History of the world in 1,000 objects

The birth of 99
the Buddha
This relief from the Queen Maya
stupa at Amaravati dreams a white
captures momentous elephant, a sign
events in the history of of greatness, has
Buddhism. Prominent entered her side
figures featured in the
relief include the seers sleeping
who prophesied the attendants
greatness of the Buddha,
Queen Maya and King Queen Maya
Suddhodhana (the grips the branch
Buddha’s parents), of a sal tree
and an infant Buddha.
Queen Maya gives
King Suddhodhana, birth from her
Buddha’s father right hip

seers prophesy
the birth of a
great being

sacred tree

Queen Maya
presents
her child

Buddha,
symbolized by
footprints on a

long cloth

a tree spirit
worships the baby

Chandaka, Siddhartha secretly Siddhartha creeps The royal palace mithuna, or
the groom leaves his palace by night out of bed at Kapilavastu affectionate couple

The Great Departure
This frieze from the stupa
at Amaravati, Andhra
Pradesh, depicts scenes
of Prince Siddhartha’s
departure from his palace
in order to lead the life of
an ascetic. The stupa is
decorated with carved
panels, which tell the
story of the Buddha’s
journey to enlightenment.

attendant spirits watch ganas, dwarf spirits, lion head sleeping Siddhartha leaves his
over Siddhartha attendants sleeping wife, Yashodhara
muffle the horse’s hooves bracket

100 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE

THE UNIFIED
KINGDOMS OF CHINA

In 221BCE, six warring states were conquered and unified with a seventh under the
rule of the King of Qin. He declared himself First August Divine Emperor of Qin.
It is from Qin, pronounced “chin,” that the name China is probably derived.

The Silk Road ▷ During a period known as the labor, he built roads, canals, a great
During the Han Warring States era (475–221 BCE), wall, and a vast tomb. Standard
dynasty, an overland there were seven powerful kingdoms weights and measures, and a single
trade route opened up in constant conflict. The need to currency and script were introduced.
between China and the wage wars meant that these states
West. It was called The mobilized resources on a great scale. The First Emperor’s death, in
Silk Road, after the Kings appointed civil servants to 210 BCE was followed by widespread
most valuable Chinese govern the states in place of rule rebellions. In 206 BCE, one of the
export. Camel caravans by the hereditary nobility. successful rebels, Liu Bang, founded
traveled west across the Han Dynasty, which lasted from
Asia, carrying Chinese Between 230 and 221 BCE, King 206 BCE to 220 CE. Literature, history,
silk and other goods. Ying Zheng of Qin gained control and philosophy flourished in the
of all seven kingdoms and created Han period and trade routes increased
a totalitarian state. Using forced contact across Asia.

BELIEFS AND RITUALS central mountain incense sticks
connects to heaven placed here
The supreme Chinese deity was Tian
(heaven), under whose authority the Mountain jar Incense burner
emperor ruled on Earth. People also The lid of this Han This pottery jar held
believed in the close relationship dynasty jar is shaped sticks of incense, burned
between the living and their ancestors, like a mountain range. as an offering to the
who required regular offerings to keep In Chinese belief, ancestors. The dead
them happy in the afterlife. During the mountains were sacred were thought to belong
Han period, a new religion, Buddhism, places. Their minerals to the same community
was introduced. and plants were believed as the living.
to bestow immortality.

Jade burial suit
Han rulers were buried in
jade suits, in the belief that
they would preserve the
body. The Han dynasty
ruled less harshly than the
First Emperor.

THE UNIFIED KINGDOMS OF CHINA 101

Jade protector Goose vessel
This piece of jade, This bronze goose is a vessel for
carved with the face of pouring wine, to be used by the
a monster, may have dead in the next life. The dead
been a body protector were often buried with plentiful
or part of a body suit supplies of food
used in a burial. and drink.

hole for sewing
onto garment

serpentine
body

bronze ring may Hinged beak
have been used The bird has a threatening pose,
to attach handle with an outstretched neck. At
the tip is a hinged beak, for ease
Jade dragons Bi disk of pouring.
In Chinese belief, the dragon was a The dead were sometimes buried with
symbol of strength and good luck. ritual jade disks placed on the chest or vessel stands on
These two jade dragons may have stomach. They were circular, representing large webbed feet
been worn as pendants on a belt. the domed heavens.
features and
detail painted
onto clay

eye
plaques

Stone mask ear Grave guardian
This late Han dynasty mask carries stopper This ceramic tomb guardian figure is in
an inscription that reads: “A man’s the shape of a mythical Chinese creature,
face is the precious possession of nose protector probably a bixie.
the immortals.”
cicada amulet red silk trim

Face protectors
In Han China, a corpse’s orifices, such
as the ears and mouth, were plugged
with jade. The cicada, put on the tongue,
signified new life.

jade plaque—one gold wire threaded Serving woman
of 4,000 that through holes to During the Han dynasty, often
make up suit link plaques. the dead were buried with small
models of people to serve them
in the next world.

PREPARING FOR ETERNITY 102 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE

TERRA-COTTA SOLDIER

In 210 CE, the First Emperor was buried and the vengeful ghosts of all the men Lined up Face on
in a vast tomb beneath a man-made he had killed. The emperor intended The figures stand in corridors, The faces of the horses and
mountain, which has still not been to continue ruling for eternity from separated by banks of earth, warriors were made in
excavated. According to the Han his tomb, so he was buried with lined with wooden beams molds, then details such as
historian Sima Qian, it took 70,000 terra-cotta civil servants. To keep him which originally supported eyes, noses, and ears were
workmen to build the tomb, which amused, he also had an army of a wood roof. The warriors hand finished by potters.
contained a great model of China, entertainers. There were terra-cotta face east, with the tomb they
with flowing mercury representing acrobats, musicians, and strongmen are protecting behind them. Standing guard
rivers and the sea. Tests on the soil buried alongside bronze dancing The warriors stood at
have shown that the center of the waterbirds. red ribbon attention, holding weapons
tomb does indeed contain high levels secures hair to protect the emperor.
of mercury. The toxic metal was eyes painted knot Most of the swords, bows,
mistakenly believed to confer white and halberds were either
immortality. Ironically, the emperor’s red cords looted or have perished.
early death, at the age of 40, was scarf painted
probably hastened by taking bright blue brown armor
immortality pills, made from with white rivets
poisonous mercury. and red cords

AFTERLIFE ARMY

In 1974, farmers digging wells to the
east of the tomb discovered the first of
four pits, which together held an army
of 7,000 life-size terra-cotta warriors.
The warriors were accompanied by
130 bronze chariots, 520 terra-cotta
chariot horses, and 150 cavalry horses.
One pit contained 40,000 bronze
weapons, the blades of which were
still razor sharp. Another was full of
sets of armor—made from stone plates
rather than the usual lacquered
leather. Stone was thought to offer
spiritual protection against ghosts.
The army’s role was to protect the
emperor in the afterlife from demons

Kneeling warrior armor covers
The soldiers were originally painted with bright chest and
colors, which have now faded. Traces of paint are upper arms
still visible on this kneeling archer. Most of the blue trim at
soldiers had their faces painted in realistic flesh edge of sleeve
colors, but this archer’s face was painted green.
The position of his hands suggests that he once shallow shoes
held a crossbow. have square tips

long jacket worn
under armor

individual details,
such as hairstyle,
were hand finished

right hand THE UNIFIED KINGDOMS OF CHINA 103
open to hold
crossbow

traces of green
paint visible

REAR VIEW OF WARRIOR

104 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT tall hat worn
by Han officials
BATTLE AND CONFLICT Under the Qin and Han dynasties, China was ruled
by an all-powerful emperor, governing through ink
Chinese warfare was fought using large armies of a vast civil service. Emperor Wu, who came to brush
conscripted peasants. They fought mostly on foot, power in the second century BCE introduced
although armies also included chariots and cavalry. civil service examinations, which tested
Among their weapons were halberds, spears, swords, knowledge of Confucian texts.
and the crossbow, which was invented during the
Warring States period. square hole
to string coins
Armor together
Foot soldiers wore armor,
made of plates of leather inscription
stiffened with lacquer and gives weight
sewn together with of coin
colored string. These
plates are from the Qin coin Proofreaders
Warring States period. The First Emperor introduced a standard This pair of ceramic figures represents
coinage. The square hole represented the two proofreaders sitting at a table, with a
leather Chinese view of the Earth as square and pile of bamboo books. One read the text
plate the heavens as domed. aloud, and the other searched for errors.

decoration TECHNOLOGY
covers jar
The ancient Chinese were the most technologically advanced
chromium civilization on Earth. By the 6th century CE, they had invented
oxide cast iron, porcelain manufacture, paper, the magnetic compass,
and the seismometer, a device for gauging the direction
coating of earthquakes.

decoration mimics bronzelike
lacquerware glaze

War booty Bronze sword Silk cocoon jar Hu vase
This bronze jar dates from the Warring States era. The Chinese made swords from This early Han dynasty jar is based on a silk This Han dynasty vase, called a Hu, was
An inscription records that it was taken by Chen bronze, coated with chromium cocoon. Chinese silk was highly prized in the made with a lead-based glaze, tinted
Zhang, during an attack on the state of Yin. oxide to keep them sharp. West, where nobody knew how it was made. green with copper oxide to mimic bronze.

DAILY LIFE model sheep model pig

The vast majority of the sloping path
Chinese lived as peasant leads up to
farmers, growing rice in the toilet
south and millet in the north.
Much of our knowledge of bread
daily life comes from tomb board
offerings. Although these
usually belonged to the wealthy, Sheepfold Pigsty Kneeling woman
they often include models This Han dynasty pottery model of a This tomb model shows a pigsty with a toilet This kneeling woman is a Han dynasty tomb
of ordinary people and humble sheepfold was made as a tomb offering – above. A hole in the toilet allows the waste offering. She is probably a servant, rolling
buildings, such as pigsties a substitute for real sheep in the afterlife. to fall down to be eaten by the pigs. dough on a board to make bread.
and sheepfolds.

YAYOI AND KOFUN JAPAN 105

YAYOI AND
KOFUN JAPAN

From 300BCE, Japanese society changed radically after the introduction of wet-rice
farming fed an increased number of settled, agrarian communities. Clan nations
emerged and, by the 6th century CE, the Yamato had united the country.

Resting place ▷ Two new processes transformed The most powerful clan nation
This aerial view of Japanese society when they were was the Yamato, which conquered
Daisen-Kofun in Sakai, introduced from the East Asian all of Japan by the 5th century BCE.
shows its distinctive mainland in around 300 BCE. The Yamato rulers claimed to be
keyhole shape. The method of growing rice in flooded descendants of the Sun goddess,
biggest tomb in Japan, fields and metal-working skills Amaterasu. They were buried
at 1,595 ft (486 m) long, spread from the south to reach beneath huge keyhole-shaped burial
it is believed to be the all of Japan. Society divided into mounds, surrounded by moats,
burial place of Emperor classes and clan nations fought called kofun. Rulers had close links
Nintoku, one of the for dominance. Historians call with China and Korea. The Korean
early Yamato kings. this the Yayoi period, after a region kings sent missionaries to Japan,
of Tokyo where pottery from the introducing Chinese script in
time was first discovered. 405 CE and Buddhism in 552 CE.

BELIEFS AND RITUALS mizura hairstyle, TECHNOLOGY AND
worn by men in INNOVATION
The Japanese believed in spirits, kami, ancient Japan
which were thought to reside in objects, Rice farmers used wooden hoes and
such as trees and rocks and in natural stone-bladed reaping knives. The
forces, such as lightning. The word technique of making bronze was
Shinto, meaning “way of introduced in the Yayoi period, but was
the spirits” was reserved for ceremonial items, such as
introduced in the 6th dotaku bells. Iron working also developed
century CE to describe and was used to make weapons.
this native belief system Innovations in ceramics included the
and to distinguish it creation of wheel-thrown kiln fired pots.
from Buddhism.

clean,
functional
shape

characteristically Haniwa head head has Yayoi bowl
thin sheet of The Yamato kings had pottery figures of men, broken from Until the Yayoi period,
bronze animals, and horses buried around their kofun the body Japanese pottery was made
mound tombs. These models, called haniwa, by coiling tubes of clay. But
Dotaku bell were believed to offer magical protection. this Yayoi bowl was made on
Bronze-workers made richly decorated a potter's wheel, allowing a
bronze bells, called dotaku. These were regular shape.
probably rung during ceremonies to
ensure good harvests. typical combed
design

Burial vase
This tall Yayoi vase is
decorated with lines made
with a stick. It was buried
as a grave offering and
probably held rice wine.

106 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE Teotihuacán mask
Mesoamerican peoples made stone masks,
THE FIRST CITIES which they attached to the bodies of the
OF MESOAMERICA dead to represent an immortal face.

In the late first millennium BCE, sophisticated urban societies appeared across
Mesoamerica. An important common feature was the building of temple
pyramids. People worshipped similar gods and played a similar ritual ballgame.
Mesoamericans also invented writing systems and complex calendars.

Teotihuacán ▽ The first true city in Mesoamerica 8th century CE. The city may have manufacturing center, importing
At its height, in 500 CE, was Monte Albán, founded by the begun as a sacred center. A cave raw materials and exporting jewelry,
Teotihuacán was one Zapotecs in about 500 BCE. Like the beneath the Pyramid of the Sun was pottery, and obsidian tools.
of the largest cities Olmec, the Zapotec devised an early regarded as the place where humanity
in the world. It was writing system, using glyphs (signs) emerged into the world and as the THE MAYA
dominated by two to name sacrificed enemies portrayed entrance to the underworld. Some
vast temple pyramids on stone stelae. Later monuments of the buildings were painted with From around 200 BCE, the Maya began
and was laid out on name enemy places in and around mythical scenes. The ceremonial to build temple pyramids in the
a grid, with straight, the south Mexican Oaxaca Valley center of the city was the Avenue rain forests of eastern Mesoamerica.
wide streets and open that the kings of Monte Albán of the Dead, with the Pyramid of the They lived in city-states that were
plazas for ceremonies. defeated, to create an empire that Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon. ruled by kings who were their
lasted until c.700 CE. mediators with the gods. Wars between
The city of Teotihuacán was the rival kingdoms aimed to capture
The biggest city in Mesoamerica center of a state that influenced the kings for sacrifice to the gods. The
was Teotihuacán, founded around whole of Mesoamerica, including Maya also devised the only complete
100 BCE and lasting until the 7th or the Maya city-states. It was a great writing system used in Mesoamerica.

BELIEFS AND RITUALS cloth 107
headband
Across Mesoamerica, there was a belief bird’s
earspool head
that the gods needed to be fed in order
hourglass- Maya toad
to maintain the Universe. People offered shaped This Mayan bowl is in the form of a giant
base of toad. Some toad species produce a poison,
their own blood and sacrificed prisoners censer called bufotenine, which shamans took
to induce visions.
of war. Ceremonies were performed
horned
by kings and priests, who were also headdress

shamans—people believed to contact

the gods through trance and spirit

possession induced by hallucinogens. conch
shell

hole for
carrying

Conch trumpet Man with conch Incense burner Shamans
Throughout Mesoamerica, conch shells were This pottery figure of a man has a conch All Mesoamerican peoples burned incense, This figurine from Colima in Mexico shows
blown as trumpets and used in ceremonies to shell at his navel. The figure was a tomb made of copal (tree resin), as an offering to two wrestlers, whose horned headdresses
announce the presence of gods. This Zapotec offering and is from the Nayarit people the gods. In Teotihuacán, the incense was identify them as shamans. It may show them
one has holes bored into it. of western Mexico. burned in richly decorated ceramic censers. being possessed by spirit beings.

jester god Mayan writing
wears an These two jaguar femurs, from a Mayan tomb,
elaborate are carved with writing and images of kings
headdress wearing the headdresses of gods. They may
have been used as drumsticks in ceremonies.
Zapotec symbol
for water

snakelike
forked tongue
represents
lightning bolt

holes in ears
and nose for
smoke to escape

Lightning god Zapotec symbol Zapotec censer
This clay urn depicts Cocijo, the Zapotec rain god. A for cornfield This incense burner would have
similar rain god was worshipped by many Mesoamerican been used in ceremonies to bring rain.
peoples, who called him different names. The face on the front is the Zapotec
rain god, Cocijo.

108 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700BCE–600CE Headdress
Animal heads on
Offering vessel headdresses represent
Zapotec rulers and nobles were buried with effigy gods or supernatural forces.
urns, which depict gods and royal ancestors, who This old man wears the
were consulted as oracles. Pots like this were placed in head of a peccary, a
tombs beside the bodies of the dead or in niches on the wild pig that lives in the
walls. They held food or drink offerings, which would Mesoamerican rain forest.
sustain the dead in the next world. This urn is in the
form of an old man.

wrinkled face shows
traces of original
black paint

large ear flare

traces of red
paint remain

SIDE VIEW

beaded necklace pot to hold
with a large pendant food and drink

FRONT VIEW

only four toes

THE FIRST CITIES OF MESOAMERICA 109

CLOTHING AND ADORNMENT

Across Mesoamerica, nobles wore colorful cotton
while the poor dressed in coarser textiles woven
from the fibers of the maguey plant. Both men
and women wore jewelry, in the form of
necklaces, bracelets, ear spools, and pectorals.
Nobles also wore tall, elaborate headdresses,
decorated with the feathers of tropical birds.

large ear spools tongue
worn in both ears sticking out

beaded large,
necklace dangling
earrings
Seated man
This Zapotec effigy urn is in the shape of
a seated man. Offerings were placed in the
urn through an opening in the head.

Figure of a woman Gold ornament
Mesoamerican clothing was made by draping Metallurgy was introduced to Mesoamerica from
material around the body instead of cutting and South America, where gold was highly prized.
tailoring cloth, as this pottery figurine shows. This gold ornament was made by the Zapotec.

drilled
eye hole

owl
incised in
low relief

Zapotec owl beaker Clay ear spool Jadeite ear flare
This beaker is incised with an image of an owl. Men and women wore ear Teotihuacán was a jewelry
Associated with night and the underworld, owls spools made of obsidian manufacturing center and
were seen as messengers from the gods. and other materials. This jadeite, used to make this
one, from Teotihuacán, is ear flare, came from Oaxaca,
tail forms made of black clay. Guatemala, and Costa Rica.
the spout

Dog effigy urn Squirrel pendant Bead necklace
Dogs were believed to help the dead travel to the This squirrel pendant from Teotihuacán is carved Jadeite was carved into large
underworld, and pottery dogs were often placed in from jadeite, which was the most prized mineral beads and used to make
tombs. Dogs were raised for meat and eaten at feasts. in Mesoamerica. necklaces such as this one
from Teotihuacán. Jewelry
makers worked the material
using stone tools, with sand
and water as an abrasive.

pendant with
a carved face

110 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 700 BCE–600 CE

THE MYSTERIOUS
NAZCA AND MOCHE

After the decline of Peru’s earliest civilization, the Chavin (see p.55), two regional
cultures evolved: the Nazca, who made large, enigmatic drawings in the southern
desert; and the Moche—northerners who created beautiful ceramics.

Nazca Lines ▷ The Nazca civilization was at its 1927. From the 1940s, they were
Clearing away dark height from around 200BCE to 650CE. studied and preserved by the German
surface stones to reveal The Nazca mummified their dead, mathematician Maria Reiche.
the lighter soil beneath, dressing them in magnificent textiles
the Nazca drew huge woven from llama, alpaca, and vicuña The Moche civilization developed
pictures of birds, wool. They also produced pottery later, lasting from around 200 to
whales, and other decorated with motifs of animals and 800 CE. This society was ruled by
creatures. This spider supernatural beings. The same figures warrior nobles who went to war
is 148 ft (45 m) long. appear in their geoglyphs—huge to seize captives for torture and
The purpose of these drawings made in the desert. These sacrifice. The Moche built large
images is not known, were discovered by the Peruvian mud-brick pyramid tombs for their
although they may archaeologist Toribio Mejia Xesspe rulers and buried them surrounded
have been offerings while hiking through the region in by treasures. This culture is best
to the gods. known for its fine ceramics.

BELIEFS AND hammered point of
RITUALS metalwork attachment
to nose
Evidence for religious beliefs stone
comes from painted pottery. inlay
Both the Nazca and the
Moche depicted scenes of decoration
human sacrifice. Moche vases in form of
show bound prisoners being gold crayfish
killed. Nazca vases often
portray a supernatural being Moche nosepiece
holding severed human heads. Moche lords pierced the septums of their noses in order
Both peoples worshipped to wear elaborate nosepieces. This 5-in- (13-cm-) wide
nature gods, which took on silver and gold nosepiece was found in a Moche tomb.
the form of animals.

conical
spout at
back of
vessel

whiskers
on cheek

Nazca fisherman pot Nazca animal head Moche earspools
Nazca pots often illustrate scenes from everyday Both Moche and Nazca pots depict men dressed These earspools show an eagle-headed warrior holding
life. This pot is shaped like a fisherman, with a as animals. They represent shamans contacting animal a shield and club in one hand and a sling in the other.
net and a large fish caught on a line. spirits or gods. This pot is in the form of a man wearing They are made of turquoise, coral, lapis lazuli, and gold.
an animal headdress, with painted whiskers.

bottle step opening stirrup spout
opening decoration in handle connecting
painted on head and
back of
spout woman

Bean-shaped bottle Stirrup pot Clay pot Potato-shaped vessel
The Moche people made pots in the form of This Moche vessel, called a stirrup pot, Another Moche pot shows a seated This Moche pot is in the form
their staple foods—potatoes, corn, and beans. shows a bird feeding from a bowl. The figure with the head of a dog, of a potato. It has the head of a
This red clay bottle is shaped like a bean. spout of the pot allowed air to enter perhaps an animal spirit. Pots like woman and a smaller head bursting
through one side so that the liquid could this were made by pressing clay out of the side, just as shoots spring
decoration of bands pour smoothly out through the other. into molds. from a potato.
with diagonal lines
and dots

Trumpet
Many Moche pots were in the form of
trumpets, which would have been played
during ceremonies. Vases also show Moche
warriors playing drums, flutes, and panpipes.

spouted
pot

part of large headdress
decapitator’s with snakes
body shaped
like snake nose
ornament

decapitator

SIDE VIEW

knife held
in left
hand

BACK VIEW decapitator with
trophy heads

Nazca decapitator pot
The Nazca collected trophy heads for public
display. Many skulls have been found with
holes made in them, so they could be hung
from ropes. This pot shows a supernatural
being holding a knife and severed heads.

By the start of the 6th century, the old classical empires of
Rome and Han China had fallen. China recovered under the
Tang and the Song, while the new Islamic world preserved
much classical learning and produced a vibrant culture that
spanned much of the Middle East and North Africa. At the same
time, distinctive cultures flourished across India and Southeast
Asia and in the Americas. By the late 15th century, Europe had
become a preeminent technical and military superpower.

TRADE 600–1450
AND EMPIRE

114 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450

EUROPE’S GERMANIC Anglo-Saxon Christianity
KINGDOMS This garnet, gold, and enamel pendant
has a cross shape in the middle and
After the Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century CE, many Germanic invaders, probably dates from the very early days
groups who had lived in Europe beyond the borders of the Empire, set up kingdoms of Christianity in modern Kent, England.
across its former territory. These Germanic peoples had a distinctive culture and
artistic tradition. Initially pagan, they gradually converted to Christianity.

Moutier-Grandval The last Roman soldiers left England displaced Latin, and followed their FRANKS AND GOTHS
Bible ▽ in 410 CE. After their departure, own pagan religion instead of the
This Bible formed war-bands who crossed the North Sea Christianity of the Roman Empire. In other parts of the former Roman
part of the early from present-day Germany, Frisia, and Gradually, four Anglo-Saxon Empire in the west, new groups
9th-century campaign Jutland pushed the Celtic kingdoms kingdoms absorbed the rest. As their filled the political void, but retained
by the Frankish ruler back towards the western and northern rulers consolidated power, their much of Roman culture. Germanic
Charlemagne to revive fringes of England and into Wales. courts developed the rudiments peoples such as the Franks (in
classical learning. of a royal administration, issuing modern France and Belgium),
Known as the The barbarian raiders—Angles, law-codes and charters. the Visigoths (in Spain), and the
Moutier-Grandval Saxons, and Jutes, collectively Ostrogoths and Lombards (in Italy),
Bible, it features known as Anglo-Saxons—established In 597, the king of Kent converted set up kingdoms. In these areas the
beautifully illuminated kingdoms. These groups controlled to Christianity and, as the religion influence of Roman culture meant
pages, including this much of England by the mid-7th spread across the Anglo-Saxon that cities were not abandoned and
frontispiece of Genesis century. The Anglo-Saxons brought kingdoms, artists produced fine the invaders began to speak a variant
showing the story of a Germanic language, the distant illuminated manuscripts, especially of Latin rather than imposing their
Adam and Eve. ancestor of modern English, which Gospels and other devotional objects. own language.

BATTLE AND CONFLICT Sutton Hoo helmet EUROPE’S GERMANIC KINGDOMS 115
This is one of only four Anglo-Saxon
The Anglo-Saxons did not have standing armies, but helmets found in England. It has gilded dragon
rulers could summon a levy, the fyrd, to supplement a striking face mask and copper runs over cap
their household retainers if conflict broke out— alloy panels. It was discovered
as it often did—with neighboring kingdoms. in a ship burial, thought
Most warriors were lightly armed, with axes or the to be that of Raedwald,
scramasax, a type of knife. Few had metal armor, a 7th-century king
and only the elite were able to afford swords. of East Anglia.

copper alloy
panel

dragon’s head

Chain-mail shirt
(replica)
The hundreds of tiny
metal rings in chain
mail offered good
protection against
sword or dagger thrusts.
These shirts were too
expensive for common
warriors, who could
only afford leather.

gold and enamel Sword bead
pendant Warriors believed this
type of pendant could
heal wounds, so they
attached it to a
scabbard as a good
luck charm.

facemask

cheekpiece
decorated with
tinned bronze foil

protruding tough single- Scramasax
metal boss edged blade Also known as seax, this small, single-edged knife was used by an
Anglo-Saxon warrior as a secondary weapon in hand-to-hand
fighting. The blades were 3in (8cm) to over 191⁄2in (50cm) long.

Trilby shield double-edged Sword
Anglo-Saxon shields were normally blade Anglo-Saxon swords were owned only by the richest warriors.
round, composed of wooden strips Generally double-edged with a broad blade, swords sometimes
and covered in leather, but this had an elaborate pommel to indicate the bearer’s wealth.
example is in bronze.

116 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450

BELIEFS AND RITUALS image of figure
holding two floral-
The Germanic invaders of the Roman Empire were
largely pagan, although some Goths had already headed scepters
accepted Christianity. By the late 5th century, most of
the Germanic rulers were at least notionally Christian,
but the Anglo-Saxons took a century longer to convert.
Churches and cathedrals were widespread, and much
Christian art from the period has survived.

interlinked oval applied silver
medallions plates engraved
around cup
and filled
with niello

The Alfred Jewel Incense cover (replica)
This object may have been commissioned Cast in copper alloy, this object was
by King Alfred, the 9th-century ruler of used as a cover for an incense bowl
Wessex, England, for use as a pointer to read in Christian services. The decoration
manuscripts. The image is in cloisonné enamel of entwined animals and birds is
covered with rock crystal, all encased in gold. typically Germanic.

rock crystal applied silver triangles
engraved and filled
with niello

CRYSTAL BALL silver ring
attachment
silver and
gold inlay PERFORATED SPOON

chalice cast Grave goods Anglo-Saxon cross
in bronze This silver-gilt spoon set with garnets and a Dating from the mid-9th century, this
rock crystal ball were found in the grave of an Anglo-Saxon cross is made of copper alloy
Anglo-Saxon woman. Many precious objects and decorated with silver and niello (an
were placed in the graves of wealthy people. alloy of silver, copper, and lead).

figures from King David orders St. Jerome receives
Germanic mythology the psalms to be the Pope’s orders to
written down
inscription edit the psalms
of Duke’s
name

Tassilo Chalice seated Gothic patera The Dagulf Psalter
This chalice was made for Duke Tassilo of Bavaria (in modern figure of This 4th-century gold dish, or patera, is part With its lavish ivory book cover, The Dagulf
Germany) between 768 and 788 CE. The cup of the chalice is adorned a goddess of the Pietrosale Treasure, probably a Gothic Psalter was produced in c.780 on the
with portraits of Christ and the Evangelists. On the base are images ruler’s hoard. The patera may have been orders of the Frankish ruler Charlemagne
of the Virgin Mary, John the Baptist, and possibly a Lombard queen. used in sacrificial rites. as a gift for Pope Hadrian I.

EUROPE’S GERMANIC KINGDOMS 117

The Rothbury Cross cross-head
As Christianity became more firmly
established in the 8th century, the shaft
Anglo-Saxons began to build religious
monuments, notably huge standing-stone
crosses, which were particularly common
in Northumbria, England. The shafts
were decorated with elaborate plant and
animal ornaments, often combined with
scenes from the Gospels. The Rothbury
Cross dates from about 800 CE and
depicts the crucifixion.

figure presents Christ
with two scepters (or rods),
which represent power

central roundel originally figure presents Christ Surviving section of the Cross
featured Christ with two crowns, Only parts of the Rothbury Cross have
symbolizing victory survived. The part of the cross-head
and immortality shown here would have been
supported on a tall shaft.

geometric
interlace or
knot pattern

socket with
cross-shaft

remains of figure presenting
mappa circenses, folded napkin
symbolizing imperial authority

SIDE VIEW OF THE CROSS

animal shown Christ raising Lazarus from the crowd looks on as Lazarus Lazarus rises from
nibbling vegetation dead, four days after his burial is brought back to life the dead

Miracle of Lazarus CURVING BRANCHES RAISING THE DEAD THRONG OF ONLOOKERS THE MIRACLE
Each of the four sides of
one section of the shaft
shows a different scene.
This section focuses on
the gospel account of the
miracle of Lazarus rising
from the dead. Lazarus
was a follower of Jesus
who died and was laid
to rest in a tomb. Four
days later, Jesus raised
Lazarus from the dead.

118 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450

CLOTHING AND ADORNMENT precious stone NECKLACES

In a style typical of Germanic dress, early Anglo-Saxon women BEAD
wore a long-sleeved undergarment with a tubular dress on top, NECKLACE
generally fastened at the shoulder by a pair of brooches. Long
bead necklaces and leather pouches, worn on belts and AMETHYST
containing precious heirlooms, were also common. Men, too, NECKLACE
wore brooches as cloak fasteners and prized elaborate belt buckles. stone,
glass, and
CLASPS AND PINS paste beads

long, Brooch pin Visigoth eagle fibula Necklaces
straight pin Used to secure head The eagle, a symbol of the Gold and silver necklaces were worn only
coverings or clothing on Roman Empire, was taken by women of high status. But necklaces
the body, the most up by the Goths and adorns were made of less expensive materials,
elaborate pins were of this 6th-century fibula, or too. Stones such as amethyst and amber,
gold or silver, sometimes garment fastener, from as well as glass beads, were used to make
adorned with garnets. Visigothic Spain. simple necklaces.

BROOCHES Round brooch garnet
This circular brooch, from 7th- to 9th-century inlay
Kent, UK, is particularly finely worked. Set

with garnets and decorated with cloisonné
and gold filigree, it may have
belonged to a woman of high
status, but is incomplete—
four of the roundels on
the front are empty.

gold wire
filigree

Bird brooches
The shape of the bronze brooch (left) from Kent
resembles others found in northern France, indicating
links between the two areas in the early Anglo-Saxon
period. The 5th- to 8th-century gold brooch (right)
was found in a cemetery in Kent.

geometrical
pattern

Fish brooch
This cast silver fish has
garnets in its eye, fins,
and tail.

cruciform
shape

Radiate brooch Square-headed
This strikingly shaped brooch
radiate brooch was used Set with nine garnets,
to fasten garments. this brooch dates
Fragments of textile were from the 6th century,
found where they had but its crosslike
been crushed by the shape may show
brooch’s spring. Christian influence.

EUROPE’S GERMANIC KINGDOMS 119

TECHNOLOGY pin casts made of wood Anglo-Saxon spinning
shadow on face whorl and spindle
Much scientific and technical names of Spinning and weaving were generally
knowledge had been lost after the months done by women. Spinning whorls
fall of the Roman Empire, and, and spindles like these are commonly
although the Germanic peoples found in Anglo-Saxon settlement sites.
were skilled craftsmen, they made
limited scientific advances. Most of Anglo-Saxon portable
the ancient technical manuscripts sundial (replica)
that had survived were only Knowing the time was important for monks
accessible in monasteries, and who had a regular daily prayer cycle. In this
literacy was not widespread portable sundial, the pin’s shadow falls onto
among the general population. the face marked out with hours.

HOME LIFE GLASSWARE simple fine glass
form strips added
The early Anglo-Saxons lived in lattice
large communal timber halls, up decoration after body
to 66 ft (25 m) long. Household had cooled
goods and personal possessions Blue glass vase
were kept in chests around the This squat vase with an
sides of the hall. The most interlace pattern was
commonly found items include made around 600 by
pottery and glass vessels, both a potter whose work
useful for holding perishable has been found across
foodstuffs and liquids. southern England.

glazed surface bell-like shape

Pale green jar
Glass-making techniques
became simpler after Rome
fell. Most vessels were light
green, blue, or brown,
produced when no extra
colorant is added to the glass.

Anglo-Saxon jar vertical claws made
Early Anglo-Saxon pots were fluting separately and
handmade in local settlements. attached to body
Later, specialized kilns were set up,
creating pieces such as this fine jar. Bell beaker Clear-glass beaker Green claw beaker
Few Anglo-Saxon vessels Cone-shaped vessels, such as this Named after its elaborate clawlike
nail could stand up on a flat one from southeast England, may projections, this beaker is typical of a type
cleaner surface. This clear-glass have been used for toasts: they common in 5th- to 7th-century Kent and
beaker, used for drinking at could not stand upright and had France, and provides evidence of close
ear feasts, was held in the hand. to be drained in a single draught. links between the two areas.
cleaner

tooth
cleaner

Anglo-Saxon grooming set
Although Anglo-Saxon hygiene was
rudimentary, tweezers and more
elaborate kits, such as this bronze
example, have been found.

120 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450 Supreme god
This bronze figurine depicts Odin—the
VIKING TRADERS principal Norse god, or all-father. He
AND RAIDERS was usually portrayed as a tall, elderly,
bearded man.
The Vikings were raiders from Scandinavia who terrorized the coastlines of
northwestern Europe for three centuries, starting around 790. They attacked
monasteries and exacted tributes, eventually seizing and setting up kingdoms
of their own. The Vikings traded too, and explored the North Atlantic as far as
Canada. They also produced art and literature of astounding beauty and power.

The Great Army ▷ Exactly why the Vikings erupted Faroe islands and Orkney and of the glories of medieval literature.
This 12th-century with such ferocity from modern Shetland in Scotland as jumping-off They also describe how Viking
manuscript shows Denmark, Sweden, and Norway points to explore the North Atlantic, society was organized and how the
Viking raiders led is unclear. The tyranny of newly they set up colonies in Iceland, laws were implemented. Viking
by Ingvar and Ubba, powerful kings, such as Harald Greenland, and even Newfoundland. warriors lived in systems of surprising
two of the leaders of Finehair of Norway (c.870–933), They reached North America around complexity, which gave rise to
the “Great Army” that could have prompted young 1000, almost five centuries before institutions such as the Althing
invaded England in men to become raiders. Technical the Italian explorer Christopher in Iceland, the world’s oldest
865. This band of developments in shipbuilding and Columbus. To the east, the Vikings parliament, founded in 930.
raiders defeated the problems of overpopulation might traveled down the great rivers of
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms also have played a part. Ukraine and Russia, establishing ART AND CHRISTIANITY
of Northumbria, trading outposts and attacking the
Mercia, and East Anglia The Vikings sailed in sleek longships Byzantine capital, Constantinople. Living largely in isolated farmsteads,
within five years. They that could land in harbors without with very few towns until the later
were ultimately beaten the need for beaches, and allowed GODS AND SAGAS Middle Ages, the Vikings were a
by Alfred the Great them to penetrate far inland up largely agricultural people. They
of Wessex in 878. rivers. They used longships in The Vikings were at first pagan, depended on pastoral farming in
793 to raid the monastery of worshipping a pantheon of gods large parts of Scandinavia and
Lindisfarne in the Anglo-Saxon headed by Odin, the all-father. This Iceland. The Vikings also developed
kingdom of Northumbria. Within one-eyed god sacrificed his sight in sophisticated artistic styles, often
a few years, the Vikings were raiding exchange for knowledge of runes— portraying snakes, or “gripping
Scotland, Ireland, and France. the ancient Viking script. Thor was beasts,” intertwined in complex
Attacking with only a few ships popular among young men. The patterns. Around 1000, the Viking
at the start, the Vikings mustered sound of his hammer—Mjölnir— lands became Christian. Churches
bigger armies by the middle of the striking home was said to be the were built and artists produced
9th century. These forces conquered cause of thunder. His T-shaped beautiful crucifixes and illuminated
much of Anglo-Saxon England amulets adorned the necks of Viking manuscripts. Scandinavian kings
and threatened to do the same warriors as they fought in the hope grew more powerful too, and they
to France for a time. of a glorious mention in a saga or began to unite what would become
a seat in the afterlife at Odin’s the kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden,
THE VIKING EXPANSION heavenly hall of Ragnarök. and Norway. By the middle of the
11th century, this increase in royal
Adept sailors, the Vikings used Most of the surviving sagas are authority led to the cessation of
the seaways as conduits for raids, from Iceland. Evoking a world where the raids. The Viking Age was over.
exploration, and trade. Using the a person’s honor was all, they are one

“Let another’s wounds be your warning.”

Njal’s Saga, c.37



122 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450

BATTLE AND CONFLICT ARROWHEADS sharp iron broad
arrowhead blade
Most Viking warriors were armed with axes, spears, Viking arrows (replicas)
and knives. Only the richest could afford swords, Bows and arrows were used both for hunting and Arrowhead
which were often family heirlooms. A few warriors in battle. However, they were not regarded as an This arrowhead from Greenland was carved
also wore an armour formed of an interlinked honourable weapon by many Vikings, as they killed from reindeer antler. It was probably used
mesh of metal rings. The warriors relied on the at a distance. Arrowheads were typically made from for hunting reindeer.
strength and bravery of their companions as they iron and produced in various shapes and sizes.
stood side-by-side in the interlocking formation iron axehead
that the Vikings called a skjaldborg—a shield wall. AXES

SPEARHEADS blade strengthened
by rib

Lozenge-shaped spearhead
Spears were among the most common weapons,
useful both for thrusting in close combat and
for throwing at enemies a few metres away.

Winged spearhead long blade used Iron axehead inlays of gold
This spearhead from the 8th century for thrusting This axehead from northern Europe and silver
dates from the period just before has a convex blade and a hardened
the Viking raids got underway. edge, welded on separately. It was Mammen axehead
attached to a wooden handle. Some axeheads were elaborately decorated with
inlays of precious metals, such as this example
found in a wealthy man’s grave dating from
around 970 in Mammen, Jutland.

SWORDS ARMOR iron plates welded
together over
Danish sword leather cap
Viking swords, such as this one from Denmark, were
normally up to 3 ft 3 in (1 m) long, and blunt-ended, typical
making them more suitable for slashing than for thrusting. double-edged
iron blade
guard formed of
large metal plate

Viking sword edge covered
This 8th- or 9th-century sword had the simple in rawhide
crossguard and pommel typical of Viking swords.
The blades were forged by twisting blocks of Wooden shield Helmet face-guard spectacle visor
iron together and then welding, making them (replica) This late 10th-century protected eyes
very strong. Typical Viking shields were helmet is one of the and nose
wooden, around 31⁄4ft (1 m) few Viking helmets ever
rounded in diameter, with a central found. Contrary to the
pommel metal boss in front of a traditional stereotype,
hand-grip. The boss could the Vikings did not have
gold be used to strike opponents. horns on their helmets.
inlay

pommel top
held in place
by rivets

Sword hilt
This ornate Viking
sword hilt is inlaid
with gold. The hilt
was the only part of
a sheathed sword that
could be seen and was
often highly decorated.

123

BELIEFS AND RITUALS Wooden burial chest rows of nails
This iron-banded wooden chest was placed in a decorate and
The Vikings were initially pagan, believing in a pantheon of gods pagan ship burial inside an earth mound. It contained secure iron bands
who lived in great halls in Asgard. Viking warriors who died in tools intended for a dead woman’s use in the afterlife.
battle were believed to go to Odin’s hall in Valhalla, their souls
taken there by Valkyries—warrior-maidens who served the gods.
Around the 11th century, the Viking rulers converted to
Christianity, and gradually the old beliefs withered away.

Norse god Odin hero riding Odin’s
horse, Sleipnir
NORSE GODS

Hero arriving in Valhalla
This picture stone from the
Swedish island of Götland
shows a hero being
welcomed into Valhalla,
accompanied by Odin,
the one-eyed god.

gold beading
and wire work

Stone with hammer Amulet
and crosses T-shaped amulets,
Used for making pendants, such as this Thor’s
this 10th-century mold has hammer amulet from
two crosses and an image of East Gotland, Sweden,
the pagan god Thor’s hammer are the most widely
on it. It shows that paganism found archaeological
and Christianity coexisted, at pieces of evidence of
least for some time. Viking pagan belief.

beard piece of limestone
symbolizes carved and painted in
fertility
8th century

Statue of the god Frey
This is a small statuette of the
god Frey—one of the most
widely revered of the Viking
deities. He was associated
with strength and fertility.

CHRISTIANITY Christ shown as
a king wearing
a crown

Carved cross interlace
Made from copper and gilded border
oak, this crucifix from Åby, in
Denmark, was made around
1100, when Christianity was
becoming more firmly
established in the Viking lands.

Resurrection egg ship full of
Eggs such as this one warriors
were a symbol of Christ’s
resurrection. They typically
came from cities such as Kiev,
on the eastern fringes
of the Viking world.

124 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450

TRADE AND spruce-
TRANSPORT wood
stick
The first towns established
in Scandinavia, such as Birka Axeheads copper wire
in Sweden and Hedeby in These unfinished axeheads were found on the
Denmark, were essentially shore in Denmark. The spruce to which they are symbol
trading settlements. Cargo from attached came from Sweden or Norway, indicating indicates
across the Viking world passed that these were probably trade items.
through these towns, from weight
walrus tusks acquired in
Greenland to Baltic amber Trader’s scales and weight
and furs gathered along the Viking traders took portable scales and
rivers of the Russian interior. trading weights wherever they went. Their
trade routes extended from the British Isles
lion figure indicates to Russia, and even as far as Baghdad in the
wind direction Islamic world and Arctic North America.

Early Danish coins bronze
These coins from the 9th century bowl
represent some of the first Viking-
issued currency. As royal authority Die for striking coins
grew, kings issued more coins as a The Vikings struck coins using dies like the
symbol of their power. one shown above. Prior to this, they were
dependent on coins they gained through
tribute or plunder, or on cut-up silver
objects (known as hack-silver).

silver urna
on forehead

symbolizes
third eye

stylized great copper alloy Weather vane
beast with coated with Gilded bronze weather vanes such
as this one were often mounted on
sinuous limbs gold ships, possibly with streamers attached
to indicate the direction of the wind.
Helgö Buddha
This bronze statue was found in a Viking
trading settlement at Helgö, Sweden.
It must have passed through many
intermediaries on its way from West Asia.

VIKING TRADERS AND RAIDERS 125

TECHNOLOGY

The Vikings were expert craftsmen, whether in creating gold T-shaped adze-head sharp edge Small hacksaw
and silver jewelry or using mundane tools to shape the The Vikings used adzes to could cut This hacksaw was useful for
longships with which they plied the oceans. Their main smooth wood after felling. trimming edges off wood
innovations were in shipbuilding, in particular the creation They worked with the wood through bone and working on fine details.
of clinker-built vessels made from overlapping wooden grain, retaining its strength, while and metal
planks, with shallow drafts, which could sail up rivers. axes tended to cut across the grain.

iron-toothed blade wooden handle

Wood saw
This saw was used to cut and make grooves,
or indentations in planks. It could also be
used to add extra carving or ornamentation
to ships or to the walls of wooden buildings.

HOME LIFE shaped Smoothing board
like a fish This bone plaque, decorated
The typical Viking dwelling with dragon heads, was used with
was a longhouse, up to 66 ft Wooden comb carved a smooth stone to “iron” wrinkles
(20 m) in length. Rows of posts Combs carved from wood or bone are found in teeth out of clothes.
supported a high roof, and almost every Viking settlement. They display the
people slept on benches set care that the Vikings took over their appearance. fine dragon head
against the walls. A number with curly mane
of families lived together,
with the animals housed
in a byre at the end.

openwork carved animal
decoration, head with
including four open jaws
gripping beasts
Animal head post
lightweight This dragon head was created in a
metal protects stone mold, by heating bronze in
a crucible over a fire until it melted.
clothes from The head may have been used to
fraying decorate a fancy box.

Decorated key Clothes pin human figure
Keys were used to lock the chests in Pins are a common find at holding his
which Vikings kept their valuables. Keys Viking settlements. Almost beard in
were generally entrusted to the women, all clothes were homemade both hands
as a symbol of their responsibility for and were fastened using
the household. pins such as these.

two entwined,
ribbonlike
animals

trailed IVORY GAMING AMBER GAMING
decoration PIECE PIECE

Glass cup Silver cup Gaming pieces
Found in a grave, this cup was Known as the Jelling Cup, These pieces from Denmark and Greenland
made in Rhineland, Germany. this cup is no bigger than may have been used in hnefatafl, a popular
It could have been traded or an egg cup. It is decorated Viking board game. The larger amber piece
plundered by the Viking in whose with animals depicted in the may be the king, which the players tried to
grave it was found in Sweden. Jellinge style of Viking art. capture during the game.

126 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450 conical helmet
typical of Viking
The cache warriors
Ninety-three chess pieces survive from the
cache found in the 19th century, but they do bishop carved with
not make up complete sets. There are eight liturgical headdress,
kings and queens, 15 knights, 12 rooks, and staff, and Bible
19 pawns. Fourteen pieces are plain round
tokens, and may have been hnefatafl pieces.
Some pieces were originally stained red
(rather than the black of a modern chess set).

long spear useful
for thrusting at

opponents from
horseback

bowl-shaped
helmet

warder carries
long sword

plain piece
probably for use in

hnefatafl game

king holds
a scabbard

VIKING TRADERS AND RAIDERS 127

kite-shaped GAME OF KINGS
shield typical of
the later Viking THE LEWIS CHESSMEN
period
Made of walrus ivory and whalebone, unprotected by armor. The chessmen
knight carries the Lewis Chessmen are the most represent the feudal order of society.
kite-shaped remarkable surviving pieces of The pieces were probably made in
shield, ready evidence indicating the pastimes Scandinavia—possibly at Trondheim,
for battle of the 12th-century Vikings. The Norway. They may have formed part
chess pieces, made around 1150 or of the trading stock of an itinerant
berserker bites 1200, were found in 1831 on a beach merchant. Chess had become very
his shield, a sign at Uig on the Scottish island of Lewis. popular among the European
of aggression The Vikings settled in this area in aristocracy by the 11th century. The fact
the 9th century. It remained under that Viking chieftains in the Scottish
Scandinavian control until the islands were also enjoying the game is
territory was ceded to Scotland a sign of their gradual integration into
by the Treaty of Perth in 1266. mainstream European feudal culture.

THE PIECES OTHER POPULAR GAMES

The chessmen were buried in a dry- The Vikings played other board
stone chamber inside a sand dune, but games as well. One of the favorites
exactly why the owner concealed it was hnefatafl, and boards used to play
there is not known. When found, the it have been found throughout the
pieces showed very little sign of wear, Viking world. In this game, one side
indicating that they had not seen had 12 pieces, plus a king, and would
extensive use. The chessmen depict try to get the king to escape to the
figures from the upper levels of most edges of the board. The other side,
European medieval feudal societies, with double the number of pieces,
such as king, bishop, and knight. They would try to surround and “capture”
also portray typically Viking characters, the king. After the main phase of the
most notably berserkers—soldiers who Viking raids ended in the mid-11th
would work themselves up into a battle century, hnefatafl gradually lost its
frenzy and rush into combat virtually popularity to chess.

THE ORIGINS OF CHESS

queen with ornate
gown and decorated
throne, whose pose
resembles that of the
Virgin Mary grieving
over Christ on the cross

pawn Chess originated around 500CE in India. It spread westward
carved with to what is now Iran, and after the country’s conquest by
interlocking Arabic-speaking Muslims in the mid-7th century, chess
geometric became popular in the Islamic world. The rules gradually
design changed, and the Indian war elephant became a bishop. By
the 10th century, the game had reached southern Europe
and it spread gradually northward from there.

128 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450

CLOTHING AND openwork silver and TOP VIEW
ADORNMENT pattern gold inlay

Viking women generally wore a Gripping beast brooch entwined
long overdress with a dresslike This silver brooch portrays a gripping animal and
pinafore attached to it by two beast—a typical motif of Viking art. snake in
ornate brooches. A shawl could The imaginary animal seems to grip combat
be added for extra warmth. its own body with sharp claws.
Men wore pants with a Urnes-style brooch
long overtunic, and a cloak, This 11th-century brooch follows
which was also fastened with a relatively late artistic style. A
brooches. Men and women also snakelike creature forms its main
wore various types of jewelry. decorative element.

plant decoration FRONT VIEW
shows Western
Box brooch
European influences, In addition to being a closure,
but the technique is this drumlike brooch could
also contain small objects. This
Scandinavian style was particularly popular
on the island of Gotland, Sweden.

twisted gold
wire forms
heart-shaped
patterns

granules Gold brooch
of gold This brooch from
Hornelund, Denmark,
was made by pressing a
sheet of gold into a lead die.
The surface was then decorated
by the jeweler using delicate gold
wire to create a sumptuous object,
which only the very rich could afford.

VIKING TRADERS AND RAIDERS 129

BEAD ART AND CULTURE
NECKLACE
Between the 8th and the 12th centuries, Viking art followed
a number of different styles, all of which were characterized
by the use of interlocking animal figures and gripping beasts,
sometimes also with complex patterns of vegetation. From
jewelry to wooden panel carvings and runestones, these
motifs appear in a wide range of artistic forms.

SILVER horned
NECKLACE headdress

Oriental plant Swedish warrior
ornamentation with sword

Necklaces
The Oriental-style decoration
on this silver necklace shows that
Viking trading centers were open
to eastern influences from Russia
and beyond. The bead necklace
is from Gotland, a thriving Viking
trading center.

grooves filled
with niello, a black
compound, to make

details stand out

Equestrian silver figure Silver figurine
This silver equestrian figure shows This small figurine from Sweden
the importance of horses in Viking may represent a dancing god. It
culture, as evident from their carries a stave in one hand and
portrayal on such a valuable object. a sword in the other.

four double- Pendant cross Bone flute sound is produced as
twisted gold rods This cross-shaped pendant from Birka Made from sheep bone, this musical air passes through
braided together is evidence of the Christianization of instrument from Sweden was played like this hole
Sweden. Its complex, decorative a recorder by blowing into one end while
Gold neck ring pattern of dots also includes crosses. covering one or more of the holes.
Twisted gold neck rings such as this
one were a favorite Viking adornment.
They could be very large, weighing as
much as 41⁄2 lb (2 kg)

Gold arm ring patterns made by stamping, Calendar stave carved with 657
Dating from the Christian Viking period, beading, and engraving This Viking calendar stick or primstav from different marks
this arm ring bears a design of a mound Denmark was engraved with runic inscriptions to
with three crosses on it, which represents ornate indicate the passing of the seasons. These sticks
Christ’s crucifixion on the hill of Golgotha. engraving remained in use until 1753.

RUNES

Buckle plate F U TH A R K H N I A S T B M L R
Made from metal, this plate would have been attached
to a leather belt so that it could be buckled. It has two The Vikings developed a system of writing using angular
sections, one for each end of the belt. symbols called runes, which were easy to carve on wood
or stone. The earliest version, developed around 200, had
24 letters, but by about 700, eight of these letters had been
dropped. The runic alphabet is called the futhark (from its
first six letters), but it was never widely used in Viking-age
manuscripts, in which the Latin alphabet became universal.

130 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450 Plundered liturgy
This 9th-century liturgical book, bound in
THE GLORY OF gold and with enamel and pearl decoration,
BYZANTIUM may have been looted by soldiers of the
Fourth Crusade in 1204 at Constantinople.
The Byzantine Empire was the eastern part of the Roman Empire, which survived
after the western provinces fell to Germanic barbarians in the 5th century.
It endured for over a thousand years, weathering many invasions and producing
beautiful art, until it finally fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

Offerings to god ▽ In 330, Constantine the Great, the reconquered some of the western 50 years. The Byzantine Empire was
Empress Theodora first Christian ruler of the Roman provinces, the Byzantine Empire finally destroyed by the Ottoman
(wife of Justinian I) is Empire, moved the capital from Rome was shorn of most of its African and Turks in the 15th century.
shown in this mosaic to Byzantium, where he founded Middle Eastern lands by invading
in the church of San Constantinople. As Rome withered, Arab Muslim armies. It almost lost A LASTING TRADITION
Vitale, Ravenna, Italy. Constantinople became the center the Balkans to invading Slavs.
She holds a chalice of a new Christian culture, which The Byzantines produced several
representing Christ’s drew heavily on classical Greek The empire reinvented itself to meet imposing buildings, such as the great
sacrificial blood. and Roman precedent. After 451, these challenges, replacing Roman- domed cathedral of Hagia Sophia,
Lavishly attired, her Byzantine Christianity split from style legions with levies raised from constructed under Justinian I. They
dress shows the three its western counterpart, giving rise large landowners and the judicious also produced beautiful religious
Magi presenting gold, to the tradition of Eastern Orthodoxy. use of mercenaries. It was weakened icons, mosaics, frescoes, and jewelry.
frankincense, and by the advances of the Seljuk Turks in Even after Constantinople's fall, the
myrrh to Christ. After a resurgence in the 6th Anatolia from the 11th century, and city's artistic and religious tradition
century under Emperor Justinian I, crusaders who seized Constantinople exerted a profound influence on the
who reorganized the laws and in 1204 and held it for more than Balkans and Russia.

THE GLORY OF BYZANTIUM 131

ADORNMENT chain of BELIEFS AND RITUALS
gold links
The basis of Byzantine costume, both Religious beliefs lay at the heart of
for rich and poor, was a knee-length Artemis Byzantine life. However, religious
tunic. Jewelry continued in the holding disputes also weakened it, with
Roman tradition and was an bow and non-Orthodox Christian churches,
important means of expressing status. such as the Monophysites, gaining
In 529, Emperor Justinian passed a law quiver many adherents in the empire’s
stating that sapphires, emeralds, and pearls Middle Eastern and North African
were reserved for the emperor, but every provinces. A belief in miraculous
free man could wear a gold ring. intervention and the power of
religious icons to aid worshippers
chain has 32 Neck chain Gold medallion were pronounced features of Ivory triptych
links with Gold neck and body This 6th-century medallion of Byzantine Christianity. Ivory carving was a widely
openwork chains with elaborate Artemis, the Greek goddess practiced luxury trade in
openwork motifs were of hunting and the Moon, Cross pendant Byzantium. This 10th-century
motifs and a popular during the shows that pagan gods were This gold and enamel chain triptych was intended for
circular early Byzantine period. still worshipped after the and reliquary cross is typical private devotional use.
pendant This 6th-century chain empire became Christian. of the religious objects
was found in a hoard owned by the rich in the Greek
at Scythopolis (now Byzantine Empire. inscriptions
Beth Shean, Israel). identify the
figures
TRADE AND FRONT BACK hinge
TRANSPORTATION enables cross
Gold coin to open and
Coinage was the most common This early 7th-century gold solidus was
means for ordinary Byzantines to found in a hoard of over 3,000 coins buried reveal relic
come in contact with the government at Beth Shean. One side depicts Emperor inside
and the main coin was the gold Phocas wearing an imperial diadem.
solidus. Trade was controlled by the Virgin
imperial government; the most Mary
important commodities were grain
from Egypt and Tunisia, followed by
textiles and metalwork.

HOME LIFE

The teeming city of Constantinople had more than 500,000
inhabitants—the rich lived in large houses built around courtyards,
and the poor in crowded, basic dwellings. Artisan guilds, such as
potters, coppersmiths, and bakers, regulated the commercial life of
the cities, while in the countryside most peasants were farmers.

menorah
decoration

projections Oil lamp bust of bust of
terminating In Byzantine homes, light was provided St. Basil St. Gregory
in knobs by lamps such as this one. The menorah the Great Thaumaturge
decoration on one side suggests that it
Door knocker may have belonged to a Jewish family. “sunken enamel”
This Byzantine knocker style where figures
is shaped like a lion and are silhouetted
would have stood on the against bare metal
main door of a house.

Silver cup
This intricately decorated
Byzantine drinking cup ended
up in a hoard in Sweden,
looted or traded by Vikings.

BYZANTINE ICON 132 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450

THE TRIUMPH OF ORTHODOXY

Since its earliest times, the Christian developed over the use of icons— being directed toward the icons, the iconodule Theodora as regent,
Church had been subject to disputes painted images of Christ, the saints, claiming it verged on worship and led to the restoration of the icons,
over what constituted orthodoxy— and the Virgin Mary. Veneration therefore amounted to idolatry. In an occasion celebrated in the Eastern
a claim to be the true Church with an of icons occupied a central role in 726, Emperor Leo III issued an edict Orthodox churches as the Triumph
unbroken link to the faith, doctrine, Byzantine Christianity, and especially forbidding the veneration of images, of Orthodoxy. Icons came to occupy
and practices of the ancient Church. in popular devotion. However, some a measure confirmed by his successor, an even more important position in
Within the Byzantine Church a rift theologians were uneasy about prayers Constantine V, at the Church council Byzantine Christianity, with images
in Hieria in 754. For a century, the of the saints and episodes from the
“He who venerates the icon, Byzantine Church was torn apart by life of the Virgin Mary adorning every
venerated in it the reality for the doctrinal dispute between those church. Smaller icons also found an
which it stands.” who were opposed to the icons (the honored place in every household.
iconoclasts) and those who favored
Second Council of Nicea, which declared iconoclasm a heresy, 787 CE their use (the iconodules). There were THE DEFEAT OF ICONOCLASM
violent episodes of icon-smashing and This 15th-century icon of the Triumph of Orthodoxy
persecution of iconodules in the army. commemorates Empress Theodora’s restoration
of the icons in 843. It reaffirms icon-veneration
The icons were restored in the 780s, at a time when the Ottomans, who were followers
but opposition to icons (iconoclasm) of Islam, a religion without images, threatened the
returned in 815. Only the accession Byzantine borders.
of Michael III in 843, with his mother

Emperor Michael III Empress Theodora, traditional hand gesture Bema, or Patriarch Methodios—
restorer of the icons of the Virgin Hodegetria, altar cloth St Methodius I of
Constantinople
the mother of Christ

St. Theodosia, holding wooden panel THE GLORY OF BYZANTIUM 133
the icon of Christ covered in gesso,
St. Theodore linen, and gold leaf

134 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450

ISLAMIC COURTS
AND CALIPHATES

The armies of Islam conquered much of the Middle East and North Africa in the
7th and 8th centuries. This mixing of cultures created a powerful fusion of new
religious ideas and existing traditions, producing original political and artistic visions.

An exquisite A caliphate was an Islamic state ruled Umayyads and created Baghdad as
storehouse ▷ by a caliph—a religious and political the new capital. They were patrons
The treasury in leader who was a successor to of the arts and also cultivated
Umayyad Mosque, Muhammed and other prophets. scientific knowledge. Meanwhile, in
Damascus, was built The Umayyad caliphate was based 909, the Fatimid dynasty established
in 789 as a storehouse in Damascus, from where its power itself in Tunisia, and went on to
for the local governor’s extended west to Morocco. As they conquer Egypt, making Cairo their
valuables. The walls moved into areas that had been capital. Internal revolts and the
of the treasury are controlled by the Byzantines, local Crusades weakened their empire,
decorated with delicate craftsmen built mosques for the which ended in 1171. In 1258,
green and gold mosaic. Umayyads in a style following Baghdad was sacked by the Mongols,
Byzantine architectural traditions. by which point Abbasid power had
In 750, the Abbasids overthrew the already waned in the Islamic World.

POLITICS AND POWER tarnished TRADE AND TRANSPORT
copper
The courts of the first Muslim surface The Umayyad Empire was a vast
territory within which a single
rulers, or caliphs, were simple authority regulated and protected
trade. The coins of the Umayyad
encampments on the outskirts rulers, as well as those of the Abbasids
and the Fatimids, were valued within
of towns, or traveling structures their domains and beyond. At the local
level, trade in markets was controlled
that shifted from place to place. by officially appointed inspectors.

By the time of the Abbasids, the Silver dirham
For religious reasons,
caliphs had large courts and splendid Islamic coins did not
bear the ruler’s image.
palaces, from which they ruled as engraved Ornate calligraphy
with image was used instead to
autocrats in a similar style to Persian of courtier proclaim the ruler’s
name or the Islamic
shahs or Byzantine emperors. Court musician figurine credo, as seen on this
Abbasid coin.
ivory trained falcon This figurine from the Fatimid caliphate in
inlay used for hunting Egypt depicts an Islamic lute (oud) player. The
oud was key to the classical Islamic style of
wild quarry music that emerged at the Umayyad courts.

Wooden fragment Fatimid glass Gold coin
This piece of wood from Fatimid Egypt depicts a hunting Under the patronage of the Fatimid coins such
scene. Hunting was a favorite pastime of the Umayyad Fatimid court, there was a as this one were
rulers, who built hunting lodges in the Syrian desert. renaissance of the decorative designed in a
arts, notably glass production. distinctive style,
with three circular
bands of calligraphy
instead of regular
horizontal writing.

ISLAMIC CULTURES OF SPAIN AND AFRICA 135

ISLAMIC CULTURES
OF SPAIN AND AFRICA

The Islamic lands of southern Spain and Maghreb (northwest Africa) developed
distinctive political and artistic traditions. The fusion of Islamic, Jewish, and
Christian ideas in southern Spain led to great scientific and cultural achievements.

Lions at the Islamic rule was established in Spain Umayyad caliphate. It was replaced
fountain ▷ in 711. In 929, Abd ar-Rahman III by the Almoravids and Almohads—
Nasrid architecture of the Umayyad dynasty (see p.134) more austere dynasties from
was a hybrid of set up a caliphate there. The caliphs Morocco (part of Maghreb).
Maghreb and Christian patronized art and literature,
influences. This especially poetry, and built a Meanwhile, Christian Spanish
courtyard from the number of mosques. Jewish and kingdoms made steady progress
Palace of the Lions in Christian communities were in their campaigns to reclaim
Alhambra, Granada, tolerated in the Umayyad Empire, the peninsula. By 1238, only
exhibits skilled carving and this combination of traditions the Nasrids of Granada survived
and stonework. produced the unique culture of to build the great Alhambra,
Islamic Spain, or al-Andalus. In before they were conquered by
1031, civil war destroyed the the rulers of Castile and Aragon
in 1492.

BELIEFS AND RITUALS ART AND winglike
ARCHITECTURE handle
North Africa and Spain had been bastions of
Christianity, but while the former was almost Southern Spain and seated
entirely Islamized, Jewish and Christian Maghreb were the musician
communities persisted in Spain. They westernmost frontiers playing a harp
were referred to as the Mozarabs, and they of Islamic art. In Spain,
adopted many elements of Arab culture. Visigothic influence (see
p.114) in architecture
gold circle serves text in cursive was important. Ivory
as verse marker Maghrebi carving and fine stuccos
became an Umayyad
speciality, to be replaced
by a more conservative
ethos under the Almohads
in the 12th century.

Wooden frieze Alhambra vase painted 14th-century casket
The architecture of the Vases such as this glazed model cedar Sicilian Muslim craftsmen produced
Marinids, who succeeded from the Nasrid dynasty are works such as this casket for wealthy
the Almohads, shared many known as Alhambra vases. They patrons. Southern Spain was also a
characteristics with that of are usually painted gold and major center of ivory carving during
Islamic Spain, including carved cobalt and are pear shaped. cusped the 10th and 11th centuries.
friezes such as this one.
arch

Koran folio
This page from the Koran is written in the Maghrebi
script, which developed in northwest Africa in the
10th century and then spread to southern Spain.

136 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450 Knight-shaped ewer
This 13th-century jug, in the form of a
NORMAN CRUSADERS horse and rider, exemplifies the courtly
AND CONQUERORS ideals of knighthood that pervaded
Western culture in the medieval era.
Europe saw two major upheavals in the 11th century. The first was the conquest
of England by the Normans—a people of Viking descent. The second was the
launch of the First Crusade in 1096, marking the beginning of a series of military
expeditions from Christian Europe to wrest Palestine from Islamic rule.

Embarking on In 911, Charles III of France gave a rule that strengthened England’s ties Many Normans made pilgrimages to
a Crusade ▽ portion of northern France to the with northwest Europe. Norman Rome and the Holy Land. Initiated by
This page from the Viking raiders who had settled adventurers also began to invade Pope Urban II in 1095, the First
French illuminated there. They founded the duchy of parts of southern Italy and Sicily. Crusade began as a holy pilgrimage
manuscript Order of Normandy and came to be known as The Normans brought a feudal and ended as a military expedition to
the Holy Spirit depicts the Normans, later adopting French system to England in which the king regain the Holy Lands by Roman
crusaders departing as their language and Christianity as allowed the nobility to hold land in Catholic Europe. France and England,
for the Holy Land. The their religion. From their settlements exchange for military service, and along with the Holy Roman Empire,
banners include the in Normandy, the Vikings embarked the nobles let the peasants occupy seized Jerusalem and set up Crusader
papal arms, alongside on several expeditions of conquest their land in return for their labor. states that survived until 1291.
those of the Holy and colonization elsewhere in Europe. Successive Crusades provided
Roman Emperor and RELIGIOUS FERVOR reinforcements to these enclaves. The
the kings of England, Duke William of Normandy Crusades helped transmit knowledge
France, and Sicily. defeated the Anglo-Saxon ruler In the 11th century, religious devotion from the East, such as advances in the
Harold Godwinson at Hastings in and the power of the Church grew in art of fortification.
1066, ushering in an era of Norman Normandy and spread to England.

NORMAN CRUSADERS AND CONQUERORS 137

BATTLE AND CONFLICT SIEGE TACTICS

Knights were the principal fighting pommel curves Curly quillon dagger
force of medieval monarchies. The backward around This 15th-century English dagger
charge of these heavily armored rivet, mirroring has a crossguard formed by unusual
troops was almost impossible for crossguard quillons that curve back toward
infantry to resist. However, such the blade.
armies were expensive to maintain inlaid
in the field, and foot soldiers, geometric Quillon dagger
particularly archers, came to play design Dating from c.1400, this English
a more prominent role in the dagger has a distinctive brass
later Middle Ages. pommel. Such daggers were often
carried by men of rank when not
SWORDS bearing swords.

double-edged Sieges were more common than field battles in the
cutting blade Middle Ages, and attackers would often try to starve
a garrison. Siege engines such as towers were placed
against walls, and catapults were used to hurl heavy
projectiles. Primitive cannons, like the one shown here,
could weaken defenders in advance of an all-out assault.

sharp HELMETS
point for
penetrating typical
armor conical
shape
tapering,
double- double-edged
edged blade blade of
hexagonal
cross section

flattened,
diamond-
shaped blade
in cross section

long, thin, straight, Norman helmet Great helm
fuller groove double-edged This replica Norman helmet By the late 12th century,
makes sword has a downward projecting the conical Norman helmets
lighter blade nose guard. Similar types had evolved into models
remained in use from the such as this, providing greater
7th to the 12th centuries. all-round protection, at
the cost of extra weight.

straight, double rows of
square looping breathing
quillons finger-guards holes

long tang
with no grip

octagonal wheel straight wheel
pommel pommel crossguard pommel
with cap
round
pommel

Hand-and-a-half Transitional sword Crusader sword French sword Italian basinet Chain-mail hood
sword This early 16th-century With its broad blade, The long, tapering point This 14th-century helmet has an Hoods, or coifs, could be
This 15th-century English sword was produced simple crossguard, and of this 14th-century elongated skull, a visor, and worn under a helmet for
sword was mainly used during a transitional nut-shaped pommel, sword could pierce an aventail, or mail neck-guard. extra protection. They also
for thrusting. Its extra- phase between the this sword is typical of vulnerable joints in Such helmets were nicknamed served as a safeguard when
long grip allowed the heavy medieval blades the 12th century and plate armor. Swords like “dog-faced” or “hounskull” worn without a helmet.
bearer to hold it in and the lighter the central part of the this were becoming because of their distinct shape.
both hands. Renaissance rapiers. crusading era. widespread at the time.

138 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450

Funeral The diplomat “Fight your best
procession The tapestry shows Harold and put everyone
The body of Edward Godwinson sailing across to death. What I gain,
the Confessor, who the English Channel on you gain... We will
died on January 5, a diplomatic mission to never return
1066, is carried in Normandy in 1064. He to Normandy
an elaborate bier, was met by the knights disgraced... with
behind which of Guy of Ponthieu, who God’s aid we
walk a group of arrested him. shall conquer.”
tonsured monks.
William the Conqueror

The wounded king
The figure in this scene with the arrow
in his eye may be King Harold. The
Latin inscription reads, “Here King
Harold was killed.” His death caused
the collapse of the Anglo-Saxon army.

embroidery in bird figure on
wool yarn on linen decorative border

Story of the Norman conquest Latin inscriptions tapestry contains interlocked shields Anglo-Saxons depicted
The Bayeux Tapestry is a piece of embroidery describe key moments more than 200 horses used to form wall carrying spears or javelins
that was made around 1080. First recorded in
the inventory of the Bayeux Cathedral, France,
in 1476, it begins with Harold’s alleged oath
to Duke William in 1064 and concludes with
the Norman victory at Hastings two years later.

NORMAN CRUSADERS AND CONQUERORS 139

NORMAN VICTORY

THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY

Despite its name, the Bayeux Tapestry successor-to-be—to Normandy, where The Norman side is shown to have
is actually an embroidered strip of Harold is shown swearing an oath a contingent of archers, while the
linen more than 230 ft (70 m) long of fealty to Duke William, promising Anglo-Saxons have very few. This
that tells the story of Duke William of to uphold his candidacy for the disparity, together with William’s
Normandy’s conquest of Anglo-Saxon English throne on Edward’s death. It astute use of feigned flight to draw
England in 1066. Although thought goes on to show the Norman duke’s the Anglo-Saxons out of the shield
to have been created in England, expedition to England to uphold that wall and render them vulnerable,
the narration of the story is from a claim after Harold seizes the throne. ultimately played a crucial role in
Norman perspective, depicting scenes his victory.
of the Norman conquest in a series of BATTLE TACTICS
episodes. Along the top and bottom The Anglo-Saxons are depicted
run decorative borders with figures The Bayeux Tapestry provides valuable forming a protective wall with their
of animals, scenes from the fables of contemporary evidence for the military shields and spears. The Normans
Aesop and Phaedrus, and some scenes equipment and tactics of mid-11th- adopted a more fluid approach, with
related to the main pictorial narrative. century armies. It is by far the best repeated cavalry charges and volleys
pictorial source of information about of arrows to thin the shield-wall.
This extraordinary work of art the arms and armor of the Normans The climax of the battle shows Harold’s
provides information about the events and Anglo-Saxons. fall, apparently struck in the eye by an
that led up to William’s expedition to arrow. The final surviving panels of the
England and his victory at the Battle The men-at-arms on both sides are tapestry show the inevitable end of
of Hastings on October 14, 1066. It depicted wearing conical helmets with a medieval battle: the massacre of the
recounts King Edward the Confessor’s metal nose guards. The warriors bear fleeing enemy and the ruthless looting
despatch of Harold Godwinson—his kite-shaped shields and a mixture of of corpses on the battlefield.
lances, swords, and battle-axes.

Bishop Odo of Bayeux diamond-shaped mail armor made Latin text reads, “Here, Odo Norman men-at-arms Duke William throws back his
rallies the Normans with the Bishop holding a club used bows and arrows helmet to reassure his knights
his staff; clergymen were shield of thousands of strengthens the boys“ that he is still alive
not permitted to spill blood
interlocking metal rings

140 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450

POLITICS AND POWER inscription of COINS King Edward III
Duke’s name holds a sword
In the late 11th century, kings in England and and shield
elsewhere in Western Europe relied on their
position as the head of the feudal hierarchy. Edward III gold coin
Gradually, royal courts grew more sophisticated Known as a noble, this was the
and rudimentary administrations evolved. This first gold coin minted in England
enabled the courts to enforce royal justice and on a large scale and was produced
collect the taxes needed to engage in long from the 1340s. It was worth a
campaigns, such as the Hundred Years War. third of a pound.

brass covered Medallion Silver coins
in leather The image on a coin or medal was These four silver
often the only time the common coins span four
Moot horn people saw the face of their ruler. centuries of English
Moot horns, such as this one from Faversham in England, This 15th-century medallion shows kings, from Cnut
were used to summon townsfolk to the moot or assembly. Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. (1016–35) to Offa of
These gatherings had a limited role in local decision Mercia (757–96), to
making and the election of officials such as the mayor. Edward the Confessor
(1042–66), and Aethelred
the Unready (979–1016).

BELIEFS AND RITUALS jewels
on cuff
The Christian Church played a central role in European life. It grew extremely
wealthy and became a patron of specific types of art and literature. Christianity Pilgrim badge Pilgrim bell
also inspired popular piety, motivating arduous pilgrimages as well as the more Badges such as this one shaped as Miniature bells were another popular
militant fervor of the crusading movement. the hands of St. Thomas Becket were souvenir for pilgrims to Canterbury
worn by pilgrims as a sign that they in the 14th and 15th centuries. They
in Medieval had visited a particular holy site, in were designed to be worn around
times, green this case Canterbury, UK. the neck.
glass was made

by adding
copper ore or
filings to glass

Stained-glass fragment Medicine mortar Holy Land pilgrim flask
Part of a stained-glass window, Used for grinding medical This water bottle is decorated with
this piece bears the image of the ingredients, this 12th-century the cross of the Order of St. John,
head of a saint. With comparatively mortar was used by the Knights or Knights Hospitaller, a charitable
low levels of literacy, imagery was an Hospitaller. Although they were a religious order established in 1048
important way of communicating military order, originally the Knights to care for pilgrims to Jerusalem.
religious messages in medieval Europe. Hospitaller had been set up to
administer a hospital in Jerusalem. brightly
image of interior colored
of the hospital Majolica
decoration
Hospitaller seal
This medieval seal Monk’s medicine jar
belonged to Raymond This decorated jar was used by monks
de Berenger, the Grand to hold medicines. Monasteries and
Master of the Knights religious orders were the principal
Hospitaller in 1365–74. repositories of medical knowledge
By this time, Jerusalem during the early Middle Ages.
had fallen back under
Islamic control and
the knights were
based in Rhodes.

NORMAN CRUSADERS AND CONQUERORS 141

Christ enthroned in majesty angel calls saved Hereford Mappa Mundi
above the world, holding souls to paradise Medieval mappae mundi—maps
up his hands to show of the world—were not primarily
wounds of crucifixion Garden of Eden, with Adam attempts to portray the Earth
and Eve outside locked gates with geographical accuracy.
angel holds cross in They showed it as a flat disk
one hand and three adorned with images that
conformed to Christian philosophy.
nails in other The Hereford Mappa Mundi,
created in England around 1300,
Noah’s Ark follows this tradition. It has the
map centred on Jerusalem and
focuses on places of biblical
and theological importance.

pathway
through Red
Sea, marking
route of
children of Israel
out of slavery
in Egypt and
toward the
“Promised Land”

Babylon, capital
of the Egyptian
sultans

Mandrake
plant, said
to emit a
scream when
uprooted

unicorn

Lighthouse
of Alexandria,
with flaming
beacon

sea believed to
enclose whole
world

Labyrinth
containing
the Minotaur

Troglodytes or
cave dwellers
often feature
on medieval
maps

man on
horseback
may represent
map’s reader

inscription mentions Robert Hereford Jerusalem Rome Pillars of
of Holdingham, possible creator Hercules
of an earlier version of map

142 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450

chalice, symbol of decorative floral St. James, wearing
St. John the Evangelist border broad-brimmed pilgrim’s hat

closed book, symbol of sword, symbolizing elaborate initial Book of Hours
St. Peter’s two letters St. Paul’s execution capital letter From the 13th century onward, the Book
of Hours became common. Intended for
ILLUMINATED the layman, it contained a collection of
CAPITAL LETTER psalms, prayers, and other readings.
Organized around the daily cycle of the
English Book of Hours Divine Office (canonical hours), it was
This 14th century Book of Hours is less recited throughout the day in monasteries.
lavish than the French example above, This 15th-century French example is
making it affordable to people of more lavishly illustrated and would have been
modest means. With the advent of printing commissioned by a wealthy patron.
in the 16th century, these books became
even more widely available and were even clasp used to fasten
owned by people who were unable to read. covers when closed

NORMAN CRUSADERS AND CONQUERORS 143

CLOTHING AND inscription SILVER SEAL RING
ADORNMENT engraved
into gold double-faceted
Clothing styles varied significantly between bezel
1000 and 1500. However, the basic male bezel in form
garment remained a tunic, sometimes worn of clasped hands
with an overtunic, which was belted at
the waist. The decoration and quality inscription
of the cloth varied according to rank. on bezel
Women wore a longer tunic or dress, which
was closely fitted after the 12th century, Gold brooch GOLD SIGNET RING GOLD ICONOGRAPHIC
with a variety of headdresses. Rings and The clasped hands on this 15th-century “fede
other jewelry also helped determine ring” brooch symbolize fidelity. This type of RING
a person’s social status. brooch was often presented at a wedding.
Gold and silver rings
engraved Inscriptions and motifs were often added to
angel and medieval rings. The silver ring is inscribed with
Virgin Mary an image of Jupiter with a thunderbolt, while the
iconographic ring follows the medieval fashion
Silver pendant for devotional images. The signet ring is engraved
This exquisite diamond- with a sheep head—a medieval pun—because it
shaped 15th-or 16th- was from Sheppey, in England.
century pendant was
found at Barham, England. Gaming counter
The images engraved on Made from a cow’s jawbone, this gaming
it probably represent counter was probably used to play a
the Annunciation. forerunner of backgammon known as
tabula, which was, in turn, derived
HOME LIFE from a Roman game.

Daily life for the poor in rural areas was very decorated with bearded face,
conservative. It changed little for centuries, concentric circles common motif on
apart from external shocks such as the Black
Death in 1348–50, which killed over a third bellarmine jars
of Europe’s population. The rich and those
living in towns had access to a much greater anglular
range of luxury goods, many of which were handle
imported from abroad.
Medieval cauldron
blue Made from copper alloy,
trailing medieval cauldrons such
as this one had a handle
splayed that enabled them to be
foot easily removed from over
a cooking fire.
Stemmed goblet
This rare, late-13th century stemmed goblet salt-glazed
is made of colorless soda glass. Similar ceramic jar
goblets have been found in southern
England and northern Germany, but most SILVER SEAL RING Bellarmine jar
that have survived do not have a stem. Jars such as this one contained wine
14th-century mazer exported from Germany. They were then
Mazers are a special type of drinking often reused as “witches’ bottles” to hold
vessel. These shallow drinking cups hair, nails, urine, and other items believed
without handles are made of maple, to protect against witchcraft.
with a characteristic mottled effect.

Great Seal of Edward I, clause forbidding arbitrary
originally showed the imprisonment, exile, or
king enthroned, with an confiscation of property,
and laying down that
orb and scepter people must be tried by

fragment of their equals and according
original medieval to the law of the land

Barons of Faversham parchment tag
This inscription states that the
indenture was issued to the “barons of
the port of Faversham.” The charter was
granted to the leading men of the
town, who held the courtesy title of
“baron” but were not the aristocracy.

NORMAN CRUSADERS AND CONQUERORS 145

Magna Carta CHARTER OF LIBERTIES
This copy of Magna Carta was
specially obtained by the barons MAGNA CARTA
of Faversham, which belonged
to a confederation of port towns The financial strains caused by English Stephen Langton, the Archbishop of
known as Cinque Ports. In 1301, monarch King John’s unsuccessful war Canterbury, and ended with agreement
the barons cited it in a court against France in the early 13th on a number of issues known as the
case against the Lord Warden of century led to discontent among the Articles of the Barons. This document
the Cinque Ports for his alleged kingdom’s leading nobles—the barons. was sealed in the presence of John and
usurpation of ancient liberties By feudal law, the barons held lands converted into a charter by the king’s
guaranteed to Faversham by “in fee” from the monarch, in return clerks. It was reissued in 1216 by
Magna Carta. for their sworn loyalty and a Henry III, John’s son, and again in
commitment to provide the king with 1225, when it became known as
clause forbidding forced knights to fight his wars. By the time Magna Carta (“Great Charter”).
marriage of widows—earlier John succeeded to the throne in 1199,
widows with substantial the barons’ obligation had taken the RESTORING LIBERTIES
domains had been forced to form of a cash payment, or “scutage.”
marry royal supporters, and which was used to raise an army. A Much of Magna Carta referred to
so would forfeit their property demand for scutage in 1215 sparked a specific grievances relating to feudal
to their new husbands rebellion. The barons insisted that taxes, the regulation of the justice
John uphold the coronation charter of system, and the ownership of land. It
section establishing uniform Henry I. They claimed it guaranteed also established general principles and
weights and measures across them protection from royal injustices reestablished privileges that had been
the realm, giving merchants such as unfair taxation. lost. For example, it claimed no taxes
and customers confidence that could be demanded without the
they would not be cheated The barons marched on the royal “general consent of the realm.”
castle at Northampton on May 5, 1215,
article lays down that royal before occupying London. On June Although it was written to resolve
officials must have witnesses 15, 1215, King John was forced to differences between John and his
to back up their evidence, meet the barons at Runnymede on the strongest subjects, Magna Carta also
protecting the public from banks of the Thames River to negotiate acknowledged laws, rights, and
arbitrary and unfair judgements peace. Their demand for a charter was freedoms. It became an icon for liberty
the first time in English history that throughout the world. The rights in
influential people had collectively Magna Carta were evoked by
protested about bad government. The American revolutionaries in the late
negotiations were mediated by 18th century during their struggle
against British rule.

Royal approval elaborately decorated Great Seal
The charter carried a confirmation that initial capital letter with of Henry IV,
it had been examined by Master Edward confirming
of London, a royal clerk. This indicated a pattern of flowers the validity
that the charter had royal approval. of the charter
clause forbidding
“The democratic royal officials, such as
aspiration is no mere
recent phase in human stewards and clerks,
history… it was written from entering Faversham
in the Magna Carta.”
list of witnesses, including
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, President of America, 1941 the Archbishops of

Canterbury and York

Faversham charter
The custom of granting charters to the citizens
of towns continued throughout the Middle Ages.
By this 1408 charter, issued to the barons of
Faversham, King Henry IV agreed that his officials
were not to enter the town and exercise their
offices there. This relieved Faversham from royal
interference and the imposition of illegal taxes.

146 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450

THE RISE OF THE
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

The coronation of the Frankish ruler Charlemagne as Emperor by Pope Leo III in 800 Head of Barbarossa
marked the emergence of a new empire in Western Europe, the first since the fall of Shaped like a bust of Emperor Frederick I
Rome. The Holy Roman Empire survived for more than 1,000 years, weathering Barbarossa, this reliquary contains remains
various setbacks such as invasion, plague, and religious strife. of St. John. It was probably a gift from the
Emperor’s godfather, Otto of Capenberg.

Crowned by After the Frankish Empire fragmented, church domains, and free towns, culture also grew, rooting itself first
the Pope ▽ in the later part of the 9th century, with a few large territories controlled in the elaborate code of “chivalry” of
This 15th-century the seat of the Holy Roman Empire by landowners such as the Welfs, the the martial classes and strengthening
French illuminated moved eastward into modern Wittelsbachs, the Hohenstaufen, and later as the influence of the Italian
manuscript depicts Germany. The Holy Roman Emperor the Habsburgs. Renaissance spread northward.
the coronation of derived his authority both from
Frederick II by Pope his status as a feudal overlord and CHURCH AND STATE Much effort was lavished on items
Honorius III in 1220. from his recognition by the Church meant for religious use, for example,
Frederick needed Papal through Papal coronation. The church remained powerful and paintings, crosses, and sumptuous
recognition since the conflicts sometimes arose between the manuscripts, including the Gospel
pope had deposed his The Holy Roman Empire lasted emperor and the pope, such as over the Book of Otto III. Yet as towns grew—
predecessor. until 1806, when Francis II, the last right to appoint bishops (investiture). many of them forming leagues, such
emperor, abdicated. The Empire did The revival of monastic orders, as the mercantile Hanseatic League—a
not have a single center of political beginning with the foundation of the class of secular patrons arose with the
power. Instead, it evolved as a Abbey of Cluny in 909, saw periodic money and motivation to commission
patchwork of petty principalities, renewals in church life, but secular their own works of art.

POLITICS AND POWER double-headed
eagle, symbol of the
After the coronation of Otto I in Rome in 962, Emperor’s authority
the Holy Roman Emperor was always the king
of Germany. This revived the concept of a larger shields at top
Christian emperor in the West and the are those of the
beginning of an unbroken line of emperors Prince Electors
lasting more than eight centuries. Gradually
a system of Imperial Diets, in which the chief Heraldry
nobility of the empire decided federal issues, This illuminated manuscript
evolved. By the 19th century, the emperor had of the Quaternionenadler,
very little power over his theoretical domain. the double-headed eagle
symbol of the empire,
crest of contains the coats of arms
Charlemagne of all its member states.

Charlemagne period coins crown is ornamented with
These two coins are from the period of Charlemagne. 144 precious stones and
His coronation in 800 brought him the title of Imperator more than 100 pearls
(Emperor). This was the first time a Germanic ruler
had claimed the title since Rome’s fall in 476. Imperial Crown
The imperial crown of
view of city the Holy Roman Empire,
of Rome dating from the 10th or
11th century, has a unique
jeweled cross, originally octagonal shape. This work
a pectoral cross that of art from the Romanesque
may have belonged era is made of eight
to Emperor Henry II hinged panels decorated
with Biblical scenes.
one of four cloisonné
Seal of Louis IV one of eight plates enamel pictures in
This is the golden seal of Louis IV, who was of 22 carat gold
crowned Emperor in 1328 after a bloody struggle Byzantine style showing
with the Austrian Frederick the Fair that saw that make up crown scenes from the Bible
Louis being excommunicated and also deposing
Pope John XXII.

vellum,
or fine
parchment

Golden Bull of Charles IV
This decree issued by the Imperial Diet at
Nuremberg and Metz in 1356, which was headed by
Emperor Charles IV, contained legislation about the
constitutional structure of the Holy Roman Empire.

148 TRADE AND EMPIRE 600–1450

DIVINE AUTHORITY DOME-SHAPED SILVER COVER

THE ELIZABETH RELIQUARY CROWN
RELIQUARY
RELIQUARY BASE
St. Elizabeth was a Hungarian princess ministered to the sick. Soon after her
canonized in 1235, just four years after death in 1231, miracles began to be Crucifixion
her death. Her skull was placed in this reported. Elizabeth’s canonization A golden image of the
magnificent agate reliquary. Elizabeth’s by Pope Gregory IX was helped crucified Christ, with two
rapid elevation to sainthood considerably by the Hungarian royal saints by his side, decorates
exemplifies the striking interplay house of Arpad, which was eager to the stem of the reliquary.
between Christian piety and political have a saint among its number. Her The gems set on either side
power in the Middle Ages. The royal body was laid to rest in a golden dramatically highlight the
houses that could claim a saint among shrine in Marburg. shape of the cross.
their number were able to claim Golden lion
divine authority for their rule. The MEDIEVAL RELIQUARIES A golden lion, also the symbol of Mark
cult of saintly ancestors, such as Louis the Evangelist, was one of the symbols
IX of France, King Olaf Haraldsson of The hunger for saints’ relics was intense of the Arpad dynasty, which ruled
Norway, and Queen Jadwiga of in the Middle Ages, because they were Hungary from 1000 to 1301.
Poland, was vigorously promoted by said to heal sickness or grant remission
their successors. of sins. The altar of every new church
required a relic. The richest monasteries
THE LIFE OF ELIZABETH and cathedrals had huge collections of
artifacts associated with the saints or
Elizabeth had been married to Louis IV, with Christ himself. To honor these
the Margrave of Thuringia—a German relics, they were placed in reliquaries—
nobleman above the rank of count. housings made of precious metal and
When her husband died in 1227, on often encased in jewels. Reliquaries
his way to join the Sixth Crusade, holding the most prestigious relics,
Elizabeth refused to remarry. She took such as the remains of St. Elizabeth,
a vow of celibacy and devoted herself to were very lavish—a sign of the power
charitable works, establishing a hospital and the sanctity of the religious
at Marburg where she personally institution that owned them.

Carved gemstone
A carved piece of agate
shows two passengers
and a driver in a
carriage. The work is
typical of the Roman
provincial style of the
4th and 5th century CE.

Overhead view
Four golden bands
forming a cross
shape and set with
emeralds, sapphires,
and amethysts
adorn the bowl-
shaped silver cover
to the reliquary.