History of the world in 1,000 objects

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 399

“I will either find a way HANNIBAL (247–182 BCE)
or make one.”
Despite being a brilliant tactician,
Hannibal, in response to the suggestion that the Carthaginian general, Hannibal,
it is impossible to cross the Alps with elephants lacked the strategic judgment to
convert his triumphs against the
218 BCE 206 BCE Romans into final victory. Following
the surrender of Carthage in
Second Punic War Han dynasty begins 201 BCE to Rome, Hannibal was
The Carthaginian general Hannibal The Qin dynasty is the city’s chief magistrate until
besieges Saguntum in Spain, succeeded by the Han the Romans exiled him in 195 BCE.
beginning the Second Punic War. dynasty under Liu Bang. He then offered his services to a
succession of Rome’s enemies before
poisoning himself in Bithynia.

218 BCE 202 BCE c.200 BCE 168 BCE

Hannibal crosses Alps Battle of Zama Hopewell culture develops Roman territory
Hannibal invades Italy after crossing Scipio defeats Hannibal’s army The Adena peoples begin to adopt the Hopewell expands
the Alps, and routs the Roman army. at the Battle of Zama. The culture. These people live by hunting and The end of the Third
Two years later, at Cannae, Hannibal Carthaginians’ surrender to Rome gathering, but they also build large, elaborate Macedonian War
inflicts upon the Romans one ends the Second Punic War. burial mounds for their chieftains. heralds a period of
of their worst-ever defeats. expansion for the
c.200 BCE 180 BCE Romans in the eastern
215 BCE Mediterranean.
Maya build pyramids Chinese enjoy stability
First Macedonian War The Maya begin to build Wen becomes the Chinese
King Philip V of Macedonia pyramid temples in the rain emperor. His 23-year reign
invades Illyria, starting the forests of Mesoamerica. provides a period of stability.
First Macedonian War.

BCE BCE BCE

221 BCE c.200 BCE c.185 BCE

Qin dynasty begins Nazca civilization emerges Sunga dynasty takes power
Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China, The Nazca civilization emerges in The Sunga dynasty takes power in Magadha,
unites China under the Qin dynasty. modern South America. The Nazca India, when its founder Pusyamitra Sunga, a
create textiles and pottery. former Mauryan general, assassinates the
SHI HUANGDI’S TERRACOTTA ARMY, XIAN, CHINA last Mauryan ruler.

171 BCE

Mithridates I
reigns
Mithridates I
becomes king of the
Persian League and
the Parthian Empire.

164 BCE

Judah Maccabee revolts
Following the outlawing of Jewish
religious practices in Judaea by the
Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV, Judah

Maccabee enters Jerusalem,
reconsecrates the temple,
and reestablishes Judaism.

400 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 700 BCE–600CE

149 BCE 62,000

Third Punic War begins The approximate number
Rome crushes Carthage of Carthaginians killed by
in the Third Punic War. the Romans during the
It creates the province Third Punic War.
of Africa from former
Carthaginian possessions.

c.100 BCE

Celtic towns emerge
Celtic peoples of southern
Britain start to expand their
existing hill-forts into towns

that are defended by
extensive fortifications.

141 BCE

Parthian Empire founded
The Parthian King Mithridates the
Great invades the Seleucid Empire
and conquers Mesopotamia. He
founds the Parthian Empire.

142 BCE 102–101 BCE 80 BCE

Hasmonean dynasty rules Marius defeats Germans Caesar begins campaigns
Simon Maccabeus seizes The Roman military commander Marius The young Julius Caesar leads
leads the Roman army in two victories a series of successful Roman
control of Jerusalem from the over Germanic tribes—the Cimbri and campaigns in Asia.
Seleucids. He founds the Jewish the Teutones. He becomes Rome’s
Hasmonean dynasty that rules dominant politician. BCE

until Jerusalem is captured
by the Romans in 63 BCE.

BCE BCE

106 BCE c.100 BCE

Caravan route established Great Serpent Mound constructed
First caravan trade route begins The Great Serpent Mound is constructed by

along the Silk Road, between the Fort Ancient peoples in modern Ohio.
Parthia, in modern Iran, and China.
GREAT SERPENT MOUND, OHIO, US

146 BCE 89 BCE

Rome takes Greece Roman citizenship
The Roman army takes extended
and destroys the city of Roman citizenship is
Corinth. Greece falls extended to all Italians.
under Roman rule.
82 BCE

Sulla becomes dictator
Lucius Sulla is appointed

dictator of Rome, following
purges against supporters of
Marius, and packs the Senate

with his own supporters.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 401

31 BCE

Battle of Actium
Octavian defeats Mark Antony at
the Battle of Actium. Antony and
Cleopatra both commit suicide
the following year.

200

The number of ships in
Antony and Cleopatra’s fleet
that were sunk or captured
at the Battle of Actium.

THE ASSASSINATION OF JULIUS CAESAR IN THE SENATE

73 BCE 58 BCE 44 BCE 19 BCE c.4 BCE
Herod
Spartacan revolt begins Gallic Wars begin Caesar assassinated rebuilds temple Jesus is born
In southern Italy, Spartacus Julius Caesar begins his conquest Julius Caesar is assassinated The Judean King The Jewish preacher
leads a slave revolt—one of Gaul, which lasts until 50 BCE. Herod I rebuilds the
of the most serious that just before a session of temple at Jerusalem. Jesus is born in
the Roman Empire ever faces. the Senate. Galilee, in modern

northern Israel.

BCE BCE BCE CE

63 BCE 55 BCE 44 BCE 27 BCE

Pompey takes Caesar Cleopatra rules Octavian becomes
Jerusalem invades Britain A member of the first emperor
Having made Syria a Julius Caesar invades Octavian assumes the title of
Roman province the Britain, but is forced Ptolemaic dynasty, Augustus, and effectively begins
previous year, Pompey to retreat. He returns Cleopatra becomes rule as the first Roman emperor.
captures Jerusalem and the following year
annexes Judaea. and takes hostages ruler of Egypt. THE FORUM OF AUGUSTUS, ROME, ITALY
back to Rome, but
59 BCE does not make 46 BCE
Britain part of the
First Triumvirate formed Roman Empire. Caesar
Julius Caesar forms the made dictator
First Triumvirate with Having defeated
Pompey and Crassus. Pompey at Pharsalus,
in modern Greece, Julius
JULIUS CAESAR (100–44 BCE) Caesar is proclaimed
dictator of Rome for life.
Julius Caesar was a rising military star
when he became consul and the junior 43 BCE
member of Rome’s First Triumvirate in
59 BCE. His conquest of Gaul (58–50 BCE), Second Triumvirate formed
in western Europe, brought Rome new Caesar’s adopted son, Octavian,
provinces and furthered his political forms the Second Triumvirate
power. Having expelled the statesman with Mark Antony and Lepidus.
Pompey from Italy, Julius Caesar won the
supreme power he sought as dictator for
life. This exalted position ultimately led
to his murder in the Senate.

402 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 700BCE–600CE 200,000

c.1 CE One estimate of the number

Kushans invade India of people that died during
The Kushans, an Indo-European
nomadic people, invade the first Jewish revolt.
northwest India.
c.40 CE 66 CE
COIN FROM THE KUSHAN PERIOD
The Arawaks migrate Jewish revolt begins
The South American Arawak The first Jewish revolt against Roman
peoples migrate down the rule begins. Jewish strongholds are gradually
Orinoco River and settle in reduced until, in 70 CE, Jerusalem falls and
the Caribbean.
the Temple is destroyed.

47 CE

Paul begins missions
The Jewish missionary Paul begins a series of journeys
to spread the word of Jesus to non-Jews. He travels
through Anatolia (modern Turkey) and Greece to
Rome, where he is martyred in around 62 CE.

c.60 CE

Kushan Empire established
The Kushan Empire is established

in India and Central Asia.

c.1 CE 14 CE 43 CE 60 CE

Buddhism Augustus dies Romans invade Britain Boudicca
spreads The Roman Emperor Augustus Claudius, the new Roman leads revolt
Buddhism spreads dies and his stepson, Tiberius, Emperor, orders the invasion In Britain, Boudicca
through coastal succeeds him. of Britain. By 47 CE most of leads the Iceni revolt
Southeast Asia. the south and east of Britain against the Romans.
12 CE is subjugated.
9 CE
Artabanus becomes king 33 CE
Xin dynasty Artabanus II defeats the
established Scythians and Pahlavas, and Jesus crucified
Wang Mang seizes becomes King of Parthia. Jesus Christ is crucified and his followers
the Chinese throne begin to spread his message. By around
and establishes the 50 CE communities of Christians will be
Xin dynasty. In 23 CE it established through Western Asia.
collapses and the Han
dynasty is restored. JESUS CHRIST (c.4 BCE–33 CE)

9 CE Jesus, a preacher from Galilee, began his
ministry in his early 30s. He taught in the
Romans annihilated Jewish tradition, calling for the reform of
Occupying Roman forces the Temple and for the love of one’s neighbor
are driven back to the to take precedence over the strict observance
Rhine in Germany. The of religious law. Jesus gathered a group of
Roman frontier will twelve disciples around him, but was targeted
remain here for the by Jewish conservatives afraid of his growing
next 400 years. influence. In 33 CE the Roman authorities in
Judaea executed Jesus by crucifixion, but
the disciples, convinced that Jesus had risen
from the dead, continued his teaching.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 403

123

The number of days of celebrations
throughout the Roman Empire that
Trajan announced following victory
in the Second Dacian War.

c.101 CE

Dacian wars begin
Emperor Trajan begins the first of two wars
with Dacia, in Central Europe. These generate
a huge amount of treasure for the Romans.

79 CE PLASTER CASTS OF VICTIMS IN POMPEII, ITALY 112 CE

Vesuvius erupts Trajan’s forum completed 132 CE
Trajan completes the building
The eruption of the volcano of Vesuvius, near of a new forum in Rome. Second Jewish
revolt begins
Naples in southern Italy, buries the Roman 117 CE The second Jewish revolt
against Rome begins.
towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Rome reaches In 135 CE, the Romans
greatest extent recapture Jerusalem and
99 CE c.100 CE The Roman Empire is at its expel the Jews from the city.
greatest extent. Its frontiers
Indians visit Rome Buddhism spreads may measure more than
The Kushan Empire The Kushan Emperor 6,213 miles (10,000 km).
dispatches an embassy Kanishka encourages
to Rome. the spread of Buddhism
in Central Asia.

80 CE c.100 CE c.105 CE 122 CE 147 CE

Colosseum Teotihuacán expands Paper invented Hadrian’s Wall built Romans celebrate
completed The city of Teotihuacán, in In China, the earliest form The building of Hadrian’s Wall anniversary
The Flavian modern Mexico, expands at the Roman frontier in northern
Amphitheater, and the building of the of paper is produced. Britain begins. It measures Celebrations are held for
now known as Temples of the Sun and 73 miles (117.5 km). the 900th anniversary of the
the Colosseum, is the Moon begins. foundation of the city of Rome.
completed in Rome.
TEOTIHUACÁN, MEXICO

87 CE

Kushans visit China
An embassy from the

Kushan Empire of India
travels to the new eastern

Han capital of Luoyang.

404 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 700BCE–600CE “Let no one escape
sheer destruction.”
c.150
Septimus Severus, to his soldiers during his
Ptolemy completes atlas campaign of Caledonia, in modern Scotland,
Ptolemy of Alexandria’s from Dio Cassius’s Roman History, 76
Geographia, the first
world atlas, is
completed.

193

Septimius Severus becomes emperor
The assassination of the insane Emperor
Commodus leads to a civil war that results
in African-born Septimius Severus being
declared emperor.

MAP BASED ON PTOLEMY’S GEOGRAPHIA c.200

c.150 165 180 Korea gains independence
The Chinese occupation of modern Korea
Christianity Plague hits Rome The Goths settle ends and native states including Koguryo,
spreads in Africa Rome is devastated by an outbreak of the The Goths—an East Silla, and Paekche start to appear.
Christianity spreads plague. By the end of the year it has spread Germanic people—
west across Roman widely across the Mediterranean region. start to settle on
North Africa. the Black Sea coast.

c.150 166 180 184 c.200

Nok culture peaks Marcomannic Wars begin Marcus Yellow Turbans revolt Moche culture
The Nok Iron Age The Marcomannic Wars begin Aurelius dies In China, a peasant revolt emerges
culture in Nigeria with Germanic tribes invading The Roman emperor threatens the imperial The Moche
reaches its peak. northern Italy. The wars drag Marcus Aurelius dies. government. Up to 400,000 civilization
on for more than 10 years until He is succeeded by his rebels, known as the emerges in
c.150 the Romans establish strong son, Commodus, who Yellow Turbans due to modern Peru.
provinces on the frontier. makes peace with their distinctive headdress,
Han dynasty the Marcomanni. march on the capital. c.220
flourishes GERMANIC TRIBES
Han China regains Han collapses
dominance of The Romans had faced Germanic The Chinese Han
Central Asia. tribes ever since they reached dynasty collapses and
the Rhine at the time of Julius is replaced by three
Caesar. Germanic groups across kingdoms—the Shu,
the Danube, such as the Quadi
and Marcomanni, proved Wu, and Wei.
troublesome in the 2nd century,
but by the late 3rd century 224
new and more dangerous
confederations of Germanic Sasanian
tribes arose, such as the Franks, dynasty founded
Alamanns, and Goths, who Parthian rule collapses after
overran much of the Roman the revolt of Ardashir I,
Empire by the mid-5th century. governor of the Pars, who
founds the Sasanian dynasty.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 405

SHAPUR I DEFEATS VALERIAN 260 carved figures
in Egyptian
Persians defeat
Romans porphyry marble

Shapur I, the Persian 277–79
King, defeats Roman
Emperor Valerian and Probus takes power
takes him prisoner. This The Roman Emperor
marks a period of Persian
Probus defeats the Goths
dominance in Syria on the Danube, expels
and Mesopotamia. the Franks from Gaul,
and puts down unrest
in Egypt and Illyria.

c.250 c.250 267 THE FOUR COEMPERORS

Classical Mayan period begins Yamato kingdom Goths rampage 293
The Classical period of the Mayan emerges A massive army
civilization in Mesoamerica begins. In Japan, the Yamato of Goths pillages Tetrarchy formed
kingdom emerges, Thrace, Macedonia, The Roman Emperor
235 conquering most and Greece. Diocletian sets up a system
of central Japan. of four coemperors—the
Germanic raids begin Tetrarchy—which enjoys early
Germanic peoples start serious successes in Britain and Egypt.
raids on the Roman Empire’s
Rhine and Danube frontiers.

235 267–73 297

Military anarchy begins Queen Zenobia takes territories Persians take
When the Roman army chooses the officer Queen Zenobia of Palmyra takes Egypt and Syria Armenia
Maximinus Thrax as emperor, a period of
military anarchy begins. There are more from Rome, but is in turn defeated and taken The Persians,
than 20 emperors in the next 50 years. prisoner by the Roman Emperor Aurelian. under ruler Narseh,

ANCIENT RUINS OF PALMYRA, SYRIA invade Armenia
and defeat Roman
Emperor Galerius.

280 285

China united Empire divided
The Western Jin Emperor Diocletian
conquer the south of reorganizes the Roman
China and unite the Empire, dividing power
country under their between two emperors.
leader, Sima Yan. Diocletian rules the East
and he appoints Maximian
to rule the West.

406 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 700BCE–600CE

CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (c.272–337)

Constantine is best known for his
support of the Christians, following
their persecution under Diocletian. As
Roman emperor, he decreed freedom
of worship by the Edict of Milan,
sponsored the first large churches in
Rome, and allowed bishops to take an
important role in politics. Constantine
was baptized on his deathbed and
became the first Christian emperor.

c.300 ETCHMIADZIN CATHEDRAL, ARMENIA 330

Christianity becomes 312 Constantinople founded
state religion Constantine founds a new capital for the Eastern Roman Empire
Armenia becomes the first country Battle of Milvian Bridge at the ancient city of Byzantium, strategically sited between Europe
to accept Christianity as the state The Roman Emperor and Asia. He demolishes pagan temples and builds new churches.
religion. Etchmiadzin Cathedral— Constantine defeats rival The city is named Constantinople (modern Istanbul).
the world’s oldest cathedral—is built Maxentius at the Battle of
in the Armenian capital between Milvian Bridge and takes control 362 370
301 and 303. of the Western Roman Empire.
Julian the Apostate Huns invade
restores paganism The Huns, a nomadic
The newly ascended Roman Emperor people from Central Asia,
Julian—later known as Julian the begin to invade Eastern
Apostate—begins a campaign to restore Europe. They defeat the
pagan worship in the Roman Empire. Ostrogoths in the Ukraine.

304 c.350 369

Xiongnu invade China Aksum kingdom Sasanians
The Xiongnu invade China, embraces Christianity gain security
leading to the breakdown One of the earliest states The Sasanian King
of order in the north and to embrace Christianity Shapur II occupies
the start of the Sixteen outside the Roman Armenia. He signs
Kingdoms period. Empire, the kingdom a peace treaty with
of Aksum in Ethiopia the Romans that
313 becomes the most is beneficial to
powerful independent the Persians.
Edict of Milan issued state in Africa.
Constantine issues the Edict of
Milan, which grants toleration to all studded with
forms of worship and, effectively, precious gems

legalizes Christianity. CROWN WORN
BY AKSUM KINGS
303 320

Christians persecuted Gupta Empire founded
The Roman Emperor The Emperor Chandragupta I, the
Diocletian issues an edict
ordering the destruction of founder of the Gupta Empire of
churches and the handing India, ascends to the throne. The
over and burning of
Christian books. Subsequent Guptas rule northern India for
edicts call for the arrest of the next 150 years.
Christian clergy, and order
Christians to offer a sacrifice
to the pagan gods. Many
Christians are martyred.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 407

“The man who does not know ANGLO–SAXON
scripture does not know the CLAWED BEAKER
power and wisdom of God.” FROM SOUTHERN
ENGLAND
Jerome, in his commentary on Isaiah
clawlike
404 projections

378 Bible translated 420
Jerome, the Christian
Battle of Adrianople priest, theologian, and Liu Song
The Goths, under Fritigern, historian, completes his dynasty founded
defeat the Romans at Adrianople, Latin translation of the Bible.
near the Danube frontier. The victory In southern China,
leaves the Eastern Roman army destroyed the Eastern Jins are 447
and the Balkans open to the Goths. overthrown and the Liu
Song dynasty is founded Huns invade
under Song Wudi. Thrace
In the Balkans,
386 391 406 c.445 the Huns, under
Attila, invade
Northern Wei Official religion Barbarians invade Saxons settle Thrace and extract
dynasty formed Theodosius forbids all pagan Hordes of invading The Saxons begin to settle in heavy tribute
The Toba Wei reunify sacrifices throughout the groups including southern England. Within a few from the Eastern
northern China, ruling as Roman Empire, and makes Vandals, Alans, and years, Saxon, Angle, and Jutish Roman Empire.
the Northern Wei dynasty. Christianity the official religion. Sueves penetrate deep raiders occupy large parts of
into the Roman Empire. the former Roman province.

383 395 436 c.450

Roman–Goth truce agreed Roman Empire splits Huns defeat Temple of the
The Roman Emperor Theodosius Following the death of Theodosius, the Burgundians Sun completed
agrees a truce with the Goths, giving Roman Empire is split into eastern and The Roman general The Moche culture
them land and political autonomy western divisions. No one emperor will Aëtius recruits the Huns
in exchange for military service. rule the whole empire again. to defeat the Burgundians, in modern Peru
who had raided across completes the Temple
379 410 the lower Rhine.
of the Sun, using
Chinese adopt Buddhism Goths sack Rome 439 50 million bricks.
Buddhism becomes the Following their invasion of Italy in 408,
state religion of China. the Goths, under Alaric, sack Rome. The Vandals take Carthage
event shakes the entire Roman world. Under Gaiseric, the Vandals
GOTH LEADER ALARIC ENTERS ROME capture Carthage from the

Romans and establish an
independent Vandal

kingdom in North Africa.

440 c.450

Chinese adopt Taoism Teotihuacán
Taoism replaces Buddhism peaks

as the state religion. In the Valley of
Mexico, the city
250,000 of Teotihuacán
reaches the peak of
The population of the its power. Its main
city of Teotihuacán, in the street—the Avenue
Valley of Mexico, by 400. of the Dead—is

lined with the
residences of the
lords of the city.

408 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 700BCE–600CE

890

The length, in feet, of the largest

desert geoglyphs created by the

Nazca people of Peru.

478 518

Shinto shrine built Justin becomes emperor
The first shrine of the Justin becomes Emperor of
Shinto religion is built the former Eastern Roman
in Japan.
Empire—the Byzantine Empire.
He develops good relations

with the Ostrogoths of Italy and
the Vandals of North Africa.

c.450 HUMMINGBIRD GEOGLYPH, SOUTHERN PERU

Nazca desert images created c.496–506

The Nazca people of modern Peru create Clovis converts
Clovis, the first Frankish king, converts
huge geoglyph pictures on the desert floor to Catholic Christianity, setting him
apart from other barbarian rulers.
over hundreds of years.

455 476 502

Vandals sack Rome Last western emperor deposed Persians invade
The Vandal army, led by King Gaiseric, Romulus, the Western Roman emperor, The Persians, under Kavadh, invade the
is deposed and not replaced. This Byzantine Empire, sacking Amida in
plunders Rome. This is the second marks the end of the Roman Empire Mesopotamia. In 506 CE the Persians
time in fewer than 50 years that in the West after 500 years. and Byzantines agree a truce.
Rome has been sacked.

452 475 507
Battle of Vouillé
Huns invade Italy Visigoths rule Spain
Having been defeated by a The Romans acknowledge the The Franks defeat the Visigoths at the
Roman-Goth coalition in Gaul rule of Euric, King of the Visigoths,
the year before, the Huns, led in Spain and southwest Gaul in Battle of Vouillé and drive them out
by King Attila, invade northern modern France.
Italy, attacking Padua and Verona. 493 of Aquitaine in modern France.
467
453 Ostrogoths conquer Italy
Gupta Empire declines
Attila dies With the death of Skandagupta, the Gupta The Ostrogoths, under Theodoric,
Attila the Hun dies after his Empire in India starts to decline. Pressure
wedding feast. His sons begin comes from the Hephthalite Huns, who conquer Italy. In 497 CE the Byzantine
a civil war that leads to the have conquered much of western India.
Hunnic Empire falling apart. Emperor Anastasius I recognizes

Theodoric’s right to govern Italy,

and to extend his rule into Gaul.

ATTILA THE HUN (c.406–453) inlaid with
precious gems
King of the Huns from 434 to 453, Attila
was the scourge of the Roman world. By OSTROGOTHIC
the 400s, the Huns controlled a sizeable BROOCHES
territory in Eastern Europe. Attila aimed
to maintain a steppe empire placed
strategically on the plains of modern
Hungary, at the doorway to Western
Europe. He subdued neighboring
tribes and won victories over the
eastern Romans, even extracting
tribute money from them.

409

MOSAIC IN THE HAGIA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE (ISTANBUL, TURKEY) 600

529–534 563 Printing
invented
Justinian writes Codex Columba founds Iona The Chinese
In his Codex Justinianus, Emperor Justinian codifies Columba sets up the abbey of Iona on an island off Scotland’s invent printing,
Roman law. A great builder, he orders the building of western coast. Iona becomes a center of Irish-influenced using carved
the huge church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. monasticism, which extends into northern England, Scotland, wood blocks.
and the Frankish Kingdom, in modern France.
536 c.580
c.570
Byzantines take Rome Avar state established
The Byzantine army, led by Belisarius, occupies Muhammad born Under Khan Bayan, the Avars—
Rome. Belisarius goes on to capture Ravenna, Muhammad, the prophet nomadic horsemen from the northern
the Ostrogothic capital, in 540. of Islam, is born in Mecca. Caucasus—exploit the vacuum left by
the departure of the Lombards to
carve out a vast territory centered
around modern Austria.

533 568

Vandals conquered Lombards invade Italy
Justinian sends an army, Byzantium concedes much of Italy to the Lombards,
under General Belisarius, to who had settled in the former Roman province
Vandal-controlled North Africa. of Pannonia (modern Hungary).
The Romans take Carthage and
Vandal resistance collapses. 581

538 Sui dynasty founded
In northern China, Yang Jian, general of the Zhou rulers,
Buddhism arrives in Japan takes the throne as the Emperor Wen. He goes on to invade
Buddhism is officially recognized southern China and becomes the first emperor of the Sui
dynasty. China is united for the first time in three centuries.
in Japan. Emperor Kimmei
accepts a gold and copper 596
Buddhist image from the ruler
of the Korean state of Paekche. Augustine
begins mission
540 Pope Gregory I sends
Augustine on a mission to
Persians capture Antioch England to evangelize the
Khosrau I, the Persian ruler of the Anglo–Saxon kingdoms.
Sasanian Empire, invades Syria and He converts Aethelbert,
captures Antioch. He forces Justinian to the pagan king of Kent.
pay 5,000 pounds of gold to regain it.

SUI DYNASTY BUDDHA CAVE CARVING, YUNGANG CAVES

410 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 600–1450

TRADE AND EMPIRE

Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, civilization in surface covered
Europe entered a long period of comparative decline. In this period, China proved with engraved
to be politically strong and technologically innovative under the Tang and Song decoration
dynasties, while much of the Middle East and North Africa was united under an
Arab empire inspired by the new religion of Islam. The Americas, India, and
Southeast Asia gave rise to distinctive cultures. However, from the late medieval
period movements began to emerge in Europe that would lead to European
domination of the globe until the mid-20th century.

c.602 636 SUTTON HOO HELMET (REPLICA)

Grand canal constructed Battle of Qadisiyya c.641
The Chinese Emperor Yangdi orders the At the Battle of Qadisiyya, Arab
construction of a grand canal linking forces defeat the Persian army and hold Sutton Hoo treasure buried
Yangtze with Chang’an. The project is Persian territory as far north as Mosul. A great Anglo–Saxon ship burial at Sutton Hoo,
completed in 610. Suffolk, England, is filled with marvelously
618 worked artifacts, weapons, and treasures. A
606 rare survival of elite pagan burials in England,
Tang dynasty established the artifacts comprise a fusion of Christian and
Last early Indian In 616–17, rebellions against non-Christian elements, suggesting transition
empire begins the despotic rule of Yangdi cause the as Christianity gains in popularity and strength.
Harsha accedes to the thrones collapse of the Sui dynasty. A year later
of Thanesar and Kannauj, military governor Li Yuan founds the
establishing the last native Tang dynasty, which rules until 906.
Indian empire of ancient times.

613 622 632 661

Frankish kingdom established Beginning of Islamic era Death of Muhammad Sunni-Shi’ite split
King Clothar II reunites the Frankish Hostility from the Meccan Muhammad, the founder of Following fierce
kingdom, bringing an end to the Islam, dies aged 62. The young
civil war. His Edict of Paris, issued authorities forces Muhammad Muslim community—united disagreement over
in 614, introduces reforms to the to flee to Medina with his by a religion that transcended how succession to the
Merovingian church and state. traditional rivalries—selects
family and followers. The start Abu Bakr as the first caliph. caliphate ought to
614 of the Islamic era is traditionally be decided, Sunni
marked by the Hegira, or hijra, and Shi’ite Muslims
Persian Empire restored split into opposing
The Persian conquests of Syria, the flight to Medina. branches of Islam.

Mesopotamia, and Palestine MUHAMMAD (570–632) 668
are complete. In 619, the
Born in Mecca, Muhammad ibn Unification of Korea
Persians go on to take Egypt. Abdallah worked as a merchant and With the help of Tang
shepherd before growing discontented China, the Unified
and retiring to a life of contemplation. Silla kingdom in Korea
Muslims believe that in 610, he
received the first of a series of brings to an end the long
divine revelations—these became the Three Kingdoms period.
Qu’ran. He preached a monotheistic
faith, Islam, based on complete 645
submission to God (Allah). Before
his death he unified Arabian tribes Japanese land reforms
within his new religion. In Japan, the Fujiwara clan enacts
the Taika reforms, which follow the
Chinese model by bringing all land
into imperial ownership and
centralizing power.

“I have not seen the TRADE AND EMPIRE 411
equal; neither have I
heard of anything... that elaborate
could rival in grace this headdress
Dome of the rock...”
big ear spools
Mukaddasi, Arab geographer, c.10th century
protruding fangs
698 c.700
STATUE OF CHAAK,
Loss of Carthage Lindisfarne MAYAN GOD
The Arabs conquer and destroy Gospels written
Carthage, the last Byzantine stronghold The Lindisfarne c.730
in North Africa, and build Tunis. Gospels, an illuminated Mayan
manuscript, are high point
692 produced at the priory The Mayan city-states
of Lindisfarne on Holy of the Late Classical period
Dome of the Rock built Island, off the northeast reach the peak of their
Commissioned by Caliph Abd coast of England. power and sophistication.
Al-Malik, the great shrine built on the The population of Tikal
Temple Mount in Jerusalem, known as swells to at least 60,000
the Dome of the Rock (or Qubbat people, in a city spread
out over 29 sq miles
as-Sakhrah), is completed. (76 sq km).

690 c.700 725

Reign of Empress Wu Teotihuacán collapses Dating system established
In China, the Empress Wu In the Valley of Mexico, the The Anglo–Saxon scholar, Bede,
takes the throne in her own great city-state of Teotihuacán popularizes the Christian AD—Anno
name—the only woman in collapses, bringing six Domini—dating system, which
Chinese history to do so. centuries of growth and spreads across Europe.
dominance to an end.
726
672 711
Iconoclasm starts
Resurgence of Tikal Conquest of Spain Emperor Leo III of Byzantium
The Mayan city state of Tikal begins its resurgence after a A Muslim army crosses initiates the heretical movement of
century-long period of political and cultural domination iconoclasm, which bans and destroys
by neighboring city-states. The city’s rulers engage in a the Strait of Gibraltar religious images, including icons.
construction program to match their political ambitions, and defeats the Visigothic
building many impressive structures including massive 732
pyramids, ball courts, causeways, observatories, and palaces. king, Roderick, at the
Battle of Guadalete. By
the end of the year, most Battle of Tours-Poitiers
of the Iberian peninsula
is under Islamic control. Muslims are defeated by Frankish

troops, marking the farthest extent of

Muslim expansion in Western Europe.

c.725
Casa Grande established

The Hohokam settlement of Casa Grande,

3,000 in modern Arizona, is founded. Its success

The number of major stone lies in the watering system that allows a
buildings constructed in
Tikal’s Late Classical period. great range of crops to be grown, despite

the arid environment. 740

Battle of Acroinon

The Byzantine army defeats the Umayyad

caliphate at Acroinon and expels the

TEMPLE II AT TIKAL, MODERN GUATEMALA Umayyads from Anatolia (modern Turkey).

CHARLEMAGNE (748–814)

TIWANAKU A ruler facing few internal challenges
SNUFF TABLET to his authority, Charlemagne, Pepin III’s
son, extended Frankish power. He
inscribed Sun image in also fostered a close relationship with
rectangular depression the papacy, and reformed the Church.
Modeling his rule on the Roman
Empire, Charlemagne crowned
himself emperor and appeared on
coins, wearing the military cloak
and laurel crown of a Roman ruler.

c.750 c.760 c.782

Tiwanaku at its height Numerical system adopted Cultural renaissance emerges
The city of Tiwanaku The Indian system of numerals is Scholars attracted to Charlemagne’s court stimulate
on the Altiplano, or high adopted by the Abbasid dynasty. a Carolingian cultural renaissance. Charlemagne’s first
plain, of Bolivia reaches concern is to create an educated clergy with a good
its zenith. Its advanced understanding of the Bible and the Christian faith.
agricultural system supports the
development of a sophisticated 755 762 794
culture. The Tiwanaku people
build pyramids, temples, and An Lushan Founding of Baghdad Japanese capital moves
colossal statues. gains power Baghdad becomes the first truly Islamic Emperor Kammu moves the
A Chinese general, An imperial city. It emerges as a trading Japanese capital to Kyoto, away
Lushan, rebels against hub that attracts merchants from from the Buddhist sects of Nara.
the Tang dynasty and Northern Europe, India, and China.
founds a rival dynasty
in northern China.

754 756 785 793

Franks invade Italy Emirate of Cordoba begins Offa’s Dyke built Viking raids begin
Pepin III, the first One of the last surviving Umayyads, Caliph Offa of Mercia, effectively Viking raids against Western
Abd al-Rahman I, declares an independent Europe gather pace. In 793
Carolingian king of the Emirate of Cordoba, Spain. This marks the start the overlord of Britain, the rich monasteries of
Franks, invades Italy and of the breakup of the united Arab caliphate. starts to construct the Lindisfarne and Iona, in
forms a treaty with Pope monumental earthwork the British Isles, are looted.
THE MOSQUE OF CORDOBA known as Offa’s Dyke on
Stephen II. This breaks
the Frankish treaty the border between
with the Lombards, Wales and Mercia.

the ruling tribe in Italy. 787

750 Council of Nicaea
The council restores
Abbasid caliphate icons to Byzantine
established churches, ending the
The foundation of the period of iconoclasm.
Abbasid caliphate is the
culmination of growing 774
tension in the Islamic
world. The rival Umayyad Franks conquer Lombards
clan is massacred. The Franks, led by Charlemagne,
conquer the kingdom of the
Lombards. This brings northern
Italy into Charlemagne’s Carolingian
Empire and extends his reach down
both sides of the Adriatic coast.

TRADE AND EMPIRE 413

“Right action is better than 831
knowledge; but in order to
do what is right, we must Fall of Palermo
know what is right.” As the Islamic conquest
of Sicily continues, Palermo
Charlemagne, from Epistola de litteris colendis, c.780–800 falls after a yearlong siege.
The city becomes the capital
c.800 of Islamic Sicily, although
total conquest of the island
Temple of Borobudur built is not secured until 902.
The Temple of Borobudur, a Buddhist monument
in central Java, Southeast Asia, is completed in 830
the early 9th century. The colossal structure—the
largest Buddhist monument in the world—is a Moimir established
testament to the power of the Srivijayan Empire. Moimir, the first known ruler
of the Moravian Slavs, founds

the Kingdom of Moravia—a
powerful Slavic state in
Central Europe.

811 814 CHOLA SCULPTURE

Bulgar victory Death of Charlemagne 846
The Bulgar Khan Krum defeats the Byzantine Charlemagne dies and his last surviving
Emperor Nicephorus I. Two years later, Krum son, Louis the Pious, accedes to the Rise of the Cholas
throne, having been crowned co-emperor The Chola King Vijayalaya captures
attempts to besiege the Byzantine capital by his father the year before. the city of Tanjore from the Pandya
Constantinople, but is unable to breach the walls.
kingdom, signaling the rise of the
Tamil Chola dynasty in southern India.

802 c.822 841

Khmer Empire founded House of Wisdom founded Vikings found Dublin
Proclaiming himself Chakravartin, Caliph Al-Ma’mun consolidates Having raided inland Ireland four years
meaning “god-king,” Jayavarman II earlier, the Vikings found the kingdom
establishes the independent Khmer the House of Wisdom in Abbasid
Empire in modern Cambodia. The Baghdad, continuing the tradition of Dublin. The following year the
authority of the Khmer kings rests on Vikings sack London, England.
their direct link to the gods, which is of intellectual patronage. Arabic
reflected in the monuments they translations of ancient Greek texts
construct at the temple city of
Angkor over centuries to come. secure knowledge for the future.

800 ISLAMIC SCHOLARSHIP 825 843

Caliphs lose Africa Thanks to the House of Battle of Ellandun Treaty of Verdun
The Abbasid caliphs in Wisdom and other similar Wessex, the Anglo– The treaty of Verdun divides
Baghdad lose authority centers of scholarship across Saxon kingdom in south Charlemagne’s empire into regions
in Africa west of Egypt. the caliphate, Islamic scholars and west England, ruled broadly equating to France in
They recognize the developed ideas beyond over by King Egbert, the West, Germany in the East,
emir’s hereditary right what the ancient Greeks and wins victory over King and a middle kingdom that
to rule over the province Romans had done. Islamic Beornwulf of Mercia at becomes known as Burgundy.
of Ifriqiya. The emir, scientists made great the Battle of Ellandun,
Ibrahim ibn Aghlab, advances in fields such as Wiltshire. Wessex 848
thus founds the alchemy (proto-chemistry), becomes the dominant
Aghlabid dynasty. medicine, toxicology, power in England. Pagan established
metallurgy, mathematics, The Burmese Kingdom of Pagan is
and astronomy.
founded in the Irrawaddy Valley.
Cultural, religious, and mercantile ties

with India influence the architecture
of this part of Southeast Asia.

874
Vikings settle in Iceland

Having already visited the island 896
and even over-wintered there, the
Vikings build their first permanent Bulgarian
settlement on Iceland. Empire founded

The Bulgar Khan Symeon

defeats the Byzantine army

at Bulgarophygon in modern

886 Turkey, signaling the height
of the Bulgarian Empire.
Danelaw begins

The Treaty of Alfred and

Guthrum establishes Danish rule

in part of England; this area

becomes known as Danelaw.

c.890
Anglo–Saxon
Chronicle produced

The first Anglo–Saxon Chronicle

868 is written. This record of events,

c.850 Diamond from wars and politics to the
Sutra written
Astrolabe perfected weather, is written by chroniclers
Arab astronomers perfect the An illustrated
astrolabe, a complex instrument Buddhist text, the until the mid-12th century.
invented by the ancient Greeks Diamond Sutra, is
and used by astronomers, ARABIC ASTROLABE produced in China. c.889
astrologers, and navigators.
866 It is the world’s Building at Tikal ends
oldest complete The catastrophic decline of the
Vikings take York Classic Mayan city-states of the
Vikings take the city of York surviving southern lowlands continues after
printed book. the last monument is built at Tikal.
and establish a kingdom
in northern England.

858 867 871

Fujiwara regency begins Basil I gains power Alfred the Great
Yoshifusa, a member of the Basil I, the founder of the becomes king
Alfred the Great
wealthy Fujiwara clan, becomes Macedonian dynasty, of England, an educated
the regent of the child-emperor comes to power in the man who spent time in
Seiwa, his grandson. This marks Rome with the pope,
Byzantine Empire. accedes to the throne
the beginning of the Fujiwara of the Anglo–Saxon
clan’s domination of Japan. c.863 kingdom of Wessex.
In 878 he defeats the
c.850 Cyrillic script introduced Danes at the Battle
The Cyrillic script is invented by the of Edington and
Mayan decline Byzantine missionary later known as St. halts the Danish
The decline of the Mayan Cyril. Sent to convert the Slavs in Moravia advance in England.
civilization continues. by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III,
People abandon cities, Cyril devises a new “Glagolitic” script
starting with Palenque, at to translate the Bible into Slavic; this
the end of the 9th century. later becomes Cyrillic script.

“I desired to live worthily as long as jewel made of
I lived, and to leave after my life... the enamel, quartz,
memory of me in good works.”
and gold
Alfred the Great, from Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy
THE ALFRED
JEWEL

THE ABBEY OF CLUNY TRADE AND EMPIRE 415

William the Pious, Duke of LIAO DEATH MASK
Aquitaine, donated the land to
found the Benedictine Abbey of mask made
Cluny. It became one of Europe’s of silver
most important and powerful
monastic institutions. Cluny 947
governed more than 10,000
monks and its abbots were Khitan invade China
international statesmen of The nomadic Khitan people of
great influence. Pope Urban II, a Mongolia invade northern China
former Abbot of Cluny, declared and establish the Liao dynasty.
it “the light of the world.”
937
907 909 919
Reunification of Korea
Tang dynasty Fatimid dynasty begins Saxon dynasty begins The Silla kingdom is
collapses The Fatimids establish power in Henry the Fowler, Duke of Saxony, conquered by the Koryo
The Tang dynasty in China North Africa and create a capital is elected King Henry I of East kingdom, completing the
collapses following a in Mahdia, in modern Tunisia. Francia (modern Germany), the reunification of Korea.
period of military decline. first king of the Saxon dynasty.
A period of anarchy, known 910
as the Five Dynasties and Ten
Kingdoms, follows until the Monastic center founded
establishment of the Northern The Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy
Song Dynasty in 960. is founded. It becomes the center
of a monastic “empire” in Europe.

906–907 938
Magyars raid Europe
c.900 Independent
The Magyars destroy Vietnam declared
Toltecs found Tula The kingdom of Dai-co-
The Toltecs settle in the Moravia (modern eastern 911 930 viet in Vietnam gains
Valley of Mexico and Czech Republic) and begin independence after 1,000
found a capital at Tula. Vikings establish years of Chinese rule.
to raid Western Europe. Vikings parliament

establish duchy The Vikings of Althing in
Iceland establish one of
The Frankish King the earliest parliamentary
assemblies in the world.
Charles III grants a

large area of land, which

becomes Normandy, to

the Norse chieftain Rollo.

pottery figure 937
with headdress
Battle of Brunanburgh
TOLTEC FIGURE 929 The Anglo–Saxon King Athelstan’s
victory at the Battle of Brunanburgh
Abd al-Rahman III rules cements his control of Britain and
The waning authority of the his kingship of the now unified
Abbasids in Baghdad prompts Anglo–Saxon realm of England.
Abd al-Rahman III, ruler of Muslim
Spain, to declare himself the true 100,000
caliph. During the 10th century, his
capital, Cordoba, Spain, becomes The population of the city
the largest and most developed of Cordoba by the end of
city in Western Europe. the 10th century.

416 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 600–1450

stone vase covered 986 7,300
in black and
white decoration Vikings reach Greenland The weight of silver
The Viking explorer Eric the in pounds paid by
the English to the
Red leads a party of Icelandic Vikings following
colonists to the shores of the Battle of Maldon.
Greenland. They quickly
establish a thriving colony 991
that eventually numbers
around 5,000 people. Battle of Maldon
Following the Battle of
965 Maldon, English monarchs are
forced to pay Danegeld tax to
Conversion of the Vikings for the first time.
King of Denmark
The King of Denmark, Harald
Bluetooth, converts to Christianity,
and the religion spreads through
the Nordic region.

SONG VASE 960 981 987

Song dynasty founded Arab victories in Spain Capetian dynasty established
The Islamic forces of Cordoba defeat the In France, Hugh Capet founds the
The establishment of the Song dynasty in Christian kingdom of Leon in Spain under Capetian dynasty. It becomes one
of the most powerful European
China brings an end to the anarchy and warfare the leadership of Al-Mansur. He also royal families.
campaigns against Navarre and Catalonia,
of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms era. making their kings subordinate to the caliphate.

962 983 987

Coronation of Great Wend Rebellion Toltec–Mayan
Holy Roman Emperor The Great Wend Rebellion against the state established
The pope’s imperial coronation East Franks results in the Wends—forcibly Toltec forces conquer the
of Otto I as emperor revives the converted Slavic tribes—restoring their Yucatán Maya and make
Carolingian Roman Empire in pagan religion and resisting colonization Chichen Itza the capital
the West. He becomes the of a Toltec–Mayan state.
first Holy Roman Emperor. for nearly two centuries.

969 THE TOLTECS

Cairo founded The Toltecs, who ruled a state centered POTTERY
The Fatimids of Tunisia assume on Tula in modern Mexico, were notable TEMPLE
for their militarism, which changed society MODEL
control of North Africa, from in Central America and paved the way for
Tunisia to Egypt, and relocate militaristic states such as the Aztec. The
term “Toltec” came to mean “city-dweller”
to a new capital, Cairo. or “civilized person,” but its literal meaning
is “reed person”—signifying an inhabitant
955 of Tollan (“Place of the Reeds,” the city now
known as Tula). Toltec art and architecture,
Battle of Lechfeld characterized by monumental masonry
Emperor Otto I, known as Otto the Great, and giant statues, was influential
defeats the Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld. in the region.
The son of Henry I, Otto had vigorously asserted
royal authority since his coronation in 936,
gaining control of all the East Frankish duchies.

TRADE AND EMPIRE 417

THE ANCESTRAL PUEBLO PEOPLES 1028

The Ancestral Pueblo peoples used sophisticated dryland agriculture and King Canute
hydrology to thrive in a difficult environment. They controlled trade routes gains power
that extended as far as the Pacific coast of modern California and the Valley England, Denmark,
of Mexico. Noted for their impressive architecture, the Ancestral Pueblo and Norway are
constructed Great Houses such as Pueblo Bonito, one of 13 buildings in united under King
Chaco Canyon. Pueblo Bonito was six stories high and comprised more Canute, the son of
than 600 rooms. Well-maintained roads connected Chaco Canyon to Svein Forkbeard.
thousands of Ancestral Pueblo settlements across the region.
CANUTE COIN
c.1000 1014
Battle of Clontarf 1046
Chaco Canyon developed
The Ancestral Pueblo civilization, The Battle of Deposition of the Three Popes
centered on Chaco Canyon in Benedict IX sells the papacy by resigning in
southwest North America, Clontarf breaks Viking exchange for payment. For a time, three popes
reaches its climax. claim authority until Henry III, King of Germany,
c.1002 dominion in Ireland. oversees the Deposition of the Three Popes.
1001
Europeans reach America 1040
Muslims raid India
Muslims, led by Sultan The Norseman Leif Eriksson, son of Battle of Dandanqan
Muhammad of Ghazni The Seljuks defeat the Ghaznavids
(modern Afghanistan), Eric the Red, is thought to be the first
launch their first raids to establish the Seljuk Empire
European to set foot in North America. in modern Turkey.
into northern India.
1009

Ly dynasty established
The Ly dynasty is founded in the
Vietnamese kingdom of Dai-co-viet.

1013 1025

England conquered Cholas launch attacks
Svein Forkbeard of Denmark The Chola King Rajendra Choladevra launches
an audacious naval expedition against the
conquers England. maritime empire of Srivijaya in Sumatra, also
sacking the Pegu kingdom in Burma. His
1000 triumphs secure control of the lucrative
Indian–Chinese trade routes.
Chimú victory
The Chimú people small monkey
establish an empire on spout
in northern Peru.
1044
c.1000
Burmese power shift
Hungarians Anawrata seizes power
become Christians
Stephen becomes Grand in the Pagan kingdom in
Prince of the Hungarians Burma. He develops Burmese
and converts to Christianity.
as a written language,
c.1000 institutes a program of
construction, and forges
Italian city-states emerge trade and cultural links
The Italian trading city-states with India and China.
Genoa and Venice begin to
flourish. Venice, in particular, CHIMÚ STIRRUP
enjoys lucrative trade links SPOUT POT
with the Byzantine Empire.

418 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 600–1450

1055

Bagdhad captured
The Seljuk Turks capture Baghdad,

ending the Buyid dynasty and
restoring the Sunni branch of Islam.

1054 1071 UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA 1088

Almoravid dynasty founded Battle of Manzikert
In Morocco, the founding of the The Seljuks crush the Byzantine
Almoravid dynasty signals the start of the
Islamic conquest of West Africa, where a army at Manzikert; they
number of powerful states have arisen, capture and ransom Emperor
including Ghana.
Romanus IV and go on to
1054 conquer Anatolia (modern
Turkey). This victory marks the
Church schism decreed beginning of Muslim–Turkish
The excommunication of the
patriarch of Constantinople supremacy in the region.
marks the final schism between
the Catholic Church of Rome First university founded
and the Orthodox Christian
Church of Byzantium. University of Bologna is the first to

be founded in the Western world.

1075

Investiture Controversy begins
The Investiture Controversy between the
emperor and the pope concerns the
right to appoint bishops. In 1076,
Pope Gregory VII excommunicates
the German Emperor Henry IV.

1066 1076

Battle of Hastings Empire of Ghana collapses
At the battle of Hastings, William, Duke The Empire of Ghana, in West
of Normandy, defeats Harold Godwinson, Africa, falls to the Almoravids.

the last Anglo–Saxon king of England. 1071

WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR (1028–1087) Norman rampage
The Normans
complete their conical helmet
conquest of with nose guard
Byzantine
southern Italy.

When William, Duke of Normandy, defeated his 776 NORMAN
English rival, Harold, at the battle at Hastings, he HELMET REPLICA
became King William I. He introduced feudal A contemporary estimate
government to England and appointed many French of the number of ships
noblemen as his vassals. William built many castles in the Norman fleet during
and commissioned a famous survey, the Domesday the conquest of England.
Book, detailing the lands and wealth of his kingdom.

1100 1119 1125 CRUSADERS STORM ANTIOCH
King of
Jerusalem crowned Knights Templar formed Guelph–Ghibelline 1148
Baldwin I becomes the The Knights Templar, an order conflict begins
first king of Jerusalem. of Crusaders, is founded. The death of Henry V Siege of Damascus
triggers the start of what The unsuccessful Second
1095 1122 becomes known as the Crusade climaxes with the
Guelph–Ghibelline conflict. failed Siege of Damascus.
Council of Clermont Concordat of Worms Rival factions support
At the Council of A synod at the German town of either the pope or the After this the Frankish
Clermont, Pope Urban II Worms, presided by a papal legate, Holy Roman Emperor. Crusader kingdoms decline.
preaches to an assembly draws up a concordat (agreement)
of mainly Frankish clerics ending the Investiture Controversy.
and nobles about Muslim
“defilement” of the Holy
Land. The pope urges his
audience to take up arms
in a holy war, or crusade.

1098 1122 1127
Almohad movement established
Siege of Antioch 1111 The preacher Ibn Tumart founds the Southern Song dynasty established
Antioch falls to the Kaifeng, the Song capital, falls to the
Imperial Islamic revivalist Almohad movement, Jurchen from Manchuria. The Song
Crusaders after a moved its capital to Hangzhou, forming
year-long siege in 1098. coronation which conquers Morocco by 1147 the southern Song dynasty. The Jurchen
rule northern China as the Jin dynasty.
1099 The German King Henry and Muslim Spain by 1172.
1138
Crusaders take V launches a powerful
Jerusalem King of the
expedition to Italy to Romans declared
The capturing of Conrad III is elected the king
Jerusalem marks the force Pope Paschal II to of the Romans in Germany.
end of the First Crusade.
crown him Holy Roman 1144

Emperor. Under duress, c.1125 Fall of Edessa
the pope offers major The Crusader state of Edessa
falls to the Muslims. The loss of
concessions on the Angkor Wat built Edessa causes alarm and outrage
in Europe, and provides the
Investiture Controversy, The Khmer King Suryavarman II orders the trigger for the Second Crusade.

but he repudiates them construction of the great temple of 1147

the following year. Angkor Wat, in modern Cambodia. Almohad campaigns start
The Almohads seize the city of
“Undertake this journey for the
remission of your sins, with Marrakesh from the Almoravids and
the assurance of the imperishable take control of North Africa. They also
glory of the Kingdom of Heaven.” establish themselves in southern Spain.

From Robert the Monk’s account of Urban II’s speech at the Council of Clermont

420 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 600–1450

c.1150 1174

Cahokia settlement at its height Ayyubid dynasty founded
The Cahokia mound settlement in the Mississippi With the death of the Zengid emir
River Valley reaches its peak. It sees the construction Nur al-Din, his nephew Saladin,
of more than 100 mounds, including one with a who had already assumed control
base larger than that of the Great Pyramid at Giza. of Egypt, quickly marches north
to secure Syria. Saladin is duly
recognized as sultan of Egypt and
Syria by the caliph in Baghdad,
founding the Ayyubid dynasty.

1152 1175

Barbarossa crowned Ghurids invade India
Frederick I, known as Muhammad of Ghur, the leader of
Barbarossa, succeeds Conrad III the Persian Ghurids, launches the
as king of the Romans. Aware Islamic invasion of northern India.
of historical precedent,
Barbarossa aims to restore the 1180 KAMAKURA
imperial crown to Roman-era BUDDHA
glory, and begins to style his Gempei War
realm the Holy Roman Empire. The Gempei Wars begin in Japan 1192
as two clans battle for power.
1170 Shogun rule established
c.1190 In Japan, Minamoto Yoritomo becomes
English invade Ireland shogun. As an undisputed military dictator,
The Anglo–Normans under Angkor Empire ascendent his bakufu, or administration, at Kamakura
Robert “Strongbow” FitzStephen The Angkor Empire of Cambodia now supplants the imperial court. Japan is
reaches its greatest extent under ruled by shoguns for centuries to come.
are active in Ireland.
Emperor Jayavarman VII.

1170 1187 1192

Becket slain Battle of Hattin Battle of Taraori
Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, is murdered Crusader armies are destroyed The Ghurids defeat a Hindu
in Canterbury Cathedral, England, by four knights from by Sultan Saladin of Ayyubid rebellion at the Battle of
dynasty at the Battle of Taraori near Thanesar in India.
the court of Henry II. Becket is canonized in 1173 and Hattin. Following this victory, The following year, Muhammad of
becomes one of the most popular English saints. Saladin goes on to take the Ghur founds the Sultanate of Delhi.
Crusader strongholds of
Acre and Jerusalem. 1192

1189 Treaty of Ramla
Richard I and Saladin sign the Treaty
Third Crusade launched of Ramla. Jerusalem remains under
King Richard I of England, Muslim control, but the city is open
to Christian pilgrimages.
known as the Lionheart, leads
the Third Crusade. Although
he wins most of his battles,
he is unable to achieve his
aim of “liberating” Jerusalem.

enamel decoration “Will no one rid me of
on gilt-copper this turbulent priest?”
reliquary
Attributed to Henry II, referring to Thomas Becket
THOMAS BECKET
RELIQUARY

TRADE AND EMPIRE 421

c.1200 1212 GENGHIS KHAN (C.1162–1227)

Incas settle Battle of Las Originally named Temüjin by his family of minor
The Incas, under Navas de Tolosa chieftains, Genghis Khan spent much of his childhood
Manco Capac, settle in At the Battle of Las as a precarious semi-outlaw. He earned a military
the Andes near Cuzco. reputation in minor skirmishes against the Chinese,
Navas de Tolosa, a eventually securing a leading position among the Mongol
c.1200 huge Christian army tribes. In 1206 he was proclaimed Genghis Khan, or
defeats the Almohads. “universal ruler,” going on to command a feared army
Aztecs migrate This is a decisive point of more than 200,000 men. He is thought to have died
Migrating from the in the reconquest of following a riding accident, and was buried according
north, the Aztecs to custom in an unmarked grave in Mongolia.
enter the Valley Moorish Spain.
of Mexico.

1204 1215 1227 1244

Constantinople falls Magna Carta signed Death of Genghis Khan Jerusalem sacked
Crusaders sack Constantinople In England, the Magna Carta is Genghis Khan dies; he is Jerusalem, which has
during the Fourth Crusade. signed following civil war. It states about 65 years old. been under partial
that the king is not above the law. Christian control since
1209 1237 the Holy Roman
1215 Emperor Frederick II’s
The Albigensian Crusade begins Mongols treaty with the sultan
The pope declares a crusade against Mongols capture Beijing invade Russia of Egypt, is taken by
heretics in southern France—the The Mongol Emperor Genghis Under Batu Khan, the the Muslim forces of
Albigensians and Waldenses—whose Khan continues his campaigns Mongols invade Russia. King Ayyub with the
teachings challenge the worldliness through China, capturing Beijing. These armies conquer help of the Turks.
of the established church. the Russian principalities
and go on to blaze a trail
of destruction deep
into Central Europe.

c.1200 c.1209 1218 1235 1248

Easter Island Franciscan order established Mongols invade Mali Empire Conquest of
statues created The Franciscans form a new order of Persian Empire ascendent al-Andalus
The inhabitants of Easter friars. They are mainly recruited from Having conquered most of Sundiata, King of the
Island, or Rapa Nui, in the middle classes—living off charity Central Asia and northern Keita, a Mande people The Spanish King
the Pacific Ocean begin rather than farming—and are devoted China, Genghis Khan invades from sub-Saharan Mali, Ferdinand III
to carve monumental to preaching in towns and cities. the Persian Khwarazm Empire. defeats the Susu King
statues known as moai. Sumanguru at the completes the
Battle of Kirina. This conquest of al-Andalus
MOAI ON signals the rise of
EASTER ISLAND the Mali Empire. (apart from Granada)
with the successful
Siege of Seville.

pukao—huge stones
for hats—made from

red volcanic rock

422

inscribed with verses 7,000 1298
from the Quran
The estimated number Battle of Curzola begins
At the Battle of Curzola, the
of Venetians killed at Genoese fleet inflict a disastrous

the Battle of Curzola. defeat on the Venetians,
destroying all but a few of their
ships. A peace treaty between
the two powers is negotiated.

1250 MAMLUK LAMP 1271 1298

Mamluk Yuan dynasty established Battle of Falkirk breaks out
dynasty founded The Mongols led by Kublai Khan Scottish forces led by William
The Mamluk dynasty is found the Yuan dynasty in China. Wallace are defeated by the
founded in Egypt. Originally English at the Battle of Falkirk.
slave soldiers captured from Turkic 1274
and Circassian tribes, they become 1287
strong enough to take power from Mongols
the Ayyubid sultan. face failure Pagan Empire falls
Kublai Khan’s first The Mongols destroy the
1260 1266 attempt to invade Pagan Empire in Burma.
Japan fails. He
Mamluks conquer Mongols Mongol makes a second 1291
The Mamluks, under Baybars, capital created unsuccessful
defeat the Mongols at The Mongol leader attempt in 1281. The fall of Acre
Ain Jalut, Palestine. Kublai Khan founds The Crusader port of Acre
a new Mongol falls to the Mamluk Turks.
capital at Khanbaliq
(modern Beijing). After nearly 200 years,
Christian presence in the
Holy Land is extinguished.

1258 1261 1279 c.1280

Mongols Byzantine sees victory Pandya kingdom triumphant Maori settlers arrive
sack Baghdad The Byzantines retake the city of In southern India, Kulasekhara of in New Zealand
Having crushed the Constantinople from the Crusaders. Pandya defeats the last Chola king, The Maori settle in New Zealand, the
Order of the Assassins expanding the kingdom of the last major land mass to be colonized by
two years earlier, the 1270 Pandyas to its greatest extent. humans, with the exception of Antarctica.
Mongols sack the city
of Baghdad and execute Solomonid 1271
the Abbasid caliph—the dynasty established
figurehead of Islam. The Solomonid dynasty Marco Polo sets sail
The Italian explorer Marco Polo leaves Venice for
is founded in Ethiopia. China. In 1275, he visits the court of Kublai Khan. MARCO POLO’S
DEPARTURE FROM VENICE

“I did not write half
of what I saw for
I knew I would
not be believed.”

Explorer Marco Polo, on his deathbed

TRADE AND EMPIRE 423

THE BLACK DEATH

The effects of the Black Death are best recorded in Europe,
where it had profound consequences. The disease depopulated
the land, depressed the economy, checked intellectual and
artistic progress, changed the social order, and contributed to
the end of feudalism. It also triggered a wave of anti-Semitic
pogroms (violent raids) on Jews, who were blamed for the
pestilence, forcing many to migrate to Eastern Europe.

ASHIKAGA GOLDEN PAVILION, JAPAN 1336 1337 30 percent

c.1300 Ashikaga shogunate seizes power Hundred Years The proportion of the total
War begins population of Europe
The Hundred Years killed by waves of the
War between the Black Death.
nations of England
and France begins.

Ottoman Following the civil war in Japan, the

state founded Ashikaga shogunate takes power. It

The Ottoman Turkish rules Japan for the next 240 years. 1347

leader Osman I founds 1340 Deadly
disease spreads
the Ottoman state, based Battle of Rio Salado The Black Death
A Christian army defeats reaches Europe after
in northwestern Anatolia the Marinids at the Battle of ravaging western Asia.
Rio Salado, ending the threat
(modern Turkey). During 1316 of Islamic incursion into the
the first phase of the Iberian peninsula from Africa.

Ottoman expansion, Famine strikes Europe

they rapidly conquer Famine in Western Europe follows

Byzantine territory. crop failure of the previous year.

1314 c.1325 1336 1346

Knights Templar Tenochtitlán built Vijayanagar Empire founded Battle of Crécy
suppressed The Aztecs found a capital A Hindu rebellion establishes the The English, under King
The Grand Master of the at Tenochtitlán, Mexico. Vijayanagar Empire in southern Edward III, inflict a crushing
Knights Templar is burned India—the last great Hindu empire defeat on the French at the
at the stake, as the order 1324 in India. Battle of Crécy. They go on to
is suppressed. besiege Calais, which falls in
Pilgrimage of 1347 after a protracted siege.
1314 Gold begins
Mansa Musa, emperor
Battle of Bannockburn of Mali, performs the
At the Battle of Bannockburn, Pilgrimage of Gold to Egypt
Robert the Bruce, king of and Mecca. He dispenses so
Scotland, finally expels the much gold on his passage
English from Scotland. through Cairo that he
destabilizes the economy.
1309
1333
Papacy moves to France
Facing tumultuous conditions in Hojo regency falls
Italy, Pope Clement V relocates In Japan, Emperor Go-Daigo
the papacy to Avignon in
southern France. defeats the Hojo regency
in Kamakura.

THE BURGHERS OF CALAIS BY AUGUSTE RODIN, LONDON

424 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 600–1450

276 years porcelain painted 1389
with underglaze
decoration Battle of Kosovo begins
At the Battle of Kosovo, the
1354 the duration of the Ottomans defeat the Serbs
Ming dynasty. and Bosnians, smashing the
Ottomans Serbian Empire and absorbing
sieze Gallipoli most of its territories. After the
John Kantakouzenos—claimant battle, the Ottomans control
to the Byzantine throne—asks most of Anatolia (modern
the Ottomans to help him gain Turkey) and the Balkans
power. However, the Ottomans south of the Danube.
soon seize Gallipoli, securing
a foothold in Europe.

1362 1368 MING VASE 1392

Tamerlane becomes leader Ming dynasty Yi dynasty established
Tamerlane—also known as Timur Leng—rises established In Korea, King Taejo founds
Zhu Yuanzhang expels the Yi ( Joseon) dynasty.
from modest beginnings to become the the Yuan dynasty and founds the Ming Taejo restructures his
leader of the Turkic–Mongol Chagatai tribe dynasty. He sets up a strong, centralized government on the Chinese
government in which the position of model, and institutes
in Transoxiana, Central Asia. Tamerlane is the emperor is strengthened. wide-ranging land reforms.
destined to become one of the greatest
conquerors in history.

c.1360 1378 1398

Vijayanagar Empire Western Schism starts Delhi destroyed
reaches its peak The Western or Great Schism sees Tamerlane invades India
rival popes installed in Rome as
The Vijayanagar Empire well as Avignon until 1417. and destroys Delhi.
of southern India reaches

its greatest extent.

1354 1360 1381 1396

The Alhambra extended Treaty of Calais signed War of Chioggia Battle of Nicopolis
Mohammed V murders his King Edward III of England breaks out At the Battle of Nicopolis, the
father and becomes King of campaigns in France and agrees Ottomans repel a Crusader army.
Granada. Under Mohammed, to terms at the Treaty of Calais. The Venetians’ victory
the Alhambra—the fortress- This marks the end of the first at the War of Chioggia THE ALHAMBRA, GRANADA, SPAIN
palace of Granada—is further phase of the Hundred Years War.
developed, becoming a treasure ends the Genoese
of Islamic architecture. maritime supremacy.

TRADE AND EMPIRE 425

MAP OF THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR
TENOCHTITLÁN
The series of conflicts from 1337 to 1453, later
1415 known as the Hundred Years War, was triggered by
a combination of factors: tensions over the status of
Battle of the duchy of Guienne, which belonged to the kings
Agincourt begins of England but owed sovereignty to the French crown;
At the Battle of Agincourt, English claims to France, based on descent from the
Henry V of England inflicts Capetians; and the need of English kings to use foreign
a terrible defeat on a adventures to shore up support at home. There should
far larger French force, have been little contest between France, the most
taking the Duke of Orléans powerful nation in Europe, and smaller, poorer England,
prisoner, and going on but the English used new tactics and weapons, especially
to conquer Normandy. the longbow, to devastating effect. The war drained
resources on both sides, but also forged a new degree
of national identity for both countries.

c.1400 1415 1428 1438 1445

Tenochtitlán at its peak Ceuta captured Le dynasty established Inca expansion Portuguese discovers
Founded by the Aztecs in 1325, The Portuguese capture The Le dynasty in Vietnam begins trade route
the city of Tenochtitlán in the Ceuta—the first permanent wins its independence The Portuguese explorer
valley of Mexico reaches its from China. The expansion of the Dinis Dias sights the mouth
peak at the beginning of the European possession Inca Empire begins of the Senegal River. This
15th century. A huge population in North Africa. under Sapa Inca offers a trade route deep
of up to 200,000 is supported Pachacuti. The into the African interior,
by intensive agriculture and and rounds Cape Verde, the
extensive networks of trade empire triples in size westernmost point of Africa.
and tribute. by the 16th century.

1402 1429 1449

Battle of Ankara Joan of Arc relieves Council of Basel
Tamerlane defeats the Ottomans the Siege of Orléans dissolved
and temporarily shatters their power Joan of Arc, a 16-year-old
in Anatolia (modern Turkey). farmer’s daughter, relieves The dissolution of the
the Siege of Orléans as the Council of Basel signals the
c.1400 1410 head of the French army. triumph of the papacy over
Joan goes on to defeat the
Songhay Battle of English armies twice more the Conciliar Movement.
kingdom expands Grunwald starts This movement claimed
The African Songhay kingdom, before being captured. that the Church Council,
centered on the trading Polish–Lithuanian rather than the pope, held
metropolis of Gao, in West forces defeat the STATUE OF JOAN OF power in spiritual matters.
Africa, begins to expand. The Teutonic knights at the ARC, PARIS, FRANCE
kingdom eclipses the other Battle of Grunwald, 1434
two large empires of the late one of the greatest covered in
Iron Age in West Africa— cavalry confrontations gold leaf Rise of the Medici
Ghana and Mali. The rise of Cosimo de Medici marks
of the age. the start of the Medici domination
of Florence. Cosimo combines
“I was 13 when I had a business acumen with political
voice from God for my shrewdness, winning popular
help and guidance.” support for his policies.

Joan of Arc, during her second public examination, c.1430
February 22, 1431
Rise of the Mutapa Empire
As the Great Zimbabwe civilization declines,
the Mutapa Empire, in modern Zimbabwe
and Mozambique, is established. The
Mutapa Empire remains the dominant
regional power for more than a century.

426 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 1450–1750

ENLIGHTENMENT hammered gold
AND IMPERIALISM
INCA LLAMA FIGURINE
Europe underwent a cultural revolution—the Renaissance—in the 15th
and 16th centuries, when the knowledge of the continent’s ancient scholars c.1470
was rediscovered, fostering a spirit of scientific enquiry and inspiring
technological advances and voyages of exploration. By the late 1500s, Inca expansion begins
however, Catholicism in Western Europe was torn apart by the Reformation, The Inca army conquers the Chimú
and many of the fledgling colonies of European powers were soon settled people of the Peruvian kingdom in
by Protestants fleeing religious persecution. But European expansion was Chimor. The period of greatest Inca
not straightforward—Ming and Qing China, Mughal India, and Edo Japan, imperial expansion begins.
and the Safavid Persians and Ottomans resisted Europe’s incursions.

1455 1467 1469

Gutenberg Bible printed Onin War begins Lorenzo de Medici
German printer Johannes Beginning as a succession rules Florence
dispute between Hosokawa
Gutenberg prints the first major The Italian statesman
book—the Gutenberg Bible—with Katsumoto and Yamana Lorenzo de Medici
Sozen, the Onin War leaves takes control of
a movable-type printing press. Japan devastated and leads to
Thousands of copies of books a century of turbulence—the Florence, Italy, fostering
can be made relatively easily Warring States Period—in which a a period rich in cultural
series of regional magnates and intellectual output.
using his printing method. attempt to eradicate their rivals.

1455 1469 1472

Wars of the Roses begin Portuguese begin trading Ivan III marries
In England, armies belonging to the rival on Gold Coast King Ivan III of Russia,
Plantagenet houses of York and Lancaster The Lisbon merchant Fernão Gomes
clash at the Battle of St. Albans, the opening is granted a monopoly on lucrative later known as Ivan
conflict of the Wars of the Roses. commerce with the West African coast— the Great, takes as his
Portuguese sailors had been trading on second wife Zoë (later
1468 this coast since the 1440s—provided he Sophia) Palaeologus,
continued to explore the Gulf of Guinea.
Songhay take Timbuktu the niece of the last
The Songhay recapture Timbuktu The Inquisition was a medieval Byzantine emperor.
Catholic institution designed to
from the Tuaregs and become root out heresy, but it became 1471
the leading power in West Africa. infamous in Spain and its
territories. Isabella I of Castille Khmer civilization ends
THE SPANISH INQUISITION and Ferdinand II of Aragon The final decline of the
petitioned Pope Sixtus IV in Khmer civilization in
1453 1478 to allow the establishment Southeast Asia begins.
of these tribunals to expose
Constantinople captured heretics among converted Jews 1471
Constantinople is captured by and, after the fall of Granada in
Muslim Ottomans; the Christian 1492, Muslims as well. It was Champa destroyed
Eastern Orthodox Byzantine finally disbanded in 1834. The Hindu state of Champa,
Empire falls. in modern South Vietnam, is
effectively destroyed by Viet
troops who lay waste the
Champa capital, Vijaya.

“I should be judged 1492 427
as a captain who went
from Spain to the Indies Columbus crosses Atlantic hull length
to conquer a people With the backing of the Spanish 62 ft (19 m)
numerous and warlike.” crown, the Genoese voyager
Christopher Columbus makes 1497
Christopher Columbus, in a letter to Doña Juana de the first Atlantic crossing,
Torres, October 1500 landing in the Bahamas, Newfoundland “discovered”
in the Caribbean. With the backing of the English crown,
the Italian navigator John Cabot reaches
MODEL OF COLUMBUS’S Newfoundland. He returns to England
SHIP, THE SANTA MARIA certain that he has reached China.

1479 1491 1494

Spain united Kongo ruler converts Treaty of Tordesillas
The Spanish succession crisis The ruler of Kongo, Nzinga a Pope Alexander VI draws
that began in 1474, and was Nkuwu, and his son, Mvemba up the Treaty of Tordesillas,
triggered by the marriage a Nzinga, convert to Christianity which effectively divides
of Queen Isabella I and up existing and future New
King Ferdinand II in 1469, after meeting Portuguese World discoveries between
comes to an end and the missionaries, and become João I
two crowns rule over what Spain and Portugal.
becomes modern Spain. and Afonso I, respectively.

1480 1485 1494 1499

Ivan the Great Battle of Bosworth Field Italian Wars begin Vespucci lands
defies Mongols At the Battle of Bosworth The Italian Wars, nominally in South America
Ivan the Great of Russia The Florentine navigator
stops paying tribute money Field, in central England, Henry sparked by the desire of Amerigo Vespucci lands on
to the Tatar Mongols. He Tudor defeats the English King Charles VIII of France the northern coast of South
declares independence America at the mouth of
for his Muscovy state. Richard III. He becomes to assert a claim to the
King Henry VII and kingdom of Naples, see an the Amazon River.
establishes the intermittent 65-year struggle
Tudor dynasty. between France and Spain 1498

1477 SEAL OF HENRY TUDOR for the control of Italy. Vasco da Gama
reaches India
Battle of Nancy 1497 After a year’s voyage, the
Portuguese explorer Vasco
At the Battle of Nancy, the Burgundian forces, Bonfire of the Vanities da Gama arrives in Calicut,
Florence comes under southwest India, having
led by Charles the Bold, are comprehensively discovered a sea route from
the religious dictatorship of the Europe around the Cape
routed by the Swiss. King Louis XI of France Dominican monk, Girolamo of Good Hope. The longest
Savonarola. He imposes a ocean crossing yet made,
seizes the Burgundians’ French territories; those it initiates the route used
puritanical campaign on the city throughout the “Age of Sail.”
in the Low Countries pass to the Habsburgs. in which he denounces tyrants
1499
and corruption, and institutes the
Bonfire of the Vanities: the mass France seizes Milan
destruction of idolatrous goods, French troops under King Louis XII
including books and artworks.
invade Lombardy, Italy, and seize
1492 Milan. Louis allies with Ferdinand

Fall of Granada of Aragon, and they agree to
Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella divide Naples between them.
preside over the fall of the Kingdom of Granada,
marking the end of a decades-long campaign
to reclaim the last Islamic territory in Iberia.

428 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 1450–1750

THE REFORMATION

The Reformation—the religious challenge to the
Catholic Church instigated by German Martin
Luther—tore the Western Church apart. Soon
politics became linked to the religious ideas
that spread across Europe. The consequence
was a legacy of violent religious division
between Catholics and Protestants that led to a
permanent schism in European Christendom.

c.1500
Sikhism founded MARTIN LUTHER POSTS HIS 95 THESES
1517
Sikhism is founded by Guru Nanak 1513 Martin Luther publishes 95 Theses
in the Punjab region of India.

Florida settled The priest and professor of theology Martin Luther nails

The Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de his 95 Theses to the door of All Saints’ Church in Wittenberg,

León, explores the coastline of Florida Saxony, in modern Germany, as part of what is a growing

and claims the North American protest movement against religious practices and corruption

territory for Spain. in the Catholic Church.

1502 1519 1521

Slave trade between Africa and Americas begins Magellan seeks Edict of Worms issued
Juan de Córdoba sends his African slaves from Spain to western passage Having already been
Hispaniola in the Caribbean to work in Spanish settlements. The Portuguese nobleman
By 1518 European slave traders were sending Africans Ferdinand Magellan leaves excommunicated by the pope
directly to the Americas, after King Charles V of Spain Spain seeking the western at the Edict of Worms, Martin
granted the first licenses for the trade. passage to the Spice Islands.
Luther is declared a heretic
and his works are banned.

1504 1511 1519 1524

Michelangelo Portuguese Spanish conquer Aztecs German Peasants
sculpts David take Malacca The Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés War begins
In Florence, Italy, The Portuguese take marches on Tenochtitlán, capital of
the sculptor and painter control of the trading In Germany and Austria, large
Michelangelo Buonarroti post at Malacca the Mesoamerican Aztec Empire. numbers of people gather in hastily
completes the monumental (Melaka) on the Within two years, the Spanish assembled armies in an attempt to
sculpture David. In 1508 Malay Peninsula. subjugate the entire nation. end what they see as abuses against
he begins work on painting
a fresco on the Vatican’s 1514 them—chiefly taxes and labor
Sistine Chapel ceiling. services—by the Church and the
Battle of Chaldiran breaks out nobility. The uprising is savagely
1506 The Ottomans, under Sultan Salim I, defeat the Safavid repressed, with thousands killed.
Persians at the Battle of Chaldiran. Salim dramatically
Mona Lisa completed increases Ottoman territories and Muslim holy places
The Italian polymath in the Near East.
Leonardo da Vinci
THE RENAISSANCE
completes his painting,
the Mona Lisa. The Renaissance—literally “rebirth”—
grew out of the Italian Middle Ages
1500 and marked a reevaluation of
European thought. At its heart was a
Portuguese claim Brazil reinterpretation of Europe’s Classical
The Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares past. It gave rise, first in Florence
Cabral, bound for India, sights Brazil. (left), to an artistic and architectural
The Portuguese crown is quick revolution, and later, to a scientific one.
to claim it once it is clear that this The early impact of the Renaissance
territory lies inside Portugal’s zone as was fitful but spread to most of
outlined by the Treaty of Tordesillas. Europe in the following 200 years.

ENLIGHTENMENT AND IMPERIALISM 429

quillon ends in curved 1545
a petalled dome steel blade
Council of Trent founded
1526 MUGHAL SWORD At Trent in the Italian Alps, the Catholic
Church sets out to challenge the
Mughal Empire founded 1536 Protestant Reformation by reforming
The Mughal Empire is founded in northern and remodeling itself. The Council of
India. It is the creation of Babur, a descendant Dissolution of the monasteries Trent aims to eradicate corruption, make
of the Mongol leader Genghis Khan. King Henry VIII’s secretary, Thomas the Church’s teachings more coherent,
Cromwell, begins the dissolution of and to project itself as a dynamic and
1529 the monasteries in England. More competitive religious force.
than 800 monasteries in England are
Ottomans besiege Vienna suppressed and their lands transferred 1545
Following their conquest of Hungary, the Ottomans, to the Crown. This is the greatest
fearing that the Habsburgs will try to recapture the transfer of land in England since the Silver deposits discovered
lost territories, lay siege to Vienna. The task proves Norman conquest of 1066. In this At Potosí, in modern Bolivia, Spanish
too ambitious even for the formidable Ottoman process, many religious buildings colonists discover the biggest single
army that fails to take the city. are destroyed or vandalized. concentration of silver ever found—
almost an entire mountain of silver.
1534 1534 1536 Together with the silver found in
northern Mexico, this discovery
St. Lawrence Jesuit order established England and Wales united funds the further expansion of
River discovered The Jesuits, a Catholic order, is England and Wales are formally the Spanish Empire, as well as
The French explorer established by the Basque nobleman united under one legal and replenishing the coffers to fight
Jacques Cartier leads an Ignatius of Loyola. His goal is to administrative system through conflicts back in Europe.
expedition to the Americas to produce a new generation of highly an Act of Union.
find a northwest passage educated priests to spread a new 1547
to Asia. Instead, he encounters militantly Catholic faith. Given papal
the St. Lawrence River, which sanction in 1540, the Jesuits Battle of Mühlberg
links the Atlantic Ocean to the spearhead the Catholic revival. The Habsburgs, under Holy
North American Great Lakes. Roman Emperor Charles V,

defeat the protestant
Schmalkaldic League at
the Battle of Mühlberg.

1529 1534 1543

Peace of Church of England founded Ethiopian Christian Empire triumphs
Cambrai signed Having been denied a divorce Islamic jihadi fighters are finally driven out of
A temporary truce is created by the pope, King Henry VIII of Ethiopia, leaving the empire Christian Orthodox.
between France and Holy England breaks with Rome. He
Roman Emperor Charles V, forms the Church of England “The King, our
with the Peace of Cambrai. under the Act of Supremacy. sovereign... shall be
France relinquishes its rights taken, accepted, and
in Italy, Flanders, and Artois. PRINCE EDWARD, KING HENRY VIII, reputed as the only
Charles V renounces his AND QUEEN JANE SEYMOUR supreme head on
claims to Burgundy. earth of the Church
of England.”
1533
The Act of Supremacy, 1534, which made
Spanish conquer Peru King Henry VIII head of the English church
The Spanish conquistador
Francisco Pizarro launches
the conquest of Inca Peru.
Pizarro encounters, captures,
and kills the Inca Emperor
Atahuallpa, and conquers

the Inca capital, Cuzco.

430 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 1450–1750

“I know I have the 1558 QUEEN ELIZABETH I’S 1572
body of a weak and “ARMADA” PORTRAIT
feeble woman; but I St. Bartholomew’s
have the heart and Elizabeth becomes queen Day Massacre
stomach of a king.”
Following the death of Queen On St. Bartholemew’s
Elizabeth I, speaking to her troops at Tilbury, 1588 Day, thousands of French
Mary I, Elizabeth I, the daughter of
1557 Protestants, known
King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, as Huguenots, are
Süleymaniye mosque opens slaughtered. This event
The Süleymaniye mosque is completed, becomes Queen of England. is triggered by an
making it the largest mosque in Istanbul. assassination attempt on
a Huguenot guest after
1555 the wedding of Catherine
de Medici’s daughter,
Peace of Augsburg Marguerite of Valois, to
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V concedes the Peace the Bourbon Huguenot,
of Augsburg, giving German princes the freedom to Henry of Navarre.
select either Lutheran Protestantism or Catholicism
1565 1565
and impose that religion on their territories.
Manila Galleon Trade Reign of Terror begins
Spanish navigator Andés de Tsar Ivan IV begins his Reign of Terror.
Urdaneta discovers a west- He dispossesses and slaughters the
to-east route across the Pacific. boyars—the Russian aristocracy. Their
His voyage helps the Spanish former estates become Ivan’s “private
to colonize the Philippines and domain,” the oprichnina—a vast area
provides them with markets for of central Russia parceled out among
products from Peru and Mexico. a new nobility loyal to the Tsar.

1550 1558 1565 1571
Vasari’s Lives published
England loses Calais Spain claims Philippines Battle of Lepanto
The Italian painter and historian Giorgio Vasari Queen Mary I of England is The Spanish colonization The Battle of Lepanto,
persuaded by her husband, of the Philippines begins fought off the coast of
publishes his Lives of the Most Eminent Italian King Philip II of Spain, to join with settlement on Cebu. western Greece, is the
him in a renewed war with last major engagement
Painters, Sculptors, and Architects. 1556 France. This proves disastrous, between galleys—with
leading to the loss of Calais, the Christians and
Akbar becomes Mughal emperor England’s last foothold in Ottomans having fleets
continental Europe. of about 200 ships
The accession of the 14-year-old Akbar to the each. The Christian
fleet triumphs, ending
Mughal throne marks a decisive moment in the threat of Ottoman
expansion in the
the dynasty’s fortunes. Mughal India enjoys western Mediterranean.

expansion of territory, prosperity, religious ST. BASIL’S CATHEDRAL,
MOSCOW, BUILT BY
tolerance, and cultural richness. IVAN IV

IVAN THE TERRIBLE (1530–1584) 1558 one of nine
onion-shaped
Tsar Ivan IV applied a ruthless Ivan the Terrible domes
brutality to his rule over the begins conquest
Russians. Although he was Tsar Ivan IV, also known
capable of bouts of remorse— as Ivan the Terrible,
he regretted killing his son and continues his policy
heir—Ivan’s rule led to vast of Russian expansion
numbers of Russians fleeing the by trying to gain
country during his reign from access to the Baltic
1547 to 1584. This depopulated Sea, triggering a
the country to the point that 24-year struggle
serfdom (bonded peasantry) against Livonia
was the only means of retaining (modern
an agricultural workforce. Estonia
and Latvia)
known as the
Livonian War.

ENLIGHTENMENT AND IMPERIALISM 431

130

The number of galleons
and armed merchant
vessels in Spanish King
Philip II’s Armada.

1598

Treaty of Vervins
After three years of war with Spain, King

Henry IV of France signs the Treaty of
Vervins with Spain and, along with the
Edict of Nantes in the same year, ends

the Wars of Religion.

THE SPANISH ARMADA 1588 1592

1579 English defeat Spanish Armada Seven Years War begins
The victim of English seamanship, lengthening The Seven Years War, or Imjin
Union of Arras lines of supply, and the weather, the gale-wracked Waeran, begins when Japanese forces
The Catholic provinces of the Low mount a sustained invasion of Korea.
Countries assert loyalty to King Philip II Spanish Armada is forced home in disarray.
Spanish hopes of conquering and converting
of Spain with the Union of Arras. the Protestant country are decisively checked.

1579 1582 1590 1593

Union of Utrecht Japan begins Ottoman–Safavid Long War begins
The Protestant provinces reunification peace treaty The Long War on the
of the Low Countries form The Japanese feudal lord Ottoman frontiers are Ottoman–Habsburg
a defensive alliance with Toyotomi Hideyoshi seizes extended to the Caucasus frontier begins. The net
power in Japan after the and the Caspian following result of the eventual
the Union of Utrecht. death of Oda Nobunaga. the Ottoman–Safavid peace settlement—the
Within a decade, he has peace treaty. Treaty of Zsitvatorok,
1576 succeeded in reunifying of 1606—leaves the
almost the whole of Japan frontier in a state of
Pacification of Ghent under his rule. simmering uncertainty.
Having been unable to suppress the Dutch
Revolt in 1568, the authority of Spain’s King 1587 chiseled knop
Philip II disintegrates. The Low Countries (modern
Netherlands) unite to call for the withdrawal of Sir Francis Drake
Spanish troops and an end to religious persecution. raids Cadiz
Despatched by Queen Elizabeth I
1582 of England, the British privateer
Sir Francis Drake raids Cadiz,
Gregorian Calendar introduced in southern Spain, destroying
Pope Gregory XIII decrees a revision to the Julian about 30 Spanish vessels. The
Calendar, which overestimates the length of every raid delays the Spanish Armada
by more than a year.
year by 11 minutes. Gregory removes 10 days
from the calendar to ensure that the spring
equinox, from which the date of Easter was
calculated, falls on the correct date.

1576 iron shaft reeded
with raised ribs
Mughals capture Bengal
The Mughal forces of Emperor
Akbar capture Bengal, the richest
province in northern India.

MUGHAL MACE

432 intricately carved 1622
wooden surface
MAORI TIKI Virginia colony massacre
CARVING 1618 Powhatan American Indians
in the English colony of Virginia
c.1600 Thirty Years War begins kill 347 settlers—men, women,
The Holy Roman Emperor and children—approximately
Classic Maori phase 25 per cent of the total number
The Polynesian people of New Zealand, the Ferdinand II’s quest to erase of colonists.
Maori, have become established in their new Protestantism from all
lands since first arriving in the 13th century. 1623
Known as the Classic Maori phase, their his dominions becomes
culture is distinguished by elaborate a Europe-wide fight for Persians
wood carving, precisely patterned bone supremacy involving, at recapture Baghdad
tools and weapons, and substantial different points, every The Persians, under
earthwork settlements. major European power. Shah Abbas, retake
Baghdad after nearly
1602 1611 90 years of Ottoman rule,
and extend the Safavid
Dutch East India King James Bible published Empire deep into Anatolia,
Company founded The new King James Bible is the work in modern Turkey.
Like its English rival, the of 47 scholars under the direction of
Dutch East India Company the English Archbishop of Canterbury,
is founded and granted a Richard Bancroft. The text gains
trade monopoly. Over the support gradually until it becomes the
following two centuries, it definitive English-language Bible used by
becomes one of the most all English-speaking Protestant churches.
successful commercial
ventures in the world.

1600 1605 1624

English East India Plot to blow up the Parliament Cardinal Richelieu
Company established Guy Fawkes is one of the English Catholic comes to power
The establishment of the English East conspirators who attempt to blow up the Houses
India Company, with royal approval, is of Parliament. The plotters may have been Cardinal Richelieu becomes
a clear statement to Spain and Portugal encouraged by Robert Cecil, the chief minister the chief minister to the
that they cannot expect exclusive to James I, in order to stoke anti-Catholic opinion. King of France, Louis XIII.
domination of trade with East Asia. Richelieu’s goals are “to
1616
1603 destroy the military power
Shakespeare dies of the Habsburgs, to
Japan’s capital shifts to Edo The English playwright
Japan’s Tokugawa Ieyasu unifies the humble the great nobles
country under a successful shogunate, William Shakespeare [of France], and to raise
and moves the island’s capital from Kyoto dies, at the age of 52. the prestige of the House
to Edo (modern Tokyo); this period of Widely regarded as the of Bourbon in Europe.”
stability lasts for more than 200 years. greatest writer in the
English language, he 1620
1600 produced at least 37
plays and 154 sonnets. Arrival of the Mayflower
Battle of Sekigahara The English ship, the Mayflower,
At the Battle of Sekigahara, the Japanese TITLE PAGE OF carrying the Puritan pilgrims—
statesman Tokugawa Ieyasu defeats SHAKESPEARE’S Protestant exiles looking for
his enemies and affirms his position FIRST FOLIO religious freedom in the New
as Japan’s most powerful warlord. World—arrives in Plymouth,
North America. A year later,
the pilgrims celebrate the
first Thanksgiving with
American Indians.

ENLIGHTENMENT AND IMPERIALISM 433

GALILEO GALILEI (1564–1642) 1638 1644

Born in Pisa, Italy, Galileo Galilei was Ottomans Qing dynasty established
an Italian scientist whose work in take Baghdad In China, the Manchus, allying with a remnant Ming
astronomy, physics, and engineering, The intermittent force, crush forces assembled by rebel leader Li Zicheng
and the development of complex conflict between the at the Battle of Shanghai Pass. The first Manchu Qing
instruments, brought a revolutionary Ottoman Empire and Emperor of China, the six-year-old Shunzhi, is installed
approach to understanding the world. the Safavid Persian in Beijing. The Qing rule until 1911.
The Church regarded his revelations as Empire, which had
heresy but, reluctant to condemn the begun in 1623, climaxes 1645
scientific pioneer outright, did its best with Baghdad falling to
to accommodate him. Heretic or not, the Ottomans, led by Battle of Naseby
Galileo died with his reputation assured. Sultan Murad IV. At the Battle of Naseby, the main army of
English King Charles I is annihilated by the
1626 1633 1642 Parliament’s newly formed New Model Army. single
The Parliament’s victory sliding
Dutch buy Galileo put under house arrest English Civil in the English Civil War nasal
Manhattan Island The Italian scientist Galileo Galilei is called before War begins is virtually guaranteed. bar
Peter Minuit, director- the Roman Inquisition of the Catholic Church. His King Charles I of
general of the Dutch West crime is to support the theory that the Sun, not England’s declaration neck guard
India Company’s New the Earth, is at the centre of the solar system. He of war on Parliament resembles the
Netherlands settlement, is found guilty of heresy, and is forced to recant starts the English Civil tail of a lobster
buys Manhattan Island and spend the rest of his life under house arrest. War between the
from its American Indian royalist Cavaliers
inhabitants. It had been 1635 and the puritan
the site of Fort Amsterdam Roundheads.
since 1625. French declare war on Habsburgs
French intervention in the Thirty Years War
prevents a pro-Habsburg settlement, provoking
the final and most brutal phase of the war.

ENGLISH CIVIL WAR TROOPER’S HELMET

1631 1632 1642 1648

Battle of Breitenfeld Gonder becomes Abel Tasman discovers remote lands Treaty of
At the Battle of a cultural center The Dutch explorer Abel Tasman is the first Westphalia signed
Ethiopian Emperor After four years of negotiations,
Breitenfeld, Sweden’s Fasilides moves the European to explore Tasmania and New Zealand. the Thirty Years War in Germany
Lutherian king, Gustavus capital to Gonder and and the Spanish–Dutch Eighty
the city becomes a 1645 Years War is brought to a close
Adolphus, consolidates cultural hub, especially with a series of agreements,
the position of the in the copying of Seat of Dalai Lama begins to be built collectively known as the
manuscripts and The 5th Dalai Lama—leader of Tibetan Buddhism—Lozang
Swedes in Germany panel painting. Treaty of Westphalia.
and restores Protestant Gyatso, begins the construction of the modern Potala
Palace, in Lhasa, Tibet. The construction ends in 1694, 1649
fortunes after a
decade of defeats. and it remains the seat of the Dalai Lama until 1959. Charles I executed
King Charles I of England is
POTALA PALACE, LHASA, TIBET beheaded. He is the only king
of England to have been legally
executed. The High Court of Justice
convicts Charles as “tyrant, traitor,
and murderer” by a vote of 68 to
67. Throughout his trial, Charles
consistently rejects the idea that
any court could legally try a king,
because he rules by divine right.

434

6 The number of verified
deaths caused by the
Great Fire of London.

1652 1666 THE GREAT FIRE OF LONDON

First Anglo–Dutch War begins Great Fire of London breaks out
The first of three wars between England and the As the city’s Great Plague ends, a new disaster overtakes London—the
Netherlands begins. These naval wars are fought Great Fire. The whole of the city is destroyed, including the medieval
for the command of the sea and shipborne St. Paul’s Cathedral, 87 other churches, and more than 13,000 houses.
commerce. England’s eventual victory signals
the decline of Dutch commercial preeminence. 1668 1668

1654 Portugal gains independence Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle signed
Spain recognizes Portuguese The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle concedes
Protectorate established independence—the Iberian Union French gains in the Spanish Netherlands
In England, a republic is established lasted from 1580 to 1640—with the and brings an end to the War of Devolution
after Oliver Cromwell, a leading Treaty of Lisbon. Portugal is ruled between the Triple Alliance—England,
parliamentarian commander, is by the House of Braganza. Holland, and Sweden—and France.
appointed Lord Protector of England.

1662

The Royal Society receives charter
The Royal Society in London, England,

aims to pursue pure and applied science.
King Charles II of England grants the

society his royal charter, acknowledging
the importance of science to the state.

1660 1664 1670

Monarchy is restored English seize New Amsterdam Cossack uprising
Following the death of the English leader Oliver A small English fleet arrives at New Amsterdam, In South Russia, an attempt to protect Cossack
Cromwell, in 1658, King Charles II of England is modern Manhattan, the capital of the Dutch independence against the centralized Russian state
swept to his throne on a wave of popular sentiment. North American colony of New Netherlands, becomes a revolt by a disaffected peasantry that
and demands its surrender. Director-general sees several cities sacked and looted. The Cossack
1653 Peter Stuyvesant eventually complies. uprising is brutally suppressed by the tsar.

Taj Mahal completed 1661
The Taj Mahal in Agra, India, is built by the
Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as a mausoleum Rule of Louis XIV begins
for his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal. This iconic King Louis XIV, crowned in 1643 when five years
structure combines Indian, Persian, and old, assumes his personal rule of France. He
Islamic architectural styles. remains on the French throne for a further 54 years.

THE TAJ MAHAL, AGRA LOUIS XIV (1638–1715)

King Louis XIV, known as Le Roi
Soleil, the Sun King, had a greater
impact on France than any other
monarch. He was determined to be
the absolute ruler of his nobles
and his country—he centralized
the state and fought numerous
wars, but he also supported the arts.
By the end of Louis’ reign, France
had expanded its territory and was
the leading nation in Europe,
much admired and imitated.

ENLIGHTENMENT AND IMPERIALISM 435

1682 precious 1690
stone inlay
Peter I becomes Fort William established
1677 Tsar of Russia Seeking greater security for its
Later known as Peter the Great, trade, the British East India
Niagara Falls discovered the Russian tsar introduces a Company establishes a new base
In northeastern North America, program of modernization, in what became Kolkata (Calcutta),
the discovery of the Niagara Falls, including military and political India. Fort William, named after
a waterfall larger than any in reforms, that bears great King William III, continually
Europe, evokes wonder in the Old fruit. Winning numerous enlarges and improves, and will be
World. More than 6,000,000 cu ft wars, he expands his critical to the later British
(170,000 cu m) of water thunders empire into a major dominance in India.
over the edge every minute. European power.
1694
fur trim
Bank of England
1680 CROWN OF PETER THE GREAT established
Closely modeled on the
Pueblo revolt 1689 1689 Bank of Amsterdam,
The Pueblo people of the colony of New founded in 1609, the Bank
Mexico rise against the Spanish occupiers Treaty of Joint monarchs of England is formed. It
and drive them from the area, the revolt Nerchinsk signed declared allows England to finance
The Treaty of Nerchinsk King William III and Queen its part in the War of the
lasting 12 years. The Pueblo revolt is Mary II are declared joint Grand Alliance, and
provoked partly by drought, but more settles the territorial Protestant monarchs of becomes a significant
particularly by Spain’s determination to dispute between Russia England, Scotland, and factor in Britain’s
Ireland by the Parliament. subsequent emergence
crush local religious practices—Pueblo and China in Siberia. on the world stage.
shamans are consistently accused
of witchcraft and executed.

1682 1689

French Court moves to Versailles Grand Alliance formed
King Louis XIV establishes Versailles as A Grand Alliance of England, the Netherlands, and
the base for his court and government. the Austrian Habsburgs is formed to counter the war
of aggression launched by King Louis XIV of France against
1682 the Palatinate states in Germany. The atrocities carried out
by the French rouse hatred towards Louis across Europe.
La Salle explores the Mississippi
The French explorer René-Robert Cavelier, sun positioned at center
sieur de La Salle, a veteran of North American
exploration, leads a party down the Mississippi 1687
River to its mouth. He proclaims the river and
its hinterlands a French possession, naming Newton publishes the
Law of Gravitation
it Louisiana, after the French king. The English physicist Isaac
Newton publishes the
1683 Universal Law of
Gravitation, one of the
Ottomans besiege Vienna most remarkable of all
The Ottomans besiege Vienna—as they had in 1529— scientific discoveries.
and again, they fail. The collapse of the Ottoman rule in It explains what holds
Hungary follows, and an alliance that includes the Holy the Universe together:
Roman Empire, Poland, and Venice, formed under papal all heavenly bodies
authority, drives the Ottomans south across the Balkans. exert a force called
gravity, or weight.

ISSAC NEWTON’S
CLOCKWORK
UNIVERSE

436

1700 standing man 1713 1722

Great Northern DECORATIVE Treaty of Utrecht Persians annexed
War begins WEIGHT MADE The War of the Spanish The declining
Denmark, Saxony, Poland, BY ASANTE Succession is brought to an Persian Safavid
and Russia declare war on end by the Treaty of Utrecht. It dynasty is deposed by
Sweden in an attempt to confirms the separation of the independent Afghans
end Sweden’s preeminence French and Spanish crowns, to the east. Mahmud
in the Baltics. However, the and cements English control Hotaki proclaims himself
army of King Charles XII, the of Newfoundland and Nova the Persian Shah.
“Swedish Meteor,” beats the Scotia, in modern Canada.
Danes, then annihilates a 1724
Russian army four times its
size. It goes on to inflict a Dahomey
similarly crushing defeat on becomes a West
a combined Polish–Saxon
force at Klissow in Poland. African power
Sweden eventually loses King Agadja, the third
the war in 1721. ruler of the Kingdom

1701 1720 of Dahomey, in the
modern Republic of
Asante rise to prominence Qing drive Mongols Benin, leads attacks
The Asante kingdom in West Africa from Tibet on its neighbors and
begins its rise to prominence under
the leadership of King Osei Tutu. A force of Qing and Tibetan enlarges the state.
warriors drives the Zunghar Dahomey also profits
cobra from its involvement
Mongols from Tibet. The
Qing force brings with it a in the Trans-Atlantic
replacement for the Dalai slave trade.
Lama, who was murdered by
the Mongols.Tibet becomes
a tribute-paying protectorate

of Qing China.

1701 1711 c.1717

War of Spanish Succession St. Paul’s Cathedral Blackbeard strikes terror in the Atlantic
The War of the Spanish Succession sees a Grand Alliance, completed The notorious English pirate Edward Teach, known as
including England, the Netherlands, and Austria, oppose St. Paul’s Cathedral, a Blackbeard, begins plundering ships in the West Indies,
the unification of the French and Spanish thrones. The London landmark, is and along the coast of the North American colonies,
war lasts until 1714, when the Spanish King Philip V is officially completed. including Virginia and the Carolinas.
forced to give up any claim to the French throne. Designed by the British
architect Christopher
1707 Wren, it is the fourth
church to occupy its
Mughal Empire declines site; its predecessor was
The decline of the Mughal Empire begins with the death badly damaged in the
of the sixth emperor, Aurangzeb. His successors squander Great Fire of London
in 1666.
the dynasty’s fortunes while losing control of regional
governors, who go on to build their own empires.

“Imagination cannot form an idea of a
fury from hell to look more frightful.”

Charles Johnson, describing the notorious pirate Blackbeard, in A General History of
the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pirates, 1724

BLACKBEARD THE PIRATE

ENLIGHTENMENT AND IMPERIALISM 437

flat-sided,
triangular head

blunt MARATHA ARROWS gilded bamboo shafts
octagonal painted with roses

head 1746

c.1736 c.1740 French occupy Madras
A French force takes the British-held port of Madras
Maratha Empire expands Mysore Kingdom (modern Chennai), in southern India. The French
The Maratha Empire in India enjoys its rises to prominence remain in occupation of Madras until the Treaty
greatest expansion to the north, at the In southern India, the Mysore of Aix-la-Chapelle returns the port to the British
Kingdom rises to prominence, in exchange for Louisbourg in Nova Scotia.
expense of the Mughal Empire. seizing territory from the Marathas,
Hyderabad, and neighboring kingdoms. 1748

1728 1739 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
The War of the Austrian Succession is concluded
Battle of Palkhed Treaty of Belgrade by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Prussia’s conquest
On the Indian subcontinent, The Treaty of Belgrade ends the
at the Battle of Palkhed, the Austro–Russian–Turkish War. It of Silesia is recognized; France regains some
Hindu Marathas defeat Asaf confirms Austria’s loss of northern colonies, but withdraws from the Netherlands;
Jah I, the Nizam of Hyderabad. Serbia and Belgrade to the Ottomans.
and Britain’s Asiento contract with Spain is
renewed. The Asiento contract permits Britain

to supply slaves to Spanish colonies.

1736 1739 1747

Nader becomes Iranian Shah Battle of Karnal Afghanistan unified
Military leader Nader Shah, founder of the The Persians defeat the Mughals Ahmad Khan Abdali, known as Durrani,
Afsharid dynasty, is crowned Shah of Iran. at the Battle of Karnal, to occupy becomes head and founder of the modern
Delhi, India. Persian forces now state of Afghanistan. Abdali unifies the
control all territory to the north country under his rule and develops a
large empire, including parts of modern
and west of the Indus River. Iran, Pakistan, and India.

1728 1745 1748

Bering Strait explored Jacobites rebel against Hanoverians Dahomey in conflict
The Danish seaman, Vitus Bering, is Charles Edward Stuart, “Bonnie Prince Charlie,” Scottish The African Dahomey kingdom
commissioned to follow the Siberian under King Tegbesu grows richer
coast northward from the Kamchatka pretender to the English throne, rallies his Jacobite and stronger, but it continues to pay
Peninsula. He sails into the narrow forces and defeats the ruling Hanoverian army at tribute to the Oyo Empire in the
strait, now named after him, that the Battle of Prestonpans. The Scottish force is Yoruba states (modern Nigeria),
separates Siberia and Alaska. later overcome at the Battle of Culloden.
as it has done for decades.

snake carving

30,000 YORUBA
IVORY BRACELET
The reward, in pounds, offered
for the capture of Bonnie
Prince Charlie following the
Jacobite uprising of 1745.

438 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 1750–1900

INDUSTRY AND 1758
INDEPENDENCE
British victories
This was an era of unprecedented European global supremacy and imperial in North America
expansion on every continent, supported by rapid industrialization, expanding The British score key victories
trade, and huge population growth. Revolutions in America and France in the over the French by taking Fort
late 18th century transformed Western political expectations and demands for Duquesne on the Ohio River
liberation echoed through the 19th century. Democracy gradually gained and Fort Louisbourg, on Cap
ground in Europe, European colonies in Latin America won their independence, Breton island, Nova Scotia, Canada.
and slavery was eventually abolished everywhere in the Americas. However,
those peoples who stood in the way of European expansion were harshly 1756
treated. Japan became the first Asian state to match the European powers
in military and economic modernization. Seven Years War begins
Hanover, Britain, and Prussia (led
c.1750 1754 1755 by Frederick the Great) clash
with the other major European
Agricultural French and Earthquake powers: France, Austria, and
revolution begins American Indian War strikes Lisbon Russia. The Seven Years War is
New farming practices French and British colonial forces clash The Lisbon earthquake, fought in areas from India to
in Britain begin an in the Ohio Valley, beginning a struggle one of the deadliest in North America to Europe,
increase in agricultural for supremacy in North America. history, kills between making it a truly global conflict.
output that will feed a The conflict is concluded with the 60,000 and 100,000
growing population in signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763. people in Portugal. 1757
towns and cities.
Battle of Leuthen
Having defeated Austro–French
forces in Rossbach (in modern
Germany), Prussia defeats
Austria at the Battle of Leuthen
ensuring the control of Silesia.

1750 1751 1758

Treaty of Madrid Encyclopédie published Afghan–Maratha
The Treaty of Madrid In France, the writer and philosopher War begins
settles border Denis Diderot publishes the Encyclopédie, The Afghans, led by their chief
disputes between ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, Durrani, sack the Mughal city
Spain and Portugal des arts et des métiers. Known as the of Delhi. This provokes the
in South America. Encyclopédie, it becomes one of the defining neighbouring Marathas, who
Spain cedes most works of the Enlightenment. feel they should rule over the
of modern Brazil territory, to go to war against
to the Portuguese. the Afghans.

1757 1759

Battle of Plassey Britain takes Quebec
The British officer Robert Clive The French surrender Quebec,
in modern Canada, to the British
recovers Calcutta for the East after a battle that sees the deaths
India Company and Britain by
defeating the Nawab of Bengal of both rival commanders.

at the Battle of Plassey.

c.1750 62,000

Wahhabi The number of Bengali troops
movement begins
The Wahhabi defeated by Robert Clive’s 3,000
movement to purify
Islam begins in Arabia. men at the Battle of Plassey.

THE SHOEMAKER AND BOOTMAKER
PAGE FROM DIDEROT’S ENCYCLOPÉDIE

INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 439

QING PORCELAIN FIGURE “Ambition leads me not only
OF A KNEELING BUDDHA farther than any other man has
been before me, but as far as I
1760 think it possible for man to go...”

Qing dynasty James Cook, writing in his journal, 1774
suppresses Mongols
The ongoing revolts by 1767 1768
Zunghar Mongol tribes in the
northwest frontier of China, Jesuits expelled James Cook explores Pacific
which started around 1755, by Spanish English explorer James Cook begins his
are finally suppressed. King Charles III of Spain first Pacific voyage aboard the Endeavour.
expels the Jesuits from all He travels to New Zealand and the
1763 Spanish territories. He unknown eastern coast of Australia.
had become worried
Treaty of Paris about the order’s growing 1772
Britain, France, and Spain sign the wealth and influence in
Spanish America. First partition of Poland
Treaty of Paris, ending the Seven Russia, Prussia, and Austria sign
Years War. The French cede most a treaty—ratified by the Polish
of their North American territories, legislature—depriving Poland
including Canada, to the English. of one-third of its land, of which
all three powers take a share.

1762 1764 1768 1768
Spinning jenny invented Russian–Ottoman Nepal founded
Rousseau publishes
The Social Contract In Lancashire, England, a weaver and War begins Prithvi Narayan Shah, the Rajput King
French philosopher and writer
Jean-Jacques Rousseau publishes carpenter named James Hargreaves The Russian–Ottoman of Nepal, brings together kingdoms in
his influential treatise, Du Contrat
Social (The Social Contract). It invents the spinning jenny, which enables War begins after Russian the Kathmandu Valley to create the
examines the relationship between
governments and the governed, cloth production to increase eightfold. advances into Poland pose kingdom of Nepal.
and the question of freedom in
the face of political authority. The a threat in the Crimea. 1773
book is immediately banned.
1762 Boston Tea Party

Catherine the Great ascends throne In protest against British taxes on American colonies,

Following a conspiracy against her angry protestors take 342 chests of tea from the

husband, Peter III, Catherine II, known Dartmouth, anchored in Boston, and tip them into

as Catherine the Great, becomes the the city’s harbour. This is heralded as a key moment

Empress of Russia. of resistance to British governance.

THE BOSTON TEA PARTY

CATHERINE THE GREAT (1729–1796)

The reign of the German-born
Empress of Russia was marked by
Russian aggression and territorial
expansion. Catherine introduced
wide-ranging reforms in agriculture,
industry, and education. She also
relaxed Russia’s censorship laws
and was known for her love of
literature and particular fondness for
French philosophers and writers—
including Voltaire, with whom she
corresponded for 15 years.

440 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 1750–1900

“We must all hang DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 1781
together now, or
assuredly we shall 1776 Articles of
hang separately.” Confederation ratified
Declaration of Independence The Articles of Confederation
Benjamin Franklin, on the need for On July 4, the First Continental Congress are ratified to set up a “firm league
the Americans to fight together issues a Declaration of Independence, of friendship” binding the states
for independence, 1774 formally announcing the separation of to assist each other against all
the North American colonies from the forces made upon them on account
1775 British rule and collectively calling this of religion, sovereignty, trade, or
the United States of America. any other pretense. The document
War of Independence begins in America will eventually be replaced by
Battle breaks out between American colonists and 1778 the US Constitution.
British troops in Lexington, Massachussets, as well
as nearby Concord. This action signals the start of France joins war 1784
the American War of Independence. France formally enters the
American War of Independence The India Act
1776 against the British. British Prime

Cook begins third Pacific voyage Minister, William Pitt
Captain James Cook sets out to search the Younger’s India Act puts
for the Northwest Passage, a fabled
Arctic shortcut that is supposed to the East India Company
connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. under government control.

1777 1781 1783

Treaty of San Ildefonso is signed Battle of Yorktown Treaty of Paris
Spain and Portugal finally settle ongoing disputes in the General George Washington and his The Treaty of Paris,
Río de la Plata region of South America with the First Treaty French allies defeat the British at the Battle which formally ends the
of San Ildefonso. Spain cedes territory in the Amazon basin in of Yorktown, Virginia. This is the last major War of Independence,
return for control over the Banda Oriental (in modern Uruguay). battle of the War of Independence. is signed by Britain and
its former American
1775 1783 colony, calling for
them to “forget all
Watt patents steam engine First manned balloon flight past misunderstanding
In Britain, the Scottish inventor and engineer On 21 November 1783, the and differences”.
James Watt patents his steam engine.
His work on steam engines spurs the first manned balloon launches
development of steam-powered trains. near the Bois de Boulogne,

MONTGOLFIER Paris, France. Invented by the
BALLOON ASCENT Montgolfier brothers, the balloon

is beautifully decorated in
blue, gold, and red.

1785

Burmese–Siamese
War begins
Having captured
the kingdom of
Arakan the year
before, Burma’s King
Bodawpaya invades
Siam, triggering the
Burmese–Siamese War.

1788 1789 THE STORMING OF THE BASTILLE

Australian Storming of the Bastille 1793 1799
colonists arrive Some 600 people armed with weapons attack the Bastille,
Six transports and two in Paris, a medieval fortress and prison that symbolizes the Louis XVI is executed Napoleon becomes First Consul
escorts, part of Britain’s despotism of the monarchy. The Storming of the Bastille The French king is executed Napoleon Bonaparte dissolves the
First Fleet shipping becomes a defining moment of the French Revolution. on the guillotine, followed later Directory, the body that had been
convicts to Australia, by his wife Marie Antoinette.
arrives at Botany Bay. 1792 governing France since 1795. He replaces
The First Fleet sails the Directory with the Consulate and
inland to Port Jackson, France declared a republic
which becomes Sydney. King Louis XVI is overthrown. France takes charge of France as the First Consul.
abolishes the constitutional monarchy

in favor of establishing a republic.

1789 1791 1794 1798

Declaration is published Saint-Domingue slaves revolt Robespierre is executed Napoleon
In France, the Declaration of the A large-scale slave uprising begins in A revolt in the National Convention, invades Egypt
Rights of Man and of the Citizen is Saint-Domingue (modern Haiti), on the the governing assembly elected The French general
published. The document proclaims island of Hispaniola, in the Caribbean. during the French Revolution, ends Napoleon Bonaparte
that “men are born free and remain The slaves attack estates, kill plantation the ascendancy of Robespierre, who invades Egypt, defeating
free and equal in rights” and that is executed. The Reign of Terror ends Mameluke troops at the
“the source of all sovereignty lies owners, and torch cane fields. and a five-man Directory takes power. Battle of the Pyramids.
The French Mediterranean
essentially in the Nation.” fleet is completely
destroyed by the British
1789 navy, under the command
of Horatio Nelson, at
First US president elected the Battle of the Nile.
George Washington is elected
first president of the US. 1795

UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION 1793 Poland destroyed
In the Third Partition of Poland,
The US Constitution is the Reign of Terror begins Prussia, Austria, and Russia
world’s oldest written constitution In France, many suspected enemies complete their carve-up of Polish
still in use. It was adopted on of the Revolution are executed in territory. Poland ceases to exist
September 17, 1787 and has been the Reign of Terror instituted by as an independent country.
amended 27 times to deal with Maximilien Robespierre, as war rages
between France and a coalition of
other European powers.

issues such as freedom of speech.

George Washington led the 17,000
Constitutional Convention and
became the first US president in

1789. During his presidency, the The number of people
first ten amendments, known as executed during Robespierre’s
the Bill of Rights, were ratified. Reign of Terror.

442 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 1750–1900

15,000,000 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1769–1821)

The price, in dollars, paid by the United States Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Corsica and
to France through the Louisiana Purchase. educated in France, where he became an army
officer in 1785. His successful campaign in Italy

(1796–97) was followed by further military and

1803 political victories. In 1804, Napoleon was declared
emperor and led France in more battles, although
Louisiana with diminishing success. This drained the nation’s
Purchase signed resources, ultimately leading to his downfall.
Napoleon realizes that he can Napoleon died in exile on the remote island
raise revenue by selling the of St. Helena, in the South Atlantic.
large and mostly undeveloped
area controlled by France 1804 1806 1814
in North America. Having
become interested in the America explored Battle of Jena Napoleon exiled
Louisiana territory, especially Explorers Meriwether Lewis and Prussia suffers a Anti-French allies pursue Napoleon and
the port of New Orleans, the William Clark explore the territories occupy Paris. Napoleon abdicates and is
United States buys the territory of the Louisiana Purchase and chart
stretching from the Gulf a route to the Pacific coast. They

of Mexico to the make detailed maps and record devastating defeat against exiled to the island of Elba off the coast of
Rocky Mountains. the region’s flora and fauna. France at the Battle of Italy. The Congress of Vienna convenes
Jena. As a result, King to agree the future of Europe.
Frederick William III

1803 1804 1805 decides that internal 1812
reform in Prussia is
Napoleonic First steam train Battle of Austerlitz necessary to bolster the Napoleon invades Russia
Wars begin The British engineer The French, led by country’s flagging fortunes. Having forced the Russians
Britain declares war on Richard Trevithick Napoleon, defeat to retreat after the Battle of
France, beginning the makes the first
Napoleonic Wars. steam locomotive Russia and Austria at Borodino, Napoleon occupies
running on rails. the Battle of Austerlitz, Moscow. He is forced to retreat.

and occupy Vienna.

1803 1804 1807 1810

Cape Colony Napoleon Slave trade banned Spanish American
restored to Dutch becomes Emperor The British parliament votes revolutions begin
Under the terms Napoleon makes France an In Mexico, a parish priest named
of the Treaty of Amiens, empire with hereditary rulers. to outlaw the slave trade, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla launches an
the Cape Colony, Napoleon assumes the title and the United States bans appeal for Mexican independence.
in South Africa, is Emperor of France and makes This signals the start of the Spanish
restored to the Dutch. sweeping reforms to the legal the importation of slaves. American revolutions. By 1826 all
system in France and the French Spanish mainland colonies in South
territories. These reforms were 1805 America have gained independence.
known as the Napoleonic Code.
Battle of Trafalgar 1811
NAPOLEONIC CODE France suffers a humiliating
naval defeat at the hands of the Egypt revived
One of Napoleon Bonaparte’s most British at the Battle of Trafalgar. Muhammad Ali, Ottoman viceroy of Egypt,
far-reaching reforms was to codify The British navy is led by
French law. Enacted in 1804, the Napoleon’s old enemy, Horatio massacres his Mamluk rivals in Cairo. He
Napoleonic Code (Code Napoléon) Nelson, who is fatally wounded embarks upon a programme of military
declared all men equal, ending any before the end of the battle.
hereditary nobility, but women were and economic modernization that
put under male control. The laws also inlaid makes Egypt a major regional power.
dealt with issues such as property rights, decoration
marriage, and civil rights. The Napoleonic OTTOMAN RIFLE
Code was disseminated throughout
French-controlled territory in Europe
and beyond, making it highly influential.

INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 443

leather stretched over LORD BYRON IN GREEK ATTIRE
wooden frame

ZULU
WAR SHIELD

1818 1819 1821 1823

Chilean independence confirmed Zulus become dominant Mexico gains independence Byron fights for Greece
In South America, General José de San In South Africa, the Zulus, under Mexico secures its independence Inspired by the Greek struggle
Shaka, defeat the Ndwandwe at from Spain. Former royalist Augustín for independence, the English
Martín secures independence for Chile at the Battle of Mhiatuze River and de Iturbide crowns himself Emperor Romantic poet Lord Byron goes
the Battle of Maipú. The Spanish loyalist emerge as the dominant military Augustín I. to Greece to fight. He dies in 1824,
troops suffer a crushing defeat. having contracted an illness.
power in the Natal region. 1821
1815
1819 Fight for Greek
Britain takes Ceylon independence begins
Britain’s troops in Ceylon Singapore is founded In Greece, a fight for
(modern Sri Lanka) take The British statesman Stamford Raffles independence from the Turks
control of the kingdom of negotiates a deal for the British East India begins. Resentful at years of living
Kandy, meaning the entire Company to create a new base at the port under oppression, people from
island is under British rule. of Singapore, in the Malay peninsula. across Greek society—including
This challenges Dutch dominance of the Orthodox Church—begin
trade routes between China and India. to plot their liberation.

1815 1819 1819 1824

Battle of Waterloo Congress of Adams–Onís Treaty Peru gains independence
Napoleon escapes from Elba and leads Angostura begins Spain cedes the Pacific Northwest In Peru, a decisive victory at the Battle of
the French at the Battle of Waterloo, in The Congress of Angostura begins, and Florida to the United States and Ayacucho means the end of Spanish rule.
modern Belgium, where he is defeated establishing the Republic of the boundaries of New Spain—
by British troops led by the Duke of Colombia, comprising New Granada, modern Mexico—are agreed under However, to the north, in the territory
Wellington and by Prussian forces. Venezuela, and Quito (Ecuador). the Adams–Onís Treaty. known as Upper Peru, Spanish loyalist
Napoleon is exiled to St. Helena in the forces still hold out against rebel troops.
South Atlantic Ocean. The French
monarchy is later restored. THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON COMMANDS HIS
TROOPS AT THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO

444 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 1750–1900

1825 1830 BRONZE MEDAL 1833
CELEBRATING THE SLAVE Slavery
World’s first railroad French invade Algeria abolished
The Stockton and Darlington Railway, A French expeditionary force EMANCIPATION ACT in England
masterminded by British engineer George The Slave Emancipation
Stephenson, opens in northeast England. It invades Algeria, capturing c.1830 Act abolishes slavery in the British
is the world’s first public railroad, and uses Algiers and deposing the Empire. The Act immediately sets
steam locomotives to haul coal trucks. Ottoman ruler. This marks the Immigration to free young children. All slaves are
start of French control over US increases freed by 1840. Compensation
1826 this North African territory. Immigration to the US from is paid to slave owners.
Europe reaches 60,000 and
Russo–Persian War begins keeps increasing.
The second Russo–Persian War begins after the
Persians attempt to take back the territory of
Georgia. The Russians defeat the Persians and
the Caucasus territory returns to Russia.

1829 1830 1831 1832

Independence won July Revolution Belgium attains Reform of
The Ottomans agree France is convulsed by the independence Parliament
to the independence July Revolution. This insurrection A new state of Belgium In Britain, a Reform
of Greece and Serbia. forces the abdication of the King is officially recognized by Act rationalizes
of France Charles X, who is replaced Britain and France, but not elections to the
1828 by Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans. the Netherlands, following a House of Commons,
The rebellion is triggered by Charles’s revolution the previous year. extending the
Early photograph taken attempt to enforce repressive franchise to one
French doctor Nicéphore ordinances, such as suspending the in six adult males.
freedom of the press and modifying
Niépce produces a durable electoral law, so many people lose
image by exposing a plate
their right to vote.
coated in bitumen in a
camera obscura.

1827 1830 1831

Treaty of London signed Trail of Tears Polish rebellion crushed
Britain, France, and Russia The US Congress passes the Indian An armed uprising by Polish nationalists
sign the Treaty of London. Removal Act, under which American against Russian rule is suppressed. Poland
This supports Greece’s Indians in the southeastern US are loses its semi-autonomous status within
battle against the Ottoman forcibly relocated westward. Thousands the Russian Empire.
Empire and demands of Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Choctaw,
the establishment of an and Chickasaw die on the trail to the west. THE ATLANTIC
independent Greek state. LOCOMOTIVE PULLING

1830 BALTIMORE AND
OHIO RAILROAD
Scheduled rail COMPANY CARRIAGES
services begin
In the US, the Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad
Company begins the first
scheduled passenger
railroad service.

INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 445

QUEEN VICTORIA (1819–1901) 80,000 1848

Queen Victoria ruled during one The number of Gold discovered
of the most prosperous periods of prospectors that in California
British history. She became queen arrived in California
at the age of 18 years and reigned in 1849, following American carpenter and
for 63 years and 216 days. In 1840, the discovery of gold. sawmill operator James
she married her cousin, Albert Wilson Marshall discovers
of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. She
adored him and they had nine gold in California. This
children together. The Victorian prompts prospectors to
era contrasted sharply with the seek their fortune in the
excesses of previous Hanoverian
rulers, and Victoria’s domestic California Gold Rush.
life was held up as the model
for families in this period. 1842

US–Canadian border issue settled
The US and Britain sign the Webster–Ashburton
Treaty, which settles several outstanding issues
concerning the US–Canadian border.

1837 1839 1845 1846

Victoria’s reign begins Opium War begins Irish famine triggered Mexican War starts
Victoria becomes the Queen of England. Her long The first Opium War between Successive failures of the The US declares war on
reign is a time of growing prosperity, technological Britain and China begins over trade Mexico after a border dispute
innovation, and colonial expansion. and access to Chinese ports. The potato crop in Ireland trigger involving Texas, the 28th state.
Chinese are forced to negotiate. a famine that lasts five years Mexico surrenders in 1847,
1838 also ceding California and
and leaves more than one New Mexico to the Americans.
Battle of Blood River million people dead.
In South Africa, at the Battle of Blood
River, the Boers, under Andries
Pretorius, massacre the Zulu army.

1839 1846 1848
Darwin publishes journal
US approaches Japan Year of revolutions
British naturalist Charles Darwin publishes A US delegation is sent to Europe is swept by popular
Japan to try to persuade the
the journal of his five-year voyage on the isolationist nation to open its uprisings after a republic
ports to trade. The delegation is is proclaimed in France.
HMS Beagle. Darwin’s account helps make sent away empty-handed, but Radicals and nationalists
the US would soon try again.
his name in science. 1840 achieve temporary
successes in Germany,
1838 Treaty of Waitangi signed Austria, Hungary, and
Britain takes over New Zealand under the Italy. In Britain, Chartist
reformers stage mass
Great Western Treaty of Waitangi, signed by Maori chiefs
demonstrations. By
crosses Atlantic and representatives of the British Crown. In the year’s end, the

British civil engineer exchange for ceding sovereignty, the British revolutionary tide ebbs.

Isambard Kingdom offer the Maori protection and stability.

Brunel’s Great Western

steamship crosses the

Atlantic in record time.

Completing the journey 1848

in 15 days, the paddle- Communist Manifesto published
German philosophers Karl Marx and
wheeled ship cuts the
Friedrich Engels publish the Communist
voyage time by half and 1842 Manifesto. This calls for the overthrow of
the bourgeoisie, with the cry of “working
arrives with fuel to spare. Treaty of
Nanking agreed men of all countries, unite.”
1836 The Opium War between
Britain and China comes 1849
Texas declares to an end when British
independence troops reach Nanjing Order reasserted in Europe
Texans revolt against (Nanking). Chinese The armies of the Austrian and
Mexican rule and become officials sue for peace,
an independent state. Ten resulting in the Treaty of Russian Empires crush nationalist
years later, Texas becomes Nanking. China is forced forces in Hungary. Austria regains
a state in the US. to pay an indemnity to control of northern Italy. The General
the British and officially
THE SIGNING OF THE TREATY OF WAITANGI cede Hong Kong. National Assembly is dissolved.

446 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 1750–1900

1851

Taiping rebels march
Christian-inspired Taiping rebels
march north through China,
causing immense devastation.

1852

Transvaal independence acknowledged
In South Africa, the British acknowledge the
independence of the Transvaal. Two years later,
this is followed by a similar acceptance of the
Boer settlers’ new Orange Free State.

1853 1857 FORCES CLASH DURING
THE SEPOY REBELLION
US threatens Japan Sepoy Rebellion begins
Four US warships under Sepoys—local Indian soldiers in the
Commodore Matthew Perry are British forces—rise against their British
sent to Edo (modern Tokyo), Japan, officers in northern India. This revolt
and threaten military action if the is also known as the Indian Mutiny.
Japanese refuse to open their
country to foreign contact. 1854 1859

1852 Crimean War begins On the Origin of Species published
Making an alliance with British naturalist Charles Darwin cements his
Second Empire founded reputation with the publication of On the Origin
In France, Louis Napoleon the Ottoman Empire, which of Species by Means of Natural Selection. The
is proclaimed Emperor is at war with Russia, Britain work explains the process of evolution and sets
Napoleon III, replacing out Darwin’s ideas about species adaptation
the Second Republic and France send troops
with the Second Empire. to invade Crimea and lay and the survival of the fittest.
siege to the Russian base at
Sevastopol (Sebestopol). The
war continues until 1856.

1851 1857 1858

Great Exhibition opens Second Opium War starts Start of the Raj
The “Great Exhibition of the Works The British and French send an expedition to The Government of India Act passes
of Industry of all Nations” opens in attack China’s ports, culminating in the Second control of India from the British East India
London, England. The Great Opium War. In 1860, British and French forces Company to the British Crown. This starts
Exhibition, as it becomes known, occupy Beijing (Peking) and force China to open the period known as the Raj.
is housed in the Crystal Palace, an more ports and legalize opium importation.
exhibition hall made of glass and
iron built for the occasion.

INSIDE THE CRYSTAL PALACE

1859

Suez Canal begins to be built
Construction of the Suez Canal in
Egypt begins and is completed

in 1869. It will link the Mediterranean
Sea and the Red Sea, cutting voyages

between Europe and Asia by
thousands of miles, and allowing
ships to avoid sailing around the

Cape of Good Hope, Africa.

6 million

The number of visitors to the
Great Exhibition between
May 1 and October 31, 1851.

INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 447

1860 brass eagle 1874
emblem
Lincoln wins presidency British defeat Asante Empire
Abraham Lincoln, leader of the newly formed In West Africa, a British expedition led by
Republican party, becomes President of the US.
The Republican party is established to curtail the Sir Garnet Wolseley defeats the Asante
power of existing slave states, in which slavery continues Empire (modern Ghana). This asserts
to be allowed, and to stop the creation of new ones.
Britain’s control over the southern part
of the territory, known as the Gold Coast.

1861 1871
South African
Italy unifies
Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont–Sardinia diamond rush starts
is declared King of Italy. This follows a series
of wars that drive out Austrian rule in Italy. In South Africa, a diamond rush in

1862 the Northern Cape is followed by the

Otto von Bismarck 1865 discovery of gold in the Transvaal region.
takes office
The Prussian statesman Otto von American Civil This sparks the arrival of thousands
Bismarck becomes the Prime Minister War ends
of Prussia. He builds up the army and The American Civil rounds of of prospectors to the region.
masterminds the unification of Germany. War ends with victory
for the Union— ammunition
1863 the Confederacy
is devastated. The 1871
Slavery outlawed bloodiest conflict
Abraham Lincoln signs the Emancipation the US has seen Germany unifies
Proclamation, freeing slaves in claims more than Following victory against
Confederate areas. In 1865, slavery 600,000 lives. France, King Wilhelm I
is abolished across the US. of Prussia declares
UNION INFANTRYMAN’S himself emperor, unifying
AMMUNITION POUCH Germany. He names Otto
von Bismarck chancellor.

1864 1867 1871

War of the Triple Alliance Austro–Hungarian dual Paris Commune declared
War erupts between Paraguay and an monarchy established Parisians establish a radical committe, the
alliance of its neighbors—Uruguay, Brazil, Weakened by defeat in a war Commune, in protest at the French government’s
and Argentina. The war devastates Paraguay, with Prussia, the Austrian Empire surrender after the Franco–Prussian War.
reducing the population of 525,000 to 221,000. compromises with Hungarian A council of citizens governs Paris for over
nationalists. Hungary becomes two months. The retaliation of the ruling
1867 a separate state with its own National Assembly is swift—troops are sent
government, but with the Austrian to Paris, and 20,000 people are killed.
US purchases Alaska emperor as its king.
The US purchases the vast Alaska POSTER DEPICTING THE PARIS COMMUNE
territory from Russia. For the price of 1868 ARRESTED BY IGNORANCE AND REACTION
$7.2 million, the US increases in size
by 663,268 sq miles (1,717,856 sq km). Japanese Meiji period starts
In Japan, after the fall of the
3 million
Tokugawa shogunate, Emperor Meiji
The number of soldiers that fought Tenno rises to power. He reverses
in the American Civil War. Union Japan’s policy of isolationism and
soldiers outnumbered those of
the Confederacy by 2 to 1. begins a program of westernization.

1861 1870

American Civil War begins Franco–Prussian
In US, the southern slave states leave the Union War begins
and form the Confederacy. As the situation grows
increasingly tense, the American Civil War begins. War breaks out between
France and Prussia.

The French eventually
surrender to the German
forces and the regions of

Alsace and Lorraine are
ceded to Germany.

448 TIMELINE OF WORLD HISTORY 1750–1900

“Mr. Watson,
come here. I
want to see you...”

Alexander Graham Bell, speaking the
first words transmitted over the
telephone, 1876

1876 BOX TELEPHONE DESIGNED BY 1882
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
Telephone patented British occupy Egypt
In the US, Scottish-born inventor Alexander The British place Egypt under military
Graham Bell patents the telephone. This occupation, making it a British protectorate.
development will forever change the Britain is fearful of what a nationalist uprising
way the world communicates. might mean for its access to the Suez Canal.

1877 1879 1882

Britain annexes Transvaal Anglo–Zulu War ends Triple Alliance formed
The discovery of gold in The British defeat the Germany, Austria–Hungary, and
Zulu in a war in southern Italy form an anti-French alliance.
South Africa exacerbates tensions Africa. Britain annexes
between the Boer settlers and the Zulu kingdom.

the British, who annex Transvaal.

1875 1877 1881 1884

Balkan rebellion starts Russian Balkan victory Tsar assassinated Africa partitioned
The rift between the Ottoman Russia goes to war with Ottoman Russian Tsar Alexander II, who The Berlin Conference
Empire and its subjects in Bosnia abolished serfdom in 1861, is agrees to the European
and Herzegovina grows wider as Turkey in support of Balkan assassinated by left-wing terrorists
the Christian inhabitants of the nationalists. Defeated in 1878, the of the People’s Will movement. partition of Africa.
two territories rebel against Ottomans lose almost all influence
Ottoman rule. in the Balkans. Austria takes control 1881

THE BOERS of Bosnia and Herzegovina. First Boer War ends
The Boers resist a British
The Boers (“farmers” in Dutch) invasion, maintaining the
were settlers of Dutch, French Transvaal’s independence.
Huguenot, and German descent
who left the Cape Province postage
in South Africa to search for stamps
autonomy farther to the north.
They spoke Afrikaans, a
language that evolved from
Dutch. The earliest settlers
arrived in the Cape of Good
Hope after the Dutch East India
Company established a port in
1652. The Boers had a strong
ethnic identity and clashed
with the Zulus and the British.

BOER WAR DISCHARGE PAPERS