History of the world in 1,000 objects

50 EARLY SOCIETIES 20,000–700 BCE

TRADE BATTLE AND CONFLICT decorative
pommel
In Shang times, trade brought in cowrie shells Warfare was regularly mentioned on oracle bones, and enemy
(used as currency) and turtle shells, jade, tin, and prisoners were often sacrificed in rituals—1,200 were found in
copper, and Chinese silk was exchanged with steppe 12 Shang royal graves. Horse-drawn chariots, introduced from
nomads. The invention of cast-bronze coinage, the steppes, were originally used for ceremonial purposes. Over
in various denominations, in Middle Zhou times time, they were increasingly used as elite fighting platforms, but
reflects the beginning of a market economy. during the Eastern Zhou period, infantry became more important.

coin shaped Decorated dagger
like a spade, an This dagger would have
essential tool belonged to a member
of the elite. Swords
inscription were introduced in the
in early Zhou period, but did
not become widely
Chinese script used until later.

cutting turquoise inlay
edge of
bronze ax ritual ax blade
made from
Axes valuable white
Blades mounted on long shafts were the usual jade
weapon of foot soldiers. Through time, these
evolved from simple axes to halberds (see p.51). tang for inserting
into wooden haft
dagger blade

Spade money Knife money Ge dagger-ax holes for cast bronze
Chinese coinage was Each state made its own The dagger-ax was the characteristic binding blade
invented in the 7th century form of coinage in the weapon of the Zhou warrior. It was a to haft
BCE. In the north and central Middle Zhou period. developed form of the simpler halberd,
states of the Zhou region, Knife-shaped coins were mounted and wielded in the same way.
this took the form of made by states in the east
miniature spades. (Shandong peninsula).

CLOTHING AND ADORNMENT monster face

Later Neolithic, Shang, and Zhou people made human Neolithic head
textiles from hemp and ramie (a type of nettle). face ornament
The elite also had garments of silk and high- In the Liangzhu culture
quality jade jewelry. Fu Hao, consort of a Shang hole for attachment of southern China,
king, had many jade ornaments among her grave to headdress specialized craftsmen
furnishings, some of which were antiques from created many jade objects.
the Neolithic Longshan and Shijiahe cultures. Headdress plaques were
decorated with a
polished stone human-and-monster face.

perforated, gray-green
creamy white jade pin
jade head

Stone earrings inlaid Longshan hair pin
These slit earrings were made by the Majiabang culture turquoise This beautiful jade pin comes from a
of the Yangtze river estuary in the 4th millennium BCE. bead rich burial, perhaps of a local ruler,
Such earrings were still popular in the Zhou period. around 2000 BCE. It may have been
worn in the hair or with a scarf.

CHINA’S FIRST CELESTIAL EMPIRE 51

HOME LIFE red and dark- characteristic
brown painted patterns
Shang and Zhou kings were surrounded by decoration
nobles, officials, and priests—the elite who loop
enjoyed luxuries such as jade, bronze, and Painted pot handle
lacquerware. However, most people lived Fine painted pottery, such as this 3rd-
in villages, farming millet, rice, fruit, and millennium BCE Neolithic Majiayao culture Majiayao jar
vegetables, and raising pigs and chickens. jar, may have been made to place in burials Neolithic people used pots to store water
They used everyday items such as pottery. rather than for everyday use. and food. A rope secured round the middle
of a large, heavy storage jar made it easier to
distinctive grip the vessel when lifting.
decoration

cord-impressed turned
decoration out rim

hollow legs
allow heat to be

transmitted to
cooking liquid

Xindian pot Zhou tripod pot
Groups in different regions had their own The tripod vessel, used to heat liquids, was a
characteristic styles of pottery decoration. standard pottery form from Neolithic times.
This vessel was made by the Xindian culture, A perforated bowl set in the top could be
neighbors of the Shang to their northwest. used to steam rice.

BELIEFS AND RITUALS Jade cong elaborately
Tubular jade objects called cong were used in decorated hilt
The Shang recognized a supreme deity, Di, and Neolithic elite burials and ritual contexts after
during the Zhou dynasty, Tian took on this role. 3000 BCE. Their shape echoes later cosmology,
However, most rituals were concerned with and is meant to symbolize heaven and earth.
honoring the ancestral spirits, who were consulted
by oracle bone divination (see p.48). Ritual objects,
many of which were made of jade, were placed
in elite burials.

Decorated Shang halberd hafted
Shang royalty were buried with portion
many fine grave goods including
weaponry such as this bronze
halberd, which would have been
mounted at right angles to a long
wooden haft.

strong broad blade

suspension
loop

Bronze bells smaller bell gives relief
Ranked sets of bronze bells were introduced higher note decoration
in the Zhou period. Small-scale sets of these
bells, such as the ones shown here, were larger bell gives
often placed in elite graves. lower note

52 EARLY SOCIETIES 20,000–700BCE tiger, inspired by art of
Shang’s southern neighbours
Shang guang
The guang was used for storing and serving owl’s ear
wine. Once the lid was removed, the lower
portion became a spouted pitcher from
which to pour the wine. This clever and
attractive design combines two significant
animals, the tiger and the owl, placed back
to back. Although the guang continued into
Western Zhou times, the tiger-owl form was
a short-lived Shang design.

owl’s eye,
looking skyward

unusual tiger’s
owl figure hind leg

bearlike
head

handle in form
of composite
bird-animal
owl’s wing

bird’s foot
with claws

tiger’s tail, lazily
curling around

CHINA’S FIRST CELESTIAL EMPIRE 53

tiger’s ear guang HONORING THE ANCESTORS
tiger’s eye lid
RITUAL VESSEL

tiger’s open teeth through Like many features of Shang culture, dedicated, and often express a hope
which wine could breathe the use of special vessels for pouring that the vessel, placed in the clan
and serving liquids began in earlier ritual hall, would be treasured by
while lid kept it from cultures. Vying for prestige with the future generations of descendants.
cooling down splendor of their ritual feasts,
Neolithic leaders would serve drinks SHANG TECHNOLOGY
in ritual vessels made of pottery. By
Shang and Zhou times, such cult The Shang developed advanced
practices had become embedded in casting technology to produce these
tradition, except the vessels were now elaborate bronze ritual vessels. A plain
made of bronze and the designs had ceramic model of the vessel was
become more elaborate. prepared and a ceramic mold created
around it. This was then cut off in
FOOD AND DRINK sections and the fine detail added by
incising the decoration into the mold
Sets of ritual vessels were used in pieces. When cast, these designs
ceremonial banquets at which food would appear on the vessel in relief.
and drink were offered to honor and The mold and core were kept separate
placate the ancestors, who could by inserting small metal spacers, which
influence the fate of their descendants, melted into the molten metal of the
for good or ill. The make up of Shang vessel during casting. Designs often
ritual vessel sets reflects the elaborate included projecting flanges to disguise
formality of the ceremony, each vessel the casting seams at connections
having its own specific purpose. The between pieces of the mold.
Zhou abandoned some Shang vessel
types but introduced many new ones. Unlike lost-wax casting, in which
the mold has to be broken to
Social status was now reflected in remove the cast bronze object, the
the composition of an individual’s Chinese piece-mold casting allowed
ritual vessel set. Many bronze ritual repeated mold use. It facilitated mass
vessels bear a dedication. These production, undertaken in large-scale
generally name the donor and the official workshops rather than by
ancestor to whom the vessel is individual craftsmen.

knobbed
handle on lid

TAOTIE vertical casting buffalo
animal handle seam disguised head

as a flange high rounded
relief, typical

of Zhou
decoration

ring foot

Western Zhou gui Shang bronze gu Western Zhou lei
The gui was one of the most important types A small amount of wine was heated in a A lei is a lidded jar with a widening base.
of vessel used in the rituals. It was designed tripod jue before being served in the elegant It was used, along with the gu and the
to serve grain and sacrificial meat. Many are gu. Both types of vessel went out of fashion jue, in making libations of wine during
decorated with a taotie, a mythical monster. after the Shang period. ancestor ceremonies.

54 EARLY SOCIETIES 20,000–700 BCE

THE AWE-INSPIRING
GODS OF THE ANDES

The first great civilization of South America was the Chavín, a culture named after
their shrine at Chavín de Huantar, built high in the Peruvian Andes around 900 BCE.
The Chavín influenced many cultures in the Andean region, including the Paracas.

Grim warrior ▷ By 2600 BCE, Andean lowland Chavín de Huantar in the highlands
Carved slabs around communities were supported by rich combined lowland architecture with
a pre-Chavín shrine at marine resources and crops grown iconography focused on Amazonian
Cerro Sechin in Peru inland. Caral, in the Supe Valley in animals, perhaps a deliberate
show a procession Peru, became a flourishing city, with blending of regional religions.
of warriors and elite residences, craft workshops, and Controlling north–south and
defeated, mutilated shrines. After its decline around west–east trade routes, the shrine
enemies. Rituals 1800 BCE, other lowland communities flourished as a pilgrimage center and
involving prisoner constructed vast temple complexes. oracle until 200 BCE. The adoption of
sacrifice featured After 900 BCE, these ceremonial Chavín iconography shows that the
prominently in some centers were abandoned. The remains religion gained followers over most
Andean cultures. of small settlements, some of them of Peru, including the Paracas culture
fortified, suggest that conditions to the south. Later, the Paracas
became harsher. developed new beliefs and practices.

ART AND CULTURE BELIEFS AND RITUALS

Early Andean art is rich in symbolism and Chavín de Huantar was the religion’s major
formally composed, making use of symmetry, ceremonial center. Its two U-shaped temple mounds
faces and bodies that can be inverted, and other concealed a maze of dark galleries leading to the
compositional techniques to weave together inner sanctum, which housed the image of the
images of gods, knives, trophy heads, sacred terrifying supreme deity, the Staff God, which had
creatures, and plants. Chavín and Paracas claws and fangs, a feline face, and snakes for hair.
artists created textiles, goldwork, pottery, and The sunken outside courtyards were decorated with
engraved gourds. The Chavín also carved stone. symbolic carvings, including shamans transforming
into jaguars, harpy eagles, and monkeys.

paw face of the shallow mortar symbolic flared bilateral
cat’s Oculate Being, symmetry
eyes the Paracas god of design

for grinding jaguar form nostrils

arm with
hand holding
trophy-head

divided tongue, Paracas textile Chavín jaguar Shamanic
represented as Elaborate Paracas mummy bundles were wrapped in stone mortar transformation
a mantle and contained many fine textiles made from Hallucinogenic snuff ground Shaman heads with bulbous
two snakes cotton embroidered with alpaca wool. in this stone mortar was eyes and streaming noses
taken by a shaman to induce depict the consequences
one of two a trance in which he felt of taking hallucinogenic
birds flanking himself transforming into an snuff. Heads like this
the god’s legs animal, to communicate with reveal the shaman’s final
the spirit world. transformation into a jaguar.
fangs

cat’s ear

Paracas dish
The distinctive Paracas pottery was decorated
with geometric and symbolic patterns sharply
defined by incised borders, each section
colored, after firing, with thick resin paint.

THE MYSTICAL LAND OF THE OLMEC 55

THE MYSTICAL LAND
OF THE OLMEC

The Olmec are often considered the “Mother Culture” of Mesoamerican
civilization, displaying many features that were typical of later societies. These
included ball courts, pyramid mounds, shamanism, and ritual blood-letting.

Ceremonial The land and rivers of the Olmec’s dominance passed to La Venta. Much
center ▷ tropical lowland home in the south of the region was abandoned around
La Venta’s many of the Gulf of Mexico produced 400 BCE, although Olmec-related
monuments included abundant food. By 1200 BCE, a major culture continued further north.
this huge mound, ceremonial center had developed
fronted by a plaza at San Lorenzo, dominating a large Distinctive Olmec objects, art, and
accommodating region. Its layout demonstrates its architecture are known from many
thousands of rulers’ power to command a huge regions of Mesoamerica. They were
spectators. The site labor force: terraces bearing probably introduced by Olmec traders
also contains other houses and workshops, a vast plaza, seeking materials such as obsidian for
mounds, courtyards, and arrangements of massive stone tools and ritually significant goods
colossal heads, and monuments carved from basalt such as magnetite mirrors from
many ritual deposits. quarried 50 miles (80 km) away. Oaxaca, stingray spines for blood-
Around 900 BCE, San Lorenzo’s letting, greenstone from Guerrero
and Guatemala, and exotic feathers.

cleft head helmet for ritual
ball game
BELIEFS AND RITUALS
slanted,
Olmec sculptures, stone relief carvings, and ritual almond-
deposits give many clues to their religion. The shaped eyes
major deities—representing sky or air, earth
and the underworld, water and corn (the staple broad nose
crop)—had features of animals from the Olmec
enlarged
world, notably the caiman, jaguar, upper lip
harpy eagle, and snake. Olmec
rulers probably acted as mediators downturned
between the human and mouth
supernatural worlds.

loincloth

club or scepter feet with toes

Jadeite figurines Were-jaguar mask Were-jaguar celt personal Colossal head
In a ritual deposit at La Venta, jadeite Jadeite from Guatemala was Probably the Olmec water features Massive basalt heads probably portray individual
figurines were arranged in a scene, with highly valued by the Olmec and god, the “were-jaguar” (perhaps of ruler Olmec rulers wearing protective headgear for the
celts (axes) as pillars around them. Small their contemporaries for making the offspring of a jaguar and a Mesoamerican ball game, which had ritual, political,
human figures were traded in or locally figurines and other objects to human) was often depicted, and ceremonial importance, both then and later.
made by many contemporary cultures, deposit in offerings, shrines, shown as a dwarf or a floppy
indicating the spread of Olmec religion. and burials. baby with a cleft head.

The millennium following 700 BCE is known as the Classical
Age of Eurasian history. The Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, and
Chinese empires united large areas of Europe and Asia. These
empires provided stable government and encouraged trade and
the exchange of ideas. One result was the emergence of three
world religions: Christianity, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism.
In South America and Mesoamaerica, sophisticated civilizations
also developed, but these had few contacts with the wider world.

ANCIENT 700 BCE–600 CE
CIVILIZATIONS

58 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700 BCE–600CE Armor of the warring states
Greek warriors wore many styles of
THE CITY-STATES OF helmet. The most popular among these
ANCIENT GREECE was the Corinthian helmet, which covered
most of the face.
The civilization of ancient Greece, at its peak between the sixth and fourth
centuries BCE, was one of the most influential the world has ever seen. The Greeks
introduced the alphabet to Europe and changed politics, science, philosophy,
theater, and the study of history, among many other achievements. The influence
of Greek art and architecture, passed on by the Romans, is still visible all around us.

Home of the After the fall of the Bronze Age Socrates raised the all-important leading an alliance of Greek poleis,
divine ▷ civilizations, there was a long philosophical question, “What is defeated both invasions. Athens then
The Greeks believed “Dark Age.” Not much is known the right way to live?” led a league of seafaring poleis to free
that at holy places, about Greek history during this those Greeks who were under Persian
such as Delphi, the period, but we know more about THE GREAT WARS control. Gradually, the Athenians
gods would give the later Archaic (“old”) Age, turned the league into their own
them advice through from 800 to 500 BCE. Overseas The Greeks did not belong to a single empire. The rise of Athenian power
oracles. So before trade flourished and the Greeks state, living instead in hundreds of alarmed the Spartans, and in 431BCE
making any important founded many settlements around rival poleis, or city-states, which were a war broke out between the two
decision, such as the Mediterranean. A new alphabet often at war with each other. Each poleis. It was difficult for either side
whether to go to war, was introduced, and Homer polis, which included the city and to win, for Sparta was stronger on
a polis would send composed his epic poems surrounding countryside, had its land and Athens at sea. The war
messengers to Delphi about the Trojan War. own calendar, laws, public assemblies, lasted a long 27 years, ending in
to ask the god Apollo’s and coins. There was also an area, a Spartan victory.
priestess for advice. THE CLASSICAL AGE called an acropolis, where the chief
temples of the polis were located. The THE HELLENISTIC AGE
In the Classical Age, between the most powerful poleis were Athens
6th and 4th centuries BCE, Greek and Sparta. In the late 4th century BCE, the Greeks
civilization was at its height. were finally united under the rule of
Architects built stone temples with Although divided and competitive, King Alexander the Great of Macedon.
tall columns, which were decorated the Greeks felt they had a shared He also conquered the Persian Empire,
with magnificent sculptures, as identity. They were united by their spreading the Greek way of life from
well as theaters. worship of the same gods and shared Egypt to Afghanistan. His successors
religious festivals, such as the founded large kingdoms, such as
This was the age of many great Olympic Games. The Greeks looked the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt.
thinkers, such as Herodotus, the first down on foreigners, calling them This period, until about 146BCE, is
historian; Pythagoras, the founder of barbarians—because to Greeks, known as the Hellenistic (Greek) Age.
mathematics; and Hippocrates, who foreign languages sounded like At the end of this time, the Romans
pioneered a new scientific approach meaningless “bar-bar” noises. conquered all the Greek kingdoms. But
to medicine. The philosophers Thales Greek remained the common language
and Heraclitus questioned the basic In the 5th century BCE, the Persians of the eastern Mediterranean.
substance of the universe, and made two attempts to conquer Greece,
but the Spartans and Athenians,

“Like frogs around a pond, we have settled down
upon the shores of this sea.”

Plato, Phaedo, c.360 BCE



60 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700 BCE–600 CE ridged
track on
BATTLE AND CONFLICT
top of
The fiercely competitive Greeks saw constant warfare as a crown to
normal way of life. Fighting provided men with an opportunity
to win glory and fame. Warriors mostly fought as hoplites— attach
named after the large hoplon, or shield, they carried. Armed crest
with thrusting spears and with their shields locked together,
they would advance in a tight formation called a phalanx. neck
protector
Leaf-shaped blade broken tip
This is the iron blade of a hoplite’s thrusting spear, curved projection
which would have been about 7.5 ft (2.3 m) long. Such covers face
leaf-shaped blades are also depicted in vase paintings.
entire helmet made
from single piece
of bronze

Corinthian Illyrian helmet
helmet This open-faced helmet offered less
The Corinthian was the protection than a Corinthian. It is called
most effective type of Greek an Illyrian, after the Balkan area where
helmet. It was named after some of these helmets were first found.
Corinth but was worn by
Narrow blade hoplites from many poleis.
A hoplite would hold his spear above his head and thrust Some Corinthian helmets
it repeatedly down at the enemy lines. The narrow blade had horsehair crests.
shown here is less common than the leaf-shaped variety.

POWER AND POLITICS

The word “politics” comes from the Greek word polis, meaning city-state. While
most ancient societies were governed by kings, Greek poleis were run by assemblies
of male citizens. In most poleis, only the richest citizens wielded political power.
The Athenians invented the world’s first democracy (meaning “the rule of the
people”), in which every citizen could vote on important decisions.

Aphrodite, goddess of Corinth, or Pericles had a high
Athena wearing Corinthian helmet forehead, which

sculptors concealed
beneath a helmet

Pegasus, a mythical
winged horse

FRONT BACK

Corinthian coin
One side of this Corinthian coin shows Pegasus, who
was tamed by King Bellerophon using a bridle given
to him by the goddess Athena.

Athena’s helmet adorned with wreath
of olive leaves and decorated scroll

owl and bust would have been
olive branch mounted on square
stone plinth
Marble bust
FRONT BACK of Pericles
Pericles, the most famous
Athenian coin Athenian political leader,
The Athenians believed that their polis was named after, made Athens into an
and belonged to the goddess Athena. She was shown imperial power and
on their coins, along with her sacred bird, the owl. persuaded his fellow
citizens to build
magnificent temples.
Yet, he also led Athens
into a disastrous war
with Sparta, which the
Athenians eventually lost.

THE CITY-STATES OF ANCIENT GREECE 61

ARCHITECTURE gorgon, a mythical one half of a two-part
female monster terra-cotta waterspout
The word architecture comes from the Greek words arche and
tekton (meaning “rule” and “builder”). The main styles of temple
building were the Doric style from the mainland; the more
slender Ionic style from the coast of Anatolia in modern
Turkey, and the Corinthian style with plant decoration.

egg-and-dart
molding

Ionic capital Gorgon’s head Lion waterspout
This capital (top part of a column) was made in the This terra-cotta figure of a grinning gorgon’s head Waterspouts in the form of lions’ heads were used
Ionic style. Its main features were a pair of scrolls at is an antefix that decorated a temple roof. It was a by Greeks for centuries as decorations. They stood
the top and vertical ridges on the column. protective emblem to ward off evil. at the corners of temple roofs, draining away water.

ART AND CULTURE painted figure two handles for the
of youth with vessel to be held or
Greek artists worked in various media,
yet it is mostly stone sculptures, painted wine bag hung on the wall,
vases, and some metal vessels that survive Thetis revealing the scene
today. Vase painters first used the black holding
figure style, in which figures were painted a dolphin on the base
in black silhouette, using watered-down
clay, or slip, on a red background. Kylix
Athenian artists invented the red figure The kylix, a wide-bowled drinking vessel,
style around 530 BCE, leaving the figures was used by men at drinking parties called
red against a black background. symposia. The scene on the interior was
revealed as the wine was drunk.
EXTERIOR SHOWING
DRINKING PARTY

stephane, maenad, a
Greek female
wreath
follower of
headband Dionysus

bull- satyr—part
headed goat and
Minotaur part man

Theater mask Hydria Black figure amphora Krater
Many theatrical terms, including “tragedy” and Greek women used a hydria, or pitcher, This 6th-century BCE amphora, or wine The krater was used for mixing wine
“comedy” were Greek in origin. This terracotta to carry water from public fountains to vessel, is decorated in the black figure with water at drinking parties. This
decoration shows a mask that would have their homes. This one appropriately style. It depicts the Athenian hero krater shows a maenad and a satyr, both
been worn by an actor in a Greek comedy. portrays Thetis, the goddess of water. Theseus killing the mythical Minotaur. followers of Dionysus, the god of wine.

OLYMPIAN MYTHS THE OLYMPIC PENTATHLON 62 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700 BCE–600 CE

THE CAWDOR VASE

The most important Greek festival seen here features a myth invented horses given to him by Ares, the god The pentathlon was an Olympic event
was the Olympic Games, a great by the Greeks to explain the origin of war. Oenomaus would kill the in which athletes threw the discus and
sports event held every four years at of the Olympic Games. defeated suitor with a magical spear, javelin, wrestled, ran races, and competed
Olympia in southern Greece. It was another gift from Ares, and cut off his at the long jump. This discus was used
staged in honor of Zeus, king of the KING OENOMAUS victim’s head, nailing it above the in the 6th century BCE by a victorious
gods, and attended by men from all palace gates. pentathlete called Exoidas. He was so
over the Greek world. It was so Oenomaus, son of the war god Ares, proud of his victory that he had the discus
important that warfare was suspended was the ruler of Elis in southern THE VICTORY OF PELOPS inscribed with his name and dedicated it
while the games took place, to allow Greece. A great charioteer and lover to Castor and Pollux—twin heroes from
Greeks to travel safely to Olympia. of horses, he named his daughter Oenomaus was eventually defeated Greek mythology.
The games, established in 776 BCE, gave Hippodamia (horse tamer). Fearful of a by Pelops, with the help of divine
the Greeks a common dating system prophecy that he would be killed by horses given to him by Poseidon, the
and a shared sense of identity. his son-in-law, he found a way to sea god. Pelops also bribed Oenomaus’s
prevent Hippodamia from marrying. charioteer, Myrtilus, to replace the
MYTHS bronze axle pins on Oenomaus’s
Every time a suitor arrived, King chariot with wax ones. Just as
The Greeks created hundreds of Oenomaus would challenge the young Oenomaus was catching up with his
myths, or traditional stories, to man to a chariot race across southern rival in the race, his chariot wheels flew
explain the relationship between Greece. The suitor was given a head off, and he was dragged to his death.
gods and humans, how cities were start, while Oenomaus sacrificed a ram Pelops became the king of Elis, married
founded, and why religious rituals to Zeus, the ruler of the Olympian Hippodamia, and established the
were performed. The Cawdor vase gods, at Elis. The king would go on to Olympic Games to celebrate his victory.
win the race, thanks to a pair of divine

face on end winged figure of Eros, scene from myth in
of handle god of love, driving which Zeus’s sons,
four-horse chariot Castor and Pollux,

carry away daughters
of King Leucippus

“The most
important
thing... is not
winning but
taking part.”

Epictetus, Greek philosopher

female magical spear, THE CITY-STATES OF ANCIENT GREECE 63
attendant a gift from Ares
brings basket King Oenomaus
of offerings pours libation (wine
statue of offering) at altar
Zeus holding
thunderbolt three large
and spare palmettes on
wheel for neck of vase
Oenomaus’s
Fury, one of
chariot the goddesses
of vengeance
king’s
charioteer, youth seated on
cuirass (armored
Myrtilus,
carries ram to breastplate)
youth sitting inside
be sacrificed
naiskos, or small
altar of shrine—a scene often
Zeus at Elis
depicted on tombs
attendant brings naiskos with
horses for race
ionic columns
Iconographic vase
The Cawdor vase is a large krater— NAISKOS SCENE
a vessel for mixing wine with water
at drinking parties. It was painted
in the late 4th century BCE by a
Greek artist in southern Italy. After
its discovery in 1790, it belonged to
the King of Naples, a French general,
and the British Baron Cawdor,
from whom it takes its name.

64 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700 BCE–600 CE

BELIEFS AND Powerful god
RITUALS This statue shows either Zeus, the god
of sky and thunder, or Poseidon, the sea
The Greeks worshipped many god. Zeus would have held a thunderbolt
different gods, each of whom in his right hand and Poseidon a trident.
ruled over a specific area of Few Greek bronzes have survived; this
life. The most important gods one was recovered from a shipwreck.
formed a family group headed
by Zeus, the sky god. Most fine white marble
Greeks believed in the power from Mt. Pentelikon,
of the gods and feared
angering them. But some north of Athens
Greek philosophers doubted
the very existence of the gods.

arms outstreched
horizontally, with
right hand about

to hurl object

woman’s
face

bird
body

Horse offering Guardian herm Siren bottle
The Greeks tried to win the help of the gods A herm was a head of the god Hermes, This bottle in the shape of a siren was used
by sacrificing animals to them and offering placed as a guardian figure on street for oil. Sirens were mythical creatures, part
gifts at their temples. This terra-cotta horse corners and in gateways. This god bird and part woman. They were believed
is a votive, a gift for the gods. was thought to ward off evil. to lure sailors to their death.

horse seen
through
window

deceased
with family
or attendants

powerful stance,
with weight falling
on left, forward leg

Dining scene
The Greeks believed the dead could receive
offerings at their tombs. This sculpted relief
shows the deceased reclining to dine.

THE CITY-STATES OF ANCIENT GREECE 65

HOME LIFE vessel neck and Ionian
trefoil lip rising helmet
Greek men spent their days outside, meeting their from top of head
fellow men in the agora (marketplace) or in the
gymnasium, where they exercised. Women spent Swan jar
most of their time at home, caring for children, This vessel, used to store olive oil, is shaped
cooking, and spinning and weaving wool. In the as a swan. Olive oil was used in cooking and
evening, men relaxed separately from women at cosmetics, and in oil lamps in Greek homes.
all-male drinking parties held at home.

geometric
pattern

hole in center separately
to hold sauce attached

Fish plate cheekpiece
This dish shows two
striped perch and an Feeding cup African vase Ceramic jar
electric ray. Fish This spouted cup was used to feed Around 40 Greek vases have been After bathing, Greeks would rub their
formed an important babies or the sick. The Greeks also found in the form of black Africans. skin with olive oil. This little jar, in the
part of the Greek diet. made pottery dolls and pull-along The Greeks had trading posts and form of a hoplite, is an aryballos, a
animals on wheels for their children. colonies in North Africa. container for perfumed oil.

CLOTHING AND ADORNMENT upper body
decorated
Most Greeks dressed in clothes made at home by with
the women of the family. Even wealthy women were chevrons
expected to know how to spin and weave wool and
linen. The Hellenistic period was a time of increased interlinked
luxury, when women wore beautiful gold jewelry. chain pattern

Terra-cotta figurine Necklace Corinthian pyxis Perfume containers
Traces of color remain with pendant This small pyxis, with animal figures This pair of small glass
on this pottery statuette Greek women on it, could have been used by women containers was made in
that dates from the 4th wore several types to store trinkets or cosmetics. It was Rhodes in the 6th century
century BCE. The woman of necklaces, such made in Corinth, around 600BCE. BCE. Vessels such as these
wears an ankle-length as this Hellenistic were called amphoriskos.
dress, called a peplos, gold-chain necklace Horse pyxis
beneath a himation, from the period Greek women stored horse, symbol
or mantle. 323–31 BC. their jewelry in a of wealth and
pottery contained nobility
himation garnet called a pyxis. This
thrown over pendant large pyxis from decorative
one shoulder around 750 BCE has swastika
and wrapped bull’s head horses on the lid. pattern
around body at one end

an ankle- Gold earring
length dress This Hellenistic earring
is made of twisted gold
wire. Jewelry is often
found in Greek tombs.

66 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700 BCE–600 CE Stylized imagery
This Celtic gold coin is a distant
CELTIC KINGDOMS copy of a Macedonian one showing
a horse and chariot. Horses played a
From the 6th century BCE, a great Iron Age civilization stretched across Europe, from vital part in Celts’ lives.
Spain to the Balkans. Its warlike people, the Celts, shared common religious beliefs
and spoke related languages that survive today as Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, Irish, and
Breton. Skilled metalworkers, they made distinctive art with rich, swirling patterns.

Tower of The Celts lived as hundreds of Celtic armies also threatened these towns was built at Manching
defense ▽ different tribes and did not think the lands of the Mediterranean, (modern Germany). The town
In Scotland, Celtic of themselves as a single people. sacking Rome in 391 BCE and covered 940 acres (380 hectares)
chieftains built more Yet they were seen as distinctive invading Greece in 279 BCE. and had a population of 5,000
than 500 stone towers by their southern neighbors, Some of the invaders of Greece to 10,000 people. Oppida were
such as the Don the Greeks and Romans. The then crossed into Anatolia great centers for manufacturing
Carloway Broch term Celt comes from Keltoi— (modern Turkey), settling in an area and trade, where the Celts minted
seen here. These the name that the Greeks used called Galatia. Celtic was spoken their own coins, modeled
towers could be up for these people. The Greeks and in Galatia until the 5th century CE. on Greek examples.
to 42 ft (13 m) high. Romans were shocked by many
They served both Celtic practices, such as head- TOWNS ROMAN CONQUEST
as strongholds hunting and human sacrifice.
and stately homes, Contact with the Mediterranean Most of the Celtic lands were
displaying the power WARFARE world brought changes to Celtic eventually absorbed into the Roman
and wealth of the society. From the 3rd century BCE, Empire, and the Celtic way of life
chieftains who Celtic tribes were often at war with the Celts built fortified towns, disappeared. Many Celtic languages
lived in them. each other, and evidence for conflict which the Romans called oppida— survived, however, and in Ireland
survives in the form of their many a term derived from the Latin and Scotland, which were never
defensive structures, including hill word ob-pedum, which means conquered, Celtic traditions
forts and Scottish brochs (towers). “enclosed space.” The largest of continued until recent times.

WARFARE CELTIC KINGDOMS 67

Unlike the Romans, who fought in tightly SWORDS AND DAGGERS
disciplined groups, the Celts battled as
individual warriors, each seeking personal intricate scroll The Kirkburn sword
glory. Celtic warriors fought on foot or on pattern This 271⁄2 in- (70 cm-) long iron sword comes from
horseback, or they stood on two-horse a warrior’s grave in Kirkburn, England. The handle
chariots to throw javelins into the enemy is made from 37 pieces of iron, bronze, and horn rivet triangle
ranks. To show their bravery, many and is decorated with red glass. holes border
warriors went into battle naked.

ARMOR

flexible red enamel Sheath
wing pupil This sheath was built to cover a short sword
or dagger. It is made of sheets of bronze
bronze spike Ciumes¸ti helmet with a bark lining. When new, the sheath
protrudes through High-ranking warriors wore would have shone brightly in the sunlight.
tall crested helmets for display
top of helmet rather than protection. This corroded
helmet from Ciumes¸ti (modern surface
Satu Mare County, Romania)
has a bird of prey as its crest.

Iron dagger hilt resembles
This dagger’s hilt is decorated with incised bearded man
bands and an image of a bearded man. Found
in London, England, it dates from 100 BCE to 50 CE. grip was
originally
bronze strip wooden

cheekpiece main part of helmet Dagger scabbard indentations
hammered from The scabbard of this iron dagger is near hilt guard
CHARIOT FITTINGS single bronze plate decorated with bronze strips. It was
found in the Thames River, England,
and dates from c.550 BCE.

lip-shaped
molding

low-relief
design

Bronze horse fittings fine metalwork Bronze terret Axle decoration
These fittings adorned the chariots of high-ranking decorated with Fitted to the yoke of a chariot, a This beautiful bronze decoration, fitted to a
horsemen and were made by cutting a pattern enamel terret like this was used by the Celts chariot axle, shows that chariots were designed
in the surface and pouring in molten red glass. to guide the reins of each horse. for display as much as for their function in battle.

68 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE

BELIEFS AND RITUALS BASE OF CAULDRON

Among the hundreds of Celtic gods, scene of Gundestrup Cauldron
one of the most commonly represented ritual slaying This silver bowl, called the Gundestrup
is a horned male god associated with wild Cauldron, was found in a Danish bog.
animals. The Celts worshipped their gods of a bull Made up of 13 separate panels, it
by offering them precious objects thrown is 27 in (69 cm) in diameter and is
into rivers, lakes, and pools—entrances to decorated with scenes of warfare,
the world of the gods. People and animals gods, and sacrifice. The bowl itself
were also killed as sacrifices. was an offering to the gods.

Celtic warriors Celtic foot soldiers warriors carrying
ride into battle with long shields carnyxes—animal-
headed war trumpets
on horseback
giant figure, god with horns of boy on
probably a god, stag, holding a torc dolphin
plunges a dead and a serpent

man into a
cauldron

Celtic god

sacrificial
victims

CELTIC KINGDOMS 69

carefully worked
bronze rivets

Headdress
This horned helmet was thrown
into the Thames River, England, as
an offering. Although called a
helmet, it is really a ceremonial
headdress, perhaps worn
by a statue of a god.

Ragstone head Plaque
This male head in the La Tène style is from This bronze-layered plaque
Bohemia, Czech Republic. A 2nd century BCE dates from the 4th century BCE.
talisman found within a sacred enclosure, it It was recovered from the tomb
could represent a warrior or a Celtic deity. at Waldalgesheim, Germany.

spoon divided
into quarters

eyes would
have been
inlaid with

glass

Divination spoons
This pair of bronze spoons was found in Wales.
It is likely that a liquid, such as blood or water, was
dripped through the hole in the first spoon onto
the second spoon, in order to predict the future.

elaborate, Bronze bucket mount
symmetrical A horned god, also seen on
motif the Gundestrup Cauldron,
is shown in this bucket
mount from Kent, England.
The horns have broken off.

shield made of four
rivet sheets of bronze
hole riveted together

Crescent plaque red glass Battersea Shield
This bronze plaque is one of 150 enamel studs Like the headdress above, this shield, made of
precious metal items dropped bronze with 27 red enamel studs, was thrown
into a Welsh lake as an offering. into the Thames River as an offering. It was
The holes suggest it had been made for display rather than for real warfare.
attached to something, but its
function is unknown.

70 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE

CLOTHING AND ADORNMENT

Greek and Roman writers record that the Celts wore brightly
colored, patterned clothing—probably resembling Scottish
tartans. Men wore baggy pants, called bracae, and leather
belts with bronze buckles. They shaved their chins but grew
long moustaches. Both men and women wore jewelry,
including bracelets, brooches, and torcs (neck rings).

Torcs multiple gold
Gold torcs were worn by both men and threads twisted
women as a mark of high status. Warriors together
wore torcs in battle, perhaps believing
that they offered magical protection. warrior’s sword symmetrical
blade has broken cloverleaf
animal pattern
represented
on applique wolf clawing
at shield

Warrior and wolf Bronze mirror
This is a 3rd-century BCE The back of this bronze
gold fibula, a brooch used mirror is decorated with
for a cloak closure. It shows intricate patterns, typical
a naked warrior, with a shield of Celtic art.
and helmet, being attacked
by a fierce wolf.

Gold applique work Fibula cast-iron
This object decorated Brooches, or fibulas, handle
with animal forms comes such as this bronze
from Baiceni, Romania. decorated and silver one, were
Skilled Romanian catch plate used by Celts for
craftsmen excelled garment closures. They
at applique work. worked on the safety
pin principle.

POLITICS AND POWER Slave chains
Slavery was accepted in Celtic
The larger Celtic tribes were ruled by kings and queens, for women could society. These chains, found
hold power in their own right. Celtic society had different classes, and at Bigbury hillfort in Kent,
the warrior aristocracy owned most land. The majority of the population England, were part of a slave
lived as poor farmers. There were also bards (poets), priests, merchants, chain with six iron collars.
specialized craftsmen, and slaves captured in warfare.
ear of corn
Gold coin
Coins were minted by King figure-eight
Cunobelin of the Catuvellauni— shaped links
the most powerful tribe in
southern Britain. The letters FRONT BACK
CAMU stand for Camulodonum
(Colchester), and CUNO is short
for Cunobelin. The king adopted
the Roman alphabet for his coins
and used the Latin title rex (king).

THE GREAT PERSIAN EMPIRE 71

THE GREAT
PERSIAN EMPIRE

The Persian Empire, the world’s first superpower, spanned three continents,
stretching from Egypt to Afghanistan at its height. It respected foreign customs
allowing different peoples to preserve their laws, languages, and religions.

The royal guards ▷ The Persian Empire is also known empire into 20 provinces, or satrapies,
King Darius’s palace as the Achaemenid dynasty, after each with a satrap, or governor. His
at Susa had a huge Achaemenes, the earliest known subjects paid taxes and tribute to the
apadana, or audience Persian king, who ruled in what is king, but they were free to manage
hall, decorated with now southern Iran around 700 BCE. their own affairs.
a glazed brick frieze But the real founder of the empire
showing the king’s was King Cyrus the Great, who In 330BCE, Alexander the Great of
guards, armed with conquered the rest of Iran, Anatolia, Macedon conquered the Persian
spears and bows, and the Babylonian Empire in the Empire. But the Achaemenid lineage
on parade. early 6th century BCE. was not forgotten, the rulers of two
later Persian empires, the Parthians
Persian power peaked in the late (247 BCE–224 CE) and the Sasanian
6th and early 5th centuries under the Persians (224–651CE), both claimed
fourth ruler, Darius I. He divided the to be heirs of the Achaemenids.

POWER AND POLITICS large hair tied elaborate
headdress in a bun, a crown
Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian rulers all styled korymbos
themselves “King of Kings,” yet their empires were
very different. Unlike the Achaemenids, who ruled
through satraps, the Parthians let local kings govern,
as long as they accepted the Parthian king as overlord.
The Sasanian Empire had a strong central government.

text celebrating Cyrus’ victory

Clay cylinder Parthian rider
This cylinder seal carries an inscription that This statuette represents a
records King Cyrus’s conquest of Babylon and his Parthian rider. The Parthians
decree allowing those exiled by the Babylonians, had large cavalry armies,
such as the jews, to return to their homelands. including mounted archers and
men and horses in chain mail.
King Darius in
his chariot IMPRESSION

Darius’s seal body of fallen
This seal shows King Darius I stag covered
on a hunt, protected by the
powerful god Ahura Mazda. with furlike dots
The Achaemenids claimed
the right to universal rule, SEAL Sasanian dish
on behalf of Ahura Mazda. This dish shows the Sasanian King Shapur II killing
a stag. Hunting was a royal sport, and Persian
rulers were often shown hunting wild animals.

72 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE

TRAVELING THE ROYAL ROAD “There is nothing in the
world that travels
THE OXUS CHARIOT faster than Persian
messengers.”
In 1880, a collection of around chariots to travel quickly along
180 Achaemenid gold and silver these roads. The most important Herodotus, Greek historian, The Histories, 440 BCE
objects was discovered on the among them was the 1,550-mile-
banks of the Oxus River in (2,500-km-) long Royal Road built by reins made from
modern-day Afghanistan. Now King Darius I, which linked the coast twisted wires
known as the Oxus Treasure, it of Anatolia with his capital, Susa.
includes vessels, armlets, animal At regular intervals along this long
figurines, and dedicatory plaques road, 111 posting stations were
that were probably presented as distributed, where officials and
offerings to a temple. messengers could find fresh horses.
Riding in relay, messengers could
ROADS AND CHARIOTS cover the whole distance in a week.
The king also had many spies, called
The finest piece is a model of a the “King’s Ears” and the “King’s
four-horse chariot. The front of the Eyes,” who kept watch on the satraps
chariot is decorated with the face and reported back
of the Egyptian dwarf god Bes, to him. All
whose image was believed to offer rebellions
protection. The Persians adopted in the land
several foreign customs. The figurines were swiftly
in the chariot are wearing the dress punished.
of the Medes, a northern Iranian
people conquered by the Persians. horses are
Chariots like this were used by long-bodied, with
high-ranking Persians in battle
and for hunting. An empty chariot, thick necks and
representing the presence of the god heavy crests
Ahura Mazda, also accompanied
Persian armies into battle.

The Persian Empire was the first
to use a network of roads as a means
of governance and communication.
Provincial nobles (or satraps) used

hollow spaces contained legs were made
inlays of glass or separately and
semiprecious stones then soldered to
body of horse

Griffin armlet
This gold armlet from the
Oxus Treasure is decorated
with two horned griffins—
mythical beasts with the
bodies of lions and the
heads and wings of eagles.

THE GREAT PERSIAN EMPIRE 73

charioteer satrap is a large Antique chariot
holds reins figure, reflecting The Oxus Chariot was made from an alloy
his high rank of gold, silver, and copper. The copper hardened
face of Bes, an the metal, making the chariot sturdier. The
Egyptian god ankle-length robe passengers and the horses are hollow, and were
patterned with dots made by skillfully shaping thin sheets of metal. At
yoke links the and designed in just 4 in (10 cm) long, the chariot is small enough
four horses Median style to rest in the palm of the hand.

body of chariot seat for
made from satrap

single sheet of small pellets represent
metal, cut and heads of studlike nails,
folded into shape which would have
secured a metal tire to
a real, full-size chariot

axle links wheels
and allows them
to turn

74 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE Independent woman
This statue depicts an Etruscan woman.
THE ARTISTIC Etruscan women could acheive
ETRUSCANS considerable wealth.

From the 8th century BCE, the Etruscans created a major civilization in northwest
and central Italy. They were skilled artists, sculpting in bronze and terra-cotta. They
were also celebrated for their divination skills, which involved interpreting the will
of the gods by reading lightning or examining the livers of sacrificed animals.

Greek style ▽ The Etruscan language was unrelated through trading bronze and other the Bay of Naples. The Etruscans
Most of what is to any other in Europe. This led the goods with the Phoenicians and influenced their Latin-speaking
known about the Greek historian Herodotus to argue Greeks. They were strongly neighbors, including the Romans,
Etruscans comes from that the Etruscans had migrated to influenced by the Greeks, adopting who were originally ruled by Etruscan
their tombs. This Italy from Anatolia. More recent their alphabet around 700 BCE, and kings. In the 3rd century BCE, the
painting, in a tomb investigations, however, reveal that embracing Greek art and clothing. Romans conquered and absorbed the
in Tarquinia, Italy, the Etruscans were the original Etruscan civilization into their
shows Etruscan inhabitants of northwest Italy and POWER AND INFLUENCE growing empire. Nevertheless, the
dancers and musicians their language developed from an Romans continued to respect
playing an aulos ancient Italian one. There were 12 independent Etruscan Etruscan expertise in religious
(pipe) and lyre, both city-states, each ruled by a king. In matters. Whenever lightning struck
Greek inventions. The Etruscan homeland lies in the the 6th century BCE, with Etruscan any public building in Rome, the
modern-day region of Tuscany in power at its peak, these city-states Etruscan haruspices, or diviners,
central Italy. This area is rich in tin formed a loose alliance. At the time, would be summoned to interpret the
and copper, which were used to make the civilization dominated Italy from significance of the event.
bronze. The Etruscans grew wealthy the Po plain in the north, south to

THE ARTISTIC ETRUSCANS 75

BATTLE AND CONFLICT ART AND CULTURE rosettes used as a
decorative motif to fill
As well as admiring Greek art, the Etruscans adopted Hundreds of Greek vases have been found in Etruscan spaces between lions
Greek military tactics. Etruscan warriors fought as tombs. Many were imported but others were made by
hoplites, heavily armed foot soldiers, marching in a Greek artists working in Etruscan cities, or by Etruscans and sphinxes
rectangular military formation called a phalanx, with imitating them. Etruscan potters developed a technique
overlapping shields. Their main weapons were spears. for making glossy black pottery, called bucchero. Reducing
Helmets were based on Greek and Celtic designs. the oxygen supply in the firing process turns clay black.

mythical sphinx
painted in red
and black

Greek helmet
with tall crest

right hand
raised to

thrust spear

raised
cheek
guards

lowered Black-figured Standard design
shield arm amphora Like most Etruscan
This Greek-style vessel was amphoras, this one has a
made by an Etruscan artist patterned neck, figures on
in the 6th century BCE. It the shoulder, a decorative
depicts a hunting scene. band, and an animal frieze.

surface has
silvery sheen

ropelike
edge of
armor

Wine ladle Perfume vase
This kyathos, used to ladle wine from large vessels This alabastron, or perfume vase, is thought to
into drinking cups, was made using the characteristic have been made by a Greek artist in the Etruscan
bucchero method. city of Vulci. It is decorated with lions and a sphinx.

Celtic-style helmet prominent
This bronze helmet beak
follows the design of
those worn by the Celts
of northern Italy. It is
called a Montefortino
helmet, after the place
where the first example
was found.

black simple
bucchero lines and
finish shapes

Bronze hoplite Griffin handles Beaked jug
This bronze figurine is The griffin, with a lion’s body and eagle’s head, was often From around 500 BCE, Etruscan potters began to
a foot soldier (hoplite), depicted in Greek art. Etruscan artists made vessels with use their own styles. The decoration and shape
his right arm raised to handles in the shape of griffins in bronze and bucchero. of this jug are unlike anything made by Greeks.
thrust a spear at the
enemy. On his other
arm, he would have
carried a round shield.

BATTLEDRESS OF THE NARCE WARRIOR 76 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE

VILLANOVAN ARMOR

The tombs of the Etruscans and often fought with them against the Round shield Breastplate
neighbouring peoples often contain Romans. After their conquest by The Narce warrior had a bronze shield, On his torso, the warrior wore a bronze
armor and weapons, indicating how Rome, in 359 BCE, the Falisci rebelled measuring 22 in (57 cm) in diameter. Some cuirass, or breastplate, which fitted over his
common warfare was in the 1st twice against their rulers. The 80 bronze shields like this one have been shoulders. Like the helmet, it is patterned
millennium BCE. Weapons were often uprisings were crushed and in 241 BCE discovered in Villanovan tombs. with zigzag lines and studs.
deliberately bent or broken, as if they their city, Falerii, was destroyed.
were being ritually “killed” to enter tall metal crest rises
the next world with their owners. The Narce tomb dates from a period to point at peak
before Italians copied Greek armor.
NARCE TOMBS The equipment is in an earlier native
style, known as Villanovan, which was
Some beautiful examples of armor in use from 900 to 700 BCE. The most
have been found in a warrior’s tomb distinctive item is a helmet with a tall
at Narce in central Italy, dating from crest. About 30 such helmets have been
725–700 BCE. Along with his military found in tombs. One odd feature of
equipment, the warrior was buried Villanovan armor is the use of bronze
with vases, razors, and horse fittings. shields without wooden backings,
The owner was not an Etruscan but which would have bent in battle. It is
belonged to the Falisci, a Latin- likely that they were made as tomb
speaking people, who lived alongside offerings rather than for use in combat.
the Etruscans. The Falisci allied Functional shields were more likely to
themselves with the Etruscans, and be wooden and covered with oxhide.

PAINTED ARMOR Crested helmet FULL VIEW
This warrior’s crested helmet from the Narce tomb
Some tombs, like this example from was made from two sheets of bronze, hammered rows of studs
the 4th century BCE in Tarquinia, had into shape, and held together by small plates at the for decoration
paintings of armor on the walls front and rear. Helmets in this style are unusually
as a substitute for real equipment. large, at about 16 in (40 cm) tall and across. The
There are two circular shields, one warrior probably wore a padded felt undercap
carrying the Greek letter “alpha,” on to cushion his head.
either side of a bronze helmet with
cheek pieces. The helmet is a Greek
type known as Attic.

decorative lines and
rows of dots

three large rivets
projecting at front and

rear are ornamental

78 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

BELIEFS AND RITUALS Bronze oxen CLOTHING AND ADORNMENT
These bronze figures were found in a warrior’s
The Etruscan and Greek religions were similar tomb. Priests divined gods’ wishes by sacrificing Both men and women wore a long woolen robe,
in many ways. While we know less about city oxen and studying the animals’ livers for omens. the toga, which was later adopted by Roman
state and personal Greek religion, the Etruscans men. This covered the left shoulder but left the
possessed sacred scriptures, believed to have been right arm free. The Etruscans were expert at
revealed by the gods to a legendary prophet called making gold jewelry. They used a technique
Tages. These contained religious laws, as well as called granulation, in which they soldered
instructions on how to interpret signs from nature. minute gold granules onto a gold surface. The
technique of granulation had been practiced in
large diadem the Near East since the early 1st millenium BCE.
or headpiece
Vase necklace
goat-like Etruscan goldworkers made very
pointed ears elaborate jewelry. This necklace is strung
with pendants in the shape of vases from
elaborate which female heads emerge.
earrings

grape clusters

Temple roof decoration Maenad winged figure
This terracotta antefix, or roof decoration, from The Etruscans often alternated satyr roof on reverse
a temple displays the face of a satyr. Part-man decorations, see left, with those depicting
and part-goat, satyrs were associated with the Dionysus’ female followers, maenads, who
Greek god of wine and fertility, Dionysus. performed ecstatic dances in the countryside.

bowl for libations, liquid diviner’s hat tied
poured to honor gods under chin

large body engraved surface
denotes wealth
Bronze mirror
Etruscan women dressed narrows to handle
using polished bronze mirrors, twisted gold wire
whose backs were elaborately
decorated. This type of mirror
is Celtic in origin.

Greek myth of Granulated gold
Orestes’ murder These gold earrings are made of twisted wires
of Neoptolemus covered with granulation. They show the rich
surface texture created by granulation.
shown in relief

Alabaster urn
Etruscans cremated
the dead and kept
their ashes in urns.
This one held those
of a diviner called
Arnth Remzna. His
unusual hat was a
type worn only by
such priests.

Goddess antefix
Pottery antefixes like this one show
Etruscan women’s hairstyles and
jewelry. Gold earrings were popular
and fashions changed rapidly. This
goddess is wearing a large crown.

head on vase-
shaped bead

granulated
texture

gold wire is
tightly curved
to form loops

Acorn clasps
This gold necklace clasp is in the form
of two sets of acorns, one with a hook,
the other with a loop.

gold beaded edge

gold foil
surface

horseshoe
earring

Horsehoe earring
Horshoe earrings as worn by the goddess, right,
have been found in many Etruscan tombs. This
gold foil piece dates from the 4th century BCE.

large leaf
round detail
bead

Tubular gold earrings
These earrings are made from hollow tubes.
They fasten by forcing the narrow end of the
tube into the wider end.

80 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE Gladiator helmet
This bronze helmet with a tall crest was
THE SPLENDOR worn by gladiators—trained combatants
OF ROME who fought in public games. Emperors
usually paid for the popular entertainment.
Rome was one of the biggest and best-organized empires in history. At its height
in 117 CE, the empire stretched 2,300 miles (3,700 km) from north to south and
2,500 miles (4,000 km) from east to west. it included all the lands around the
Mediterranean Sea, which the Romans called Mare Nostrum, or “Our Sea.”
Many aspects of this formidable empire have remained in the modern world.

Spectacular site ▷ The Romans became so powerful that Rome great wealth and vast reserves emperor, Augustus, in 27 BCE.
The Colosseum, Rome’s they even created a myth to describe of manpower for further wars of The Roman Empire left a far-reaching
great amphitheater, the founding of their city. They conquest. Rome’s rise to power in Italy legacy. One of the reasons behind the
was built in 70–80 CE. claimed that Romulus, the son of the led to conflict with the rival Empire success of the Romans was that, unlike
Gladiator shows were war god Mars, established Rome in of Carthage, which controlled western other ancient empires, they welcomed
staged there for free 753 BCE. Archaeology shows that Rome Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and southern foreigners, offering them citizenship.
to entertain the public. actually began as a small farming Spain. Between 246 and 146BCE, Rome At first, this was only given as a reward
The Colosseum could settlement in western central Italy in fought and won three wars against for loyalty, or for serving as auxiliaries
seat 50,000 spectators. the 9th century BCE, growing into a Carthage, becoming a formidable in the Roman army. But under
who would watch the town by the late 7th century BCE. naval power in the process. Victory Emperor Caracalla (211–217CE),
shows together with in the second war (218–201BCE) citizenship was given to every free
their emperor, who Rome was ruled by kings until turned Rome into a Mediterranean male inhabitant of the empire. Apart
sat in a special box 509 BCE, when the last king, Tarquin superpower. The Romans then began from slaves, all men could now call
at the front. Many the Proud, was driven out in a coup to intervene in wars between the themselves Romans. Slaves could also
Roman towns mounted by the aristocrats. The Hellenistic Greek kingdoms of the earn their freedom, and their children
had amphitheaters. Romans then set up a Republic east. By 146BCE, they had conquered could go on to become citizens.
(“affair of the people”). Instead of Greece. As a result of these conquests,
a king, Rome was governed by a vast number of slaves were brought THE LASTING LEGACY
annually elected magistrates, with to Italy. Slave labor was used on an
two consuls who were the heads of extensive scale for building projects. Although the Roman Empire finally
state and commanders of the army. fell in 476, its influence is still felt
They ruled with the advice of the CIVIL WARS today. The Roman calendar,
Senate, an assembly of serving and alphabet, and hundreds of words
former magistrates. The Senate Warfare gave ambitious Roman derived from Latin are still in use.
became the ultimate decision-making generals the opportunities to win Our coins are modeled on Roman
authority of the Republic. Roman great wealth, power, and glory. coins, and Roman law is the basis of
republican society was divided into Eventually, leading generals wanted many modern legal systems. The US
the free and the nonfree (slaves). more power in Rome: in the 1st political system is based on that of
century BCE, the rivalry between the the Roman Republic. Christianity, a
CONQUESTS generals led to a series of civil wars late Roman religion, is followed by
that destroyed the republican system. 2.1 billion people worldwide. The
The Republic made allies with, or The final victor of these conflicts, Pope is called the Pontifex Maximus,
conquered, first the plain of Latium, Octavian, became Rome’s first the title of Rome’s chief priest.
and then the whole of Italy. This gave

“ Great empires are not maintained by timidity.”

Tacitus, Roman historian, 56–117CE



82 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE

POWER AND POLITICS HOME LIFE Pottery horse
This toy horse has holes on the body
Roman emperors used statues and coins to promote their image More is known about the home life to attach rods for the wheels. A string
and win the loyalty of their subjects. The statues also ensured of the Romans than that of any other for pulling the horse along ran through
that people all over the empire knew what their ruler looked ancient civilization. This is partly because a hole in its nose.
like. Coins combined the emperor’s portrait there are descriptions in Roman books
and because two towns, Pompeii and
with news of an imperial achievement, Herculaneum were buried and preserved
such as victory in a battle, or the by a volcanic eruption in 79 CE. The
building of a new harbor, temple, towns have streets, stores, and houses
or amphitheater. showing how ordinary people lived.

outstretched arm Bone dice Samian clay bowl
indicates he is The Romans gambled with dice, Glossy red Samian ware was mass
which were the same as modern produced in workshops in southern
making a speech ones. Sheep’s knucklebones were Gaul (modern France) and exported
also used as substitutes for dice. across the empire.
Augustus in armor
This statue, originally brightly painted, painted
shows Augustus as a victorious general. decoration
At his right foot is Cupid, son of Venus—
Augustus’ family claimed to be descendants Pottery water cooler
of the goddess Venus. This container could have been used to chill water
or wine. Made in Cologne, Germany, it was found
breastplate shows at a Roman site in Canterbury, England.
Parthian returning
MEDICINE
captured Roman
standard Romans followed ideas about medicine from Egypt,
the Near East, and Greece. The Greeks combined a
Temple coin scientific attitude with a belief that the gods could
This coin shows Rome’s Capitoline Temple, help cure illnesses. In the Roman Empire, the most
the most sacred in the empire. The temple was respected doctors were Greek, such as Galen.
dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, whose Surgeons could perform many operations, including
statues can be seen behind the three doors. those for cataracts, hernias, and kidney stones.

paludamentum, Scalpel
a cloak worn by a Scalpels came in many shapes and sizes. This
military commander one, with an iron blade and bronze handle,
is from Roman Britain.
Cupid riding
dolphin ring catch helps control
movement of the blades
Priest emperor
Roman emperors Forceps
claimed a sacred role Surgeons used forceps to extract unwanted
and this statue shows material from wounds. The Romans also
Augustus as Pontifex used them as tweezers to pluck body hair.
Maximus, chief priest
of the Romans. His toga Ointment spoon
covers his head as a mark Medical instruments were mostly made of durable,
of respect to the gods. well-finished bronze. Ointment spoons could be
used for both medical and cosmetic purposes.

THE SPLENDOR OF ROME 83

TRADE BATTLE AND CONFLICT

Roman rule was a time of peace, when Rome’s success in warfare was due to the discipline
trade flourished. Merchants crossed the and skill of the Roman army. The heavily armed
Mediterranean safe from pirates, who legionaries—Roman citizens who fought on foot—
were hunted down by the Roman navy. were the finest soldiers. Serving alongside them were
The rich empire was also a market for noncitizen soldiers, called auxiliaries, who fought as
luxury goods from distant lands, including cavalrymen, slingers, and archers.
Chinese silk and Indian spices.
Centurial stone
stamped pointed base This stone records
inscription acts as shock the two centuries
names Leo’s absorber (military units)
workshop in Trier that built a stretch
of Hadrian’s Wall—
Silver ingot Amphora a boundary that
This silver ingot, found in Canterbury, Wine, olive oil, and fish sauce were transported ran right across
England, was produced in Germany. in amphorae in merchant ships. Amphorae northern Britain.
New emperors distributed ingots to have been found beneath the Mediterranean
their soldiers to win their loyalty. Sea and in relics of shipwrecks.

BELIEFS AND RITUALS Glass urn scales Gladius and
Until the protected scabbard
The Romans had hundreds of gods and 2nd century CE, soldier’s neck Each legionary was
goddesses, but they also adopted foreign in the western armed with two javelins
gods, who they identified with Roman empire, many dead hole for and a gladius—a short
deities. However, Christians, who refused were cremated attachment stabbing sword for
to worship the Roman deities, were and their ashes fighting at close quarters.
persecuted until the reign of Emperor buried in urns. to helmet
Constantine I (306–337 CE). Scale armor
cremated remains While legionaries wore armor of overlapping
Mithras along in urn plates, auxiliaries had chain-mail and scale
with two armor. This bronze scale armor was worn
by an auxiliary serving on Hadrian’s Wall.
torchbearers

punched
decoration

Roman Christ Mithras leather shaped
This mosaic shows Christ as a Roman. The Mithras, the Persian god of light, was to fit cheek
Greek letters chi and rho (XP), the first two incorporated into the Roman religion.
letters in “Christ,” are superimposed over Sculptures show him killing a sacred bull,
each other as an early Christian symbol. an act believed to bring life to the Universe.

Bacchus in chariot, Bacchus worshippers
accompanied by centaur play drums and pipes

Cheekpiece
This highly decorated cheek
piece comes from a Roman
cavalry helmet. Cheekpieces
were often decorated with
images of Castor and
Pollux—the divine twins,
who were famed for
their horsemanship.

Bacchus
This marble relief from a tomb in Rome shows Bacchus, the
god of wine and ecstasy, riding a chariot. The Romans adopted
Bacchus from the Greeks and often called him Dionysus.

Newstead shaffron (replica) 84 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700 BCE–600CE
This is a reconstruction of a shaffron—a
horse’s protective head cover—that was
found at the Newstead (Trimontium)
Roman fort in Scotland. It dates from
about 80 CE, when the Romans invaded
Scotland, a province they later
abandoned. The archaeologist James
Curle discovered this shaffron, along
with other cavalry equipment, while
excavating the fort in 1905–10.

ear flaps

brass-headed
studs gave extra
protection

Protection and display
Worn over the horse’s head, the shaffron

provided protection against enemy
missiles. For display exercises, horses
wore silvered metal shaffrons,
decorated with images of gods and
scenes from myths. This shaffron
is adorned with bronze studs in
the form of leaves.

made from bronze eye guards
cowhide, with like these have been
found in many sites
a softer
leather lining horse’s tabula
ansata (name plate)
leaf-shape would have been
decoration sewn here

CAVALRY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE THE SPLENDOR OF ROME 85

HORSE
ARMOR

Prior to all men in the Roman Empire becoming
citizens, the Roman Army distinguished
between citizens (legionaries) and noncitizens
(auxiliaries). Roman cavalrymen were mostly
auxiliaries from provinces with a tradition of
fighting on horseback. In the late 1st century CE,
the auxiliary cavalry was organized into 1,000-
men units called alae (wings). These units were
in charge of flanking, skirmishing, and pursuing
fleeing enemies. Each Roman legion (a fighting
unit) also had a detachment of 120 citizen
cavalrymen, serving as scouts and dispatch
riders. A cavalryman wore a helmet and a mail
or scale shirt, and carried a shield. He was armed
with a lance, javelins, and a spatha, or long
sword. It took great skill to fight on horseback,
as the stirrup, which secures the rider’s seat, had
not been invented. Riders had to grip the sides
of the horse tightly with their legs, which were
protected by woolen trousers called bracae.

“The horses have
frontlets carefully
made to measure...”

Arrian, Ars Tactica, c.150 CE

86 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700 BCE–600 CE

BUILDING Set square Roof tile curved imbrex
The Romans used set Two shapes of tile fit together to make covered join
Roman builders mostly used concrete, a Roman squares to check right a waterproof roof: a curved tile, or between two
invention, and brick. These relatively light and angles when building imbrex, and a flat tile called a tegula. flat tegulae
cheap materials enabled the Romans to build large or cutting stone. The
structures, including bathhouses, aqueducts, and hole is for suspending
domes. Yet, the Romans admired Greek architecture, a weight, used to check
so Roman temples, built of brick and concrete, were horizontal levels.
faced with stone to resemble Greek buildings.

UNDERFLOOR HEATING

hollow brick pottery
allows hot sections joined
air to pass
together to
through wall make long

pipes

gaping Warm walls Water pipe Bathhouses and some private houses used a
mouth This Roman brick, shown in Romans used both lead, heating system called a hypocaust. Floors rested
through a section of a wall, is hollow. and pottery pipes, such on columns of brick or stone, leaving a space for
which Heated surfaces in bathhouses as these, to transport hot air from a furnace to pass through. Public
water were so hot that bathers had water to baths, houses, bathhouses often included steam baths and
flowed to wear wooden shoes to and street fountains. rooms providing dry heat, like a sauna.
protect their feet. The word “plumber”
River god comes from plumbum,
This marble mask comes the Roman word for lead.
from an Italian bathhouse. It
represents a river god, and was
used as the spout of a fountain.

ART AND CULTURE Snail spoon inscription reads
This silver spoon, known as a cochlearium, was “I belong to a
The Romans were great admirers used to get snails out of their shells. The name good man”
of Greek sculpture, and many comes from cochlea, meaning snail.
of the best-known surviving
Greek-style statues are actually swan-shaped Silver swan spoon
Roman copies. The main Roman handle This spoon was found in a hoard in
contribution to art was the Canterbury, England. One of the spoons
development of the mosaic— had the Greek letters chi and rho on it (see
a picture made from tiny tiles, p.83), suggesting its owner was a Christian.
or tesserae. Mosaics were mostly
used to decorate floors.

elaborate
serpentine
handle

polished marble
surface

combed Benghazi Venus
and Many Roman works of
marvered art were made by Greek
decoration artists living in the Roman
Empire. This statue of the
Mosaic Patterned glass Oil jar goddess Venus was made
Roman mosaics often featured Glassmakers in This balsamarium, a by a Greek sculptor in
scenes from Greek myths. This Libya produced container for perfumed oil, Benghazi, Libya around
one, from Tunisia, features the this multicolored was made by blowing glass. 150–100 BCE.
legendary Greek hero Theseus. pattern by combing The Romans invented
the surface while it glass-blowing in the 1st
was malleable. century BCE, probably in Syria.

87

CLOTHING AND ADORNMENT turban beneath veil

Roman men and women wore a tunic
as a basic item of clothing, beneath a
variety of cloaks and shawls. Male citizens
displayed their status as citizens of the
Roman Empire by wearing a toga. The
poet Virgil described his fellow Romans
as “the race that wears the toga.”

one of a pair
of trumpets

Snake bracelet
Bracelets such as this bronze one in
the form of a snake, were commonly
worn by Roman women. Snakes
represented fertility, and were also
intended to ward off evil.

Glass bangle
Women often wore several
bracelets on each arm. This glass
bangle or bracelet is one of a pair
found in Kent, England.

splayed
fantail
shape

mottled

Gold brooch Cameo bear surface Statue
This gold brooch, 4in (10cm) high, would This mortuary statue (originally painted) of a
have been one of a pair worn at each This cameo of a bear is made from sardonyx, woman comes from Palmyra in Syria, where stick for
shoulder and linked by a chain. Part of the there was a distinctive local style of dress applying
Aesica hoard, its decoration is Celtic in style. a gemstone from India. The jeweler made the and jewelry. makeup

colorful enamel picture of a bear by cutting away the white enamel side handle
decoration decoration
surface to reveal the brown stone beneath. on copper
alloy
decoration carved
into sard stone

undulating
threads

Celtic brooches Intaglio ring ear scoop Glass vessel and kohl stick
This type of enameled brooch This 2nd-century carved ring shows Roman women used a variety of
was invented by the Iron Age Celts a procession in which an elephant Chatelaine cosmetics, including face whiteners,
(see p.70), and continued to be pulls a decorated cart containing This chatelaine, or decorative made from chalk or lead. This glass kohl
made under Roman rule. the statue of a Roman goddess. attachment hung from a woman’s vessel contained black eye makeup.
belt. It came with a variety of useful
Hoard necklace cable molding items, such as nail and ear cleaners. boxlike clasp
This silver necklace comprises a cabochon cornelian
set in an oval silver bezel. It was part of a hoard, linked silver
found at a Roman fort on Hadrian’s Wall, England. chains

88 Dacians
surrender,
Architectural feat laying down
Trajan’s column is made their shields
of 20 drums of white
Italian marble. After the Roman
column was erected, legionaries
the sculptors carved the in testudo
frieze, working from (tortoise-shell
the base up, using formation)
scaffolding. The column
is hollow, with 40 slit carroballista—
windows on the sides device for shooting
and a spiral staircase bolts, mounted on
leading to a balcony a mule cart
at the top. It was
probably built under the original column
supervision of the Greek was painted and
architect Apollodorus of included metal
Damascus, who also attachments such
designed Trajan’s forum. as weapons

slain one of 40 slit
soldiers windows that
allow light into
column column’s interior
depicts
about 2,600 frieze is 623 ft
figures (190 m) long
and winds 23
Roman times around
soldiers Trajan’s column
building
stone fort

Roman
standard

Trajan speaks
to his men

auxiliary
cavalrymen

pursue
fleeing
Dacians

THE SPLENDOR OF ROME 89

ROMAN MIGHT

TRAJAN’S COLUMN

The Roman Empire was at its largest column served to commemorate the Danube River, the army would
under Emperor Trajan, who ruled from Trajan’s achievement in building the sacrifice animals to win the favor
98 to 117 CE. A great general, Trajan forum. The area, which had been of the gods—many such scenes of
spent most of his career in the army. previously hilly, was excavated and sacrifice are depicted in the carvings.
As emperor, he led two successful leveled to a depth equal to the As chief priest, Trajan is often shown
invasions of Dacia (modern Romania column’s height. An inscription at the overseeing the sacrifices. The carvings
and Moldovia) in 101–02 and column’s base records that it was built also show how Roman soldiers were
105–06 CE. He used the vast wealth “to demonstrate of what great height armed, how they carried their
gained from the conquest of Dacia, the hill was and the place that was equipment, and how they fought.
an area rich in gold mines, to build removed for such great works.” Roman legionaries, in their plate
a grand new forum in Rome. At the armor, can be distinguished from
center, Trajan built a 125-ft- (38-m-) A GRAND TRIBUTE the auxiliaries by their oval shields.
high structure decorated with scenes Rome’s Dacian enemies can also be
(originally painted) from the Dacian Trajan’s column is a monument seen—the sculptors knew what they
wars, with a gilded statue of the both to the emperor and to his looked like, since many Dacian
emperor on the top. This column soldiers, who are shown marching prisoners had been brought to Rome,
would also be Trajan’s tomb, for his and fighting their way up the sides, together with their arms and armor,
ashes were later placed in the base. The in a continuous frieze. Before any for Trajan’s triumphal procession.
major undertaking, such as crossing

“My excellent and most loyal fellow soldiers...”

Trajan, letter to governors, quoted in the Digest of Roman Law, 6th century CE

The hero statue of St. Peter,
Trajan appears frequently in the carvings, making rousing which replaced
speeches, receiving messengers, and awarding prizes for that of Emperor
bravery. Here, he steers a troop ship across the Danube. Trajan

24 Doric flutes

scenes showing
triumph in
Rome

section of
column shown
on facing page

scenes of army
preparing for war

River crossing pedestal at base
In this scene, Roman legionaries cross made of marble
the Danube River on a bridge of boats.
They are led by an officer and standard Tribute to Roman bravery
bearers in animal-skin headdresses. The story of Emperor Trajan’s campaign against
the Dacians is told in a continuous frieze that
Securing the base spirals up the column. Near the base are scenes of
Here, legionaries, still wearing their plate armor, are preparations for warfare, while the highest sections
shown building a fort—a secure base in enemy territory. show Trajan’s triumph. The area colored red on
Two auxiliaries, who carry oval shields, stand guard. the diagram shows the approximate position of the
section in the photograph on the facing page.

90 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE Sacred ibis
In Ptolemaic times, vast numbers of
FOREIGN RULE ibises were mummified as offerings
IN EGYPT to Thoth, the god of wisdom.

After two periods of Persian rule, between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE,
Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great of Macedon in 332 BCE.
One of Alexander’s generals, Ptolemy, then founded a dynasty that
governed Egypt until 30 BCE, when the Romans arrived.

Riverside shrine Alexander spent six months in in its own district. Ptolemy I built a Cleopatra VII, was drawn into a war
for the gods ▽ Egypt, where he founded the city famous library, and the city became a between her lover, Mark Antony, and
Like the Ptolemies, the of Alexandria, named after himself. great center of learning, home to Octavian (the future emperor Augustus).
Romans supported Following his death in 323 BCE, Euclid, the father of geometry, as well Octavian won, and Egypt became a
Egyptian religion. Ptolemy seized Egypt. Although as the geographer Eratosthenes. Roman province following the defeat
The Roman emperor the Ptolemies were Macedonian, Ptolemy also commissioned a of Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 30BCE.
Trajan built this they presented themselves to their lighthouse, which was completed by
kiosk on the island subjects as traditional pharaohs, his son and became one of the Seven Roman Egypt was an early center
of Philae. A sacred even following the Egyptian royal Wonders of the Ancient World. of Christianity—St. Mark’s Gospel
barque (boat) carrying custom of marrying their sisters. was written there in Greek in the late
statues would stop ROMAN RULE 1st century BCE. When Christianity
at the kiosk during Ptolemaic Egypt was a part of the became the official religion of the
religious processions. Greek-speaking world of the eastern In the 1st century BCE, the Ptolemies empire in the 4th century, the worship
Mediterranean. Alexandria had a allied with the Romans, who began of Egyptian gods was banned. The
mixed population of Greeks, Jews, to play an increasing role in Egyptian knowledge needed to use hieroglyphs
and Egyptians, with each group living affairs. The last Ptolemaic ruler, was also eventually forgotten.

FOREIGN RULE IN EGYPT 91

POLITICS Alexander the Great Zeus’s eagle Cleopatra Mark Anthony Hadrian
AND POWER Dating from the reign of The Ptolemies identified This coin of Cleopatra VII, This coin was struck by The Roman Emperor
Ptolemy I, this coin shows the Egyptian god Amun the last of the Ptolemies, Mark Antony when he Hadrian issued this coin
The Ptolemies drew Alexander wearing an with the Greek god of shows her with a Greek ruled the Greek-speaking depicting a canopic jar
prestige from Alexander elephant scalp, a reference thunder and the sky, Zeus. hairstyle. The Ptolemies eastern half of the Roman with the head of Isis. He
the Great. Egyptian priests to his Indian conquests. The eagle, Zeus’s sacred were only depicted Empire. Defeated by had visited Egypt in 130 CE
had greeted Alexander Amun’s horns can also bird, decorated many wearing Egyptian dress Octavian, he killed and was fascinated by
as the son of the ram- be seen on his head. Ptolemaic coins. in temples. himself in Alexandria. Egyptian customs.
headed god, Amun, and
Ptolemy I’s coins showed
Alexander with ram
horns. Both Ptolemaic
and Roman coins used
Greek, the official
language of government.

HOME LIFE WRITING

While the wealthy Greeks of Alexandria lived a life of Different writing systems were used
luxury, Egyptian peasants along the Nile River carried
on as they had for thousands of years. They continued under the Ptolemies and Romans.
to live in houses made of mud bricks, and to wear white
linen clothes and reed sandals. Hieratic script and hieroglyphs continued

pointed to be used mainly for religious purposes.
sole-plate
Egyptians also used a simpler script called
strap ran
between demotic for everyday use. The Greek

toes script was used by the Greek-speaking

population and for official purposes.

Papyrus or fragments of pottery were

used for writing. Re depicted
with head
text written of falcon
in Greek

glass made
of heated
quartz sand

Cosmetic jar Plant-fiber sandals Ostracon Hieroglyphs text is hymn
Dating from Egypt’s Roman These Roman-era Egyptian Fragments of pottery or stone that were used for Retrieved from a tomb, to the Sun
period, this cosmetic jar is made sandals are almost 2,000 years writing or drawing are called ostracons. These this wooden stela has
of glass. It has two separate tubes, old, yet they are perfectly were cheaper than papyrus, and were used for a hieroglyphic text
probably used to hold black preserved thanks to Egypt’s letters, business records, and to practice writing. naming the deceased
and green eye makeup. dry climate. as Nehemsumut, son
piece of pottery with of Khonsuemsaf and
face of hieratic writing Ruru. He is shown
Bes worshipping the
Hieratic Sun God Re (centre
Bes jars The text on this Roman-period ostracon left) and the god
The dwarf god Bes was seen as the was written in hieratic script using a of creation Atum
protector of family life, and Egyptians pen carved from reed, which was probably (centre right).
placed his face on jars such as the ones cut from papyrus plants or bamboo.
seen here for protection. His fierce Greek
expression was thought to ward off evil. script

Oxyrhynchus papyrus
Vast numbers of papyrus
documents have been found
in the rubbish dumps of
Oxyrhynchus, on the Nile.
These include letters, plays,
poems, and early Christian texts.

THE BEGINNING OF EGYPTOLOGY 92 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700 BCE–600 CE

THE ROSETTA STONE

In 1799, French soldiers campaigning In 1819, Dr. Thomas Young, an English Coptic—a late version of the Egyptian “King Ptolemy,
in Egypt discovered the Rosetta Stone, polymath, found the name Ptolemy six language preserved by the Christian living forever,
a section of broken black basalt times in the hieroglyphics (see panel church—helped him identify the the Manifest
inscribed with writing which became below). The Rosetta Stone followed the sound signs. For example, he identified God whose
the key to unlocking the mystery of Egyptian custom of placing a royal a sign showing the Sun as the sound excellence
ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics. After name in a cartouche, an image of a “re,” because this was the Coptic word is fine.”
the Egyptian sacred writing system knotted coil of rope that represented for the Sun. The Rosetta Stone’s
of hieroglyphics went out of use in “enclosing protection” and “eternity.” inscription was a decree written by a Inscription on the Rosetta Stone
the 4th century CE, the ability to read Young argued that each hieroglyph in council of priests on March 27, 196 BCE,
it was lost for 1,400 years. The Rosetta the cartouche was a sound sign spelling honoring their 13-year-old king,
Stone’s inscription was written in the Greek name “Ptolemaios.” Ptolemy V. The pharaohs valued the
three scripts—hieroglyphics, Demotic priests’ support, which was secured by
(an Egyptian script used for everyday CRACKING THE SYSTEM donations to temples, a fact mentioned
writing), and ancient Greek. European in the decree. Thanks to Champollion,
scholars realized they could use Jean-Francois Champollion, a French Egyptian texts written over a period of
their knowledge of Greek to decipher linguist, cracked the system in 1822, 3,500 years could be read again. This
the hieroglyphics, and raced to showing that hieroglyphs combined was the beginning of Egyptology, the
break the code. sound signs and ideograms—signs study of ancient Egypt.
standing for ideas. His knowledge of

DECIPHERING THE CARTOUCHE OF PTOLEMY V

S I OR Y M L OTP text in hieroglyphs, long cartouche
which the Egyptians with inscription,
Thomas Young set out to decipher a group of hieroglyphs called “sacred writing,” is
surrounded by a loop called a cartouche. He guessed that these read right to left, but it “Ptolemy, may
highlighted hieroglyphs represented the name of the pharaoh could be written in either he live forever,
Ptolemy, which he knew was repeated several times in the direction or vertically beloved of Ptah”
Greek text. Young managed to correlate most of the hieroglyphs reading downwards
with spoken sounds (as shown in the examples above).

Three scripts short
Discovered near the town of cartouche
Rosetta, this black basalt block is
3.9 ft (114 cm) high and 2 ft (72 cm)
wide and was damaged in ancient
times. Three inscribed scripts are
easily identified, with the section in
hieroglyphics most badly damaged.

text in Demotic,
which the

Egyptians called
“document

writing.” Demotic
was always written

from right to left

text in ancient
Greek, the

language of
administration

93

94 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE

BELIEFS AND RITUALS rising cobra disk may represent curled wig
on forehead Sun or Sun God topped by
The Ptolemies enthusiastically adopted two tall
Egyptian religion. As pharaohs, they tripartite wig raised spear to feathers
were seen as living gods, which brought and horned strike enemy
the royal dynasty great prestige. sun disk
The Greeks identified many Egyptian
gods with their own. For example,
Inhert, the Egyptian god of war and
hunting, was called Onuris by the
Greeks and was identified with
the Greek god Ares.

facial features Isis seated Montu Onuris
detailed on throne This gold amulet depicts Amulets of deities
in black paint Montu, an Egyptian war were thought to
Isis and Horus god, wearing a crown imbue the wearer with
brown linen Isis was identified with the with two tall plumes. the god’s qualities. This
wrappings Greek gods Demeter and Soldiers wore such one, showing Onuris,
Aphrodite. From 30 BCE, amulets to protect the war god, was worn
her worship spread themselves in battle. as a source of strength.
throughout the Roman
Empire. This amulet shows
Isis nursing her son, Horus.

Mummified cat striped cobra refers to
During the Ptolemaic and Royal Nemes Sun God, Re
Roman periods, cats were
left as offerings to Bastet, headcloth face of
the cat goddess. They Ptolemaic
were specially bred to body of a lion, king
be mummified and sold representing
to Bastet’s worshippers. strength style of features
is Greek

FRONT VIEW

Sphinx
Like pharaohs, the
Ptolemies were depicted as
sphinxes—mythical creatures with the bodies of
lions. The Egyptian sphinx was an embodiment of royal
authority. However, the Greek word “sphinx” means “strangler,”
and in Greek mythology sphinxes were terrifying monsters.

Mummy mask FOREIGN RULE IN EGYPT 95
This gilded mask belongs
to the mummy of a Sun God
wealthy Egyptian man Covered with protective deities, this
Padineferhotep, who mask has a winged scarab and a
died in the 3rd winged sun disk on top. Both these
century BCE. The mask images represent the Sun God, Re.
was made from
cartonnage, a material mask was
consisting of layers of slipped over
linen or papyrus covered the wrapped
in plaster. Cartonnage head of the
mummy cases were
cheap to make. They mummy
became common in the
Ptolemaic and Roman SIDE VIEW
periods, when ordinary
people were being goddess
mummified. Nepthys,
identified by
mask represented house on her
new immortal face headdress
gold leaf covering
for the deceased, the cartonnage mask
who would be painted
able to look cartonnage
out through beneath gilding
painted eyes

gold was seen
as flesh of gods

lappet wig,
hairstyle of
Egyptian gods

goddess Isis,
the special

protector of
mummies,

created the very
first mummy—

of her husband,
Osiris, the god
of the dead

96 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700 BCE–600 CE

BURIAL Greek mummy
The Greeks who settled in
Egypt welcomed the Egyptian
idea of a happy afterlife. Like
the Egyptians, they had
themselves mummified in
order to live again. Egyptians
and Greeks were sometimes
depicted in Greek dress, as
on this cartonnage mummy
case of a woman.

wig with Egyptian-style wig
thick stripes with two lappets
of blue (hanging folds)
and gold
white face, unlike
traditional gold of
Egyptian mummies

painted to
resemble
beadwork

Egyptian mask colorful Greek
In the Ptolemaic period, Egyptians continued dress (chiton)
using traditional mummy masks, in which
features were idealized and the skin was
painted gold.

arms and
hands covered

in jewelry

owner of
mask with
idealized
golden face

Woman’s mask FULL VIEW
In the Ptolemaic period, some mummies were
less well preserved than during earlier periods.
But masks were still beautifully decorated.

FOREIGN RULE IN EGYPT 97

lid in form lid in form of lid in form of lid in form of
of human-headed jackal-headed falcon-headed baboon-headed
guardian, Duamutef guardian, Qebehsenuef guardian, Hapy
guardian, Imsety

realistic features
of young man

molded
face

Molded face Portrait mask LIVER STOMACH INTESTINES LUNGS
While the rich could afford gilded During this period mummies
masks, the poor had to make do with often had realistic portraits of Canopic jars
features modeled in clay on coffins or the deceased, placed over the Organs from mummified corpses were
masks. These clay covers show that in face. These are the finest portrait held in canopic jars. Four jars represented
Egypt, even the poor looked forward paintings to survive from the the sons of the god Horus. By the
to an afterlife. ancient World. Ptolemaic period the jars were often
empty, but still buried with the dead.

Isis Osiris Ba bird
This is a Ptolemaic model of a human-headed
the deceased bird, or ba bird. Placed in a tomb, it represented
a dead person’s soul and ability to move around
and be changed into other forms.

blue wig
with lappets

on chest

band of
decoration
relating to
sun god

altar with
sacrifice

hieroglyph bird feet

base in form
of lotus flower

Mummy case portion Situla
Part of this cartonnage mummy case shows As part of the funeral ceremony, priests made
the deceased worshipping Osiris, the god offerings to the dead. This bronze situla
of the dead. Isis, sister-wife of Osiris, stands (bucket-shaped vessel), decorated with
behind his throne. religious scenes, was used to pour milk.

98 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE

INDIA’S FIRST
EMPIRES

Between 321BCE and 554CE, three great empires rose in India under the Mauryans,
the Kushans, and the Guptas. For the first time in history, India was united. The
period also saw the rise of two new world religions—Buddhism and Jainism.

Place of prayer ▷ The Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE) During this time, a new form of
The Great Stupa was founded by Chandragupta the religion called Mayahana
at Sanchi was Maurya. This empire expanded until Buddhism emerged.
commissioned by the third emperor, Ashoka the Great,
Emperor Ashoka. respected Buddhist teachings and From 320 to 554CE, the Gupta
A stupa is a sacred called a halt to further wars of emperors provided stable rule. During
mound, holding relics conquest. He then went on to spread this period, known as India’s Golden
of the Buddha, great Buddhism throughout India. Age, arts and sciences flourished.
Buddhist teachers, Indian mathematicians invented a
and his first followers. Another powerful empire was decimal number system, that included
Stupas are places of founded by the Buddhist Kushans the concept of zero. Buddhism
pilgrimage, inspiring (c.30–240 CE), nomads from Central thrived, but there was also a revival of
meditation and prayer. Asia who conquered northwest India Hinduism, promoted by the Guptas,
and much of modern Afghanistan. who built temples to the Hindu gods.

TRADE AND Winged Atlas Gupta dinara BELIEFS AND RITUALS
TRANSPORT The Silk Road brought the Kushans into contact Vast amounts of Roman coinage flowed
with many different peoples, whose influences into India through trade. The Guptas The 5th century BCE saw the rise
Under the Kushans and the they absorbed. This winged figure is based on named their own gold coin, shown here, of Buddhism, founded by Gautama
Guptas, trade flourished, Atlas, the Greek mythical giant. a “dinara,” after the Roman denarius. Siddhartha, called the Buddha,
thanks to the Silk Road—the the “Enlightened One.” The
overland route across Asia. Mauryan emperor Ashoka and
Indian spices and gems were the Kushans spread Buddhism.
carried west to the Roman The Guptas built the first stone
Empire and east to China. temples to Hindu gods such as
Indian merchants also sailed Vishnu and Shiva.
across the seas to Arabia and
Southeast Asia.

ART AND CULTURE

In the northern part of the Kushan empire, Indian artists were greatly

influenced by Greek and Roman sculpture. They went on to carve musician’s

statues of the Buddha wearing a Greco-Roman style toga. Some of the lyre

finest Indian art dates from the Gupta period, including stone temples

with lofty spires dedicated to the Hindu gods. young bride in
wedding cart

Kushan Musician Prince Siddhartha Kanthaka,
wedding relief with lyre leaves his horse Siddhartha’s
This relief of a bridal Gupta temples were and groom
procession includes built of brick or stone horse
ivy leaves and a cart and richly decorated
pulled by panthers. with sculpture. This
These features were terracotta tile,
associated with showing a musician,
Dionysus, the Greek was once part of a
god of wine. brick temple.