healthy airflow. Even at night, it is known to be able convert carbon dioxide into oxygen. (Frothingham, 2022) To protect against airborne allergies, it has the capacity to absorb and eliminate hazardous chemicals or pollutants like benzene, formaldehyde, xylene, trichloroethylene, and toluene. (Yablonski, 2022) Additionally, its phytochemicals lessen the bacterial population, making a great air purifier. (Berame et al., 2017) MENTAL HEALTH ENHANCEMENT. According to 2018 research, taking care of an indoor plant, as a whole, is considered a mental health booster. It promotes the engagement of humans with nature and provides comfort. (Deng et.al., 2018) RELIEVES MINOR PHYSICAL AILMENTS. Snake plants contain antiinflammatory compounds. (Chinasa et. al., 2011) The leaves' sap can be administered directly on infected sores, wounds, and burns to aid healing. It can also be used in aromatherapy to reduce headaches. (Frothingham, 2022) In China, they use it to cure boils, coughs, bronchitis, and traumatic injuries. (Berame et al., 2017) It is low maintenance plant that can last for many years with proper care. 326
Nirajan. (2023, March 11). Snake plant flower [how & when does it bloom?]. Plants Craze. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://plantscraze.com/snake-plantflower/ Beramie, J. S., Cuenca, S., Cabilin, D., & Manaban, M. (2017). Preliminary phytochemical screening and toxicity test of leaf and root ... Retrieved April 8, 2023, from https://www.hilarispublisher.com/open-access/preliminaryphytochemical-screening-and-toxicity-test-of-leaf-and-rootparts-of-the-snakeplant-sansevieria-trifasciata-2329-9002-1000187.pdf Chinasa, E., Ifeoma, I.-A. S., Chhukwuemeka, E. S., & Obodoike, E. C. (2011, October 19). Evaluation of anti-inflammatory property of the leaves of Sansevieria liberica ger. and labr. (fam: dracaenaceae). Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1995764511601958? via%3Dihub Deng, L., & Deng, Q. (2018, November 1). The basic roles of indoor plants in human health and comfort - environmental science and Pollution Research. SpringerLink. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-018-3554-1 Frothingham, S. (2022, January 24). 7 reasons snake plants make the best indoor plants. Healthline. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://www.healthline.com/health/benefits-of-snake-plant Miller, R. (2019, April 6). Sansevieria 101: How to care for snake plants. Succulent City. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://bloomscape.com/plant-careguide/sansevieria/ Qian, sui I. (n.d.). Dracaena trifasciata (Prain) Mabb. Philippine Medicinal Plant. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from http://www.stuartxchange.org/Tigre.html Sansevieria trifasciata. Missouri Botanical Garden. (n.d.). Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx? kempercode=b617#:~:text=Sansevieria%20trifasciata%2C%20commonly%20called %20snake,native%20to%20tropical%20western%20Africa. Yablonski , B. (2023, January 9). Snake plant meaning and symbolism around the world. Petal Republic. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://www.petalrepublic.com/snake-plant-meaning/ REFERENCES 327
328
EDIBLE USES: M E D I C I N A L U S E S : M E D I C I N A L U S E S : O T H E R U S E S : A C T I V E C O M P O U N D S : T O X I C I T Y : C U L T U R A L S I G N I F I C A N C E : H A B I T A T : SUNFLOWERS I N A D D I T I O N T O B E I N G F R E Q U E N T L Y E A T E N A S A S N A C K , S U N F L O W E R S E E D S A R E A L S O U S E D I N B A K I N G A N D C O O K I N G . S U N F L O W E R S E E D O I L I S E X T R A C T E D A N D U S E D I N C O O K I N G A N D A S A B I O F U E L ( C A B I , 2 0 2 1 ) . w w w . r e a l l y g r e a t s i t e . c o m H e l i a n t h u s a n n u u s T h e s u n f l o w e r i s w e l l - k n o w n f o r i t s m a n y a p p l i c a t i o n s a s w e l l a s i t s b r i g h t a n d v i b r a n t a p p e a r a n c e . S u n f l o w e r s a r e u s e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f b i o f u e l s a s w e l l a s f o r f o o d , o i l , a n d b i r d s e e d ( C A B I , 2 0 2 1 ) . I n f l a m m a t o r y s k i n d i s o r d e r s i n c l u d i n g e c z e m a a n d p s o r i a s i s m a y b e h e l p e d b y s u n f l o w e r o i l , w h i c h i s t h o u g h t t o h a v e a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y q u a l i t i e s ( P a l , 2 0 1 1 ) . S u n f l o w e r s e e d s h a v e a h i g h d o s e o f v i t a m i n s E a n d m a g n e s i u m ( P a l , 2 0 1 1 ) . S u n f l o w e r p l a n t s a r e o f t e n u s e d f o r o r n a m e n t a l p u r p o s e s d u e t o t h e i r l a r g e , b r i g h t f l o w e r s . A v a r i e t y o f e l e m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g v i t a m i n s , m i n e r a l s , a n d g o o d f a t s , c a n b e f o u n d i n s u n f l o w e r s e e d s ( G o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a & P l a n t B i o s a f e t y O f f i c e , 2 0 1 5 ) . L i n o l e i c a c i d a n d o l e i c a c i d m a k e u p t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e o i l t h a t i s e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e s e e d s ( G o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a & P l a n t B i o s a f e t y O f f i c e , 2 0 1 5 ) . A l p h a - p i n e n e , l i m o n e n e , a n d b e t a - c a r y o p h y l l e n e a r e o n l y a f e w o f t h e s e v e r a l s u b s t a n c e s f o u n d i n s u n f l o w e r e s s e n t i a l o i l ( G o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a & P l a n t B i o s a f e t y O f f i c e , 2 0 1 5 ) . A n t i m i c r o b i a l a n d a n t i o x i d a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s e s u b s t a n c e s w e r e d i s c o v e r e d , a n d t h e y m a y b e h e l p f u l i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f a v a r i e t y o f d i s o r d e r s ( P a l , 2 0 1 1 ) . I n g e n e r a l , i t i s s a f e t o c o n s u m e s u n f l o w e r o i l a n d s e e d s i n m o d e r a t i o n . S u n f l o w e r s e e d s c a n c a u s e a n a l l e r g i c r e a c t i o n i n s o m e p e o p l e , a n d c o n s u m i n g t o o m u c h o f t h e m m i g h t c a u s e s t o m a c h p r o b l e m s ( C A B I , 2 0 2 1 ) . S u n f l o w e r s h a v e b e e n g r o w n f o r f o o d , o i l , a n d m e d i c i n e b y m a n y c u l t u r e s f o r t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s , i n c l u d i n g N a t i v e A m e r i c a n s w h o c o n s i d e r e d i t a v i t a l c r o p ( N a t i o n a l S u n f l o w e r A s s o c i a t i o n , n . d . ) . A r o u n d 3 0 0 0 B C , t h e y b e g a n t o b e c u l t i v a t e d i n w h a t i s n o w A r i z o n a a n d N e w M e x i c o ( N a t i o n a l S u n f l o w e r A s s o c i a t i o n , n . d . ) . T h e y w e r e u s e d a s a s n a c k , i n f l o u r , a n d f o r s k i n a n d h a i r c a r e . A d d i t i o n a l l y , s u n f l o w e r s w e r e u s e d a s b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s , i n r i t u a l s , a n d a s a s o u r c e o f p u r p l e d y e f o r c l o t h i n g a n d b o d y a r t ( N a t i o n a l S u n f l o w e r A s s o c i a t i o n , n . d . ) . A l t h o u g h t h e y c a m e o r i g i n a l l y f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a , s u n f l o w e r s a r e c u r r e n t l y g r o w n a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d . T h e y g r o w i n f i e l d s , g a r d e n s , a n d b y t h e s i d e s o f r o a d s a n d p r e f e r w e l l - d r a i n e d s o i l a n d d i r e c t s u n l i g h t ( G o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a & P l a n t B i o s a f e t y O f f i c e , 2 0 1 5 ) . (Canva, 2023) ( C a n v a , 2 0 2 3 ) (Canva, 2023) (Canva, 2023) ( M e d l o c k , 2 0 2 2 ) 329
R e f e r e n c e s C A B I . ( 2 0 2 1 ) . H e l i a n t h u s a n n u u s ( s u n f l o w e r ) . C A B I C o m p e n d i u m . 1 0 . 1 0 7 9 / c a b i c o m p e n d i u m . 2 6 7 1 4 C a n v a . ( 2 0 2 3 ) . G r a p h i c s . U n p u b l i s h e d m a n u s c r i p t . c a n v a . c o m G o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a , & P l a n t B i o s a f e t y O f f i c e . ( 2 0 1 5 ) . T h e B i o l o g y o f H e l i a n t h u s a n n u u s L . R e t r i e v e d A p r i l 0 4 , 2 0 2 3 , f r o m h t t p s : / / i n s p e c t i o n . c a n a d a . c a / p l a n t - v a r i e t i e s / p l a n t s - w i t h - n o v e l - t r a i t s / a p p l i c a n t s / d i r e c t i v e - 9 4 - 0 8 / b i o l o g y - d o c u m e n t s / h e l i a n t h u s - a n n u u s - l - / e n g / 1 3 3 0 9 7 7 2 3 6 8 4 1 / 1 3 3 0 9 7 7 3 1 8 9 3 4 M e d l o c k , E . ( 2 0 2 2 ) . H o w T o D r a w a S u n f l o w e r . h t t p s : / / l i f e f a m i l y f u n . c o m . R e t r i e v e d A p r i l 0 5 , 2 0 2 3 , f r o m h t t p s : / / l i f e f a m i l y f u n . c o m / d r a w - a - s u n f l o w e r / N a t i o n a l S u n f l o w e r A s s o c i a t i o n ( n . d . ) . H i s t o r y o f t h e A m a z i n g S u n f l o w e r . h t t p s : / / w w w . s u n f l o w e r n s a . c o m / . R e t r i e v e d A p r i l 0 6 , 2 0 2 3 , f r o m h t t p s : / / w w w . s u n f l o w e r n s a . c o m / a l l - a b o u t / h i s t o r y / P a l , D . ( 2 0 1 1 ) . C h a p t e r 1 3 0 - S u n f l o w e r ( H e l i a n t h u s a n n u u s L . ) S e e d s i n H e a l t h a n d N u t r i t i o n . I n V . R . P r e e d y , R . R . W a t s o n & V . B . P a t e l ( E d s . ) , N u t s a n d S e e d s i n H e a l t h a n d D i s e a s e P r e v e n t i o n ( p p . 1 0 9 7 - 1 1 0 5 ) . A c a d e m i c P r e s s . 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / B 9 7 8 - 0 - 1 2 - 3 7 5 6 8 8 - 6 . 1 0 1 3 0 - 6 330
Common Sunflower Helianthus annus Figure 1. The common sunflower (Helianthus annus). Photo from Escobedo (2017). The common sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is an annual herb popular across the world. Its native geographic range is the Great Plains region of Canada and the United States, but it was introduced into Europe in the 16th century and is now grown throughout the Americas, Europe, and Asia. Common sunflower was domesticated by Indigenous communities as an edible seed, but its introduction to Russia resulted in its use as an oilseed crop (Park and Burke, 2020). SUNFLOWERS AS CROPS The common sunflower was originally domesticated for its edible seeds, but Russia began to cultivate it as an oilseed crop in the sixteenth century (Park and Burke, 2020). We continue to harvest both–you can find both sunflower seeds and oil in the grocery store! New studies have also identified sunflower florets as a potential nutritional source (Liang et al., 2013). What most people think are the sunflower’s “petals” are actually florets, which are themselves small flowers. The florets contain fatty acids and dietary fiber that may qualify them to be a future nutritional supplement (Liang et al., 2013). They also contain phenolic compounds like isoferulic acid, one of sunflowers' active compounds, which has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (Karamać et al., 2017). HELIOTROPISM Many plants demonstrate phototropism, where they align their stems and leaves with incoming sunlight to maximize photosynthesis. Sunflowers have an active form of phototropism called heliotropism. The plant orients itself during the day so the shoot continually faces the sun as it moves East to West, then reorients FOLKLORE Greek mythology describes the creation of sunflowers with the story of Apollo, the Sun God, and Clytie, a water nymph. Clytie fell deeply in love with Apollo, who rode his dazzling chariot across the sky each day to bring the daylight. Apollo did not share Clytie’s adoration, and her longing for the Sun God eventually drove her to madness. She sat each day and watched Apollo in his chariot as he crossed the sky from the East to West. Eventually, the infatuated nymph turned into the sunflower, which continues to turn its face to the sun as it moves East to West (also known as heliotropism). This story also explains why sunflowers often loyalty and adoration in flower "language" (Geist, 2022). Figure 2. Immature sunflowers display heliotropism, in which they reorient during the day to follow the sun from East to West. Photo from Dhali (2022). to face East again during the night. Different elongation rates on either side of the stem are responsible for this movement, which is coordinated with a circadian system. As the plant grows, it becomes less responsive to the sun’s movement and stem elongation slows so that the mature sunflower permanently faces East. The East-facing flowers are warmed by the sun, which helps them receive more pollination (Atamian et al., 2016). Figure 3. A field of cultivated Helianthus annus. Photo from iNaturalist (drewhart1, 2020). Figure 4. A common sunflower visited by a pollinator. Photo from Farquhar (2017). ALLELOPATHY Although humans can eat sunflower seeds, oil, and florets without worrying about toxicity, the common sunflower has allelopathic compounds that are toxic to other plants. These chemicals are released to harm neighbouring plants, and are often used as natural herbicides (chemicals used to remove weeds). The common sunflower releases its active phenolic and terpene compounds like acetic acid (also in our vinegar!) into the soil that inhibit the growth of plants growing close to it. Many farmers use this property by adding sunflowers to crop rotations to kill weeds without using harmful herbicides (Rawat et al., 2017). 331
References: Atamian HS, Creux NM, Brown EA, Garner AG, Blackman BK, Harmer SL. 2016. Circadian regulation of sunflower heliotropism, floral orientation, and pollinator visits. Science. 353(6299):587–590. doi:10.1126/science.aaf9793. Dhali D. 2022. Heliotropism – Definition, Examples, & Diagram. Science Facts. [accessed 2023 Apr 7]. https://www.sciencefacts.net/heliotropism.html. drewhart1. 2020 Sep 9. Common Sunflower (Helianthus annuus). iNaturalist. [accessed 2023 Mar 30]. https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/59043994. Escobedo E. 2017 Jun 23. Common Sunflower (Helianthus annuus). iNaturalist. [accessed 2023 Mar 30]. https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/6762750. Farquhar T. 2017 Nov 13. Common Sunflower (Helianthus annuus). iNaturalist. [accessed 2023 Mar 30]. https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/8796575. Geist L. 2022 Aug 31. Sunflower: The story of this summer goddess begins with search for love. [accessed 2023 Apr 7]. https://extension.missouri.edu/news/sunflower-the-story-of-this-summer-goddess-begins-with-search-forlove-5772. Karamać M, Koleva L, Kancheva VD, Amarowicz R. 2017. The Structure–Antioxidant Activity Relationship of Ferulates. Molecules. 22(4):527. doi:10.3390/molecules22040527. Liang Q, Cui J, Li H, Liu J, Zhao G. 2013. Florets of Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.): Potential New Sources of Dietary Fiber and Phenolic Acids. J Agric Food Chem. 61(14):3435–3442. doi:10.1021/jf400569a. Park B, Burke JM. 2020. Phylogeography and the Evolutionary History of Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.): Wild Diversity and the Dynamics of Domestication. Genes. 11(3):266. doi:10.3390/genes11030266. Rawat LS, Maikhuri RK, Bahuguna YM, Jha NK, Phondani PC. 2017. Sunflower allelopathy for weed control in agriculture systems. J Crop Sci Biotechnol. 20(1):45–60. doi:10.1007/s12892-016-0093-0. All other images provided by Canva (2023). 332
Peganum Harmala The plant Peganum Harmala (P.Harmala) is widely known as Syrian rue. “Esfand”, “Espand”,and “Harmal” are the names used for this plant in Traditional Iranian Medicine (TIM). This plant is grown in semi-arid conditions, similar to the ones found in Iran, steppe regions and sandy soils. The primary source of Peganum Harmala is central Asia, but it can also grow in Australia, north of Africa, and southwest of America. It is a perennial highly branched herbaceous(non-woody) plant reaching heights of 30 to 60 cm with short creeping roots. The plant's narrow leaves are aligned on fleshy, bright green stiff stems. The 5-petaled flowers are solitary, small, and pale yellow or white. The fruits are three chambered capsules; green when unripe, and orange-brown when mature. Each of the three capsules within the fruits contain more than 50 small black-brown triangular seeds ( Niroumand et al., 2015, p.104,105). Figure 1. Peganum Harmala plant Figure 3. three chambered fruit Penganum harmala contains several CNS stimulant; such as harmaline and harmine, therefore the extract can also be used for recreational purposes. Peganum Harmala can be used with plants containing DMT ( a very strong psychedelic) for production of the drink “Ayahuasca”; a Psychedelic drug, used both socially and as a psychotherapy treatment in indigenous cultures for thousands of years. The extract is mostly used orally to increase drug absorption (Passos et al., 2016, p.763) Cultural aspect: The most popular traditional use of P.harmala seeds is its use as a disinfectant; seeds are smoked by straight heat. The smoke is also used as a talisman against “evil eye”. The extract powder can also be brewed into tea (Niroumand et al., 2015, p.105). Peganum Harmala has been mostly used for its medical properties. Medical use: Seeds are known to be intoxicating, emetic (an agent that induces vomiting), carminative, and diuretic; they are also helpful in conditions such as epilepsy, memory loss, chronic headache, and kidney stone. Active alkaloids in P.harmala can also affect the nervous system. • A mixture of the seeds with flax seeds and honey is a treatment of dyspnea. • Aqueous extract of the seeds can be used to purify blood. (Niroumand et al., 2015, p .105). Harmala alkaloids need to be extracted Extraction : Seeds are harvested when mature and crushed or grinded into a fine powder. The crushed seeds are soaked for several hours in a solvent to extract the alkaloids; the solution is then filtered to remove any solid impurities. Consequently, the solvent is evaporated from the solution using a heat source. Lastly, the alkaloids are recrystallized; crystals are collected afterwards (Salehi et al.,2020, p. 1-8). Seeds are the main part of the plant, that are used for several purposes in this plant. Active compounds present in P. harmala providing the significant properties, are several alkaloids (Niroumand et al., 2015, p.105). Toxicity: Despite strong therapeutic effects this plant extract provides, high doses of P. harmala extract might be toxic and can cause hallucinations and neurosensorial syndromes, nausea and vomiting. Physical Poisoning includes neurological, gastrointestinal, and cardiovascular signs. Some alkaloids of the plant cause this toxicity (Kuete, 2014, p.646). Recreational/therapeutic use: Figure 2. Peganum Harmala seeds Figure 4. smoked P. harmala 333
Reference : 1) D. Passos, I, Mironidou-Tzouveleki, M. (2016). Hallucinogenic Plants in the Mediterranean Countries. Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse, 2(71), 761-772. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0- 12-800212-4.00071-6 2) Kuete, V . (2014). Physical, Hematological, and Histopathological Signs of Toxicity Induced by African Medicinal Plants. Toxological Survey of African Medicinal Plants, 22, 635-657. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800018-2.00022-4 3) Niroumand, M. C. (2015). Medicinal properties of Peganum harmala L. in traditional Iranian medicine and modern phytotherapy: a review. Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine = Chung i Tsa Chih Ying Wen Pan /, 35(1), 104–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0254-6272(15)30016-9 4) Salehi, H, Karimi, M, Rezaei, N, Raofie, F. (2020). Extraction of β-Carboline alkaloids and preparation of extract nanoparticles from Peganum harmala L. capsules using supercritical fluid technique, Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology, 56(A), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2020.101515 Figure 1: Website title: California Invasive Plant Council, https://www.cal-ipc.org/plants/profile/peganum-harmalaprofile/ Figure 2: article: Syrian Rue Seeds PEGANUM HARMALA *Organic* https://eternityinabox.com/shop/syrian-rueseeds-peganum-harmala/ Figure 3: Article title: Peganum Harmala, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peganum_harmala Figure 4: Article Title: Esfand, The Magical Guardian Herb, http://persianfoodtours.com/esfand/ 334
The Tamarind tree CULINARY USES Tamarind pulp is a staple in many Indian and Pakistani households, used for making chutneys and in many foods for its tartness. It can be used to make candies, jams, sweets, as well as juices. It can be used as a pickling agent. Its leaves and flowers can also be consumed and are used in salad dressings, curries, stews, as well as soups. (Morton, 1987) MEDICINAL USES Tamarind fruit is rich in various vitamins and minerals such as calcium, potassium, phosphorus, and magnesium (Kuru, 2014). The pulp from tamarind can be used as a form of traditional treatment for various ailments, such as jaundice, abdominal pain and dysentery, gastrointestinal disorders, peptic ulcers, and diarrhea. It also has antimicrobial, antiparasitic, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects (Kuru, 2014). Currently, polysaccharides from its seed are being used in eye drops used in the treatment of dry eyes (Norari & Ramin, 2021). HABITAT & GEOGRAPHIC RANGE Tamarind trees can grow across Asia, from Burma to Afghanistan. It is also found in the woodlands of Africa. It can grow in tropical regions that have wet and semi-arid climates. It can tolerate temperatures up to 47°C, but the tree is sensitive to frost. (Shaikh et al, 2017) It is mainly grown in areas that receive 500mm to 1500 mm or rain per year, but it can tolerate 350 mm if it was irrigated when planted. When grown in areas that receive 4000 mm of rain, its fruit yield is significantly decreased. It produced more fruit when it is subjected to a long dry period. (Shaikh et al, 2017) ACTIVE COMPOUNDS Tamarind contains many phenolic compounds, such as catechin, quercetin and isorhamnetin (Razali et al., 2015). It also contains terpenes such as lupanone and lupeol (Shaikh et al, 2017). Other active compounds found in tamarind are citric acid, niacin, tannins, and tartaric acid (Shaikh et al, 2017). Tamarind Candies CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE In Oman, the tamarind tree was historically used as a resting stop by travelers during long trips. They chose which tree to stop at depending on who lived nearby. They would take this chance to get to know those around them. (al Hashimi, 2022) In Malaya, tamarind and coconut milk is placed in the mouth of infants (Morton, 1987). To some Burmese, the tree is believed to be the place where a Rain God resides (Morton, 1987). TOXICITY In a study done by Rai et al. (2018) it was found that the pulp was safe up to 2000 mg/kg. TAMARIND Tamarindus indica The Tamarind Flower The Tamarind fruit 335
References Adeola, A. A., Adeola, O. O., & Dosumu, O. O. (2010). Comparative analyses of phytochemicals and antimicrobial properties of extracts of wild Tamarindus indica pulps. African Journal of Microbiology Reserch, 4(24), 2769-2779. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281065293_Comparative_analyses_of_phytochemicals_and_ant imicrobial_properties_of_extracts_of_wild_Tamarindus_indica_pulps Al Hashimi, A., & Al Shanfari, M. (2022, February 14). Breaking down the cultural significance of tamarind. Oman Observer. https://www.omanobserver.om/article/1114194/features/culture/breakingdown-the-cultural-significance-of-tamarind Arshad, M. S., Imran, M., Ahmed, A., Sohaib, M., Ullah, A., Nisa, M. U., Hina, G., Khalid, W., & Rehana, H. (2019). Tamarind: A diet‐based strategy against lifestyle maladies. Food Science & Nutrition, 7(11), 3378-3390. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.1218 The Beef Jerky Store. (n.d.). [Spicy Tamarind Candy]. beefjerkystore. https://cdn.beefjerkystore.com/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e 95/846.jpg Doughari, J. H. (2007). Antimicrobial activity of <i>Tamarindus indica</i> Linn. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.4314/tjpr.v5i2.14637 El-Siddig, K. (2006). Tamarind: Tamarindus Indica L. Crops for the Future. Garg, J. M. (2009, June 29). Tamarindus indica (Emli) flowers. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tamarindus_indica_(Emli)_flowers_W_IMG_9164.jpg Iskandar, I., Setiawan, F., Sasongko, L., & Adnyana, I. (2017). Six-month chronic toxicity study of tamarind pulp (Tamarindus indica L.) water extract. Scientia Pharmaceutica, 85(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/scipharm85010010 Kuru, P. (2014). Tamarindus indica and its health related effects. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 4(9), 676-681. https://doi.org/10.12980/apjtb.4.2014apjtb-2014-0173 Lim, C. Y., Mat Junit, S., Abdulla, M. A., & Abdul Aziz, A. (2013). In vivo biochemical and gene expression analyses of the antioxidant activities and Hypocholesterolaemic properties of Tamarindus indica fruit pulp extract. PLoS ONE, 8(7), e70058. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0070058 Martinello, F., Soares, S., Franco, J., Santos, A., Sugohara, A., Garcia, S., Curti, C., & Uyemura, S. (2006). Hypolipemic and antioxidant activities from Tamarindus indica L. pulp fruit extract in hypercholesterolemic hamsters. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 44(6), 810-818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2005.10.011 Morton, J. F. (1987). Fruits of warm climates. 336
Nozari, N., & Ramin, S. (2021). The effect of tamarind seed polysaccharidecontaining eye drop in dry eye syndrome: Results of an interventional, comparative, clinical study. Medical Hypothesis, Discovery & Innovation in Optometry, 2(2), 71-76. https://doi.org/10.51329/mehdioptometry128 Perkins, M., & Obrecht, C. (2013). Canva. https://www.canva.com/ Rai, A., Das, S., Chamallamudi, M. R., Nandakumar, K., Shetty, R., Gill, M., Sumalatha, S., Devkar, R., Gourishetti, K., & Kumar, N. (2018). Evaluation of the aphrodisiac potential of a chemically characterized aqueous extract of Tamarindus indica pulp. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 210, 118-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.08.016 Razali, N., Mat Junit, S., Ariffin, A., Ramli, N. S., & Abdul Aziz, A. (2015). Polyphenols from the extract and fraction of T. indica seeds protected HepG2 cells against oxidative stress. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-015-0963-2 Razali, N., Mat-Junit, S., Abdul-Muthalib, A. F., Subramaniam, S., & Abdul-Aziz, A. (2012). Effects of various solvents on the extraction of antioxidant phenolics from the leaves, seeds, veins and skins of Tamarindus indica L. Food Chemistry, 131(2), 441-448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.09.001 Shaikh, Z., Mujahid, M., Bagga, P., & Khalid, M. (2017). Medicinal uses & pharmacological activity of Tamarindus indica. World Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 5(2), 121-133. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312979163_Medicinal_uses_pharmacological_activity_of_Tam arindus_indica Sudjaroen, Y., Haubner, R., Würtele, G., Hull, W., Erben, G., Spiegelhalder, B., Changbumrung, S., Bartsch, H., & Owen, R. (2005). Isolation and structure elucidation of phenolic antioxidants from tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) seeds and pericarp. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 43(11), 1673-1682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2005.05.013 Three tamarinds, Tamarind Food Thai cuisine Fruit Seed, Jamun, eating, juice, карлик png. (n.d.). pngwing. https://www.pngwing.com/en/free-png-tlcma Verheij, E. W., & Coronel, R. E. (1992). Plant resources of south-east Asia: Edible fruits and nuts. no 2. 337
DID YOU KNOW? ================================== In Chinese culture, tangerine represents luck and success. (Reeve, 2002) In my culture, they are used to celebrating Chinese New Year. SNACK =============================== Tangerine is a popular snack. They are seedless and easy to peel. (Reeve, 2002) They are safe to consume because they don't produce any toxic compounds. (Mandal, 2016) Therefore you can bring it anywhere and eat it at any time. Great for your health and a perfect sweet everyday snack. BACKGROUND ========================== Tangerines originated in China many years ago, and their popularity spread worldwide. (Reeve, 2002) Their adaptability has a quite wide range, and they can even survive in cold temperatures. (Reeve, 2002) ESSENTIAL OIL ==================================== Tangerines are also used for essential oil. The research found that the essential oil of tangerine provides antimicrobial, antifungal, and antioxidant. Limonene is one of the compounds that contributes the most to making essential oil. (Mandal, 2016) Tangerine Citrus reticulata 338
Citations Cladiodiv. Tangerine fruit food transparent PNG Pro PNG [Photograph]. Vecteezy. https://www.vecteezy.com/png/8550727-tangerine-fruit-food-transparent-png Fernandes, Lucia (2022). Our Complete Guide to Tangerine Essential Oil: Benefits, Uses and Cautions. [Photograph] Volantaroma. https://volantaroma.com/blogs/guides/complete-guide-to-tangerine-essentialoil Mandal, S., & Mandal, M. (2016). Tangerine (Citrus reticulata L. var.) oils. In Essential oils in food preservation, flavor and safety (pp. 803-811). Academic Press. NoName_13. (2016) Peeled Tangerines on the Table [Photograph]. Pixabay. https://pixabay.com/photos/tangerines-oranges-segments-citrus-1721633/ Reeve, D., & Arthur, D. (2002). Riding the citrus trail: When is a mandarin a tangerine?. Perfumer and Flavorist, 27(4), 20-23. Verdina, Anna. (2012). Tangerines [Photograph]. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/58739058@N07/7072869651/in/photolist-bM1iJt-5Lwk5r-49e4Qw-4n6V9UdkWvnf-BTZeM-4enAQF-9cpCtu-oc5Hf-jgSLXp-5QUnHB-rcGew1-7DbagZ-2SpQt6-wpUcJ-5XMFV1-5YofLe9pZ8Hy-9gGnJJ-vshSs-4p16iC-4yaEhs-4jFFPa-adCYt-BTZeN-TiiK-CpHpRc-BTZeL-4mcsAu-4ktj6N-wyjMTiWLKEc-4vBVV2-7kDHH9-BTZeK-e2ubGe-3F51bk-ayxgQ-aYfak6-5qqaMv-AHLz7-AwG6EB-uXA6k-aCkSBAqiaHRx-a5iVCB-4ktpWi-5Pbz6K-7hzRZD-9dBd8o. Young, Grace (2021). Grace Young's citrus fruit display for the New Year includes tangerines, oranges, pomelo, a red money envelope and a golden ingot [Photograph]. EatingWell. https://www.eatingwell.com/article/7888718/lunar-new-year-lucky-citrus-fruits/ 339