History of the world in 1,000 objects

TRANSPORTATION FOR THE MASSES 349

solid brass- MASS PRODUCTION FOR THE AMERICAN ROADS
rubber framed
windshield FORD MODEL T
tires
FRONT VIEW
The automobile industry got off to a parts. The second, a Ford innovation,
REAR VIEW adaptable slow start. Most of the parts of early was the moving assembly line. Car
chassis bends vehicles were individually made by parts, and even the whole car, were
and twists hand, and the motor manufacturers carried past a succession of workers,
often bought parts from a host of who either added a part or performed
coils for different suppliers instead of making one operation. One complete car left
ignition their own. Each example of a part was the production line every 10 seconds.
housed on slightly different and fit the adjoining This process reduced the price of the
dashboard part only by chance. The customer car by two-thirds, suddenly making
could also specify bodywork. As a result, cars affordable to the wider public.
SIDE VIEW no two cars were the same and making
(CLOSED TOP) them was laborious and expensive. FORD’S VISION

MASS PRODUCTION The car industry soon became
the largest single industry in the
A revolution in car manufacturing developed world. By 1918, the Model
began in 1913, when American T was selling for under $400 and
industrialist Henry Ford set up a plant accounted for half of all cars on the
in Highland Park, Michigan, to mass- roads of America.
produce his Model T Ford. The Model
T “Tin Lizzie,” introduced in 1908, Henry Ford argued for better roads
was easy to drive, hardy, and simple and more gas stations. He introduced
to repair (a particular advantage for the eight-hour working day, raised the
owners in rural areas). minimum wage to an unprecedented
$5 a day, and had his workers doing
The Highland Park factory used two shifts. By the time the last Model T
novel principles. The first was the rolled off the production line in 1927,
uniformity and interchangeability of 15 million Model Ts had been built.

hood held down by long “A great many things are going
leather straps to change.”

Henry Ford, My Life and Work, 1922

front and rear axles ASSEMBLY LINES
articulated to move
the car better over The concept of mass production
uneven ground remains a vital aspect of the
modern automobile industry,
although robots now often
perform the tasks that were once
assigned to human workers. Ford’s
idea of standardized parts is still
alive, too. Platform sharing means
that cars with similar capabilities
from different, competing
manufacturers use the same parts
in order to save time and money.

350 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

ENTERTAINING
THE WORLD

Cinema, music, television, and publishing have all evolved to create a world
of pleasure and leisure. The 20th century saw the rise of global entertainment,
with mass-circulation newspapers, television, best-selling novels, and movies.

Bright lights ▷ In the early 20th century, most By the mid 60s, it had become the
Billboards touting people had to find their own main source of entertainment, at the
Broadway musicals entertainment. But as movie theaters expense of movies.
symbolize New York’s began to appear, going to the movies
dominance of the became increasingly popular. By the Advances in technology allowed
entertainment industry, 1930s, many people worldwide went people to listen to music anywhere,
from the 1920s up to at least once a week. Movies were in at any time, on portable devices.
the present day, with black and white until the 1930s, Home movies came into the living
movies, graphic artists, when the first color ones were made. room with the advent of videos in
literature, popular At home, people could listen to the the early 1980s, and then DVDs
music, and theater. radio from the early 1920s but replaced videos in the late 90s. By
television only became widely the early part of the 21st century,
available to the masses in the 1950s. the e-reader began to transform
book reading.

WORDS

Technology kept pace with the spread of literacy in the 20th
century. Newspapers, comics, and magazines were illustrated
with bright colored images, and printing became speedier.
Typing went electronic in the 1960s, and typewriters were
gradually abandoned for computers in the 1980s. With the
development of electronic tablets, reading was transformed.

Books for everyone
Paperbacks brought novels
to the masses. Penguin was
the first British publisher
to turn paperbacks into a
mass-market phenomenon.

Kindle e-reader
The electronic reader dates
back to 1998, but only with
the launch of Amazon’s
Kindle in 2007 did these
new devices spark a cultural
revolution in how people
read and access books.

inexpensive black
ink rubs off

Newspapers Spider-man comic
By WWI, technical Comic books took off with
innovation made the the publication of Action
modern newspaper possible. Comics in 1938. Since then,
As words and pictures moved they have become a staple
ever more quickly around the of youth culture. Spider-man
world, papers grew larger and is one of the most popular
gained mass circulation. comics published by Marvel.

ENTERTAINING THE WORLD 351

SOUND Bakelite was the small enough
first molded to fit in
At the start of the century using pocket
sound as a medium for mass plastic used to
communication was as yet a dream. make radios Bakelite radio Transistor radio
But within a few years radio brought Radio took off as an entertainment medium Radios were big and bulky until the advent
news and popular tunes to the Marconi radio receiver in the 1920s and 30s. Popular music was of portable transistor sets in the 1950s.
public. The introduction of radio In 1901, Guglielmo Marconi used this radio inextricably linked with broadcasting, and Anyone, anywhere could now tune in, and
broadcasting created massive receiver to pick up a transatlantic radio radio reached its “Golden Age.” teenagers regularly did.
changes in the record industry. transmission. Radio became the first means
By the end of the century, the music of mass communication. design inspired by
and entertainment industry was WWII bomber plane
a global, billion-dollar business.

reel-to-reel selection of 24

recording records

using magnetic

tape

Reel-to-reel tape
Researchers in Germany worked hard to
improve magnetic tape machines during
WWII, until listeners could not tell if a
broadcast was live or recorded.

turntable glass dome
with record

1920s record player
In the 1920s, record players were an
expensive luxury. By the 1950s they
became common in most households.

large stereo
speakers

display screen Boom box
In the 1980s, “boom
boxes” (huge radios
with cassette players)
were an important
form of personal
audio technology.

Sony CD Walkman iPod Wurlitzer jukebox
Japanese company Sony made This tiny portable music player, The jukebox craze of the late
portable devices, first to play with its vast storage capacity 1930s marked a major boom
casette tapes and then CDs in and lightning-quick download in the youth market. Thirteen
1984. These changed how capability, has transformed the million records a year were
people experienced music. way we listen to music. sold to fill the machines.

352

Musical sheet music
In the 1940s, Richard Rogers and Oscar Hammerstein
transformed musicals with huge productions, such as
Annie Get Your Gun.

guitar has
six metal strings

pegs attached fingerboard Woodstock music festival
to strings are with mother- In 1969, over 40,000 people partied at the open-air
turned to tune of-pearl inlay festival at Woodstock, New York. Today numerous
guitar music festivals are held all over the world.

solid-wood The Beatles tickets
body with British band The Beatles
played to an audience of
metallic gold 44,000 screaming fans at
veneer Shea Stadium, New York,
in 1966.

volume
control

pickup Vinyl LP
makes The increased playing
sound times of the LP (long-
audible playing record) enabled
performers to produce
longer albums. Thriller
by Michael Jackson is
the best-selling album
of all time.

FENDER TELECASTER GIBSON LES PAUL Keyboard synthesizer
Invented in 1965, the synthesizer is an electronic device
1950s electric guitars that uses electrical signals to produce sound. It can
During the 20th century, electric imitate the sounds of a range of musical instruments.
musical instruments, in which
sound is picked up electronically
and transmitted to an amplifier,
was developed. Fender and Gibson
created the first electric guitars.

ENTERTAINING THE WORLD 353

PICTURES 35 mm film
For over a century, movies have
Television and movies were a been shown on 35 mm film with a
novelty at the start of the 20th projector passing light through the
century, but the entertainment celluloid film.
industry was transformed by
technological advances. With the
introduction of shorter working
hours and higher wages, more
people were able to go to the
movies, and televisions have
made their way into most homes.

hand-cranked feed reel
mechanism

camera lens

Motion picture camera Early film projector Casablanca poster
In 1908, Frenchman Joseph Debrie The first projectors were hand-cranked In the 1930s, American cinema entered a
developed the Le Parvo hand cranked to advance the film. Many used gas light as “Golden Age” of technical innovation and
camera. By the 1920s, it had become a light source. Later projectionists began to creativity. The movie Casablanca, released in
the most used camera in the world. use powerful electric arc lights. 1942, was a huge critical hit.

TELEVISIONS rotates 360
degrees on base

Baird television Flatscreen TV
Designed for British television pioneer John Flatscreen High Definition TVs became popular
Logie Baird in 1930, this television was the for their slim build and superior quality.
first mass-produced TV. They can be used for DVD movies, games
consoles, and the Internet.

acrylic visor
covers glass
screen inside

Bakelite
plastic
casing

plastic base

1950s Bush TV 1970s spherical TV DVDs
This was one of the first televisions to use an Inspired by the moon landing in 1969, The first DVD (Digital Versatile Disk) players and
aluminized cathode ray tube to ensure most this popular and expensive spherical TV disks were available in 1996 in Japan to play
of the picture’s light came out into the room. is shaped like an astronaut’s helmet. full-length movies. They replaced the VHS tape.

354 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

FIGHTING THE
WORLD WARS

Two world wars changed the battlefield forever. Conflicts were no longer short
and politically decisive but involved large territories, vast armies, and new, deadly
weapons. Fighting was revolutionized by the sheer scale of modern war.

Gassed ▷ World War I saw horrendous casualties territories in Europe, the Mediterranean,
In this painting, as a result of the industrialization of and Eastern Asia. When the USSR and
American artist John war. Machine guns, poison gas, and the US entered the war in 1941, the
Singer Sargent captured aircraft created a different field of Axis was doomed to defeat.
the horror of being combat from earlier wars. A soldier’s life
blinded by mustard was dominated by mud, barbed wire, Weapons were now even more
gas on the Western and gunfire, while new weaponry made destructive. Tanks and armored
Front in 1918. The possible mass slaughter. vehicles gave a new mobility, and
scene shows a medic huge bombers pulverized enemy
directing blinded In 1939, the world was plunged into a cities. By the war’s end, the age of
soldiers toward a second war, which by 1941 had become jets, rockets, and atomic bombs had
aid station. truly global in scale because the Axis arrived. Civilians died in even larger
states—Germany, Italy, and Japan— numbers than soldiers in what
used armed aggression to carve out became a true “total war”.

regimental markings brass coating of
Prussian waterproof
UNIFORMS eagle paint

Soldiers fighting during the world Prussian artillery helmet German helmet
wars were not part of a single force. Originally designed by the Prussian The distinctive German Stahlhelm, first
They served in tank divisions, the King Friedrich Wilhelm in 1842, this used in WWI, was based on a “coal
navy, or the air force, for example. German helmet, or Pickelhaube, was scuttle” design. This example has the
In addition to distinguishing worn by artillery soldiers in WWI. Luftwaffe insignia on the side.
their role and nationality,
uniforms, especially simple steel camouflage
helmets, provided essential construction mesh covering
protection against shrapnel
and artillery fire. bayonet British Brodie US M1 helmet
Designed by John Brodie, the “tommy The iconic steel M1 saw service with
cartridge pouches helmet” was first used by the British in the US military from the early 1940s.
1915. Good for overhead protection, It was so successful that many other
haversack made it gave little coverage to the neck. countries adopted it.
either of linen
or hemp

overcoat is
double-breasted
with tails, made of

iron-blue wool

hobnailed boots

French army uniform
This WWI uniform of the pioupiou
(French soldier) was considered a
relic of the 19th century, with its
conspicuous red pants and
blue overcoat.

355

EQUIPMENT plastic
goggles
A soldier’s gear was designed to keep him fed, watered,
alive, and an effective member of a fighting force. Many pouch screw-on
advances were made during wartime to lighten the load and hooks air filter
aid survival. Most items were standard issue. A few, such as to belt
photographs and letters, were far more personal.

M1910 wire cutters German gas mask
Both sides relied on wire cutters This was the first respirator worn
to break through enemy defenses by German storm troopers after
in WWI. This pair was part of both sides began to use chemical
standard issue to American soldiers. weapons during WWI.

forceps tongue depressor

British ration can Japanese identification card folded
This WWII military-issue can was This wooden card belonged to zeltbahn
packed with five different types a Japanese serviceman. It lists his
of candies and cookies for dessert. military unit and gives permission canvas
Cans were easily carried. to go out, perhaps after curfew. case

lacing protects
valve of interior
rubber bladder

Improvised glasses Loos soccer ball Surgical instrument roll German assault pack
British WWII POWs held by the This is one of six soccer balls British This WWII British military canvas This WWI storm-trooper pack held
Japanese used items such as troops successfully dribbled across roll holds surgical instruments such rations, grenades, a zeltbahn, or rain
toothbrushes molded around lenses the German front line as a show of as scalpels, shears, and cloth-cutting cape that doubled as a tent, and a
to create glasses like these. bravado at the Battle of Loos in 1915. scissors for use near the frontline. shovel, essential for digging a trench.

handlebar can tool pouch frame weighs less
be rotated than 21 lbs (10 kg)

Michelin “war
grade” tires

FOLDED BICYCLE crankset with
BSA logo
BSA folding bicycle
This British folding bicycle pedals have
was made by the unique design with
Birmingham Small Arms cylindrical spindle
Company (BSA). It was
a lightweight means of
allowing paratroopers to
regroup quickly and reach
their target quietly.

356 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

WEAPONS KNIVES rudimentary motto in Nazi eagle
iron blade gothic print and swastika
Through the world wars, weapons double-edged blade
became increasingly powerful and
technically sophisticated. In WWI, Japanese cane knife German Allgemeine dagger German knife bayonet
trench warfare produced the high- Fighting in Burma was especially challenging This dagger was issued to members of the This short, double-edged knife could be
firing light trench mortar while sea in WWII. Both the Japanese and Allied Allgemeine, Nazi Germany’s SS paramilitary attached to a rifle as a bayonet. It was
blockade saw the emergence of the troops carried a machete to hack through force, for ceremonial use. The official motto used by German infantrymen toward the
submarine. By WWII, large tanks, jungle terrain and to use as a weapon. “My Honor Is Loyalty” is etched on the blade. end of WWI.
aircraft, rockets, and automatic
weapons transformed the way
modern warfare was fought.

ARTILLERY

rocket inserted

wooden at rear M-2 ILLUMINATING PARACHUTE MORTAR

shoulder support JAPANESE MILITARY SHELL

shaped-charge M1A1 bazooka World War II projectiles
warhead An open-ended tube operated by two men, Used by US forces, the M-2 mortar fired rounds at night,
the bazooka was used by US forces in WWII illuminating the sky for 25 seconds to aid observation while drifting
to launch a small solid-fuel rocket, which down on a small parachute. The shell was typical of the thousands
was inserted into the back. Its main purpose used by the Japanese to bombard Singapore in mid-February 1942.
was to defend against tanks.
short barrel can
pig-iron body shoot up to 88 lb

gun shield (40 kg) shells

FRANCO-ITALIAN GERMAN M1915 FRENCH P1
GRENADE
BESOZZI DISC GRENADE

World War I grenades
The Besozzi had an exterior fuse, which had to be lit
by a match, whereas the P1 “pear” grenade had a time
fuse activated by a spring-loaded igniter released by a
pin. The German diskus handgranate was thrown like
a discus to make it spin, exploding on impact.

German antitank mine flash
Developed in 1935, the Teller hider
mine effectively and powerfully crew step
ripped the tracks off tanks.
carriage wheel has
gun carriage and main body wide steel tires for
can be separated during crossing difficult
transportation terrain

Skoda howitzer M14/16
Howitzers could be used to decimate targets
in the rear of enemy positions. This heavy
Austro-Hungarian 149 mm howitzer was
designed and built by Skoda.

357

GUNS magazine port INSTRUMENTS
OF WAR
wooden
stock In the struggle for dominance over
the enemy, all nations encouraged
M1921 submachine gun 50-round problem solvers and code breakers
The “Tommy Gun” began life in 1919. magazine to come up with new tools and
With its high rate of fire, it became the drum gadgets. These ranged from
weapon of choice for US soldiers in navigation aids and cameras to
WWII fighting at close quarters. radios and code machines. In
many ways, the two world wars
folding spiked bayonet were a triumph of ingenuity.

German field telephone
Telephones were used extensively
during WWI to relay orders. By May
1917, the Germans had laid 319,000
miles of cable on the Western Front.

sliding
index arm

rear sight Mosin-Nagant rifle
Used extensively by the Russian army
in WWII, this rifle was developed for
urban and confined fighting. Some
versions had a bayonet attached.

Gewehr 43 telescope
With a telescopic sight attached,
the Gewehr 43 was an excellent sniper’s 10-round detachable shutter
rifle. It was adopted by the Czech Army box magazine
after WWII. release
Aerial camera Japanese naval sextant
In WWII, sextants were used by both sides
Aerial photography was used for the first for navigating poorly charted seas. Latitude
was calculated with a scale showing
time in WWI in the hope that mapping degrees north or south of the equator.

Berthier rifle enemy trench fortifications would help
This bolt-action weapon fired a
smokeless cartridge and was issued to break the deadlock on the Western Front.
French troops in WWI. It was modeled
hammer on the 1886 Lebel rifle.

Steyr 9 mm automatic pistol note pad
This was the first automatic pistol to be
part of standard military equipment, viewing
adopted by the Austro-Hungarian Empire windows
in 1911 and later by the Chilean army.

optical
sight

gas cylinder

steadying rotor
grip cylinder
with code
pistol grip letters

elevation keys to RAF navigational aid
wheel type This handheld navigational
messages “computer” was used by RAF
gunner’s fighter and bomber crews
seat socket for during WWII. It calculated
cable wind speed and direction.

Hotchkiss MLE 1914 German Enigma machine
This French gas-operated machine This cipher machine allowed an operator
gun was used widely by American to type a message, then scramble it by
troops in WWI. It was reliable and using a series of notched wheels. Three
fired 450 8 mm rounds per minute. Polish mathematicians were the first to
break the Enigma code, in December 1932.

358 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

LIFE ON THE HOME FRONT British POW parcel
The Red Cross sent over 20 million parcels to
Those left at home during the world wars had prisoners of war in WWII. The parcels contained
their own battles to fight. Food and other mostly food, tobacco, and personal hygiene
resources were rationed, children were evacuated, items. Most men got one package a week.
cities and towns bombed, and civilians were
mobilized en masse to support the war effort.
The pattern of life for all fighting powers was
transformed by war.

Can of dried eggs Happy families
Fresh eggs were rationed in Many British toys were made of paper
Britain in WWII. From May and card during WWII. Traditional card
1941, dried egg powder was games, such as Happy Families, were
imported from America. produced in special wartime packs.

“Jude” written
in mock-
Hebraic type

brightly
colored to

appeal to
children

Cigarette cards Child’s gas mask filter holds circular case
Put inside British By 1938, respirators were block of molded from
cigarette packages, different issued to all British families. asbestos bakelite
cards showed how to protect This lightweight “Mickey
the home from air raids in Mouse” mask was designed Jewish star
WWII. This example shows for children from 18 months In WWII, Jews were persecuted throughout
an inflatable “balloon” shelter. to four years old. Nazi-occupied Europe. From 1941, all Jews were
made to wear a six-pointed yellow star with the
word Jude (German for “Jew”) inscribed on it.

dated and stamped July 15, 1937

Membership book Cabinet wireless radio
The Nazi party was the ruling political elite Radios such as this EKCO AD 65, designed
in Germany during WWII. Its members by architect Wells Coates in 1932, were
carried books proving their allegiance. central to the WWII British home,
offering vital news and much-
each square worth one portion of meat needed entertainment.

earpiece

Meat ration card long wire
Rationing became a way of life on the home antenna
front. German WWII ration cards were printed
on stiff paper with coupons to cut out.

French munitions poster Homemade wireless
Women were a vital part of the war effort, Hidden in a tin, this radio was used by
often taking over men’s roles. This 1917 a Dutch family to tune into British war
poster depicts a woman working in a broadcasts during the Nazi occupation.
munitions factory. Owning a radio was strictly prohibited.

FIGHTING THE WORLD WARS 359

MEDALS AND MEMORIALS

In both world wars, countless men and women risked their lives
defending their countries, showing incredible courage. All nations
recognized the contribution of individuals with medals and
honors. Other tokens of war are more private and personal,
and exist as poignant reminders of the human cost of conflict.

Flanders poppy
Poppies proliferated on WWI
European battlefields. Some
soldiers pressed and sent
them home, such as this one
from Passchendaele.

Croix de Guerre Legion d’Honneur
Established on July 20, 1941, France’s highest award, this
the Belgian Croix de Guerre medal was presented to
with Silver Palm rewarded those distinguished through
acts of heroism in combat by military valor. Towns and
individuals and entire units. cities were also recipients.

Navy recruitment poster name of rosette in
Images of women were often used to shame fallen soldier colors of
men into enlisting in the armed forces. This Belgian flag
WWI poster challenged men to do what American flags adorn
women could not—join the US Navy. triumphant pilot

SS recruitment poster George Cross Grave marker Iron Cross (2nd class)
This Nazi poster encouraged men in German- This medal is the highest Many of the graves on the Awarded for bravery, this 2nd
occupied France to join the Waffen-SS, stating award for UK civilians. It was Western Front were later class medal had to be held
“under the sign of the SS you shall overcome!”. originally created during the moved to vast cemeteries. before gaining the 1st class.
height of the Blitz in 1940 to This Belgian wooden cross This version was issued to
Chinese propaganda poster award civilian acts of courage. marked a temporary grave. Germans in both wars.
In this poster, China celebrates American victory
over enemy Japan, depicting the US as an
enormous pilot crushing a Japanese soldier.

360 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

COMBATTING
DISEASE

The scientific advances of the 20th century have enabled doctors to make
significant breakthroughs in medicine. Research into the causes of disease and
new machines that can see into the body have led to a medical revolution.

New frontiers ▷ The effective treatment and efforts were also made to understand
MRI technology, or prevention of disease over the past and treat mental illness. Advances
magnetic resonance century has extended life expectancy in medical treatment have continued
imagining, provides an and reduced disability more than apace since then. The development
alternative method of was thought possible by early of vaccines to provide immunity to
looking into the body 20th-century doctors. diseases such as smallpox and polio
without having to use saved lives and reduced disability.
potentially harmful The injuries caused by two world The use of antibiotics to treat bacterial
X-rays or surgery. This wars accelerated research into infections has also saved millions of
scan shows the activity treating and fighting infection. lives. X-rays, ultrasound, and other
in different parts of Hygiene improved, methods of scanning methods have made
the brain. surgery became more precise, and diagnosis more accurate and led to
prosthetics and plastic surgery a greater understanding of the body.
progressed significantly. Increased

CONTRACEPTION AND incubator DIAGNOSIS Ear thermometer
CHILDBIRTH jar to aid This digital ear thermometer is more
growth of New technology allowed doctors accurate at measuring temperature than
Advances in the fields of childbirth, conception, embryo to look inside the body without earlier models, which were put in the mouth.
and contraception have included the invention after it is cutting it open. The discovery of
of oral and injectable contraceptives, in vitro fertilized X-rays in 1895 led to a medical
fertilization (IVF), and microsurgery. Improved revolution in noninvasive
diagnostic techniques, imaging, and both diagnosis. Other diagnostic
surgical and nonsurgical procedures have methods include various types of
contributed to better outcomes in childbirth. scanning, heart monitoring, and
and measuring of brainwaves.
pill pack
shows days double
of week earpiece

First IVF test tube dense tissues, such as
This glass jar incubated the fertilized bone, absorb X-rays
egg (embryo) that became the first and appear white
test-tube baby in 1978. Millions of on film
babies have since been born by IVF.
flat chest
sliding piece
lock
Contraceptive pill Stethoscope Hand X-ray
Hailed as one of the most significant curved The modern stethoscope has X-ray machines use electromagnetic waves
advances of the 20th century, the Pill blades flexible tubes, double earpieces, to photograph the inside of the body,
was welcomed by many people. It and improved acoustics to hear allowing doctors to detect broken bones
first went on sale in1960. Obstetric forceps the sounds of the heart and chest. and other abnormalities.
Used throughout history for delivering
babies, 20th-century forceps became
shorter and were designed to protect,
rather than compress, the baby’s head.

COMBATTING DISEASE 361

PREVENTION AND CURE Penicillin SURGERY
The antibiotic penicillin
The 20th century was the era of drug and treated infections such as Attitudes to surgery evolved after
vaccine development—specifically designed to pneumonia and gangrene. It WWI, aided by technological
treat or prevent disease. Antibiotics (first used was made in large quantities progress. New inventions enabled
in the 1930s), powerful cancer drugs, and to treat soldiers in WWII. limb replacements, heart surgery,
antiviral medicines were introduced. Some and wound repairs. Sterile surgical
treatments involve new ways of administering environments saved lives, and
medicines and nondrug treatments. anesthetic advances enabled less
painful surgery.

six testing
needles serum

needles chrome-plated Diabetes pen thin cutting blades nitrous oxide
syringe The increase of diabetes has prompted cylinder
a boom in technology. This device Rib shears
Heaf test kit uses high pressure to send a fine spray This powerful tool is used Anesthetic apparatus
Testing for sensitivity to of insulin through the skin. for cutting through the ribs Pain reduction by anesthetic was
tuberculosis, this syringe and opening up the chest a major breakthrough. This machine
delivers a tiny dose to the cavity during an operation. delivered gas and air (Entonox) to
skin. Millions of children relieve labor pain during childbirth.
have been screened for
tuberculosis. two box for suture needles double-ended scoop
electrodes

head piece delivers current

TDCS machine forceps for abdominal
A 21st-century phenomena,
noninvasive brain stimulation Sterilization box surgery
techniques are being offered
for a variety of conditions. Once surgeons realized that sanitization could scalpels in sterilizing rack
Transcranial Direct Current prevent infection, they began sterilizing their
Stimulation (TDCS) can help
treat brain injuries. battery pack tools. This sterilizer box was used in WWI.

LIFE-CHANGING MACHINES openings connect
to blood vessels
Modern medicine has brought the development of assistive
technologies and life-saving devices. Artificial limbs, hearing
aids, wheelchairs, and contact lenses have enhanced people’s
quality of life, while machines supporting organs such as the
heart, lungs, and kidneys have prolonged life expectancy.

metal head fits in pelvis

Artificial hip polyester shell
Hip replacement, first done in 1940, was one of the
most important surgical advances of the last internal circuitry
century, helping millions regain mobility. Artificial and batteries
hips have become lighter and stronger.

Myoelectric hand Heart pacemaker electrode Jarvik-7 artificial heart
This hand is controlled by muscle The dream of implanting an
sensors placed against the skin at the This is implanted near the heart and artificial heart became a reality on left
site of amputation. Muscles can then December 2, 1982, when the Jarvik-7 ventricle
contract to make movements. electrical pulses regulate the heartbeat. was used for the first time in a human. (lower
chamber)
First used in 1960, it was a breakthrough

in treating heart rhythm disorders.

362 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

LIFE-SAVING TECHNOLOGY Smith-Clarke “senior” cabinet respirator
In the 1950s, Captain George Smith-Clarke, who had been
IRON LUNG a car engineer, designed this British model, as well as a
“junior” version for young children. He included more ports
Polio is an extremely infectious inside the tank changed to manipulate in the side of the machine, so that nurses could reach in
disease that can invade the nervous the lungs into imitating the mechanics without affecting the patient’s breathing. Iron lungs were
system and, within hours, can cause of breathing. Smaller machines were not patented, so they could be available worldwide.
total paralysis. One of the main made for children.
symptoms is the inability to breathe rear view mirror for
because muscles in the chest become POLIO EPIDEMICS patients to see people
paralyzed. Before polio vaccines were standing behind them
introduced in the 1950s and 1960s, The worst epidemic of polio occurred
polio patients were ensconced in a in the 1940s and 1950s. At its height open cabinet nicknamed
tank respirator, or “Iron Lung,” a in 1952, nearly 60,000 cases were “alligator” model because
massive set of bellows that breathed reported in the US alone. Dedicated of its resemblance to the
for them. It became an iconic symbol wards were filled with people lying in gaping jaw of the animal
of the scourge of polio. the iron tubes. Patients had to learn
to live with the constant “swishing” locking mechanism
ASSISTED RESPIRATION sound created by the rise and fall of
the bellows. Some people were kept
Invented by Americans Phillip Drinker in the machines for weeks, months,
and Louis Agassiz Shaw, the first or even years, although most were
version, used in 1928, was known as weaned off within a few weeks of a
the “Drinker Respirator.” In 1931, the sudden, short-lived attack and as soon
American inventor John Haven as they could breathe independently.
Emerson introduced his improved Some patients described the iron
version of the machine. Emerson’s lung as a salvation, but others saw
respirator was more efficient, lighter, it as a prison. Ultimately, it saved
and quieter. lives—most of those who used the
machines survived.
Both Drinker and Emerson’s iron
lungs worked on the same principle. The iron lung was replaced
The patient remained in the airtight eventually by the positive pressure
container with only his or her head mechanical ventilator, and patients
resting on a support outside the no longer had to be encased in a
machine, with a rubber collar around machine. Vaccination has virtually
the neck to provide a seal. Pressure eradicated the disease.

pressure gauge perspex sheet to hold
port for ease reading material
for patient
of access
plastic-covered wheel-mounted
adjustable air mattress stand for easy
inlet valve movement
head
power support
supply for
wheel adjusts
internal height of
lights and head rest

heater

REAR VIEW FRONT VIEW

COMBATING DISEASE 363

Inside the lung
The interior reveals the confined
space holding the patient
immobile. Later models had
lights and internal heating.

windows allow Pressure gauge
doctors to The pressure generated for each
patient was indicated on a gauge
monitor patient on top of the tank. Changes in
from outside pressure enabled the lungs to
inflate and deflate.
light and bell
pressure indicate if pressure
gauge
drops too low
Access port
access port with Sealed windows and port
cover locked placed along the sides of the
in position iron lung gave nurses and
doctors access to the patient
to provide care.

connection to pump,
which raises and
lowers pressure within
the machine

cream enamel-
painted frame

storage box for “We were incomplete
equipment to be used embryos in a metal
with machine womb.”

Lawrence Alexander, The Iron Cradle, 1954

364 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT Pride of the people
This 1980 newspaper celebrates the first
LIFE UNDER THE Cuban in space. Soviet space exploration
REVOLUTION was a major source of pride and prestige.

In 1917, Marxist revolutionaries seized power in Russia. They founded the Soviet
Union, the first state ruled by a Communist Party. By the 1980s, almost one-third
of the world’s population was under Communist rule. Many became disillusioned
when the better world promised by Communist ideology failed to materialize.

Lenin power ▽ The Soviet Union established the led to large-scale disasters, such as dictatorship, as during Joseph Stalin’s
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, model for a Communist state. The famines in the Soviet Union in the rule in the Soviet Union from 1924
the leader of the Communist Party held an absolute 1930s and in China in the 1950s. to 1953. The party and state officials
Bolshevik party who monopoly of political and economic became self-serving, privileged
emerged victorious power. Opposition to or criticism of SPREAD AND FADE groups. Lack of freedom was resented.
after the Russian the regime was ruthlessly repressed.
Revolution, makes a Peasants were forced into collective The success of Soviet armies in World Despite early success with rapid
speech in Red Square, farms at gunpoint. Millions of people War II brought Communist rule to industrialization, state-run economies
Moscow, in 1919. were sent to prison camps. Belief in Central Europe and North Korea. failed to keep pace with capitalism.
Three years later, the revolutionary transformation of China joined the Communist bloc Consumer goods were scarce and
Lenin founded the society—with an end to exploitation after Mao Zedong’s victory in a civil shoddy, shortages common, and living
Soviet Union. and the promise of future equality— war in 1949. The Communist world standards low. From the 1980s, the
ensured popular support for later expanded to include Cuba and Communist project began to unravel.
Communist regimes. Considerable parts of Africa and Southeast Asia. In most countries, Communist parties
support endured even when policies But Communism began to falter. either lost power or, as happened in
Party rule slid into personal China, adopted some capitalist policies.

POLITICS Czarist LIFE UNDER THE REVOLUTION 365
imperial
Communist states were totalitarian, PROPAGANDA
badge
heroic workers from
with every aspect of life directed to the Daqing oilfield
were an example of
a common goal. The state ideology White Army hat productivity
The Communist power grab in
was hammered home in the media Russia sparked a civil war. The shipyard workers
White Army, loyal to the Czar, are urged to be
and at schools and workplaces. When fought the revolutionaries. productive

necessary, opposition was crushed cheerful comrades
celebrating progress
by force. At times, as in the Chinese under Communism

Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, Chinese
message
popular activism was encouraged. This poster from
the 1960s extols
party member the virtues of
ticket number Chinese industry.
Such posters were
ARMIES AND PARTIES used to promote
desirable behavior.
characters read
Hong Weibing five-pointed red stars are
(Red Guard) Communist symbol

Party membership
In the Soviet Union, membership
of the Communist Party was a
privilege, giving access to top
jobs, stores, and housing.

Red Guard uniform Little Red Book
In the mid-1960s, Chinese youths were This book of Chairman Mao’s
mobilized by Chairman Mao Zedong as ideas was compulsory reading
Red Guards. They attacked authority in factories, farms, and schools.
figures allegedly hostile to the revolution. Over a billion were printed.

SUPPRESSION AND CENSORSHIP

Mandelstam’s poem
“Stalin Epigram”

Poet’s typewriter keys have Soviet worker Cuban hero
In 1933, Osip Mandelstam Russian A Soviet poster from the mid-20th Fidel Castro led the 26th of July
wrote a poem on this letters century celebrates the 1917 revolution. Movement to power in Cuba in 1959.
typewriter satirizing Stalin. In A worker breaks his chains, and the stars This mid-1970s Cuban poster depicts
1938 Mandelstam was sent to proclaim peace, democracy, and socialism. Castro as a guerrilla fighter.
a prison camp, where he died.

INDUSTRY headlight allows First Soviet tractor
working at night The Soviet Union began manufacturing
Communist regimes gave prime its own tractors in 1930. The tractors
importance to heavy industry and spikes were held at regional centers, from
mining, developed under state prevent which they were loaned out to vast,
economic plans. High growth rates skidding state-run collective farms.
were achieved, as in the Soviet Union
in the 1930s, but at the expense wheel spokes painted
of pollution and poor working revolutionary red
conditions. The creation of huge
state farms was greatly resented.

366 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

THE WESTERN HOME

During the 20th century, homes in the West changed dramatically. Millions
of lives were transformed by increasing prosperity, technological advances,
mass production, and the steady rise in ownership of household appliances.

Target audience ▷ At the turn of the 20th century, domestic drudgery. New prosperity
Advertisements in the old country houses and other rich in the postwar 1950s brought with it
1950s reached out households were staffed by large a new consumerism. Mass-produced
to hardworking teams of domestic servants, but goods were more affordable and
housewives, promising World War I changed this. Servants were seen as the solution to modern
them devices that became harder to find as workers life—or, at least, that is how they
would give them more found better-paid employment in were advertised.
time to enjoy life. This industry and other vital sectors, and
German poster offers more people bought their own The boom in housebuilding also
the prospect of extra homes. This meant the housewife, fueled demand. As soon as new
storage space provided whether well-off or poor, had to do houses were built, people filled them
by a new generation many things for herself, armed with with new things: furniture, serving
of refrigerators. a slew of labor-saving devices. dishes, and stylish decorative pieces.
There was limitless demand, and
The modern housewife needed limitless production. Family life was
machines that did some of the work transformed by the development of
for her. The coming of electric- new toys, extra leisure time, and
powered devices brought relief from comfortable fixtures and fittings.

FURNISHINGS AND DININGWARE Homemaker dinner plate
After a decade of plain china, people
New woodworking technologies and cheaper, faster methods fell in love with modern patterned
of manufacturing produced goods that appealed to the new tableware in the 1950s, such as
consumer. There was little that harked back to the past; the popular Homemaker
instead, furnishings appeared contemporary, stylish, and series by Ridgway.
colorful, and designers looked to the future.

Plastic tableware tray
Mass production of new
forms of plastic in the 1940s
inundated the modern
home with light, colorful,
and inexpensive products,
and provided the perfect
storage solution for cutlery.

Clarice Cliff ceramics yellow band
British potter Clarice Cliff represents
brought modernity to the the Sun
kitchen in the 1930s with exotic,
colorful Art Deco tea and
coffee sets designed to
be used as well
as admired.

Autumn brown band
Crocus represents earth
pattern
fashionable
1950s furniture

367

“rain effect” interlocking hinge mimics
showerhead koi carp design human elbow
joint
luxury of hot and cold smooth ceramic flared shade
running water became surface, easy to spreads light
keep clean
widely available

temperature wide three springs
control lever pedestal hold arm
in position

heavy base
stabilizes
lamp

Nickel shower fitting Ceramic washbasin Globular vase Anglepoise lamp
Showers, once for the privileged few, were The introduction of the bathroom as Mould-blown globular vases could be mass Launched in 1935 as a “three spring” lamp,
common in homes by the mid-20th century. a separate room in ordinary houses— produced and so were an affordable luxury. the Anglepoise could be mounted on desks,
Innovations in plumbing and heating meant containing a toilet, bath, and washbasin— This vase imitiates the Art Deco style of the walls, and ceilings. Its versatility meant that
the reinvigorating shower upstaged the bath. was a revolution for personal hygiene. French glass designer René Lalique. everyone could adjust and direct light.

steam-bent removable
elm arm beech back

surface Postwar sofa bed
gilded with Ercol, a British postwar furniture brand,
white gold became renowned for its modernist design
and innovative ways of working wood.
haldu wood ivory, rock crystal, This sofa doubles up as a single bed.
footrest and silk handle
Eames chair and ottoman
Art Deco writing desk American husband-and-wife team
This desk was exhibited by the British government Charles and Ray Eames created modernist
at the Art Deco exhibition in Paris in 1925. Designed furniture constructed with industrial
by Sir Edward Brantwood Maufe, it echoes the materials, which, in the 1950s, suggested
glamorous world of Hollywood. a brave new world.

buttons emphasize cushion shape
comfort and luxury of follows contours
of wooden shell
leather upholstery

angled
back

steam-bent cast-aluminum base
plywood with with black paint finish
rosewood veneer

chair seat
swivels on base

OTTOMAN LOUNGE CHAIR

368 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

HOME APPLIANCES spool pin for
cotton reel
One of the main changes that technological
tension dial
change brought to the home during the electric handwheel
motor
20th century was the proliferation

of labor-saving machines that helped

to relieve domestic drudgery. rotatable basket nichrome
holds sliced bread heating unit
Running a home was likened needle clamp power
switch Bakelite
to running a business. Devices presser foot buttons

such as vacuum cleaners, washing

machines, irons, and refrigerators

helped the homemaker increase

efficiency and maybe save time

for more creative pursuits.

Kenlite modern square Singer sewing machine Sweetheart toaster
chrome design for Since 1851, the Singer brand has been synonymous The heyday of the electric toaster began in the 1920s
bowl high-tech appeal with sewing machines. The reliability and continuous with widespread electrification and presliced bread.
stitching of its products freed women from the chore This striking, nickel-plated Sweetheart model was
of hand sewing. both decorative and practical.

hinged lid blue handle Bakelite
indicates cool handle

to touch

top pushing button
chamber releases steam
collects
bottom coffee
chamber
contains

water

Kenwood food mixer Moka Express Whistling Bird kettle Steam iron
Making baking quick and easy, the In 1933, Italian Alfonso Bialetti A design classic, the Alessi kettle, Invented in the United States in the early 20th
food mixer soon became a “must fashioned the first aluminium with its witty postmodern design by century, the first electric steam irons were not
have” item. Designed by Ken Wood, stove-top espresso coffee maker. US architect Michael Graves, was a commercial success, but 1930s models such
this model went on sale in Britain in Today, the Moka Express is found immediately popular. Millions have as The Chief, made by American Electric
1950 and quickly sold out. in 90 percent of Italian homes. been sold since its launch in 1985. Supply, soon won over the public.

large freezer compartment

hinged handrail thick door telescopic
burner insulates handle
cover roasting oven

dual
cyclonic
chamber

no bag
means no

loss of
suction

simmering
oven

rustproof

Electric refrigerator aluminum shelving AGA heat storage stove heavy cast-iron Dyson Cyclone
Throughout Europe, the AGA cooker became frame absorbs, From the 1920s, the vacuum cleaner
Electric fridges, which first appeared in the United States one of the most sought-after kitchen appliances. stores, and came in two forms, the rolling canister
It is known for its iconic design which, externally, radiates heat and the upright. The design changed
in the late 1930s, revolutionized food storage. When has changed little since the 1920s. little until the Dyson arrived in the 1980s.

kitchens with large fridges were introduced in the

1950s, they transformed eating habits.

Electric washing machine four-pinned
At the turn of the century, soap, hot water, agitator
and physical effort were all that could get
clothes clean. The electrically powered
washing tub greatly reduced the drudgery
of laundry. Beatty Brothers of Ontario,
Canada, was the first company to produce
an agitator washing machine. The machines
were not an immediate success, with
problems including poor temperature
control, leaking water, and the threat
of electrocution.

motor connected raising tub lid
to mangle wheel automatically
via large belt
stops motor

handle engages
mangle drive

lowering lid
starts motor

large wooden lid catch
washing tub tub handle

SIDE VIEW four-legged
powered mangle dolly

water
drainage tap

unprotected
electric motor
located under tub

castors for easy
movement

FRONT VIEW

370 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

LEISURE ears used ankle
as handles support
Until the 20th century, most toys were homemade and very
simple. As the developed world became more industrialized, adjustable
toys began to be manufactured on a large scale. With shorter height
working hours, there was more time to spend in the garden,
play sports, or take up a hobby. But some traditional wheels
pastimes, such as board games, never went out of fashion. all in

polyurethane silk-screen one line
wheel decoration
folding
brake mechanism

Skateboards Micro Scooter Space Hopper Inline skates
In the 1950s, Californian surfers developed Heralded as a healthy way for children to It is often the simplest of toys that start a Inline skates have been around since the
the idea of “surfing” the street. By the 1970s, get fresh air, the scooter quickly became a craze. In the 1970s, every child wanted to 1700s, but in the late 1980s, aided by
with new wheels and outdoor skate parks, familiar sight. In the 21st century, the Micro bounce up and down on this orange ball stronger materials, they developed into a
the craze for skateboarding was born. Scooter appealed to adults as well. with a friendly face. fitness and extreme sport phenomenon.

rear hoop The Chopper rubber grip brake lever
imitates The Chopper child’s bike, produced by
motorcycle British company Raleigh in the 1970s, was high-rise
“sissy bar” highly sought after. Famed for its angular (ape hanger)
seat and high-rise handlbars, it became
spring a cultural icon despite being harder to handlebars
suspension ride than conventional bicycles.

rear rack long, padded seat
with back support

Sturmey-Archer
3-speed central

gear stick

smaller
front wheel

named Chopper because
style borrowed from

customized (chopper)
motorcycles

kickstand wide tire
larger rear wheel

THE WESTERN HOME 371

plush, fitted tulle and manual viewfinder
furlike bodice satin skirt focus
exterior wheel
body has
five joints metal shutter
key winder release
button

picture
exit slot

Steiff bear Windup tin robot Birthday Wishes Barbie doll Polaroid camera
Perhaps the most iconic of all childhood Before the arrival of battery-powered toys, The Barbie doll revolutionized play for girls. In 1972, Polaroid unveiled a new “magic”
toys, teddy bears became popular from the a windup mechanism made toys move, Introduced in 1959, it symbolized teenagers camera that developed film in one minute.
beginning of the 20th century. Steiff bears including this robot inspired by the 1950s and consumerism. Dominating the market, The SX-70 camera instantly captured the
from Germany are collector’s items. frenzy for science fiction. it became the best-selling doll in history. public’s imagination.

leather carrying case shutter release film rewind
doubles up as board button crank

one of three

“woods” cast-steel “iron”

with graphite

shaft

putter Single lens reflex (SLR) camera
Mass-market film photography enabled
people with only limited means to afford a
camera and film, and photography became
a popular hobby from the 1970s.

Backgammon set each face can be
Board games such as backgammon, which rotated independently
was first played by Persians around 5,000
years ago, have enduring appeal. face
buttons
Rubik’s cube polyester
Invented by Hungarian design lecturer Erno strings
Rubik in 1974, the Rubik’s cube became such
an addictive toy that players contracted a animal-
medical condition known as cubist’s thumb. gut strings

home
button

left
thumb

stick

directional right
pad thumb
stick

WOODEN-FRAMED GRAPHITE-FRAMED

RACKET RACKET

Game controller Golf bag and clubs Tennis racket technology
A big hit since the late 1970s, the The rise of the middle-class professional saw Technology has played a major role in
game controller has had several golf, long held as an elite sport, emerge as a perfecting much-loved sports, transforming
makeovers. This one for Microsoft’s popular pastime, providing healthy outdoor the heavy wooden tennis racket into its
Xbox was popular from 2001. activity at a relatively gentle pace. sleek modern form.

372 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

FASHION FOR THE
PEOPLE

In the 20th century, fashion entered a world of democracy. Class hierarchies were
discarded as people chose to dress up, dress down, stand out from the crowd, or
blend in. Throughout, fashion’s ability to reinvent itself has remained constant.

On trend ▷ During the 20th century, it became emphasized femininity, then
Women the world over harder to tell the rich from the poor became more masculine, and
have been influenced by how they dressed. Ready-to-wear comfort replaced constriction.
by the latest haute clothing became available at Fashion reflected the mood of the
couture featured in affordable prices, and clothes lost period, from wartime austerity to
magazines such as their class associations. Those with political rebellion.
Vogue. These limited means could create a
magazines acted as a personal style, and fashion became In recent decades, advances in
style barometer of the accessible to people from all social man-made fibers, mass-production
social and cultural levels. Trends changed constantly, techniques, and the major influence
changes that shaped as technology, culture, and world of postwar subcultural styles have
the 20th century. events influenced style. Women’s transformed fashion, and the
hems rose and fell, clothes choice of apparel, into a global
phenomenon.

FASHION BEFORE 1945 V-neck insert

From the turn of the century, functional, with decorative Fair Isle notched
tailor-made suits slowly gave way to lapel
shorter hemlines for women and a less buttons cardigan made
rigid structure. Two world wars brought
with them periods of austerity. These from recycled yarn
were punctuated by the decadence of the
vibrant Jazz Age in the 1920s, until the Going-away outfit
Great Depression forced fashion to focus With the world in
once again on more sober practicalities. economic crisis, this
1929 suit showed a
high lace “down to earth”
collar attitude. The skirt, with
side pleats, finishes
just below the knee.

jacket and front
waistcoat in crease
matching
tweed only two
box pleats
plus fours were
knickerbockers allowed
reached per dress
mid-calf

Three-piece suit Skirt suit Make Do and Mend Wartime utility clothes Demob suit
The British Prince of Wales This stylish French suit from WWII forced people to be more During the austerity of wartime, After WWII, British men exchanged
(later King Edward VIII) was a 1908 moved away from the resourceful in their fashion. This even fabric was rationed. This their wartime kit for “civvy” suits at
trendsetter. He popularized this hourglass silhouette with a British Ministry of Information dress is made from crease- demobilization centers after the
plus fours suit, with roomy narrower skirt, masculine booklet from 1943 offers tips for resistant moygashel fiber, an war. The three-piece version was
pants and a tweed waistcoat. tailoring, and straighter line. recycling and repairing clothing. artificial material. single breasted, in navy or brown.

FASHION FOR THE PEOPLE 373

Flapper dress short capped
The 1920s was an era of extraordinary social sleeves trimmed
change, as many old attitudes were swept with silver
away. Flappers were ultramodern women
who embodied the new freedoms of the soft and light BACK VIEW
decade. The short, light, and skimpy flapper silk chiffon
dress became their uniform. In this daring
outfit, they could stride briskly, go to work, heavy beading draws
drive or bicycle, and, crucially, dance. This attention to waist
beautiful example, designed by British
company Reville and Rossiter around 1925, Drape and definition
typifies the modern Jazz era. The dropped waist is sewn with a mass of
rhinestone embroidery and glass beads. This
V-shaped neckline helped weigh down the light fabric and gave
emphasized by the dress a flattering drape.
beaded trim
Silk tassels
Delicate beadwork Hung at different lengths, tassels
The beadwork, stitched by hand, reflects the decorate the skirt and emphasize
Art Deco style of the 1920s. It is characterized its short hem. Tassels were the
by geometric shapes and metallic, shiny beads. perfect adornment for dancing.

THE JAZZ AGE

American novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald coined
the phrase the Jazz Age in 1922 to describe
the flamboyant, exciting era that emerged
in America after WWI. It was a time of wild
prosperity and decadence, and with new
money came a revolution in morals and
manners. However, the economic crisis of
1929 brought the fun to an abrupt end.

374 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

FASHION AFTER 1945 stiff peak wide-
brimmed hat
Influenced by the economy, politics, and technology, Baseball cap
clothes became less restrictive and more practical after The modern baseball cap arrived in the shawl collar
WWII. With increasing personal freedom, women showed 1940s, when latex rubber replaced buckram
off their bodies, began to wear typically male clothing, and (coarse cotton) as the stiffening material
fashion shifted toward the young. Meanwhile, pop culture inside the peak.
exerted a significant influence on the evolution of male
clothing, as the old “rules” of dress were gradually relaxed. The New Look
Christian Dior’s 1947 Bar
zippers and suit is the iconic example
buckles typical of of his New Look. Its
biker style hourglass silhouette
was adopted by many
shawl other designers
collar into the 1950s.

fringed outseam
sleeves made of
grosgrain

(heavy,
ribbed silk)

Leather jacket pull-on
Popularized by Hollywood, the leather style with
jacket became universal wear from the decorative
1950s. The look evoked rebellion and youth, laces
and was adopted by all classes.
Tuxedo
Winklepickers Men were still required to wear
With distinctively pointed formal attire for evening functions
toes, these shoes have in the 1950s. The smart, iconic
been popular with tuxedo never went out of fashion,
rock-and-roll fans since but its tailoring was relaxed.
the 1950s, although the
sharpness of the point has
changed over the decades.

strapless
bandeau top

Bikini full, pleated skirt
The bikini was emphasizes
fashionable in the
1950s, although it cinched waist
was regarded as and padded hips
controversial attire
and took time to
become popular.

Synthetic fibers
Following the invention of nylon in the 1930s, a
profusion of commercial man-made fibers was
developed. This 1960s magazine ad promotes
acrylic, a washable and durable alternative to wool.

petal-shaped 375
collar
turban in
patch matching
pockets fabric

fitted
shirt

short paneled
hemline skirt

Shift dress flared Silk shirtdress
The classic 1960s dress had no waist pants Long dresses in feminine prints
or sleeves, and a stiff, printed collar. became popular as hemlines dropped
This example was made from linen again in the 1970s. This silk ensemble
dyed a vibrant pink. includes a matching turban.

Sewing pattern corduroy Originally designed
In the 1960s, British designer Mary Quant fabric for cowboys by Levi
created unique styles for teenagers, including Strauss in the 19th
miniskirts and hot pants. Her sewing patterns century, and used as
brought her designs to an even wider market. sturdy work wear by
factory laborers,
sloping raglan jeans have grown to
sleeves be a truly universal
garment. Rival
padded shoulder companies, such as
emphasizes silhouette Wrangler and Lee,
launched into the
Platform shoes Jumpsuit mainstream market in
Platforms were impractical Following the moon landing in the the 1940s, but James
footwear, but that didn’t stop late 1960s, fashion looked to the Dean popularized
thousands of women (and men) future. This bright 1970s jumpsuit them in 1955 in Rebel
in the 1970s strapping them on. was fittingly modern and futuristic. Without a Cause (left).
From this symbol of
THE RISE OF JEANS teen rebellion, jeans
have been adopted
band across societies and
emblem subcultures and are
on T-shirt now embraced the
world over.
bolero-style stonewashed
jacket denim with
a faded look
Power dressing
In the 1980s, women wore clothes that were
confident and tailored. This body-hugging
dress gave a bold, hourglass shape.

distinctive Denim outfit
yellow In the 1980s, denim became part of the
stitching heavy metal “headbanger” subculture.
Often the sleeves of the jacket would
be cut off, to create a vest.

Dr. Martens
The original Doc Marten boot was designed
by a German soldier in 1945. They were
later adopted in the UK by blue-collar
workers and skinheads in the 1960s.

376 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT DAY

THE SPACE AGE

Until the second half of the 20th century, our knowledge of space came
mainly from peering through telescopes. Space travel has greatly enhanced
our understanding of both the Universe and life on Earth.

First man The dawn of the Space Age came on American astronaut Neil Armstrong
in space ▷ October 4, 1957, when the USSR took the first steps on the lunar
Russian Yuri Gagarin launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial surface. The event was watched on
(1934-68) made history object to enter Earth orbit. What television by one-fifth of the world’s
by becoming the first followed was an extraordinary era of population. Since that historic
man in space. This innovation that captured the public moment, the latest technology has
poster celebrates his imagination, although it was also been harnessed to enable longer
orbit of the earth on linked to military developments and flights, larger crews, and spacecraft
12 April 1961. Gagarin’s tensions between the US and the that can act as orbital laboratories.
success shocked the USSR. In 1961, President John F.
Americans. Kennedy pledged that the United In recent decades, unmanned
States would be the first nation to missions have visited the outer
land a man on the moon. With the reaches of the solar system, and
Soviet Union equally determined to thousands of satellites have been
achieve further success, a “space launched. Robotic spacecraft have
race” began. On July 20, 1969, Apollo explored inhospitable planets, and
11 made the first Moon landing, and people spend months living and
working in space.

SPACECRAFT tunnel hatch, Apollo 11 Command Module
leading to Lunar The conical Command Module Columbia
Space exploration only became possible Module used for provided the cramped living quarters for
when technology allowed astronauts to the three Apollo crew. Once the mission
escape Earth’s atmosphere and survive Moon landing was over, it landed in the Pacific Ocean.
outside it. The American Apollo Space
Program (1963–72) sent men to the hatch seal to provide
Moon. Today most spacecraft are pressurization, thermal
unmanned, from satellites to remote-
controlled robots and space probes. protection, and
watertight conditions

engine to
control roll

radio antenna APOLLO 11 COMMAND
to broadcast MODULE HATCH
radio signals
antenna
window used
access hatchway during docking
maneuvers

Sputnik (model) Lunokhod 1 space probe
The size of a basketball, Russia’s This unmanned Russian-built craft landed on the
Sputnik 1 was the world’s first Moon in November 1970. Controlled from Earth,
artificial satellite. It orbited the it spent 322 days analyzing the lunar soil.
Earth 1,440 times in October 1957.

THE SPACE AGE 377

SPACE EQUIPMENT water Apollo 11 rucksack
container Once back on Earth, the Apollo 11 crew was
The history of space travel, from prepared to wait three days to be rescued. In
NASA’s Apollo Program to modern the event, they splashed down just 15 miles
space stations, is linked to the (24 km) from a waiting US naval ship.
development of pioneering gadgets.
It includes some of the most three pairs
significant technical accomplishments of sunglasses
in human history. Some tools and
devices needed to be reinvented to machete sheath
deal with the unique challenges of made from
working in space. aluminum

instructions include
alternative plans in
case of emergency

razor-sharp
stainless steel
blade

aluminum
body

wide-angle HAMMER CRIMPER-PLIERS
lens

Apollo TV camera Apollo 11 checklist Apollo 11 timer Mir space tools
Cameras like the one above were used on This checklist outlines the precise steps Part of the cabin equipment, this timer is This lightweight hammer was used onboard
many Apollo missions to capture live images Neil Armstrong needed to take for the Lunar similar to a kitchen timer. It can be switched the Mir space station. The pliers could be
of the astronauts in space, enabling people Module landing, his moonwalk, and the between a 60-minute interval and a gripped by a gloved hand and were used on
on Earth to watch the space travelers. return to the Command Module. 6-minute mode. spacewalks outside the space station.

Mars 3 probe communications Galileo space probe
The Russian probe Mars 3 could antenna This craft reached Jupiter in
both parachute and airbrake. 1995. A smaller probe released
This enabled it to succeed where into the planet’s atmosphere
others had failed, and it was the sent data back to Earth.
first probe to soft-land on Mars.
one of two laser burns
metal triangles generators holes in rocks
open after landing to providing power and soil and
identifies
reveal equipment aperture door opens chemical
and closes to cover elements
Hubble Space Telescope optical components
Launched in 1990, Hubble has made Curiosity rover
countless discoveries about the size Earth’s neighbouring planet Mars has
and age of the Universe, distant become the subject of intense study. NASA’s
galazies, and our own solar system. Curiosity rover landed there in 2012.

antenna for
communication

with Earth

plutonium
power source
converts heat
into electricity

instrument
compartment

WALKING IN SPACE 378 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT DAY

THE ISS SPACESUIT

The International Space Station (ISS) crew sees 15 or 16 sunrises and sunsets station. Technically referred to as an Mission patches
is one of the world’s greatest feats of a day. Many experiments take place Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU), These patches celebrate different missions carried
engineering. In orbit since 1998, the both inside the ISS and out. the complex suit was engineered out by ISS space crews. Since the 1960s, astronauts
craft was built to enable a crew to live to protect the wearer from harsh have worn patches, usually ones they have designed
and work in space. The ISS is as large LAYERS OF PROTECTION temperatures, radiation, and space themselves, to commemorate their missions.
as an American football field, and it debris. With 14 layers between
took 13 years to assemble. Sixteen Working in space requires the very the wearer’s skin and the vacuum
countries now use it as a habitable latest in space suits to enable the of space, it weighs over 240 lb
working laboratory, not only to find astronauts to leave the craft and (108.9 kg) on Earth. It provides life
out more about space but also how to explore outside. The ISS suit shown support for up to nine hours, offering
improve life on Earth. below was based on a design from the water, oxygen, and temperature
early 1980s that was used on NASA’s control. The suits are kept on the ISS
Life for the astronauts is unique. Space Shuttle. The suit was upgraded for up to two years to be used again
Orbiting the Earth at 17,500 mph in 1998 to meet the demands of by new astronauts coming aboard.
(28,000 km/h) every 92 minutes, the building and working on the space

helmet light mounted “We opened the hatches…
to illuminate the and it was very pleasant to
working area find ourselves in a place
with… good, clean air.”
gold-tinted sun
visor protects Sergei Krikalev, cosmonaut, on the first mission to the ISS,
November 2, 2000
astronaut’s vision

Primary Life Support Subsystem
mounted on back of suit

mini workstation
attached to chest

temperature control valve
removes excess heat and
prevents dehydration

cuff checklist summarizes
tasks to be carried
out on spacewalk

glove contains Backpack
insulated padding The EMU contains a pack, worn on the back, called
the Primary Life Support Subsystem. It holds
and is jointed equipment for oxygen supply, carbon dioxide removal,
for flexibility two-way communication, and water-cooling,
as well as an electricity supply and a fan.
white fabric reflects
harsh sunlight liquid cooling
ventilation keeps
Thermal Micrometeoroid the astronaut from
Garment (TMG) overheating

protects astronaut safety tether attached UNTETHERED SPACEWALKS
from space debris to spacecraft stops
astronaut from
Multi-purpose suit drifting in space
The ISS suit is more than just
a space suit. It is a miniature boot jointed for On March 18, 1965, Russian astronaut Alexei THE SPAGE AGE 379
spacecraft that provides the easy movement and Leonov became the first man to walk in space,
complete environment to enable attached to suit followed three months later by the American
an astronaut to work in space. The Edward White. In 1984, Bruce McCandless
suit is waterproof and fireproof. It became the first astronaut to make an
protects the wearer from the heat untethered spacewalk. He flew 320 feet (100 m)
and cold, and helps the astronaut from the Space Shuttle Challenger. After just
survive for up to seven hours two further flights, the practice was considered
outside the spacecraft. unsafe and has not been repeated since.

380 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

THE TECHNOLOGY
OF MODERN WAR

The wars of the 20th century have led to many technological advances. Aircraft
and weapons have become faster and deadlier, and enemy positions can be
spotted by satellite or radar and eliminated with long-range missiles or drones.

Controlling World War I saw men shot down in technological weaponry, much of it
the skies ▷ unprecedented numbers due to the never used before. Among the new
Fighter and bomber advent of the machine gun. In 1945, weapons were devastating cruise
jets like this American the terrible force unleashed by the missiles equipped with computerized
F-4 Phantom play a atomic bombs dropped on Japan guidance systems. Meanwhile, stealth
dominant role in brought a close to World War II but fighter aircraft reflected radar signals
modern warfare. Air led to decades of global uncertainty and night-vision gadgets sought out
supremacy is derived and fear of nuclear war. enemies through the dark.
from the aircraft’s
speed, maneuverability, The ensuing Cold War resulted in The United Nations, formed in
and navigation and further development of missiles and 1945, utilized military technology to
communications launchers. When new challenges were keep peace, while in guerilla warfare
systems. faced in the Gulf War in 1990, the US improvised weapons have come up
unleashed an arsenal of “smart” against more advanced firepower.

WEAPONS flight fins help steer missile

Since World War II, there have been attempts to stabilizing wings electric motor in tip Sidewinder missile
make increasingly destructive weaponry as accurate Introduced in 1956 by the US Navy, this air-to-air
as possible, using digital technology to avoid casing houses 20 oz handle contains “smart” missile finds its target using an infrared
civilian casualties. Machine guns and assault rifles (567 g) of explosives parachute honing system. With a range of 18 miles (29km)
have become more lethal than ever, being used it carries a warhead that explodes on impact.
extensively during periods of political unrest in
parts of Africa, the USSR, and the Middle East. RKG-3 anti-tank grenade
This Soviet grenade entered service after WWII.
radar antenna Used widely during the Vietnam and Cold Wars,
it has a blast radius of 6.5 ft (2 m).

single-stage
rocket

“Fat Man” bomb (replica) square tail box to parabolic
Harnessing the explosive power of nuclear fission, keep bomb on antenna
this second US atomic bomb hit Nagasaki, Japan,
on August 9, 1945, initially killing 50,000 people. stable flight path wheels
retracted
for firing

Rapier missile launcher
Used by the British Army in the Falklands War (1982),
the Rapier is a large rotating cylindrical unit that
carries six missiles.

UNIFORMS digital camouflage 381

Military uniform has changed dramatically. Night-vision goggles cleated
Materials have improved, along with flexibility These night-vision goggles attached to a helmet allow sole
and maneuverability. In recent years, with the troops to operate at night. They played a crucial role
need for concealment in hostile and difficult during the Afghanistan and Iraq wars. Tropical combat boots
terrain, camouflage has played a crucial role, These US Marine boots were made specifically for
making soldiers almost invisible. the hot, wet, and humid conditions of Vietnam.
In the mid-1960s 5,000 pairs were produced a day.
Disruptive additional
Pattern protection sole made
Material from old
(DPM) to collar
truck tires

Army desert camouflage UN combat gear Viet Cong sandals
This type of camouflage was worn by The distinctive United Iconic for their use by the Viet Cong during
British troops during conflicts in Iraq and Nations blue identifies the Vietnam War, these sandals, made of tire
Afghanistan from the 1990s. Its two-tone UN soldiers as neutral rubber, were simple but effective. The straps
pattern blends in with the desert landscape. wherever they are in the were made from strips of inner tube.
world. The tactical vest is
GUNS lightweight and bulletproof.

solid wooden stock

polymer frame flexes
under impulse of
firing and absorbs
some recoil

AK-47 assault rifle pistol grip distinctive curved accessory rail for
Developed in the Soviet Union in 1947, the box magazine holds lights or lasers
Kalashnikov AK-47 is the most widespread catch locks 30 rounds of
assault weapon, with 100 million in use barrel in place ammunition Glock 17 pistol
worldwide. It is cheap to manufacture and Designed in 1982 by Austrian Gaston Glock,
can fire 580 rounds per minute. sight with low-light this semiautomatic pistol is regarded as an
capacity and exemplary firearm. It is widely used by
barrel can be four-power military forces and law-enforcement agencies.
changed in seconds magnification

MG 43 machinegun safety catch retaining
This belt-fed light machinegun was developed in the can be set to bolt
late 1980s by German company Heckler and Koch. fully automatic
It is one of the most deadly guns ever invented. fire only Improvised pistol
Homemade guns, such as this 1980s South
African model, have been used globally by
insurgents and revolutionaries. Crudely made,
they are often very dangerous to the user.

382 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

CONNECTING
THE WORLD

The latter part of the 20th century saw an astounding evolution in computers
and communications technology. Built on powerful devices, the “communications
age” transformed the way we communicate with and connect the entire globe.

Fiberoptics ▷ The first technology that people used computer networks. From the 1970s
Fiberoptics forms the to communicate speedily over long onwards, the miniaturisation of
backbone of the global distances was the telegraph. The first electronic components on small
telecommunications telephone networks opened in the integrated circuits, or “chips,” has
system. A single optical 1880s, but uptake was slow until enabled the development of
fiber slightly thicker prices fell in the 1920s. It was not electronic devices that were smaller
than a human hair can long after this that millions of and cheaper. The mobile phone and
carry huge amounts of people were also tuning in to the personal computer became
information over long radio broadcasts. widespread in the 1990s, and access
distances, as pulses of to the Internet — first via computers,
red light or infrared Electronic computers were first then using smartphones and tablets
radiation. introduced in the 1950s, and from — grew rapidly in the early years of
the late 1960s they gave businesses the 21st century.
a new way to communicate, via

COMPUTERS AND THE INTERNET

The first computers were expensive and difficult to use.
Smaller, cheaper, user-friendly personal computers became
widespread in the 1980s. By the 1990s, companies called
Internet service providers (ISPs) began providing the general
public with access to the Internet, through which people
can communicate via e-mail, the World Wide Web, and
video conferencing.

small single-
button mouse

two floppy Apple computer
disk drives Apple introduced its first Macintosh computer
in 1984. Later models, such as this iMac from
1998, were designed to make it easy for home
users to connect to the Internet.

IBM personal computer Laptop Tablet touch screen
In 1981, the US company IBM introduced the Small, portable computers with rechargeable Apple’s iPad, introduced in 2010, kick-started interface
popular and influential IBM Personal Computer. batteries first became popular in the early rapid development of tablet computers.
It ran a text-based operating system supplied by 1990s, giving people the chance to continue Users interact via a touch screen interface
the US company Microsoft. with their work away from their desks. rather than a mouse and physical keyboard.

CONNECTING THE WORLD 383

TELEPHONES battery takes base unit
ten hours to recharges
When a person makes a telephone charge phone
call, a signal carrying his or her battery
voice travels across a network that
includes metal wires, optical fibers, 1930s dial telephone 1970s mobile phone Cordless phone and handset
and radio waves. That same network The automatic telephone exchange, Mobile phones for use in moving vehicles Cordless phones first became available in
carries texts, images, and data, as introduced in the early 1900s, enabled date back to the 1950s, but handheld mobile the 1980s. The handset communicates with
well as voice calls. Today, Internet callers to connect their own calls using a phones and extensive cellular mobile a base station that is connected via cables
traffic shares much of the telephone dial, instead of via switchboard operators. networks were introduced in the 1970s. to the telephone network.
network’s infrastructure too.

touch Telstar satellite solar panels with
screen Launched in 1962, Telstar 1 3,600 solar cells in
was the first satellite to relay total on outer hull
telephone calls and television to generate power
pictures. Today, around 3,000
communications satellites
orbit the planet.

2000s smartphone aluminum body
Smartphones have Wi-Fi access and serve of satellite contains
as portable media players, cameras, Web
browsers, and satellite navigation devices. nickel-cadmium
They have revolutionized communication. battery

typewriter
linked to a
telephone
line

Teleprinter
Teleprinters were used to transmit and
receive messages, at first over the telegraph
network. From the 1920s to the 1980s, such
messages were transmitted over a dedicated
“telex” network.

number keys to dial
recipient’s fax machine

1990s fax machine
Fax machines scan documents and send a
copy over the telephone. They were popular
in the 1980s and 1990s, but Internet-based
communication has largely superseded them.



TIMELINE OF
WORLD HISTORY

386 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 20,000–700BCE

EARLY SOCIETIES

In the millennia after 12,500 BCE, people in many parts of the world began cultivating plants,
raising animals, and establishing settled communities. The era of the first farmers (known
as the Neolithic era) saw many technological developments, including textiles and early
metalworking, and monumental architecture such as Europe’s megalithic tombs. Farming
spread through trade and colonization. Agricultural productivity was increased by irrigation,
by plows, and wheeled vehicles, and by using animals to draw them and to provide milk
and wool. The first cities emerged and the first civilizations arose in the 3rd millennium BCE,
in southern Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and Egypt, and later in China’s Yangtze Valley,
Mesoamerica, and Andean South America.

c.18,000 BCE c.9000 BCE c.6000 BCE PAINTED HALAF JAR

Pottery-making begins Metalworking begins Village cultures prosper c.5900 BCE
Hunter-gatherer communities Gold and native (naturally Prosperous agricultural village
in China begin to make pottery. occurring, pure) copper are communities, such as the Halaf Euphrates Valley farming
Pottery-making develops in Japan worked by cold-hammering in culture in Mesopotamia spread widely. communities established
in 14,000 BCE and then in other western Asia. By 7000 BCE, smelting Halafian pottery is decorated with The first farming communities are
parts of the world at later dates, copper ores to extract metal begins. multicolored geometric and animal- established in the Euphrates Valley
including c.6900 BCE in western Asia. themed designs. in southern Mesopotamia, with
c.7000 BCE cultivation dependent on irrigation.
c.12,000 BCE c.6000 BCE
First European farmers emerge
Permanent settlement begins Agriculture spreads from Anatolia Mummification begins
In the eastern Mediterranean and (modern Turkey) into southeastern The Chinchorro culture of
some parts of western Asia, many Europe (Greece and the Balkans). Settling coastal Peru and Chile develop
hunter-gatherers begin to live on fertile plains, farmers grow wheat mummification techniques.
year-round in permanent settlements. and barley, and raise sheep and goats.

BCE BCE

c.10,500 BCE c.8000 BCE c.5500 BCE

Farming begins First farmers in China European copper
Sedentary communities in Syria People near the Yellow River, China, metallurgy develops
begin cultivating rye. By 8000 BCE, cultivate broomcorn millet. Later, Copper metallurgy develops in the
farmers in the eastern Mediterranean rice starts to be cultivated in the Balkans. Some of the earliest copper
are growing wheat, barley, pulses, Yangtze River valley. tools are made in this area.
and flax. Cultivation begins in
the Americas and in New Guinea c.7000 BCE c.5500–4500 BCE
by 8000 BCE. Changes in the
Green Sahara Linear Pottery culture develops
c.9000 BCE Hunter-fisher communities of The Linear Pottery culture, associated with the
the Sahara, at this time grassland
Animals are domesticated with lakes and rivers, start to herd spread of European farming communities,
Farmers in western Asia begin to cattle. After 6500 BCE, conditions emerges. Its distinctive pottery is found across
herd sheep and goats. Cattle and become arid and people become central Europe and in some adjacent regions.
more dependent on domestic
pigs are also domesticated. By c.6000 BCE
7000 BCE, zebu cattle are domesticated animals and plants.
Çatalhöyük prospers
in Mehrgarh in modern Pakistan. Çatalhöyük, in modern Turkey, is a large early
settlement, covering an area of 32 acres (13 ha).
SAHARAN ROCK PAINTING SHOWING CATTLE It is occupied by up to 8,000 people living in
houses. Its inhabitants participated in obsidian
exchange networks, grew crops, and raised sheep.

c.6000 BCE c.5100 BCE
Ai Bunar copper
Irrigation developed mining flourishes
Simple irrigation agriculture in central
Mesopotamia begins. The development of A copper mining
water-control techniques enables farmers industry, based on a
to colonize the Mesopotamian plains. series of mine trenches,
flourishes at Ai Bunar

(modern Bulgaria).

EARLY SOCIETIES 387

c.3100 BCE
Egypt’s First
Dynasty established
King Menes (Narmer) unites the
kingdoms of Upper (southern) and
Lower (northern) Egypt, creating the
First Dynasty of Egypt. He founds
the first capital, at Memphis.

c.4800 BCE MEGALITHIC TOMB, SOUTHERN FRANCE c.3200 BCE
South American
Megalithic tombs built mounds built
In north and west Europe, monumental Complexes of large ritual
tombs are often built for communal burials. structures on platform mounds
with staircases begin to be
c.4500 BCE built, and cotton is cultivated
in coastal modern Peru.
Alloying discovered
In western Asia, a type of bronze, harder c.4000 BCE c.3200 BCE
than soft copper is made by adding
either copper ore containing arsenic Earliest paddy Egyptian hieroglyphs developed
or by adding arsenic to smelted copper. fields created The Egyptian script is first used—it includes
In China, wet-rice cultivation signs for words and for sounds. The
using plowed, flooded paddy hieroglyphic script is used in formal contexts,
fields begins. while a simpler version of the script, hieratic,
is used for everyday writing. Hieroglyphs
remain in use until the 4th century CE.

BCE BCE

c.4500 BCE c.4500 BCE c.3300 BCE

Corn develops Plowing invented First written script developed
Domestic corn is In western Asia, North The first proper written script, including many
developed from wild Africa, and Europe, pictographic signs, is developed by the
teosinte in Mexico. domestic animals are Sumerians of Uruk, Mesopotamia, for
Owing to the slow kept for milk, as well administrative and accounting purposes.
development of larger as for meat, and are
corncobs, corn only used for pulling plows. c.3500 BCE
becomes a staple food Animal traction is one of
supporting permanent the most labor-saving Stamp seals used
settlements after 2000 BCE. techniques invented. Stamp seals begin to be used
in the new towns of western
c.5000–1000 BCE Asia for administrative and c.3200 BCE
The Old Copper Culture flourishes economic purposes. First bronze
manufactured
The Old Copper Culture, a major c.3500 BCE In western Asia, tin is
alloyed with copper to
industry and trade network based on Wheeled produce bronze, a hard
transportation invented metal that can be used
cold-hammered native copper, locally Wheeled transportation emerges to make effective tools.
and spreads rapidly through Eurasia.
mined in the Great Lakes region, flourishes c.4000 BCE Carts are used for local transportation c.3200 BCE
in eastern North America. and as elite military vehicles. Uruk emerges
Uruk, in Sumer (modern southern
Grapes and c.3500 BCE Iraq), grows into one of the world’s
first cities. By 2900 BCE, it has a
olives farmed Indus plains farmed population of around 60,000.
Farmers move into the basin of the
Grape vines and olive trees are Indus River, establishing villages such
as Harappa in Punjab, which grows
c.5000 BCE domesticated in the eastern eventually into a great city.
Mediterranean. Olive oil and

Andean agriculture develops wine become important traded

Farmers in the Andes start to keep llamas, commodities in this region.

for meat and transport, alpacas, for wool,

and guinea pigs, for meat. A wide range

of crops is grown in the Andes and in the

Andean coastal areas.

388 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 20,000–700 BCE

DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING 800 c.2600–2500 BCE
Writing evolved separately in different cultures, usually to Indus civilization emerges
keep economic and administrative records or for religious The length, in years, More towns develop in the Indus
purposes. Writing meant people could communicate over of the Uruk period, which basin, including the great city of
distance and record information. As it developed, writing saw the dawn of urban Mohenjo-daro. Houses have
was used to reinforce royal authority, through propaganda life in Mesopotamia. bathrooms and often toilets,
such as monumental stone texts glorifying the deeds of and an efficient drainage system.
kings and attributing their success c.2600 BCE
to divine approval. c.2600 BCE
King Gilgamesh rules
CUNEIFORM TABLET The semilegendary King Gilgamesh Bell Beaker culture spreads
The practice of burial with distinctive
rules the Sumerian city of Uruk. pottery vessels (Bell Beakers) spreads
He becomes the subject through much of Western Europe, along
of a series of epic poems. with copper metalworking. Graves also
often contain archer’s equipment, copper
daggers, amber beads, and gold jewelry.

c.2900 BCE c.2600 BCE
Mummification
Cuneiform script develops practices develop
In Sumer (modern southern Iraq), Natural preservation of the
signs in the evolving script become body in Egypt’s desert ground
less pictorial. They are formed of is improved upon by artificial
wedge-shaped (cuneiform) lines mummification during the Old
made by pressing sharpened Kingdom and mummification
reeds into soft clay. develops further in later times.

BCE BCE

c.2900 BCE c.2686 BCE c.2600 BCE

Early Dynastic Old Kingdom established South American cities emerge
period begins King Sanakht accedes to the The first known city in South America
The Early Dynastic throne of Egypt, marking the develops at Caral in the Supe valley (in
period in Sumer (modern modern Peru), supported by irrigation
southern Iraq) begins. beginning of the Third Dynasty agriculture and rich coastal fisheries. Other
City-states including and the Old Kingdom era—a settlements featuring temple complexes, such
Uruk, Ur, and Shuruppak as Aspero, are also known in coastal Peru.
grow in power and extent. time of strong, centralized rule.

c.3000 BCE c.2900–2400 BCE

Aegean cultures flourish First Stonehenge structures built
Early Bronze Age societies Wooden structures are built at the
cultivating vines, olives, and Stonehenge ceremonial complex
grains flourish in Crete, southern in southern England.
Greece, and the Cycladic
islands. Sea trade is important c.2650 BCE
to obtain copper and tin for
making bronze. Step Pyramid of Saqqara built
Designed by the architect Imhotep, the
c.3000 BCE first Egyptian pyramid, the Step Pyramid
of Saqqara, is completed for King Djoser.
Longshan culture develops
In the Shandong Province and central
plains of northern China, the Longshan
culture develops. Following agricultural
success, craftsmen make bronze tools
and jade vessels, and weave silk.

c.2550–2400 BCE UR ROYAL WALL EARLY SOCIETIES 389
ORNAMENT
Ur royal graves c.2334 BCE
The rulers of Ur, in Sumer, are buried bull’s head in
in royal graves. They are accompanied copper-bronze Akkadian Empire formed
by elaborate treasures and jewelry, King Sargon of Akkad (in Mesopotamia)
ceremonial weaponry, musical defeats the ruler of Sumer to control
instruments, and a large number of both Sumer and Akkad. Through
attendants who may have sacrificed subsequent campaigns to Elam in
themselves, although this is not certain. modern Iran, the eastern Mediterranean,
Syria, and Anatolia (modern Turkey),
c.2550–2370 BCE c.2500 BCE Sargon and his ancestors carve out
the world’s first empire—the Akkadian
Umma–Lagash conflict Indus civilization Empire—with influence from the eastern
The border conflict between reaches peak Mediterranean to the Gulf.
Umma and Lagash, in Mesopotamia, The Indus civilization reaches
is the earliest international conflict its peak, stretching 1,060 miles c.2300 BCE
to be recorded. (1,700 km) from east to west
and 800 miles (1,300 km) Stonehenge stones erected
from north to south. The Large stones are erected
region’s prosperity is based at Stonehenge in southern
on farming, mining, crafts, England. The entrances and stone
and trade. arrangements mark astronomical
events—the midsummer sunrise
and midwinter sunset. The stones
are rearranged several times over
succeeding centuries.

c.2500 BCE

Syrian city-states emerge
In Syria and the eastern
Mediterranean, fortified cities
such as Ebla and Mari develop.

BCE BCE

c.2575–2500 BCE c.2500 BCE c.2345–2181 BCE c.2200 BCE

Pyramids of Giza constructed Trade routes developed Sixth Dynasty established European Bronze
The three great pyramids at Giza are built Long-distance trade routes Egypt’s Sixth Dynasty sees a weakening of Age begins
for the Fourth Dynasty pharaohs Khufu, develop in South America, the power of the Old Kingdom rulers in favor
Khafra, and Menkaure. They are guarded linking the coast with the Andes. of regional governors called nomarchs. By Copper ores and
by the statue of the Sphinx, which may the end of this period, the authority of the tin ore are used to
bear the features of King Khafra. Egyptian rulers has steadily eroded. make bronze, which

replaces copper
for metalworking

across Europe.

6.5 million PYRAMID CONSTRUCTION

The estimated mass, Incredible feats of engineering, the
in tons, of the Great pyramids at Giza were constructed
Pyramid of Giza. not by slaves as was once thought,
but by a staff of full-time craftsmen
THE SPHINX AND and masons supplemented by
PYRAMIDS AT GIZA farmers performing a type of
national service during the Nile
floods. Huge blocks of stone were
cut from local quarries, hauled
onsite using sleds, and then heaved
up ramps, which grew ever higher
as construction progressed.

390 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 20,000–700 BCE

c.2193 BCE c.2000 BCE c.1894 BCE

Akkadian Empire collapses Chariots spread Babylonian dynasty founded
The Guti, mountain people from the east, defeat weak Light, maneuverable chariots drawn by The First Dynasty of Babylon is founded. The
Akkadian kings. Sumerian city-states such as Kish, Ur, and horses spread from the steppe regions city-state grows in importance after the Euphrates
Lagash reassert their independence. For the next 80 years, west of the Caspian into West Asia, River shifts westward in the 2nd millennium BCE,
the city-states campaign against the Guti and Elam and vie Europe, and China. Chariots are used
with each other for dominance of Sumer. particularly in warfare, as a fighting depriving more easterly states of its waters.
platform by high-status individuals.
c.2181 BCE bird

Old Kingdom ends c.2000 BCE snake
The Sixth Dynasty and the Old Kingdom period
ends in Egypt after a series of natural disasters, Philippines colonized FIGURINE
including famine, weakens the authority of the Farmers from Taiwan spread OF MINOAN
king. The First Intermediate period begins. into the Philippines around MOTHER
2000 BCE. From there people GODDESS
c.2150 BCE gradually spread into Indonesia,
nearby islands in Southeast
Nubian Kingdom flourishes Asia, and Micronesia.
In southern Egypt, the Nubian
Kingdom, with its capital at Kerma c.2000–1500 BCE
on the Nile, prospers after the collapse
of the Egyptian Old Kingdom. Minoans reach height
The Minoan civilization flourishes.
2004 BCE Crete’s prosperity is based on
Fall of Ur agriculture and trade including
The city of Ur falls luxury craft products. The Minoans
to the Elamites, ending build great palaces near sanctuaries
the dynasty of Ur. where they hold processions
and feasts.

BCE BCE

c.2055 BCE c.1900 BCE 1813 BCE

Middle Kingdom begins City of Ashur flourishes Kingdom of Upper
The Theban ruler Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II In northern Mesopotamia, the Mesopotamia
becomes king. In 2040 BCE, he defeats his rivals important city-state of Ashur established
and unites Egypt once more. This begins the develops a trading network across The Assyrian King
era known as the Middle Kingdom. eastern Anatolia (modern Turkey).
Shamshi-Adad conquers
c.2112–2095 BCE c.2000–1750 BCE c.1965 BCE northern Mesopotamia to
Arctic settlers spread
Reign of Ur-Nammu The Arctic Small Tool population, Egypt takes Nubia establish the kingdom of
Ur-Nammu founds the third dynasty ancestors of the Inuit, spread from Senwosret I conquers northern Upper Mesopotamia—the
of Ur, which witnesses a revival of Nubia, extending Egypt’s borders forerunner of the Greater
Sumerian power, as well as an artistic modern Alaska across Canada as far as the Second Cataract of
and cultural renaissance. He commissions to settle in Greenland. the Nile. Nubia yields gold and Assyrian Empire.
the first ziggurat in Ur—an imposing copper and is a source of slaves.
stepped platform topped with a temple— c.1900 BCE
and others at Uruk, Eridu, and Nippur.
Cretan script developed
THE ZIGGURAT OF UR A hieroglyphic script is developed
by the Minoans, evolving by
c.1750 BCE into the Linear A script.

EARLY SOCIETIES 391

c.1800 BCE c.1792–1750 BCE cuneiform text c.1450 BCE
describes prayer
Andean Babylonian for the well-being Lapita people migrate
culture develops Empire established of the king People making distinctive
Pottery-making and Under King Hammurabi, Babylon stamp-decorated Lapita
textile-weaving becomes the foremost state STELA OF
begins in modern in Mesopotamia. Hammurabi HAMMURABI pottery begin to colonize the
Peru, canal-irrigation conquers the city-states of southern OF BABYLON Pacific Islands, spreading
agriculture develops, and central Mesopotamia and
and settlements such creates the Babylonian Empire. His eastward from Melanesia in
as El Paraíso, Sechin law code presents his view of legal their single outrigger canoes.
Alto, and La Florida are and ethical principles, and he exercises
dominated by massive personal control over the affairs of his state. c.1600–1400 BCE c.1450 BCE
temple complexes.
c.1750 BCE Mycenaean Alphabetic scripts develop
c.1800 BCE civilization emerges Various scripts using a sign to represent
Sechin Alto constructed On the Greek mainland, each consonant develop in the eastern
Indus declines The large ceremonial complex of magnificent burials furnished with
In south Asia, the Sechin Alto is constructed in Peru, gold death masks and weaponry Mediterranean. Around 1150 BCE, the
Indus civilization goes and by 1200 BCE, it is the largest herald the emergence of the precursor of the modern alphabet emerges.
into decline and its temple complex in the Americas. Mycenaean civilization.
cities are gradually c.1500–900 BCE
abandoned, but c.1725 BCE c.1595 BCE Aryans migrate
farming communities Speakers of the Aryan branch of the
continue to flourish. Second Intermediate Hittites sack Babylon Indo-European language family from
Period begins The Babylonian Empire, southern Russia settle in northern India.
The Middle Kingdom in Egypt is declining under Hammurabi’s
torn by unrest. In the subsequent successors, is finally destroyed c.1500 BCE
Second Intermediate Period, an by the Hittites, who
Egyptian dynasty rules Upper Egypt themselves soon decline as a Power struggles begin
from Thebes, while Lower Egypt is result of succession disputes. The Egyptians, Mitanni,
controlled by Asiatic rulers (the Hyksos). and New Kingdom Hittites
compete for control of the
eastern Mediterranean.

BCE BCE

c.1700 BCE c.1628 BCE c.1550 BCE c.1500 BCE
New Kingdom
Shang dynasty begins Eruption of Thera begins Micronesian islands colonized
The Shang dynasty develops along the A massive volcanic eruption The Theban King Palau and the Marianas in
Yellow River. Their first capital is established destroys the center of the Aegean Ahmose I drives the western Micronesia are colonized
at Zhengzhou. The Shang develop a script island of Thera (Santorini), Hyksos from Lower by 1500 BCE from the Philippines.
burying three-story houses Egypt, ushering in the Reaching the Marianas involves a
ancestral to that of modern China. painted with frescoes in the third period of settled remarkable open-sea crossing of
Minoan-related town of Akrotiri. rule in Egypt, known 1,550 miles (2,500 km).
c.1650 BCE as the New Kingdom.
c.1450 BCE
Hittite Kingdom established c.1500 BCE
The Hittites establish the Old Kingdom Mycenaeans take Crete
Valley of the Kings used for burials Most of the Minoan palaces in Crete are
in central Anatolia (modern Turkey), Egyptian rulers are buried in rock-cut
with Hattusa as its capital. They use tombs in the Valley of the Kings, near destroyed, leaving Knossos as the only
cuneiform, but also develop their own Thebes, for the first time. functional palace. The Mycenaeans take
control of the island. They use the Linear B
script, Luwian hieroglyphic. script, an adaptation of Linear A to suit

IRON-WORKING 134 their own, early Greek language.

By c.1500 BCE, the Hittites were employing CEREMONIAL The number of massive cup depicts
iron working to make luxury objects. Later, AX columns in the famous an octopus
as technology developed, the Hittites Hypostyle Hall at the
created weapons, such as the blade of Theban complex of Karnak. pattern
this ceremonial ax. Although the Hittites
traded iron goods, they kept this technology c.1500–1150 BCE MYCENAEAN KYLIX
secret for about 300 years. Around 1200 BCE, Karnak Temple built (DRINKING CUP)
iron-working spread through West Asia Most of the Karnak Temple complex
and to Greece, and then through Europe
after 1000 BCE. is constructed at Thebes.

392 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 20,000–700BCE

c.1400–1200 BCE c.1279 BCE “King of Kings am I... If anyone
would know how great I am
Shang capital moves Ramesses II and where I lie, let him
In China, the capital of the flourishing comes to power surpass one of my works.”
Shang civilization moves from Zhengzhou Pharaoh Ramesses’ 67-year
to Xi’ang (Huanbei). Anyang eventually reign is a time of stability
becomes the last of several Shang capitals. and prosperity for Egypt.
Through a combination
c.1350 BCE of war, diplomacy, and
strategic marriage,
Assyria reasserts Ramesses extends Egyptian
its independence influence to western Asia.
The small state of Assyria,
centered on the city of Diodorus Siculus, from the inscription on the base of a statue
Ashur, breaks free from of Ramesses II taken from Bibliotheca historica, 1st century BCE
domination by the Mitanni
Empire and concludes c.1259 BCE c.1200 BCE c.1180 BCE
a treaty with Babylonia.
Peace treaty signed Nomadic pastoralism Hittite Empire
c.1300 BCE Pharaoh Ramesses II negotiates a pioneering fully developed collapses
peace treaty with the new Hittite king, After 2000 BCE, some Following the sacking
Mycenaeans at their peak Hattusilis III, partitioning the eastern agricultural communities, of their capital, Hattusas,
The Mycenaean civilization reaches Mediterranean between Egypt and the Hittites. settled around the steppe Hittite possessions in the
its peak between 1400 and He also takes two Hittite princesses in marriage. margins of Central Asia, eastern Mediterranean
1250 BCE. The Mycenaeans build began a more mobile are lost and the
massive defenses around their c.1200–1050 BCE lifestyle herding animals in empire fragments.
palace citadels, with underground the region. By 1200 BCE, a
cisterns, and drain Lake Kopais for Olmec culture flourishes fully nomadic pastoral way
agricultural land, a remarkable feat. In Mexico, the Olmec culture of life has developed.
rises to prominence with the
development of the ceremonial
center and city at San Lorenzo.

BCE BCE

c.1300 BCE c.1200 BCE c.1200–1100 BCE
Urnfield culture emerges Fiji colonized
Sea Peoples rampage
New funerary practices sweep Lapita colonists reach the Solomon Waves of migrants, known
collectively as the Sea Peoples,
through most of Europe, Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, and as move through the eastern
Mediterranean, leading to attacks
suggesting a major change in far as Fiji and its archipelago by 1200 BCE. on Cyprus, Egypt, Anatolia (modern
Turkey), and Canaan and Syria
religious beliefs. It becomes in the eastern Mediterranean.

the norm to cremate the dead 1070 BCE

and bury their ashes in funerary c.1210 BCE Third Intermediate
urns within large cemeteries. Period begins
Assyria expands
The Egyptian New Kingdom
Assyria defeats the Hittites, the ends as the power of the
pharaohs is eroded by a
kingdom of Urartu (modern
priestly elite who have gained
c.1336 BCE Armenia), the Mitanni, and control of many areas. Egypt
conquers Babylonia. enters a time of unrest called
Tutankhamun reigns
the Third Intermediate Period.
Akhenaten’s son Tutankhamun
c.1050 BCE
ascends the throne at the age
Dark Age of Greece begins
of nine in Egypt. During his RELIGION IN EGYPT Mycenaean palaces are abandoned
reign the old gods are
by 1050 BCE. This triggers the
restored and the new Egyptian religion was immensely complex, with so-called Dark Age of Greece,
capital is abandoned. a large number of gods, many of them localized when writing falls out of use. It is
not reintroduced until c.750 BCE.
and appearing with different aspects. Earlier

c.1352 BCE pharaohs associated themselves with the
sky god Horus or the Sun god Re, but
New religion founded gradually the cult of Osiris, king of
Amenhotep IV becomes Egypt’s the dead, became dominant. The
pharaoh. In 1347 BCE, he breaks

with the traditional religion and need to ensure the immortality
initiates the worship of a single deity, of the ruler’s soul after death was
the Sun-disk Aten. He changes his the primary focus of Egyptian
name to Akhenaten, meaning “glory

of the Aten,” and founds a new capital religious belief. OSIRIS, KING OF THE DEAD
called Akhetaten, “horizon of the Aten.”

393

c.1027 BCE c.900 BCE CHAVÍN JAGUAR VESSEL incised with
geometric motifs
Zhou dynasty begins Chavín culture c.800 BCE
In China, a new dynasty replaces develops 753 BCE
the Shang when King Wu of Zhou Most Peruvian Hallstatt region flourishes
defeats the last Shang ruler, Di Andean ceremonial The area around Hallstatt in Rome founded
Xin. The Zhou dynasty rules centers are abandoned modern Austria becomes a center According to legend, the
China for 700 years. after 900 BCE, but a new for an early Iron Age culture. Latin chief Romulus founds
complex is founded at Chavín Hallstatt chieftains dominate local the city of Rome. In its early
c.1000 BCE de Huantar, probably the salt-mining and ironworking. days, the city, built on seven
center of a religious cult. They live in hilltop forts and are hills, is ruled by various
Ganges Valley buried with rich grave goods. peoples, including the
communities settle c.900 BCE Etruscans, Latins, and Sabines.
Farming communities 776 BCE
begin to settle in the Olmecs influence neighbors c.750 BCE
Ganges Valley, in India. La Venta, in modern Mexico, becomes the Panhellenic Games held
main Olmec center. This large settlement The first Panhellenic Games are Wet-rice
c.1000 BCE is dominated by a tall pyramid— held in Olympia, Greece, and cultivation
the forerunner of Mayan and other every four years thereafter. spreads
Israelite capital Mesoamerican temples. The Olmecs also Paddy fields to grow
founded devise a script of glyphs. Their influence rice begin to be
King David unites the spreads across Mesoamerica, impacting created in Korea in the
Israelite tribes and makes on the emerging Zapotecs and Maya. early 1st millennium
Jerusalem his capital. BCE and the practice
David’s son Solomon c.900 BCE spreads to Japan.
increases Israelite territory
and builds a magnificent Lapita spread continues
palace and temple in Colonists spread further into
the capital, employing Polynesia, reaching Samoa and Tonga
Phoenician craftsmen. around 1000 BCE and outlying islands
such as Tikopia and Anuta by 900 BCE.

BCE BCE

c.1000 BCE c.911 BCE c.814 BCE c.750 BCE

Phoenicians Assyria expanding Carthage founded Kushites conquer Egypt
gain power Strong Assyrian Phoenicians from Tyre (in modern Piye, the Kushite ruler of
The Phoenicians become kings expand Assyria, Lebanon) found a colony at Carthage,
a major maritime power conquering states in in modern Tunisia, to engage in trade. Nubia, conquers both Upper
as individual Phoenician Syria and the eastern and Lower Egypt, and unites
city-states establish Mediterranean. c.850 BCE
colonies and ports around them under Kushite rule.
the Mediterranean. First settlement at Rome built
The earliest settlement is built on the c.726–721 BCE
Palatine hill on the site of Rome, in Italy.
Revolts against Assyria
RELIEF CARVING DEPICTING A Revolts in Israel were quickly suppressed,
PHOENICIAN COMMERCIAL SHIP
and the “ten lost tribes” of Israel are
deported to northern Mesopotamia.

771 BCE

Eastern Zhou period begins
In China, fleeing northern invaders,
the Zhou, move their capital east to
Luoyang, marking the beginning of
the Eastern Zhou period.

701 BCE

Assyrians invade Judaea
A revolt in Judaea is savagely put down

by the Assyrian ruler Sennacherib; he
sacks Lachish and other Judaean cities,

but fails to take Jerusalem.

394 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 700BCE–600CE

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

The millennium that followed 700BCE saw much of the world’s population incorporated into the 605 BCE
great Classical civilizations of Eurasia—the Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, and Chinese
civilizations. These empires went on to reach unparalleled levels of sophistication and military Nebuchadnezzar victorious
superiority, and set models for administration and scholarship that would be followed for many King Nebuchadnezzar II, ruler
centuries. In Central and South America, Africa, and Japan, new civilizations also emerged, in
many ways equally advanced, but with much smaller reach than those of Eurasia. The Classical of the Neo-Babylonian Empire,
era also saw the birth of some influential religions—Buddhism, Judaism, and Christianity. defeats the Egyptians, repairs
Babylon’s main ziggurat, and

orders the building of the famous
Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

c.700 BCE terracotta c.630 BCE c.630 BCE 612 BCE
jug
Etruscans expand Assyria suffers losses Greek colonies formed Assyrian state
The Etruscans expand Assyria loses Egypt and Greek settlers found Cyrene disappears
southward from Palestine, and in 626 BCE (in Libya) and, in about
modern Tuscany and the Babylonians regain 600 BCE, Massilia (Marseilles). The Babylonians,
Umbria, Italy. Their their independence. New cities are established Medes, and Scythians
language remains as far west as Spain, and sack the Assyrian capital
undeciphered, 663 BCE around the Black Sea coast.
but lavish tombs of Nineveh, and the
indicate a rich Assyrian Assyrian Empire crumbles.
material culture. Empire peaks
The Assyrians sack By 609 BCE the Assyrian
ETRUSCAN VASE Thebes in Egypt. The state has disappeared.
Assyrian Empire reaches
its greatest extent. 621 BCE

Draconian law written
Shortly after a damaging popular uprising
by the nobleman Cylon, Athens’ first law
code is drafted by Draco. The Draconian
law is later known for the severity of the
punishments it prescribed.

BCE BCE

689 BCE 668 BCE 660 BCE c.610 BCE

Babylon sacked Ashurbanipal Emperor Jimmu begins reign King Alyattes issues coins
Babylon is destroyed by expels Taharka The traditional date for the start of the King Alyattes of Lydia in Anatolia
Sennacherib, ruler of Assyria. The Assyrian King Ashurbanipal reign of Jimmu, the legendary first emperor
expels King Taharka from of Japan and believed to be descendant of (modern Turkey) issues the
Memphis, reestablishing the the sun goddess Amaterasu. world’s first coins.
Assyrian government in Egypt.
ASHURBANIPAL HUNTING LIONS

c.700 BCE

Greek city-states flourish
In Greece, the rise to
preeminence of a number
of city-states begins—notably
Athens, Sparta, and Corinth.
In Corinth, a new type of ruler,
the “tyrant,” emerges with the
overthrow of the Bacchiadae
kings in 658 BCE.

c.700 BCE

Scythian
settlements formed
Nomadic Scythians from
Central Asia begin to establish
permanent settlements in
Eastern Europe.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 395

c.600 BCE c.515 BCE

The Medes Darius I builds palace
take control Darius I of the Persian Achaemenid
Much of the Middle Empire, builds a royal residence
East falls under the at Susa, the former capital of
control of the short-lived Elam, in Mesopotamia.
Mediah Empire.
19
c.600 BCE
The number of battles
Paracas fought by Darius I
culture emerges over the period of
The Paracas culture a single year.
emerges in the Andes.
They are famed for 509 BCE
their intricate textiles.
Roman Republic
c.600 BCE 597 BCE GLAZED BULL, ISHTAR GATE, BABYLON established
(BUILT BY NEBUCHADNEZZAR II) A group of Romans
Aryan kingdoms Jerusalem captured expel the Etruscan king,
dominate The Neo-Babylonian Empire 539 BCE fearing the growing tyranny
Aryan kingdoms under Nebuchadnezzar II of his rule. They establish
dominate captures Jerusalem and installs Cyrus captures Babylon a Republic where supreme
northern India. its own ruler. But he turns against Cyrus the Great captures Babylon, authority is held by two
the Babylonians, who retaliate acquiring most of Mesopotamia magistrates, called consuls,
by burning much of the city and and making the Persian Empire who are elected each year.
destroying the Jewish Temple. the greatest in the Middle East.

BCE BCE

c.600 BCE 550 BCE c.530 BCE 507 BCE
Sparta dominates Persian Empire founded Etruscan civilization Democracy established
Sparta conquers almost The Persian King Cyrus the Great reaches its peak The statesman Cleisthenes

all of the southern defeats Medes and founds the The Etruscan civilization establishes a democratic

Peloponnese and Persian (Achaemenid) Empire. reaches its peak in Italy. government in the Greek

establishes a stratified city-state of Athens.

social system. c.563 BCE

Buddha is born 525 BCE
The Buddha—Gautama Siddhartha, the
primary figure in the Buddhist religion— Persian king
becomes pharaoh

is born. The Persian King Cambyses II

THE BUDDHA (C.563–483 BCE) annexes Egypt, capturing the c.520–460 BCE
royal capital at Memphis and
installing himself as pharaoh. Sanskrit grammar developed

Around 530BCE, Gautama Siddharta, The Indian scholar Panini
a Hindu prince of Kapilvastu in organizes Sanskrit grammar.

modern Nepal, had a religious

revelation and rejected his noble “It is better to conquer yourself
upbringing to embark on a quest for than to win a thousand battles.
“enlightenment.” Six years later he
began to preach a way of moderate
asceticism, known as the Middle

Way, to gain release from the Then the victory is yours. It
suffering of material life. He is known

as the Buddha—the “awakened one” cannot be taken from you...”
in Sanskrit—and his followers, who
became known as Buddhists, spread

his ideas throughout South Asia. The Buddha, Gautama Siddharta

396 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 700BCE–600CE

c.500 BCE 480–479 BCE GREEK
HELMET
Zapotec hieroglyphs Battle of Salamis
developed The Persian King Xerxes I invades Greece 431 BCE
The Zapotecs develop hieroglyphic and burns Athens, but is defeated by
writing in Central America. They Athenian general Themistocles at the Peloponnesian
begin to build the city of Monte naval Battle of Salamis. War begins
Albán in the Oaxaca Valley, Mexico.
30 percent The Peloponnesian War
486 BCE begins between the rival
The estimated proportion
Xerxes becomes king of the Athenian population Greek states of Athens
Xerxes becomes the Persian that died during the and Sparta.
Peloponnesian War.
King on the death of his
father, Darius, the architect

of the Persian Empire.

490 BCE 475 BCE 413 BCE

Battle of Marathon Warring States period begins Shishunaga
Led by Miltiades, the Athenian In China, the political system of the dynasty founded
Greeks defeat a far larger Persian Spring and Autumn period evolves
force at the Battle of Marathon. into the Warring States period. The Shishunaga
dynasty is founded
in Magadha, India.

BCE BCE

c.490 BCE 478 BCE c.450 BCE 413 BCE
Athenians
Hanno makes epic voyage Delian League La Tène defeated
The Carthaginian mariner Hanno sails founded culture emerges The Athenians are
far down the west coast of Africa. Athens founds the The Celtic La Tène culture defeated by the
Delian League to counter emerges in Central Europe. Syracusans in Sicily.
c.500 BCE Sparta’s attempts to Virtually their entire
dominate Greece. The 447 BCE army is captured in this
Ironworking spreads League soon evolves major encounter in the
Ironworking spreads to into the Athenian Empire. Golden Age begins Peloponnesian War.
Southeast Asia and East Africa. Athens flourishes during its
“Golden Age” under the statesman 404 BCE
Pericles. In 447 BCE the construction
of the second Parthenon begins. Fall of Athens
The Spartans capture
THE PARTHENON ON THE ACROPOLIS, IN ATHENS, GREECE
Athens, ending the
Peloponnesian War.

The pro-Spartan
Council of Thirty is
set up to govern it.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 397

“Know thee not that the end
and object of conquest is
to avoid doing the same
thing as the conquered.”

Alexander the Great, from Lives by Plutarch

378 BCE 359 BCE ALEXANDER THE GREAT LEADS HIS TROOPS INTO BATTLE

Thebans defeat Spartans Philip II comes to power 323 BCE
Exiled Theban democrats lead an The Macedonian King Philip II
uprising against the pro-Spartan comes to power and begins to Alexander dies
ruling party. The Spartan garrison transform a minor kingdom into Alexander dies in Babylon. His
abandons the city of Thebes. a major power. empire begins to disintegrate
among warring factions.
338 BCE

Latin League dissolved
The Romans defeat the Latin

League, a confederation of
neighboring tribes. Many
of the former Latin cities are
absorbed into the Roman state.

BCE BCE

c.390 BCE 343 BCE 338 BCE 322 BCE

Celts sack Rome Nectanebo II Macedonians Empire divided
An army of Celts Nectanebo II, the control Greece Wars break out between
attacks the Etruscan last native Egyptian
city of Clusium, pharaoh, is overthrown King Philip II of Alexander the Great’s
defeats a Roman army Macedonia defeats a former generals, who
at the Battle of the by the Persians. coalition of Greek states carve up his empire to
Allia, and then takes and gains control over create rival kingdoms.
Rome itself.
most of Greece.

336 BCE 322 BCE
Mauryan
Alexander becomes commander Empire founded
After Philip II’s assassination, his son In India, Chandragupta
Alexander becomes commander Maurya founds the
of the major Greek city-states. Mauryan Empire.

371 BCE ALEXANDER THE GREAT (356–323 BCE) 329–327 BCE

Battle of Leuctra At the age of 20, Alexander inherited Bactria and
The Theban general Epaminondas much of modern Greece from his father. Sogdiana conquered
wins the Battle of Leuctra against By his death, just 13 years later, he had Alexander conquers Bactria and
extended his empire to cover a vast area Sogdiana, in the easternmost
Sparta. Thebes is now the from the Indus River in the east to Illyria in regions of the Persian Empire.
dominant power in Greece. the west. Alexander was a brilliant general In 326 BCE Alexander crosses the
but prone to acts of impetuous violence. Indus River, in India, and wins
He alienated many native Macedonians the Battle of Hydaspes.
when he adopted Persian court rituals.
Alexander did not name an heir and his 331 BCE
empire fell apart after his death.
Battle of Gaugamela
At the Battle of Gaugamela, the
Persian Empire falls to King Alexander.

398 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 700BCE–600CE

c.300 BCE TERRACOTTA
MAURYAN
Empire partitioned SCULPTURE
King Alexander’s empire is
partitioned and ruled by
the Seleucid, Antigonid,
and Ptolemaic dynasties.

295 BCE 241 BCE

Battle of Sentinum First Punic War ends
A huge Roman army The Romans win a naval victory
overcomes the formidable against Carthage at the Aegades
combined forces of the Islands. The First Punic War ends
Samnites and the Gauls at the with Rome controlling Sicily.
Battle of Sentinum. This allows
Rome to control central Italy. 225 BCE

c.268 BCE Romans defeat Celts
At the Battle of Telamon,
Ashoka ascends throne the Romans defeat Gallic
Ashoka ascends the Mauryan
throne and embarks on imperial tribes. The Romans go
conquests in modern India. on to establish colonies

in Celtic territories.

BCE BCE BCE

272 BCE c.250 BCE 230 BCE

Fall of Tarentum Rome rules The Satavahanas
Tarentum, the leading Greek city in Rome gains control of the established
Italy, falls to the Romans after Pyrrhus, entire Italian Peninsula.
King of Epirus, withdraws his support. The Satavahana dynasty
is established in India.

253 BCE
Syrian War ends
285 BCE
War between the Seleucids and the
Ptolemaic
dynasty reigns Ptolemies over the possession of Syria 238 BCE
King Ptolemy I of Egypt is concluded by a marriage alliance.
abdicates in favor Carthaginian
of his son, Ptolemy II conquests in Spain
Philadelphos. The
Ptolemaic dynasty wig with 262 BCE The Carthaginian general
will rule Egypt lappets Hamilcar Barca reestablishes
until 30 BCE. on chest Ashoka revokes war North African power in Spain.

Having slain many thousands

during his campaign against

the Indian region of Kalinga,

a remorseful Emperor Ashoka 100,000
promotes the Buddhist
concept of Dharma, meaning

mercy or piety. The number of people

bird feet 264 BCE said to have been
killed during Ashoka’s
First Punic War begins conquest of Kalinga.
The First Punic War between

Rome and the North African

PTOLEMAIC power of Carthage begins.
MODEL OF
BA BIRD