History of the world in 1,000 objects

TRADE diamonds cut POLITICS AND Stamp paper
in both local and POWER The British East India Company raised
British traders initially European style revenue by charging a fee for the
went to India to buy The British had to overcome official stamp on legal documents.
refined, high-quality goods Gold jewelry determined local resistance The text on this paper is written in the
produced in Indian workshops. India was renowned for its to claim power in India— script of southern Indian Tamils.
Under the British Raj, the precious stones, often used fighting four wars between
subcontinent was flooded with to make jewelry for local 1767 and 1799 against the British medal
cheap goods made in British rulers and Raj officials. These kingdom of Mysore. The The Indian Mutiny Medal was
factories, to the detriment of local lavish 19th century examples Indian uprising of 1857, awarded to British soldiers and
manufacturers. Products such as demonstrate the meeting of beginning with a mutiny civilians and Indian troops who
raw cotton and tea, grown on Indian techniques and by Indian troops in British fought in the rebellion of 1857.
British-owned estates, became European tastes. service, was suppressed.
India’s major exports. This revolt revealed the
underlying Indian hostility
ribbed, melon- to British rule.
shaped body
animal head Britannia with wreath in right
floral border with with ruby eyes hand and union shield on left arm
scattered bird motif
fine repoussé
decoration

Silver tea set
The Indian princely
states provided a haven
for artisans within the
British Raj. This silverware
was made at the court of
the ruler of Kutch, in
modern Gujarat.

Decorative chintz Tipu’s Tiger
Finely painted and printed This life-size automaton of a tiger mauling a European was
Indian textiles were highly owned by Tipu Sultan of Mysore. When a hidden handle is
prized around the world in turned, the tiger roars and the victim cries out in pain.
the 18th century. This chintz
drapery was designed for
European sensibilities, and
was imported to Britain by
the East India Company.

ART AND CULTURE Company painting Fullerton head decorated with
Indian artists created depicted real peacock’s beak
As British control of the Indian subcontinent solidified, there was paintings of East India in uniform,
an increasing emphasis on perceived British superiority. The status of Company officials smoking a hollow,
Indian female classical vocalists and dancers was severely diminished enjoying an Indian water pipe wooden
by Victorian standards of behavior and social roles, to the point that lifestyle. This painting body
their performance traditions nearly disappeared entirely. However, shows surgeon
traditional Indian music and other arts continued to flourish at the William Fullerton
courts of Indian princes. relaxing, attended
by Indian servants.

Mayuri veena movable, arched
Also known as a taus, metal frets
from the Persian word
for a peacock, the real tail
mayuri veena is a feathers
complex stringed
instrument that was
a favorite at Indian
princely courts in
the 19th century.

300 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900

CONNECTING A CONTINENT

DHR B CLASS NO.19

The Indian railroad network was three companies had joined their LOCAL COLOR
a triumph of engineering that, railroad networks to link Mumbai,
in a practical sense, unified the Kolkata, and Chennai. The Located at an altitude of 7,200 ft
subcontinent as never before. mountainous Indian landscape (2,200 m), the Indian town of
In the late 1840s, the East and lack of skilled labor caused Darjeeling was a popular summer
India Company and the British unprecedented challenges to railway resort for British civil servants and
government agreed to support engineers. The construction workers, army officers due to its temperate
private companies in building mostly Indian, were paid very low climate. In 1881, a 48 mile- (78 km-)
railroad lines from the major coastal wages and their use of traditional narrow-gauge railroad line was built
cities of Mumbai (Bombay), Kolkata skills such as using baskets for hauling through tea plantations to link the
(Calcutta), and Chennai (Madras). instead of wheelbarrows culminated hill station of Darjeeling to the North
in low productivity. Thousands of Indian plain. For many years
The first commercial passenger workers died during construction locomotives—including the one
railway opened in April 1853. because of poor living conditions. shown here, built in 1889 in Britain—
Built by the Great Indian Peninsula hauled passengers along the mountain
Railway Company, it ran for 21 miles By 1880, Indian railroads extended railway. With a short wheelbase, it was
(34 km) between Mumbai and Thane. for about 9,000 miles (14,500 km). perfectly suited to the Darjeeling
The first East India Railway line Expansion carried on into the Himalayan Railway’s many curves.
from Kolkata opened the following 20th century, with rail lines spanning All the locomotive’s weight was driven
year, and the Madras Railway began 41,000 miles (66,000 km) by the end down onto the rails, helping adhesion
operations in 1856. By 1871, the of the 1920s. on tricky terrain.

“…It was thought desirable that, if possible… the
whole country should be covered with a
network of lines on a uniform system.”

Viceroy Lord Mayo, at the opening of the Mumbai–Kolkata route, March 7, 1870

steam collects in dome chimney to carry smoke
on top of boiler away from engine

open cab accommodates
driver and fireman

SIDE VIEW

Lasting legacy COMPANY RULE AND THE RAJ IN INDIA 301
All Indian railway locomotives were
imported from Britain at first, but Indian large headlight
workshops began to produce them in 1895. in front of chimney
Thirty-four B Class locomotives were
constructed in Britain, and some of blue color is characteristic
these locomotives are still in service in of Darjeeling Himalayan
the 21st century. Running along the first Railway trains
hill passenger railroad, the B Class had a top brass lubrication
speed of around 20 mph (32 km/h) and was box for steam glands,
nicknamed the “Toy Train” for its diminutive which prevent leakage
size. The DHR itself has been named a steam cylinder
UNESCO World Heritage site, described as converts steam’s
“an outstanding example… of an innovative power into motion
transportation system.”

smokebox collects
smoke and gases
from the furnace

saddle tank
on top of boiler

holds water

main steam pipe
carries steam
to cylinders

decoration on
smokebox dart, which
secures smokebox door

hand rail to
support crew
inspecting train

coupling
connects
locomotive
and cars

302 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900 Reforming emperor
Coming to the throne in 1867, Emperor Meiji
THE REOPENING presided over the modernization of Japan.
OF JAPAN He adopted a Western-style uniform and
haircut to set an example to his subjects.
In the second half of the 19th century, Japan carried through a rapid modernization
of its economy and society. With a strong centralized government that promoted
the growth of industry, it was also able to create a powerful army and navy. Instead
of falling prey to foreign imperialists, Japan became the first non-Western country
to consolidate its power in the industrial age.

Road to From 1641 into the 1850s, the ruling of an American naval squadron led by service, and laid the foundations
modernization ▷ Tokugawa shoguns strictly limited the Commodore Matthew Perry triggered for a mass conscript army and a
This woodblock print, flow of trade and information between a political crisis, as the ruling elite modern navy. In 1877, a samurai
made in 1875, shows Japan and the outside world. This debated a response to Perry’s demand revolt against social reforms that
the Tokyo terminus policy was in many ways a success. for the opening of Japan to foreign destroyed their privileged status was
of Japan’s first railroad, At the start of the 19th century, Japan trade. The Tokugawa regime decided crushed. Foreign experts, technology,
the Tokyo–Yokahama had an effective government system. on concessions to the foreigners under and money were brought in to
Railroad. It was The daimyo (feudal lords) in the duress. In reaction against this policy, kick-start the development of a
constructed by British provinces provided strong local a revolt led by samurai from the modern industrial economy, but
engineers and operated government under the shogunate in Satsuma region eventually overthrew the process was controlled and
with British-built Edo (Tokyo). The emperor in Kyoto the Tokugawa in 1868. directed by the Japanese. Former
locomotives. The was a powerless figurehead, and the samurai joined with the pre-Meiji
Japanese government numerous samurai warriors had The rebels brought the emperor commercial class to provide a body
exercised tight mutated into a high-status class of from Kyoto to Tokyo, claiming to of entrepreneurs who developed
supervision over such officials who wore swords only as restore imperial rule, although in factories and trade, with large-scale
projects, ensuring a mark of rank. A commercial class, reality they ruled themselves in the backing from the Japanese
that they served with wealth but low status, inhabited emperor’s name. Instead of carrying government. From the 1880s, cotton-
national needs. flourishing cities. In 1800, Edo out a conservative reaction against spinning and silk manufacture grew
probably had a larger population than change, however, the leaders of the rapidly into major export industries,
London or Paris. Entertainers, artists, Meiji Restoration initiated a rapid alongside an armaments industry
and craftsmen flourished, servicing program of economic growth and supplying the Japanese armed forces.
the needs of this commercial class social reform. They realized that only
and the samurai. by learning from foreigners could As the Japanese recovered
Japan become strong enough to resist confidence, they began to emphasize
POWER STRUGGLE foreign domination and assert its their distinctive national culture.
national independence. Western methods were employed
In the first half of the 19th century, pragmatically, but a reassertion of
however, an urgent need for change REASSERTING TRADITION Japanese traditions became central
was felt. There were agricultural crises, to the ideology of the Meiji era.
and revolts by peasants and the urban By 1873 the Meiji government had Thus the emperor emerged both
poor. The shogunate was aware that extended equal citizenship to all as a European-style constitutional
Europeans had attacked China, and Japanese, abolished the regional rule monarch and a sacred ruler at the
worried that Japan might face the of the daimyo, introduced universal focus of state-sponsored Shinto
same challenge. In 1853, the arrival elementary education, established a religious rituals.
postal system and electric telegraph

“Enrich the country, strengthen the military.”

Japan’s national slogan during the Meiji era



HOME LIFE Black lacquer cabinet doors decorated
Made by Japanese craftsmen with fans
Japanese domestic life was on the whole resistant to in the Meiji era, this black
Westernization. After the Meiji Restoration, a civil lacquer cabinet embellished
servant would sit on a chair at work, but probably with a design of fans would
on a floor cushion at home. Interiors were bare and have been an expensive
sparsely furnished by Western standards. A few item of furniture.
imported clocks or lamps coexisted with products
of traditional Japanese crafts. Bronze flower vase gold lacquer
Japanese metalworkers finish
gold inlay were skilled in producing
exquisite bronze vases
Porcelain cup with colored metal inlays.
and saucer Restraint, elegance, and
Part of a coffee set, this cup and simplicity were the
saucer show people sheltering essence of Japanese
from the rain. Tea-drinking had a good taste.
central place in Japanese culture,
but consumption of coffee plum blossoms and
began to take off in the 1880s. dahlias mean happiness
and wealth
egg-shell
porcelain

inlaid
design

Black Meiji plate
Decorated with an image
of a bird and flowers,
this black lacquer plate
is a fine example of Meiji
domestic ware, celebrating
an entirely traditional
Japanese esthetic.

small fish represent
parents with a child

carp symbolizes
faithfulness in
marriage

Porcelain plate
A dish like this would have
been given as a wedding present.
Its design contains a number of
elements relating to married life.

THE REOPENING OF JAPAN 305

BATTLE AND CONFLICT gold cord
shoulder strap
Under the Tokugawa shogunate, Japan was largely at peace and military technology stagnated.
The arrival of Western navies from 1853 on stimulated rapid adoption of imported weaponry. dark blue
After the Meiji Restoration, making use of foreign expertise, Japan developed formidable tunic
modern armed forces, defeating China in 1894–95 and Russia a decade later.

steel point

IVORY THROWING ARROW Throwing arrows Meiji military
feather fletching Although firearms had been in use in Japan since uniform
1543, the samurai warriors of the Tokugawa era Initially trained by French
used hand-thrown arrows as an alternative to instructors, the Japanese
the bow when fighting at close range. Imperial Army adopted a
uniform with a dark blue
tunic, similar to that worn
by the contemporary
French army.

LACQUER THROWING ARROW head cut down sword sash
semi-pistol grip from longer spear

Arisaka rifle bayonet lug
Introduced in 1897, the Arisaka was a state-of-the-art
integral bolt-action repeater rifle. Designed and manufactured
five-round in Japan, it was as good as any infantry weapon equipping
magazine Western armies.

ART AND CULTURE bamboo
frame
Traditional arts and crafts survived the
modernization of Japan and exposure Japanese fan
to Western influences from the 1850s. This fan is decorated
The Japanese even developed a fresh with a painting of
awareness of the unique value of their pottery by renowned
culture and the high quality of its craft Meiji era ceramicist
products, which were celebrated as a Tozan Ito. Such items
symbol of national identity and marketed were appreciated by
as desirable exotica to Western buyers. wealthy Japanese and
foreign collectors.

Forging fan-shaped
Produced from the 18th two-tiered box
century through to the Meiji
era, novelty products such as posable pentagonal decorated
this articulated model snake pincer cards black lacquer
and jointed crustacean were
a popular creation of Japanese JOINTED Japanese poetry game
craftsmen working in metal. CRAB Made in 1880, this game consisted
No longer required to make of cards with poetry written on them.
samurai swords and armor, Players had to match cards to
metalworkers turned their complete a poem, demonstrating
skills to making such products. knowledge of traditional literature.

individually joined
hammered plates

ARTICULATED
SNAKE

306 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900

MODERNIZING JAPAN Japanese maple has been sokuhatsu hairstyle
bred in Japan for hundreds was a combination
NOBLE LADIES of years, and maple viewing of Japanese and
WOODBLOCK PRINT remains a popular pastime European looks

This triptych, by celebrated a hybrid between Japanese tradition
Japanese artist Toyohara Chikanobu and the current European models.
(1838–1912), captures an extreme
moment in the Westernization of Western-style clothing was, however,
Japan in the second half of the 19th exclusively for use at work or at public
century. As part of their program for functions. The Japanese elite reverted
the modernization of Japan from 1868 to their kimonos in their domestic
onward, the rulers of the Meiji era lives. The reason for this was partly
promoted the wearing of Western-style simple practicality. Western clothing,
clothing in place of the traditional cut tight to the shape of the body,
kimonos. In 1872, civil servants were required chairs and tables if it was
instructed to wear Western-style suits, to be worn with any comfort at all.
and the practice quickly spread to Such furniture was duly introduced
businessmen and politicians. Western- to Japanese offices, but at home
style military uniforms replaced the the Japanese still sat on the floor,
kimonos of the samurai. necessarily in their looser garments.

WESTERNIZING SOCIETY The shift to Western clothing for
women never affected more than
In the 1880s, women were also a small minority of the population
encouraged to adopt European and did not prove durable. By the
fashion, which perhaps unfortunately 1890s, a nationalist reaction had
at that moment consisted of the begun, calling for modernization
highly impractical bustle and elaborate without Westernization. Japanese
bonnets. Used to going bareheaded women of the elite reverted to
with loose, elegant clothing, Japanese the kimonos that women of the
women of the elite gallantly adopted lower orders had never abandoned.
these alien and uncomfortable Men of the official and business
garments. The sokuhatsu style—a classes, however, continued to
woman’s hairstyle—was devised as wear Western-style suits and
military uniforms.

imperial Meiji Emperor Rising Sun flag
chrysanthemum

crest

high-buttoned accessories, such as
Victorian shoe styles umbrellas, were more
were impractical for commonly adopted
use around the home than full Western dress

the Emperor loved traditional samurai swords were Military review
horses and horseback riding banned from military use in 1876 In this woodblock triptych, Toyohara Chikanobu
shows the Meiji Emperor (in the center panel)
reviewing his army. The new Japanese military
uniforms of the post-samurai era were modeled
on those of France and Prussia. The structure of
the army also imitated contemporary Europe,
with a mass of conscripts serving under a
professionally trained corps of officers.

THE REOPENING OF JAPAN 307

bustle was suited to bonnet could be worn synthetic Western dyes allowed Western-style short
Western furniture, not over modern hairstyles artists and dressmakers to hair and mustache
traditional tatami mats produce colors such as red
and purple more easily

promenade gardens were modern military Noble Ladies triptych
designed for strolling uniform Working in the traditional medium
of the color woodblock print,
“We expect and intend to reform and Toyohara Chikanobu presents an
improve... to stand upon a similar footing updated image of the Japanese
with the most enlightened nations...” social elite at leisure. Such images
promoted the Europeanized styles
Emperor Meiji, Letter to US President Ulysses S. Grant, 1871 favored in the Meiji era. Changes
went beyond clothing. Men learned
to cut their hair short and grow
mustaches and beards. Women
ceased to blacken their teeth.

308 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900

UNREST IN LATE Manchu character Chinese character
IMPERIAL CHINA

The late Qing dynasty period was marked by national humiliation, breakdown, and Source of unrest
upheaval, with the empire suffering defeat in wars and facing mass rebellions from This Qing coin has Manchu script on one
within. The imperial regime adopted elements of Western technology and military side and Chinese on the other. The Qing
organization, but attempted reforms failed to prevent foreign invasions. dynasty’s alien Manchu (see p.236) origins
drew the anger of Chinese nationalists.

Symbol of Some of the pressures threatening before it was suppressed in 1864. But demands for free trade. This opened
royal might ▽ imperial rule in 19th-century internal upheaval was inseparable the previously firmly closed floodgates
Created in the 18th China were domestic. Agricultural from the issue of Western influence. to outside influence. Despite efforts to
century, the gardens production could not meet the needs modernize its forces, China was unable
of the Summer Palace, of an expanding population. Mass DESTRUCTIVE INFLUENCES to resist foreign demands. Beijing was
Beijing, displayed the emigration provided a partial solution, twice occupied by European forces—
wealth and tastes of creating a diaspora of Chinese In 1800, China was still able to keep in 1860 and 1900—and some areas
imperial China at its communities in Southeast Asia and European and American traders under of the country came under foreign
height. Yet, in 1860 the North America. But at home, poverty strict control, treating foreign powers control. Moreover, Confucianism
Chinese were unable to and malnutrition increased, fueling as humble petitioners. But in 1839, an was undermined by the teachings
prevent the palace from discontent with inequality and attempt to stop the spread of opium of Christian missionaries and by the
being ransacked by government corruption. Four major addiction led to a war with Britain, influence of different forms of Western
Anglo-French soldiers. rebellions shook the country in the whose merchants ran the opium social and political organization. The
course of the century. The largest, the trade. China was defeated and forced imperial decline led to the abdication
Taiping Uprising, cost 20 million lives to cede Hong Kong, admit Christian of China’s last emperor in 1912.
missionaries, and concede to British

BATTLE AND 309
CONFLICT
subsidiary string
In encounters with European forces Embroidered panel of ten beads
from the 1830s, the Chinese Empire Made of blue silk, each panel features trailing
discovered the shortcomings of its clouds above crashing waves and stripe motif. Court necklace
military equipment and organization. The decoration includes round and diamond- High-ranking officials
The imperial regime made strenuous shaped brass studs. wore jewelry, such as this
efforts to modernize its forces ivory necklace, at the
throughout the 19th century, creating imperial court in the last
state arsenals to manufacture modern years of the empire.
weaponry. However, it was defeated Court dress was strictly
consistently by foreign powers. regulated to indicate
hierarchical status.
single-shot bolt adjustable
mechanism rear sight

embossed gilded Jingal
panel on scabbard This long-range rifle, or wall gun, was manufactured around
the time of the Boxer Rebellion. At more than 7 ft (2.1 m)
ivory grip long, it had to be fired from a stand.

blade decorated
with silver inlay

Sword Guardsman’s uniform
The double-edged sword, of a traditional Chinese design, Imperial guardsmen protected the Forbidden
was still being produced in the 19th century. By then, City, the emperor’s residence in Beijing. This satin
swords had a limited role in warfare. The rich decoration on ceremonial uniform comprises a tunic, skirt, two
its scabbard suggests this sword belonged to a senior officer. sleeves, shoulder cape, and underarm protectors.

POLITICS AND POWER large bead,
known as
The Qing emperors ruled through a
council of state and regional governors- Buddha head
general. Candidates for high office took
exams on Confucian classics—exams design based on
that had been in place since the Han Buddhist rosary
dynasty—and palace eunuchs played a
prominent role in court life. Dowager
Empress Cixi, ruling as regent from
1861 to 1908, resisted social and
political reforms.

woven brocade
with embroidery
and handwritten

script

Manchu seal Official mandate
This seal from the late Qing Documents such as
period is in Manchu, the native this one were commonly
language of the Qing rulers. used to confer titles,
Seals authenticated documents promotions, or
and administrative orders. appointments to office.

310 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900

CLOTHING AND ADORNMENT Comb TRADE
This 19th-century comb is from the Muslim
The late 18th and 19th centuries were not a time of Khotan area of western China, where the Until the 1830s, the Chinese
radical change in Chinese dress, and conservative population was chiefly Uyghur, with a severely restricted foreign imports.
resistance to Western influence prevailed in the early distinctively central Asian style of dress. Foreigners had to pay for porcelain
20th century. For men, a shaven forehead and ponytail, and tea with silver bullion. In opium,
or queue, continued to symbolize acceptance of Manchu flap with fringe the British discovered a product for
rule. Wealthy women wore sumptuous brocades and and fur trim which there was a market. The Opium
velvets embroidered with exquisite patterns. Wars in 1839–42 and 1856–60 forced
China to open its ports to free trade,
including the importation of opium. valve

enamel inlay Water pipe
Tobacco was introduced to China in
Nail protector coral decoration the 16th century. Under the Treaty
of Tianjin of 1858, cigarettes could
High-status Chinese grew some of their be imported free of duty. Water-
pipe tobacco became fashionable
fingernails very long to show that they did in later Qing China.

not need to work. Decorative protectors removable tobacco
holder with lid
were often worn over these nails.
water reservoir
green silk
with colored globular “damper”
embroidery bowl where
moisture collects
made from silver
and copper alloy scenes on ivory pipe
show Daoist immortals

Opium pipe
Despite efforts to suppress
it, opium addiction spread
rapidly in China through
the 19th century. It was
fed by the importation
trade from India operated
by British merchants.

kylon, or
lion-dog handle

Phoenix brooch molded
The fenghuang, or phoenix, is a symbol lizard
of female power and virtue. It was used
to symbolize the empress. mountainside
scene with
gilt metal threads warriors

delicate Porcelain vase
embroidery Europeans discovered
the secret of making
Opera robe Shoes for bound feet porcelain in the 18th
Beijing opera, combining music, dance, and The feet of young Chinese girls were century. However,
acrobatics, flourished as an art form in late bound to constrict growth. Adult women Chinese porcelain was
Qing China. This female warrior’s robe is wore elaborately decorated shoes to show still highly valued.
typical of the opera’s colorful costumes. off the resulting tiny feet, considered to This vase was made
be a mark of beauty. in the 1850s for a
British collector.

311

HOME LIFE painted
glass
The Chinese of the late Qing period
were the inheritors of a long tradition decorative
of domestic refinement and sophisticated lacquer
pleasures. Chinese cities had several coating
craft workshops where traditional skills
were deployed for the manufacture of cloisonné Enamel teapot
high-quality goods for the homes of the enameling Tea consumption was a long-
rich, as well as for exportation. established feature of Chinese social
Tea set and domestic life. This late Qing
Snuff bottles This porcelain bowl with lid and teapot from Beijing has a gilded
Taking snuff, or powdered tobacco, was saucer dates from the late 19th rat on the lid.
common at all levels of Qing society. Finely century. It was used for drinking tea,
decorated glass or lacquered snuff bottles such and only the wealthy could afford
as these indicated the user’s high social status. such a tea set.

GAMES Spillikins set of bamboo
The game of spillikins, or spillikins
Tangram set pick-up sticks, is believed to have
The tangram is a puzzle originated in China. This 19th- carved lid
game, using seven century set has an elaborate ivory screws shut
shapes, invented in China box to contain the bamboo sticks
around 1100. It became used in the game.
a Western craze after
a set was brought to
America in 1816.

piece of puzzle with lid of box carved pattern of figures
carved phoenix pattern with houses and in garden setting
gardens
carved in relief

finely carved
figure of King
George III as

emperor

Ivory chess set KING GEORGE III QUEEN CHARLOTTE BISHOP KNIGHT ROOK PAWN
China had its own
type of chess, called
xiangqi. European
chess was only
introduced there
in the 1800s. This
Chinese set, made
around 1820,
features British
ruler George III
as the king in
the game.

BELIEFS AND RITUALS incense was inscription
placed in expressing
Confucianism was the official and drawer in
dominant belief system of the Qing Buddhist
Empire. However, China had many lion’s chest Middle Path
Buddhist and Taoist temples and places
of ancestor worship alongside shrines Incense burner Monastery bell
to Confucius. The Qing Empire also This bronze lion from This bell from the
included a substantial Muslim minority, the late Qing era meditation hall of a
while Christian missionaries became an served as an incense Zen Buddhist monastery
important and controversial influence burner. Statues of lions was made in 1898. It is
in the country in the 19th century. were erected at the gates decorated with Taoist
of secular government symbols, a fusion of
buildings, private homes, beliefs common in
as well as sacred buildings. Qing China.

TIMING THE SEASONS BEIJING OBSERVATORY 312 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900

ASTRONOMICAL CLOCK

A British delegation headed by Lord from a British design. It was made mid-17th century, the Imperial Board The precise calculation of the seasons
Macartney traveled to the Imperial in Canton (now Guangzhou)—the of Astronomy in Beijing (see panel, through astronomical observation and
court at Beijing in 1793. In an attempt port through which strictly controlled right) had been placed under the measurement of time was essential to
to interest China in opening its ports trade with British and other European control of European Jesuit imperial rule in China. The emperor had
to free trade, Macartney offered merchants was exclusively conducted. missionaries, because of the accuracy to conduct certain rituals and ceremonies
Emperor Chien-lung a range of of their observations and calculations. during the year to maintain celestial
manufactured goods, including WESTERN INFLUENCE harmony. The Imperial Observatory in
mechanical clocks. The emperor This clock dates from a moment in Beijing, keeping track of the movement
responded contemptuously, stating, “I The mechanical clock has been traced Chinese history when the country of heavenly bodies, was a vital institution.
set no value on strange and ingenious originally to China—a water-powered had begun to absorb elements of
gadgets.” Yet this astronomical clock, model was created by inventor Su Western technology and science in fixed outer brass ring is
made in China at almost exactly the Song in 1092. But over the centuries, some areas, but was still proudly marked in minutes, quarter
same moment, employed a mechanism Europe had gained a clear lead in resistant to foreign influence and hours, and double hours
that a Chinese clockmaker had copied mechanical devices such as clocks, as determined to defend traditional
well as in astronomy. From the Chinese practices. inner brass ring marks
the seasons, completing
Chinese-made, British design one revolution in a year
This astronomical clock was made in
the late 18th century. Only two of its
kind are known to exist, the other being
in the Forbidden City in Beijing. The
clock tracks the progress of the seasons
and tells the time.

Milky Way is
most prominent

feature

face of clock
charts stars
seen from
southern China

stars are joined stars, 850
to form Chinese in total, are
indicated as
constellations small red circles

carved hour hand moves
wooden once around clock
in 24 hours
frame

UNREST IN LATE IMPERIAL CHINA 313

314 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900

COLONIAL STRUGGLE
IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

The progress of European imperialism in Southeast Asia challenged long-established
societies, from Burma and Thailand to Vietnam and Java. Although they mounted
determined resistance, local peoples could not prevent the European conquest.

The occupiers ▷ The societies of Southeast Asia, chiefly and went on to take effective control
This painting by a local Muslim and Buddhist, had a long of the states of Malaya, while Burma
artist depicts Dutch history of contact with Europeans. was absorbed into British India.
colonial troops in an The Spanish colonized the Philippines
Indonesian landscape. from the 16th century, and the Dutch The Dutch extended their hold over
In the 19th century, controlled parts of Java from the Java and neighboring Sumatra. From
the Dutch fought a mid-17th century. The pace of the 1860s, France, by stages, took
number of wars to European expansion quickened in over Indochina—Vietnam, Cambodia,
subdue resistance the 19th century, driven partly by a and Laos. By 1900, Thailand was the
to their takeover need for raw materials for industry, only Southeast Asian state still
of Indonesia. including bauxite, rubber, and independent. However, local elites
petroleum. The British founded continued to exercise a degree of
Singapore as a trading post in 1819, power, and outside the Philippines
the adoption of Christianity was rare.

BATTLE AND CONFLICT handle carved into head of BELIEFS AND RITUALS
mythological eagle named Garuda
The armies of Southeast Asia were Buddhism and Hinduism were the
influenced by Indian, Chinese, Mallay kris dominant faiths in Southeast Asia until
and Islamic military traditions, Found throughout Southeast Asia, the kris is a form challenged by the spread of Islam, which
from martial arts to bladed of dagger with a wavy blade and a decorative handle. was in the ascendant in Java from the
weapons. In the 19th century, they It was considered to have magical powers, with some 15th century. Catholic missionaries
were capable of sustained warfare blades bringing good luck. ensured that the Spanish-ruled Philippines
against European forces—such as in became predominantly Christian. In
the Java and Aceh Wars in bone hilt Indonesia, gamelan music was a central
Indonesia—but could not ultimately feature of most rituals, regardless of
resist the superiority of European religious differences.
weaponry and organization.
boarlike
tang button tusks
visible at base

Curved dagger and sheath brass point long, protruding
This 18th-century dagger has (chape) with tongue
sharpened edges, making it effective for molded finial
slashing as well as stabbing. The sheath
is made of leather and brass. yellow gold scabbard mounting
embossed and punched with
Dha and scabbard decorative vines
Used through much of Southeast
Asia in the 19th century, the dha Balinese mask Burmese Buddha
may have derived from the Chinese This mask represents Rangda, a demon This gilded statue shows Buddha
dao. This ornate ceremonial in the mythology of Balinese Hinduism. carrying an alms bowl. His long
example is Burmese. Bali’s dominant belief system combines ears are a reminder that he was
elements of Buddhism and animism once a prince, with ears that
curved sword with with Indian Hinduism. were heavy with jewelry.
single-edged blade

315

Gamelan GAMELAN ORCHESTRA ARRANGEMENT REBAB
The Indonesian gamelan is
an ensemble of predominantly A gamelan orchestra has many two-stringed
percussion instruments—gongs, instruments, including those spike fiddle
drums, metallophones, and shown below. This diagram shows
xylophones—used to produce the typical seating arrangement
music that is highly complex of an orchestra. The instruments
in rhythm and melody. These pictured are colored red. The
gamelan instruments, part of loudest are placed toward the
a set, are from Java, where in the rear and the quieter ones at the
19th-century gamelan music was front. The drum player in the
played at the courts of Muslim center leads the group.
princes and in religious ceremonies.
A gamelan orchestra caused a
sensation when it performed
at the Paris Exposition in 1889.

soft mallet keys suspended
on strings
decorated pot gong played
teakwood body by one player to

mark beats

resonators

KENDHANG KETIPUNG GENDER PANERUS KEMPYANG KETHUK
horn-handled mallet
set of pot gongs played hard mallet bars used to play
by single player central melody

BONANG BARUNG SARON BARUNG GAMBANG wooden
bars—unique
decorated with flower and leaf pattern feature among
nagas (dragons) covered in gold leaf gamelan
wearing crowns instruments

three-piece
teakwood stand

gong played to
mark out structure
of musical piece

GONG SUWUKAN AND
GONG KEMPUL

316 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900 Food hook
Carved from the tooth of a sperm whale, this
PACIFIC EXPLORATION hook was used to hang baskets of food to
AND EXPANSION keep edibles away from rats.

The first explorers in the Pacific were ocean voyagers in outrigger canoes, who
lived on the islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia between 1300BCE
and 1200 CE. The arrival of European sailors much later, especially from the later
18th century, posed a grave challenge to the islanders’ traditional way of life.

Harbingers Probably originating from Asia, Bougainville in the 1760s and 1770s, established codes of dress and
of change ▽ the Oceanic peoples developed a that links with the wider world began behavior. Competition between
Captain Cook’s ships diversity of societies and cultures on to affect the Polynesian way of life in imperialist powers led to the sharing
HMS Resolution their far-flung island homes. Political a serious way. out of islands through the 19th
and HMS Adventure organization was generally on a small century. Tahiti became a French
dropped anchor off scale, although some chiefs, such as COLONIZATION protectorate in 1842, Fiji was declared
Huahine in the Society the kings of Tonga and the Samoan a British colony in 1874, and Hawaii
Islands and in Tahiti Tui Manu’a, established control over The Europeans undermined the was annexed as a US territory in
during his second substantial confederacies or empires. health and stability of Polynesian 1898. But traditional rulers
Pacific voyage of societies by trading firearms and sometimes retained considerable
discovery (1771–75). The Polynesians first came into alcohol, and by inadvertently authority over internal affairs—in
The arrival of European contact with European sailors in the introducing diseases that decimated Tonga, the same royal line ruled from
vessels in Polynesia 17th century. But it was not until the local populations. Missionaries before a British protectorate was
had many unfortunate the voyages of exploration by arrived, dedicated to replacing established in 1900 through to full
consequences for British Captain James Cook and traditional beliefs with Christianity. independence in the post-imperial era.
the islanders. French Admiral Louis-Antoine de They were set on reforming

BATTLE AND CONFLICT BELIEFS AND 317
RITUALS
Warfare played a big role in traditional Oceanic societies. Tiki figure
Polynesian chiefs often led huge forces in attacks on Pacific Islanders traditionally In some Polynesian cultures,
neighboring groups, although weaponry was limited to clubs, believed in the pervasive carved wooden or stone figures
daggers, and spears. The arrival of European muskets fueled influence of gods or spirits on known as tiki were used to mark
armed conflicts between Polynesians in the 19th century. But every aspect of life. People or the boundaries of sacred sites.
acts of resistance against the Europeans were limited. objects inhabited by positive Tiki was an important character in
supernatural forces had mana, Polynesian mythology.
debossed shell or special powers, but such
etched with pieces sacred people or objects might be carved wood
of serrated ivory tabu (“untouchable“). Rituals with animal
were designed to solicit the figures
Breastplate support of positive spirits and
Warriors of some Oceanic ward off mischievous ones.
peoples wore breastplates
as body armor. This one, four
made for a Fijian chief, is sharp prongs
made from sections of
sperm whale teeth and Chief or priest’s
trochus shell. fork
A Fijian chief would
geometrical have used this fork
motif to eat with, since he
was not allowed to
Polynesian weapon feed himself on ritual
This exquisitely decorated club or cleaver has occassions. His fork
been shaped to resemble the cutlasses that was untouchable by
European sailors used to carry. ordinary humans.

face of Mask
ancestral Men in New Ireland, off the coast
of New Guinea, wore a painted
spirit malagan mask such as this one
during ceremonies. The wearer
colored took on the identity of the spirit
bark that the mask represented.
wrapping
CLOTHING AND
ADORNMENT painted

Thoughout Oceania communities Nose clips bone
creatively used materials from their
environment (feathers, plant fibres, Warriors in the Solomon Islands traditionally
bone, and shell) to decorate their
bodies. Polynesian and Micronesian pierced their nasal septum and wore objects
communities were renowned for
tattooing their bodies, exploiting in it. This helped to make a warrior look
readily available natural materials
such as shells and bone more fierce.

dog hair

Swords Painted shield Head ornament Chest ornament
These ornate models of swords Painted wooden shields such Inhabitants of the Solomon Islands Captain James Cook brought back this
are from the Melanesian region as this one gave the warriors made fine head ornaments from turtle ornament from his voyages to the Pacific. It
of the Pacific. They were made of of the Sepik region of New and mollusk shells. This one was worn was worn by a chief in the Society Islands.
wood, with carved sharks’ teeth Guinea both magical and over the forehead or the ears.
on the edges of the blade. practical protection.

318 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900

SETTLERS IN AUSTRALIA
AND NEW ZEALAND
Waitangi
The first Aboriginals arrived in Australia 40,000–60,000 years ago. The peopling sheet damaged
of New Zealand was more recent, the first Polynesian Maori probably arriving by by both water
sea around 1300CE. In the 19th century, both Australia and New Zealand became and rodents
flourishing British colonies, opening the door to extensive European settlement.
Historic agreement
The Treaty of Waitingi, drawn up between
Britain and the Maori in 1840, made New
Zealand a British colony but, at least in
principle, guaranteed Maori land rights.

Sacred site ▽ European sailors had come across but colonization gained momentum survived, living mostly on the margins
Uluru, also known Australia and New Zealand in the in the mid-19th century. The vast of white Australian society. The Maori
as Ayers Rock, is 17th century, but it was not until majority of early colonists, both in of New Zealand, on the other hand,
a natural feature 1770 that British explorer Captain Australia and New Zealand, were adopted firearms and fought against
in central Australia James Cook, sailing along Australia’s from the British Isles. colonization. Although ravaged by
that is sacred to east coast, claimed it for Britain. The disease—as were the Aborigines—a
the Aboriginal first European settlers were British A HOSTILE TAKEOVER series of conflicts and compromises
Anangu people. When convicts, deported to Botany Bay eventually left the Maori in possession
Europeans arrived in New South Wales in 1788. The Aboriginal population of Australia of some land and rights.
in Australia, they was unable to resist the British
ignored the Aboriginal Free settlement began in the 19th takeover and the distribution of land The Australian colonies and New
people’s deep-rooted century, especially after the discovery among settlers for sheep farming. By Zealand grew into liberal democracies,
relationship to of gold in the 1850s, which brought the end of the 19th century, newly forming self-governing states within
the land. with it a large influx of immigrants. introduced diseases, loss of vital the British Empire, but the treatment
No major European settlement resources, and localized violence had of their native populations remains
occurred in New Zealand until 1839, decimated the natives. Small numbers a stigma on their histories.

SETTLERS IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND

BATTLE AND CONFLICT Weapons from lancehead markings at ends may
new materials made of represent clan affiliations
Australian Aborigines were ill-equipped for Australian Aborigines beer bottle
warfare and only engaged in scattered skirmishes made use of materials glass
with European colonists. The Maori, however, introduced by the
had an aggressive warrior tradition. Obtaining British colonists, Aboriginal banded shield
European firearms, Maori tribes fought one fashioning weapons This shield is made of solid wood and
another in the early 19th century and confronted using their own was held by a handle at the back. It
the British army in a major rebellion in the 1860s. traditional skills would have served to deflect throwing
and techniques. sticks or spears in skirmishes between
rival hunting bands.

arrowhead made from red ocher band
telegraph insulator over finely

traditional wahaika engraved design
club
markings and
decorations often Aborigine club
Finely carved to a sharp angle, this weapon
associated with was used in close combat. It is decorated
Dreamtime myths in red ocher and white pipe clay.

hooked edge to catch
opponent’s shield

made from
mulga wood

Maori clubs wooden Hooked boomerang
All Maori warriors learned to fight with clubs and spears in patu club Designed for curving flight, boomerangs
close-quarter conflicts. Although useful in tribal warfare, these inlaid with were primarily meant for hunting, but
weapons were ineffectual against modern European forces. haliotis shell they could also be used as weapons.

BELIEFS Maori waka huia
AND RITUALS
The waka huia is a decorated
The beliefs of the Australian
Aboriginals are centered box hung from the ceiling of a
around the “Dreamtime,” a
complex set of creation myths Maori dwelling. It was used to
that give spiritual significance
to animals, plants, and sacred house the prized tail feathers
places. The Polynesian culture
of the Maori is similarly of the huia bird, a tabu
animist in its attitude to the
natural world, attributing (sacred) creature. wood carved with
spiritual power to diverse
animals and objects. stone chisel

Mourning armlet
Armlets made of tree bark
were worn by Aboriginal
women during dances of
mourning for the dead and
at the end of puberty rituals
to mourn the transition of
a child into adulthood.

Aboriginal painting
This painting on bark
features a kangaroo. But
its geometric elements
have symbolic
significance that may be
known only to initiates.

striped areas
represent
different clans

320 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900

REVOLUTION IN
LATIN AMERICA

In the 19th century, most of Central and South America—as well as
Haiti in the Caribbean—achieved independence from colonial rule and
slavery was abolished. But these victories left behind unsolved problems
of political instability, social inequality, and economic exploitation.

The catalyst for change in the coffee for European consumers. Illustrated atlas
European colonies was upheaval Although Britain outlawed trade in This atlas, in which the maps shown here appeared, was
in Europe itself. The French Revolution slaves in 1807, slavery continued created by Mexican geographer Antonio García Cubas.
of 1789 triggered a slave uprising in British West Indian colonies. He aimed to assert Mexican national identity and the
in France’s West Indian colony of country’s place in the world through his creation.
St. Domingue. The territory gained AN UNCERTAIN FUTURE
independence as Haiti in 1804, chart showing gold and
becoming the first black-ruled Slavery was abolished gradually and silver production
state in the Americas. in a piecemeal way over the next
80 years, with Brazil being the last Mining map
While Spain and Portugal were country to outlaw slavery, in 1888. Mexico was the world’s leading source of silver and
engulfed in the Peninsular War in After abolition, freed slaves often also mined gold, copper, and other metals. From the
Europe in 1807–08, their colonies joined the lower strata of hierarchical 1870s, US companies took over much of the Mexican
in Central and South America were in societies in which poverty and mining sector, modernizing production techniques
tumult. The local elite creoles (ethnic inequality were made worse by and rapidly expanding output at the expense of
Europeans born in the Americas) unfair land redistribution. domestic ownership.
began a struggle for independence in
the Spanish colonies. Simón Bolívar In Latin America, independence did Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla,
led the pro-independence forces in not lead to widespread prosperity or leader of War of
Colombia and Venezuela, and José de good government, merely to vacuums Independence, alongside
San Martín did the same in Argentina, of power and economic inequality. other heads of state and
Chile, and Peru. After tortuous and Military dictatorships were common, revolutionary heroes
prolonged conflicts, all the Spanish as were wars and civil conflicts.
colonies had become independent However, there were areas of successful
republics by 1826. Brazil split from development—Argentina, for example,
Portugal peacefully in 1822 and achieved rapid growth in the late 19th
appointed a scion of the Portuguese century, attracting a large influx of
royal family as its emperor. European settlers. Meanwhile, Brazil
experienced a “rubber boom” from the
In Brazil and on the Caribbean 1880s. But development was entirely
islands, a large majority of the based on investment from Europe and
population was of African origin. Most North America, and was designed to
were slaves working on plantations, serve the needs of the industrialized
producing crops such as sugar and countries, not the local people.

“A state too expensive in itself, Political map
or by virtue of its dependencies, Mexico was plagued by political instability and
ultimately falls into decay.” lawlessness. From 1876, Porfirio Díaz imposed a
dictatorship that brought order and stability at the
Simón Bolívar, military and political leader, Letter from Jamaica, 1815 expense of freedom. While foreign investors were
encouraged, hundreds of thousands of peasants
were dispossessed of communal land by reforms.

built with foreign capital, transportation and REVOLUTION IN LATIN AMERICA 321
communication facilities linked up productive
Manzanillo, now Mexico’s busiest
cities, cutting off rural interior regions port, opened the Pacific coast’s
first telegraph office in 1869

cross-section of railroad railway-building in difficult terrain, while urban life flourished,
between Mexico City such as Paso de la Mula, was a feat Mexican rural dwellers still
and Veracruz of British engineering lived in poverty and isolation

Transportation map
After gaining independence in the early 19th century, the countries of Central and
South America suffered social and economic stagnation. This map, published in 1885,
celebrates the belated takeoff of development in Mexico from the 1870s. Railroads,
electric telegraph lines, and modern port facilities, built using British and American
capital and expertise, tied Mexico into a rapidly expanding global economy.

322 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900 Peace token
US governments gave medals to American
TRADITION AND WAR Indian chiefs to encourage friendly relations.
IN NORTH AMERICA This medal was issued in 1801 under
President Thomas Jefferson.
At the time of the founding of the United States, most of North America was
occupied by Native peoples who sustained themselves by hunting, fishing,
or farming. These American Indians reacted to the growing influx of European
settlers in varied ways, from alliance to armed resistance.

By the waterfall ▷ When Europeans arrived at the end of in claiming land for white settlement. the United States’ Indian Removal
Painted by American the 15th century, North America was Although the sovereignty of Indian Act of 1830, the Civilized Tribes were
artist George Catlin occupied by hundreds of different nations was legally acknowledged, dispossessed of their lands. They
in the 1840s, these tribes speaking many different most transfers were forced on tribes were forcibly relocated in reservations
American Indians are languages, practicing distinctive by this new government. far to the west, treading what was
shown alongside the cultural traditions. Their world was eloquently named “the Trail of Tears”.
Horseshoe Falls at radically disrupted by the Europeans, RESISTANCE AND REMOVAL
Table Rock, Ontario. It who brought different ways of using Conflicts arose with the Plains
was a place of portage, the land and diseases such as smallpox. In the War of 1812, the Iroquois tribes, such as the Sioux, Cheyenne,
where native traders Introduction of the horse by the Confederation—the Cayuga, Mohawk, Comanche, and Kiowa, as Americans
and trappers carried Spanish in the southwest transformed Oneida, Onondaga, and Seneca— pushed roads and railroads into
their canoes on land the Plains; people could travel longer joined together under a spiritual and the Great Plains. Despite notable
around the Falls. distances to find bison, for their meat political alliance to resist treaties victories, especially at Little Bighorn
and hides and then transport them forced upon them and forged a in 1876, these tribes were defeated
to trade centers. At the same time, strategic alliance with the British. by superior firepower and the
European traders introduced firearms They were forced to remove to Canada destruction of the bison herds upon
in the northeast, which soon became following British defeat. The Shawnee which they relied. Government
essential for hunting and defending Chief Tecumseh similarly sought to agents continued to fear Indian
territory. These changes brought unite all Indian nations in the resistance and forbid gatherings for
increased warfare as tribes sought to Midwest into a powerful confederacy. ceremonies such as the Ghost Dance.
protect their traditional lands or He was killed by American forces; the When a group of Lakota gathered in
to gain access to trade resources. confederacy was smashed and those 1890 for a dance at Wounded Knee,
By the 18th century, the horse and involved lost their lands. South Dakota, they were massacred.
gun frontiers met and overlapped,
supporting new tribal ways of life. Many European practices were The fate of the Canadian native
blended into Indian cultural traditions peoples was less harsh than that of
During the colonial era, many tribes especially by the Cherokee, Creek, American Indians in the US. The tribes
were able to negotiate successfully Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole, of the Pacific Northwest coast, such
with the different foreign governments known as the Five Civilized Tribes. By as the Haida and Tlingit, maintained
that needed them as trading allies. the 1820s, the Cherokee had towns effective independence through the
However, that all changed when with two-story houses, a written 19th century, withstanding the effect
the English defeated the French, language, a police force, a judiciary, of European diseases and pressure to
followed by American independence and, from 1827, a written constitution. adopt Christianity. Further north, the
from England. A powerful unified But this availed them nothing, as was Inuit were protected to a large degree
government was formed, interested the case with the armed resistance of by geographical remoteness well into
the Creek and the Seminole. Under the 20th century.

“ One does not sell the land people walk on.”

Crazy Horse, American Indian war leader, September 23, 1875



324 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900

TRADE

Initially eager to acquire new goods and technologies,
American Indians gained useful items such as
manufactured cloth, glass beads, metal knives, and
firearms through trade with Europeans. But, by the
mid-19th century, reliable access to firearms and
ammunition had become essential to defend tribal
territory. Access to these new trade networks caused
population movements and competition.

iron tobacco hole drilled into shaft wampum means “white shell
bowl for smoking tobacco beads,” but purple beads
were of even higher value

Wampum belt

Crafted from pieces of shell, wampum became a

Pipe tomahawk valuable trade currency. Woven into a belt, like this
European traders invented the combined pipe
and tomahawk, and these were often presented Algonquin example, wampum could be used to mark animal hide
as diplomatic gifts. This model belonged to a a significant event or a transaction with Europeans. fringing
Miami chief.
Saddle bag
gun rest barrel Saddle bags were part of the gear used by
all the equestrian tribes. This example is from
the Plateau, where people were strategically
positioned to trade goods between the Great
Plains and California.

powder horn Flintlock rifle
The Inupiat people of Alaska obtained this musket through
trade in the 1800s, demonstrating that European goods
penetrated into even the remotest regions of the US.

WARRIOR TRADITIONS bow string
made of
All American Indian tribes tried to defend a sinew
territory that allowed them to carry out their
distinctive way of life. On the Great Plains, the
warrior tradition was especially honored. All
young men were expected to prove themselves
in battle, raiding for horses, or by defending
their own people.

leather strap used
to lash knife to wrist

Fighting knife carrying Decorated shield
The Tlingit people of the Pacific Northwest coast strap with The Taos Pueblo people of the southwestern
learned to make metal-bladed knives from the glass bead US carried animal-hide shields, decorated
Europeans. The handle of this example is topped decoration with feathers. Many shields were surrounded
with a totemic ivory carving. with feathers from spiritually powerful birds,
Bow, arrows and quiver such as eagles, crows, and hawks.
stone “rabbit’s hind handle When on horseback, Plains Indians
blade leg” design carried a combined quiver and eagle feathers
bowcase slung over their shoulder. typical of
Stone-bladed war club Some bows were made of wood
War clubs continued to be carried as an honored backed with sinew. Arrows were war shields
symbol of leadership even after they were no tipped with stone or metal.
longer used in battle.

Lakota Sioux war bonnet TRADITION AND WAR IN NORTH AMERICA 325
Warriors of the Sioux tribes of the Great Plains wore
eagle-feather bonnets. The feathers represented Forehead band
brave battle deeds performed by the man The blue-and-white glass
who wore the bonnet or the people he led. beads used to make this band
The Lakota Sioux were among the tribes were obtained from European
that defeated General George Custer traders. The red woolen cloth
and the US 7th Cavalry at the Battle is called “stroud,” after its
of the Little Bighorn in 1876. original place of manufacture
in Gloucestershire, England.
headdress made of 22
eagle feathers, finished

with red down

ribbons and
buckskin thongs

tufts made FULL VIEW
of horsehair,
attached to
feathers with

white clay

tail made of
35 eagle
feathers

red woolen
stroud cloth

each feather records
a brave deed in battle

326

CLOTHING AND buckskin decorative
ADORNMENT QUILLWORK MOTIF shoulder
fringe
American Indians made skillful
use of available natural materials
to create clothing that was both
practical and decorative. Animal
skins, such as deer hide, were
the basis for most attire. For
decoration, other animal products,
such as porcupine quills and horse
or moose hair, were often used,
along with glass beads supplied
by European traders.

glass beading
on sleeve

NASKAPI Chief’s leggings dyed Penobscot jacket
ADULT’S SHOE These leggings were worn by a chief of horsehair The Penobscot people of Maine in the
the Mandan people on the Missouri River northeastern US made this buckskin jacket,
around 1830. The stripes represent his tailored in a European style. It is decorated
various achievements. with glass beads acquired through trade.

narrow slits
allowing
vision

CREE CHILD’S Moccasins colored Snow goggles
Quilled with moose hair and made in moose hair The Inuit of Baffin Island, northern Canada,
SHOE Canada in the late 18th century, these made these wooden snow goggles. By
moccasins are exquisite examples of reducing vision to narrow slits, they decreased
Snowshoes American Indian craftwork. glare and avoided temporary snow blindness.
To help them travel during winter, American Indians
in Canada made snowshoes, using a birchwood
frame, rawhide netting, and moose skin.

BELIEFS AND RITUALS Potlatch hat ermine pelt
The peoples of the Pacific decoration
American Indian tribes each had Northwest coast held
distinct spiritual beliefs. Their social potlatches, in which family Decorated skull
life revolved around ceremonies and accumulated goods were crest This buffalo skull was
rituals designed to bring spiritual ceremonially distributed used by the Blackfeet
blessings. Spiritual leaders—priests, to guests. Each ring on in their Sun Dance. The eye and
shamans, and healers—helped this hat denotes a potlatch ceremony was performed nose cavities
people gain access to spiritual hosted by the wearer. to bring blessings to the were stuffed
assistance for health, hunting, and people through fasting with grass
success in a wide range of activities. woven strands prayer, and sacrifice. and sage
of spruce roots

real horsehair
mane

backward slanting
ears show fear
and pain

red paint signifies
blood seeping
from wounds

blood runs from
mouth in form of

red horsehair

TRADITION AND WAR IN NORTH AMERICA 327

HOME LIFE Birch bark knife specialized blade Pestle and mortar
The Penobscot people employed this to create two-tone Iroquois women prepared corn
Gender roles were strictly organized in the life knife for cutting the bark of birch trees patterns in birch bark kernels by shelling, boiling,
of American Indians. In most societies, women into sheets to make tents and canoes. washing, and drying them. They
gathered berries and planted crops, cooked and would then turn the kernels into
preserved food, erected dwellings, and made meal by laboriously pounding
clothes. Men mostly hunted and fished and them with a mortar and pestle.
defended their land. They also played a leading
role in the rituals and ceremonies considered wooden
essential to the tribe’s well-being. pestle

handle central barb
covered to stab fish
in hide

Pemmican hammer side barbs to Fishing spear mortar made
The Hidatsa of North Dakota used a stone- grip fish The Micmac people of Nova Scotia made from hollowed
headed tool to pound dried bison meat to a this spear to fish from canoes on lakes and
powder. Mixed with fat and berries, this formed rivers. They often fished at night, using tree trunk
a compact, high-protein food called pemmican. torches to draw the fish to the surface.

Stickball stick hide lash heavily woven
Many American Indian peoples played a ball game held ends webbing shows
called stickball. Northern tribes used one stick (modern together intricate style
lacrosse is derived from this version), while southern
tribes used two, with a stick held in each hand.

Ceremonial smoking pipe elongated pipe with extension for elk bone with
Smoking tobacco formed part pipestem attaching pipestem abalone inlay
of many religious ceremonies, in
which it was associated with prayer. small
This pipe belonged to the Kaskaskia frog
people of the Great Lakes region.
Soul catchers
In ceremonies to restore health, raven
shamans used soul catchers to head
capture a lost soul and return it
to the sick person’s body. These
soul catchers belonged to the
Tsimshian people.

real lower parts depict marriage
horsehair tail allegiances and other

Sioux Horse Dance stick important family events
Warriors carried carved sticks in
tribal ceremonies such as the Horse Haida totem pole
Dance. This stick, made around 1875, The peoples of the Pacific Northwest coast,
shows a horse with bullet wounds such as the Haida, sculpted totem poles out
and a bloodied mouth. of tree trunks. The figure of Raven is seen
as both the Great Creator and a rascal.

328 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900 Symbol of protest
This tea chest was one of those thrown
THE BIRTH OF THE into the harbor by Americans protesting
UNITED STATES against the iniquities of British rule at
the historic Boston Tea Party in 1773.
Born of an uprising against British rule in 1776, the United States was a bold
political experiment, a new kind of state embodying the principles of individual
rights and democracy—although at first exclusively for white people. In the first
century of its existence, the country experienced enormous growth in territory
and population, transforming itself into the world’s largest industrial power.

Bird’s-eye view ▷ North America was an arena of of contemporary Europe in having divisions. While the northern states,
Made in 1874, this conflict between British and French no mass of peasantry or formal in which slavery had been abolished,
view of Chicago colonialism in the mid-18th century. aristocracy, as well as no monarch. became a center of manufacturing,
shows a town that had The British victory in the French This made it, in European eyes, the cotton produced by slave labor in
grown out of the and Indian War of 1754–63 settled singularly democratic long before the South grew into a major export
prairie in 30 years to this issue in Britain’s favor, but voting rights were extended even crop. Whereas the Founding Fathers
become the second disagreements between Britain and to the entire white male population, of the US had imagined that slavery
largest city in the its 13 North American colonies which did not begin to happen until would fade away, it in fact expanded
United States. The rate mounted in the aftermath of the war. the 1820s. The country’s reputation rapidly through the first half of the
of expansion of the Colonists disputing the right of the as a land of freedom and opportunity 19th century. In 1861, a block of
American population British Parliament to impose taxes led to increasing immigration southern states seceded from the
and economy in the and duties on them staged rebellious through the 19th century. Union, precipitating a Civil War.
19th century was acts that provoked a repressive The Union victory in 1865 ensured
unprecedented. response. Escalating conflict led the THE CIVIL WAR that the country remained united.
colonists to unite in declaring Slavery was ended nationwide.
independence in 1776 and, with The territorial expansion of the US
French help, they defeated British more than matched its population AFTER THE WAR
efforts to suppress the rebellion. growth. In the Louisiana Purchase of
Most colonists who had remained 1803, the US paid France $15 million The war was followed by a burst
loyal to Britain left the country, for a vast swathe of territory from of economic growth that radically
many moving to Canada, which New Orleans to Montana. To the changed the nature of the US. Cities
remained in British hands. south, Florida was obtained from the such as New York and Cincinnati were
Spanish, and Mexico was forced by largely peopled with immigrants from
IN THE BEGINNING war to cede large areas from Texas to non-English-speaking countries. Their
California. Meanwhile, settlers pressed poverty contrasted with the fortunes
The new US had an initial population into the Midwest, with devastating of industrialists and railroad builders.
of around 4 million, similar in size effects on Native Americans. Industry and agriculture flourished
to the population of Ireland at that everywhere except in the depressed
time. They were farmers, merchants, By the mid-19th century, this South. By 1900, the US was the largest
lawyers, seafarers, and black slaves. territorial expansion, along with industrial producer in the world, with
American society differed from that economic growth, had brought to the a population of 76 million.
fore fundamental political and social

“The whole continent of North America appears…
destined… to be peopled by one nation.”

John Quincy Adams, who later became the 6th US President, in a letter to John Adams, August 31, 1811



330 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900

EXPLORATION, TRADE, Frémont stamp
AND TRANSPORT Known as the Pathfinder, explorer John
Charles Frémont led four expeditions across
The opening up of the American West, the American West between 1842 and 1848.
comprising regions west of the Mississippi, This commemorative stamp was issued in 1898.
began in 1803, when President Thomas
Jefferson ordered a military expedition, led by
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, to cross
the continent to the Pacific coast. Soon after,
cheap land and gold drew increasing numbers
of migrants westward. By the end of the 1860s,
the railway and the telegraph had established
rapid coast-to-coast communications.

Propaganda poster
The government of California produced
this poster in 1885 to draw immigrants to
the state, promoting the availability of
land and a pleasant climate as attractions.

Compass and carrying case compass
This pocket compass was used by encased in
army officers Lewis and Clark on their mahogany
expedition from the Mississippi to the box
Pacific coast in 1804–06.

Pony Express envelope
Between April 1860 and October 1861, Pony Express
riders carried mail from the westernmost railhead
at St. Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California.
They did so in 10 days, using several relay stations.

curved wagon
bed prevented

cargo from
sliding on

mountain slopes

Conestoga wagon
The heavy, horse-drawn
Conestoga wagon was
widely used in North
America in the 18th
and 19th centuries
for transporting
people and goods
over long distances.

331

POLITICS Anti-slavery medallion
AND POWER Designed by British abolitionist
Josiah Wedgwood in 1787, this
The Founding Fathers of the US medallion was adopted as a
symbol by the anti-slavery
Californian gold expressed lofty principles of freedom movement to abolish the slave
The discovery of this flake of gold at Sutter’s trade, and later slavery itself.
Mill in 1848 triggered the famous California and human rights, but the reality of
Gold Rush. The lure of gold drew 300,000 fine-grained,
migrants to the previously undeveloped state. American life included the enslavement unglazed stoneware
known as jasperware
of African Americans, the unbridled
Thirteenth Amendment
power of money, widespread Passed by the US Congress on
January 31, 1865, the Thirteenth
lawlessness, and unscrupulous law Amendment to the Constitution
abolished slavery within the US and
enforcement agencies. Even though in all territories under its jurisdiction.

slavery was abolished in 1865, the ideal cameo of
of equal rights was far from achieved. a kneeling

slave in chains

SLAVERY AND ABOLITION

FRONT BACK statement mentions that
map was sold for the
benefit of US Army’s
wounded soldiers

Gold coin
This 20-dollar coin was minted in 1849, after the
discovery of gold in California. The US adopted
the gold standard in 1873, thereby pegging the
value of the dollar to its gold reserves.

Confederate note
During the Civil War, the Confederacy issued
its own currency. The bills rapidly lost value and
had to be printed in ever higher denominations,
such as the 500-dollar note shown here.

engraved names of railway Distribution of slavery gray pattern indicates Harper’s Weekly cover
This map, based on the 1860 census, shows the percentage of slaves This image shows African-American
Golden Spike officers and directors distribution of slaves in the Southern states. Cotton in each state males casting their votes in Virginia
produced using slave labor in the South was the in 1867. This right, however, was soon
This ceremonial spike was used to mark main export crop during the mid-19th century. widely denied in most Southern states.

the completion of the first transcontinental LAW AND ORDER

railway in 1869, when lines from the east

and west met at Promontory Summit, Utah.

Pinkerton
logo represents
“all-seeing eye”

Texas Ranger’s badge Agent’s badge Prison guard badge
Founded as a self-defence force Founded in 1852, the Pinkerton National Many prisons were built to reform
in 1823, the Texas Rangers became Detective Agency was a formidable private criminals, including Arizona’s Yuma
America’s first state law-enforcement organization that used unscrupulous Penitentiary. Prisoners were harshly
agency. It was ruthless towards American methods to suppress bands of outlaws treated, working in labor gangs or
Indians and in combating outlaws. and break strike actions by labor unions. subjected to solitary confinement.

332 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900

Preamble begins with “We the People,“ Article I describes statement of what
echoing Declaration of Independence, structure and legislative Constitution
which spoke of “One People“ powers of Congress
aims to achieve

THE BIRTH OF THE UNITED STATES 333

SUPREME LAW OF THE UNITED STATES

Article I, THE US CONSTITUTION
Section 8
establishes The founding of the United States of hostile to the idea of the loss of states’
legislative America began in 1776 through a revolt rights and a strong government. The
powers of against British rule by 13 separate larger states wanted representation
Congress but North American colonies (see p.328). As in proportion to their populations,
sets limits to a necessity of the joint struggle against while the smaller ones desired equal
its powers too Britain, Articles of Confederation were representation. As a compromise, two
agreed. These allowed the Congress houses, which together made up the
Article II refers that represented the former colonies Congress, were set up. A lower house,
to the President to act in limited ways as a federal the House of Representatives, would
and other government. After independence have proportional representation, with
executive posts was won in 1783, this makeshift each slave counting as three-fifths of
arrangement remained in place. In a person. An upper house, the Senate,
Article III practice, each state pursued its own would have two representatives from
establishes interests under its own constitution. each state. Under the Separation of
Supreme Court Powers, the power of the executive
as highest BUILDING A GOVERNMENT (President) would be checked by the
federal court legislature (Congress) and the judiciary.
in United States Provoked by the economic difficulties
Article IV that followed the war for independence, A NEW CONSTITUTION
concerns Massachusetts faced an armed uprising
relationship called Shays’ Rebellion in 1786. The Convention came to an agreement
between state Although the rebellion was quelled, on the Constitution in September 1787.
and federal it impressed upon the wealthy elite But further concessions had to be made
powers who governed the states the importance to quell fears of excessive government
of a strong central authority to resist powers, including a proposal for
popular revolts. In order to set up this amendments to the Constitution by
authority, all states except Rhode Island a Bill of Rights. Finally ratified by 12
sent delegates to a Constitutional states, the Constitution came into force
Convention at Philadelphia in 1787. in March 1789, with Rhode Island
reluctantly ratifying it the following
Virginian statesman James Madison year. Unanimously elected, George
played a key role in the development Washington became the first President
of the Constitution. The process was of the United States in April 1789.
contentious—many delegates were

Article V concerns amendments THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
to Constitution, setting out
process by which it may be altered

Article VI asserts precedence of The Declaration of Independence, ratified on July 4, 1776, was
Constitution over state laws written by the US statesman Thomas Jefferson. When setting
out the reasons for the colonies’ revolt against British rule, he
Article VII details necessary ratification wrote “all men are created equal” with the right to “Life, Liberty,
to set proposed Constitution in action and the pursuit of Happiness.” He also stated that governments
derive “their just powers from the consent of the governed.”
George Washington’s
signature

James Madison’s
signature

Original Constitution
The original four-page draft of the Constitution was signed on
September 17, 1787. Although it set out the political and legal
arrangements for the United States, it did not define exactly
who had the right to vote. Ten amendments were made to
the Constitution in 1791 by the Bill of Rights, including the
right to freedom of religion and speech, and the right to bear arms.

334 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900

BATTLE AND CONFLICT Brown Bess musket
In the American War of Independence, the flintlock
The US was born in the War of Independence musket was used as a standard weapon both by British
(1775–83), when its Continental Army, with infantry and George Washington’s Continental Army.
the help of the French, defeated the British.
In the Civil War of 1861–65, the Union pan cover Pennsylvania rifle
forces of the North fought to prevent the American frontiersmen were expert marksmen with long-
secession of the Confederacy—the slave barrelled rifles such as this one. They were far more accurate
states of the South. This war, the bloodiest than the muskets used by European and Continental armies.
in US history, cost 600,000 lives.
hammer
gunpowder lock plate
wrapped in paper

Paper cartridge
The Civil War infantryman’s
ammunition included a paper
cartridge containing gunpowder
and a lead bullet. The cartridge
was rammed down the musket
barrel using a ramrod.

trigger guard and Spencer rifle
breech-operating lever Breech-loaded repeating rifles firing metal cartridges
were used in the Civil War by some Union forces,
butt contains retaining spring especially the cavalry. The breech is an internal chamber
tubular magazine for barrel band to the rear of the barrel. This rifle could fire seven
with rounds rounds before being reloaded.

bayonet
mounting tube

SPIKE BAYONET

Springfield rifle musket bronze barrel
The basic infantry weapon of the Civil
cardboard War was a musket with a rifled barrel and
stabilizing a bayonet attached to the muzzle. Rifle
fin muskets were superior to flintlock muskets
in accuracy, range, and rate of fire.
Ketchum grenade
These hand grenades Solid shot
were used by Union This 12-pound
infantry when attacking solid shot was
Confederate trenches and the standard
fortifications. A percussion ammunition for the
cap in the nose set off the Napoleon cannon.
main gunpowder charge.
wooden
sabot with
gunpowder
charge

trail enabled gun Napoleon cannon
to be towed The French Model 1857 gun-howitzer
was the most widely used artillery piece
in the Civil War. Known as the Napoleon
cannon, it had a range of almost a mile.

THE BIRTH OF THE UNITED STATES 335

forward ramrod leather grip Confederate sword
sling swivel wrapped This sword belonged to a Confederate infantry officer. Often,
in twisted it would have been used as a symbol of rank or a tool to
command soldiers in battle, rather than as a weapon.
brass wire

long, rifled Union saber curved,
barrel Carried by Union cavalrymen in the Civil War, single-edged
sabers were of limited use on battlefields dominated
by heavy firepower. Cavalry most often fought blade
dismounted, firing a short rifle called a carbine.
barrel band retains
barrel in stock fore sight

bayonet lug

forward sling upright
swivel collar

Civil War kepis braiding signifies
The kepi, a flat hat with officer’s rank
a visor, was issued to
officers in both Union UNION OFFICER’S KEPI CONFEDERATE OFFICER’S KEPI
and Confederate armies wood shell
during the Civil War. The
wide-brimmed slouch
hat was also widely worn.

slider keeps CONFEDERATE JACKET
drum skin
taut

shoulder strap
signifies rank
and branch
of service

US national SHELL JACKET
symbol
Civil War jackets
French cuff The Union forces adopted blue uniforms,
efficiently manufactured in Northern factories,
Union army drum while the homespun Confederate uniforms
As well as keeping time were regulation gray or butternut in color.
on parades, drums were
used to convey orders on
the battlefield. Drummer
boys were the youngest
soldiers in the Civil War,
many under the age of 16.

336 INDUSTRY AND INDEPENDENCE 1750–1900

stars sewn
into blue

background

indigo-dyed
wool

space where
one of

original 15
stars, cut out

and given
away in
1800s,

originally
appeared

one of 37
patches used

to repair
flag at

different times
by different
people

red stripes
are made of

wool dyed
with madder,

a plant
pigment

THE BIRTH OF THE UNITED STATES 337

SYMBOL OF A NEW NATION

THE STAR-SPANGLED
BANNER

fifteen stripes, The Stars and Stripes was adopted as anthem. In 1814, the British sent
one for each the flag of the United States in 1777. a seaborne force to attack coastal
state of the Its original 13 stars and stripes— America, landing at Washington in
Union in 1814 representing the colonies that had August. They burned down government
declared independence in 1776—were buildings and moved on to attack the
expanded to 15 each when Vermont port of Baltimore. On September 13,
and Kentucky became states in 1795. It Fort McHenry, defending the approach
was this version of the flag that became to the port, was bombarded by the
one of the most famous symbols of Royal Navy. The solid shot, explosive
American patriotism in 1814. shells, and Congreve rockets did only
light damage to the recently fortified
A SECOND WAR position and, after nightfall, British
troops were ordered ashore. The
Between 1812 and 1815, the US fought following morning, the fort’s garrison
a second war against Britain. The raised its largest flag to signal that the
British, at war with France, had fort was still under American control.
blockaded American trade and forced Unsure of the number of American
American sailors into British military soldiers defending the position, the
service. Further motivated by the British troops soon withdrew and the
unsuccessful ambitions of some of the attack on Baltimore was abandoned.
hawkish American politicians to take
over British-held Canada by force, the THE BIRTH OF AN ANTHEM
US was moved to a declaration of war.
The battle was fought on a small scale The brief Battle of Baltimore was
and had no practical consequences. In observed by American lawyer and poet
the end, both sides accepted a return to Francis Scott Key. Inspired by the
the prewar status quo. But the conflict sight of the flag billowing over Fort
played a vital role in confirming a sense McHenry, he jotted down the poem
of American national identity. that later became known as “The
Star-Spangled Banner.” Set to music, it
One of the key events of the war—the soon became a popular patriotic song,
Battle of Baltimore—created not only although it was not formally adopted as
a fresh sense of patriotism, but also the US national anthem until 1931.
inspiration for the country’s national

FLAGS OF THE CIVIL WAR

anchor added by
owner to indicate
his sea service

edge of flag is
missing, snipped
off for souvenirs

Giant banner Old Glory Confederate flag Colored troops’ flag
The flag that flew over Fort McHenry During the Civil War, a Stars The Confederate’s original African Americans fought
in 1814 had been commissioned by and Stripes flag nicknamed “Stars and Bars” flag was on the Union side in the Civil
Garrison Commander Major George “Old Glory” was hidden by its easily confused with the War in segregated “colored”
Armistead the year before, when owner in rebel-held Nashville. Union’s Stars and Stripes. regiments. Flown by the
the fort’s command was changed from He unfurled it to greet the They adopted this battle flag 84th Regiment, this flag lists
a militia unit to an Army unit. It Union troops in 1862. to make the distinction clear. some of their battles.
measured 42 ft (12.8 m) by 30 ft (9.1 m).

The 20th century was marked by astounding advances, with
humanity's capacity to invent and create making the world
seem smaller. From medical breakthroughs to the evolution of
digital technology, change moved at a staggering pace. Horse-
drawn carriages made way for cars, and myriad innovations in
design shaped the way people lived, worked, and travelled. It
was also a century scarred by conflict. Two world wars and the
rise and fall of communism caused violence on a massive scale.

A SHRINKING 1900–PRESENT
WORLD

340 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

A CENTURY OF
FLIGHT

From a faltering flight in 1903 to supersonic travel today, it has taken less than
a hundred years for aircraft to transform our lives. Innovations in flight have
radically changed the way we travel, explore, distribute goods, and wage war.

World tour ▷ The desire to fly is as old as discovered that planes had uses other
When aircraft engines civilization itself, but the challenge than recreation; they could be used
became lighter, more that faced engineers of the 20th as a weapon of war.
powerful, and reliable, century was to make a flying
it made possible the machine that could not only stay in Other challenges preoccupied
start of scheduled the air but also be controlled. This aviators. The Americans Charles
domestic and finally happened when bicycle Lindbergh and Amelia Earhart
international flights. mechanics Wilbur and Orville became national heroes when they
This 1949 poster Wright flew the first fixed-wing crossed the Atlantic on solo flights.
advertised the Pan aircraft in 1903. Their breakthrough The fledgling airline industry took
American Pacific led to a plethora of planes being off, and aircraft were transformed
Clipper’s around-the- designed and built. Aircraft from small biplanes to giant jet
world flight. production boomed when it was carriers, transporting millions of
travelers all around the world.

FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT

The history of flight is full of heroes who took

spindly, crude, and underpowered craft and

attempted to make their devices stay airborne.

From gliders to boxed kites, the development of

fixed-wing craft made manned flight a reality,

using forward motion that generates lift as the

wing moves through the air. wires warp wings spruce airframe
and turn rudder
simultaneously twin Wright Flyer
propellers The first fixed-wing plane to be taken on a
controlled flight, the Flyer made history on
rear-mounted Bristol F.2B Fighter December 17, 1903, when it stayed
Lewis gun One of the most popular and versatile airborne for 12 seconds at 120 ft (37 m).
planes of WWI, the “Biff” was the first
two-seater fighter plane used by the
British Royal Flying Corps.

fabric-covered
fuselage

exhaust rudder controls bracing wires keep
pipe direction of flight frame stiff

LVG C.VI chimney-
Chiefly used as a reconnaissance and like exhaust
artillery spotting aircraft during WWI,
the German C.VI continued in service
as late as 1940 in Lithuania.

wooden
fuselage

elevator for pitch
control

wooden wing bracing A CENTURY OF FLIGHT 341
propeller wires
Walnut propeller
sprung twisted wing allows This smooth, laminated,
undercarriage roll control two-blade propeller,
6½ ft (2 m) in diameter,
FRONT VIEW Brass fuel tank was designed
A small, barrel-like to withstand the
tubular struts fuel tank was Channel crossing
support wires installed horizontally without splitting.
between the engine
and the cockpit. In Rudder
cramped conditions, Two foot pedals
it lay in front of the controlled the rudder,
pilot’s seat. seen here. This new
system helped solve the
single set of problem of controlling
wings creates less direction while airborne.
drag than biplane

tailplane REAR VIEW tip elevator
braced by rod

wings reinforced
by ribs

Blériot XI WHEEL-SHAPED STICK GRIP
Frenchman Louis Blériot was a prolific
aircraft designer. When the British Daily
Mail newspaper offered £1,000 to
anyone who could fly across the English
Channel, Blériot created this plane,
which managed the feat in 37 minutes
on July 25,1909. A monoplane, the
Blériot XI was a major advance in design.

airframe made of
strong, flexible wood

wires to WING- bungee cord
control elevator WARPING suspension
BELLCRANK
bicycle-style
wheels

342 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT wing-mounted engines

visible radial
“Whirlwind” engine

Spirit of St. Louis wooden Dornier Do-X
The famous Spirit of St. Louis, a tiny two-blade A true giant, this was the largest flying
monoplane, carried American aviator Charles propeller boat when it was built in 1929, with
Lindbergh from New York to Paris nonstop in 12 engines and three decks. It flew
1927. The journey took 33.5 hours. passengers in luxury on international
flights before WWII.
efficient wing section
with powerful flaps fabric-covered fuselage

Douglas DC-2 wing with rounded Polikarpov Po-2
The revolutionary Douglas raised cruising speeds, tip to improve Originally designed as a trainer biplane
opening up new opportunities to “sell speed” in in the 1920s, this Soviet utility aircraft
the 1930s. For the first time, commercial flights altitude performance soon had many uses in WWII, from
became possible. light attacks and night raids, to
Lockheed XC-35 dropping propaganda.
twin engines In 1937, the first airplane specifically built
with a pressurized cabin took to the air. cockpit raised
Pressurization allows safe and comfortable above main
travel, even at high altitudes. deck

fuselage fabric over fuselage with nose cone
steel frame circular cross
section

tail braced
by wires

Piper J3 Cub tail wheel steered all-metal nose gear has
Almost 20,000 units of this aircraft were produced during by springs construction two wheels
its 10-year run. Many of these were the L-4 “Grasshopper”
military variant, used by the US for training during WWII. mid-upper gun turret pilot and flight engineer nose gun
sat side-by-side turret

tail gun turret bomb bay unobstructed bomb-aimer’s
by landing gear position

Avro Lancaster
The Avro Lancaster became Britain’s
most recognized four-engine night
bomber during WWII. Its bay could hold
up to 14,000lb (6.356kg) of bombs.

heavy, hinged A CENTURY OF FLIGHT 343
canopy
THE JET ENGINE

nose-mounted guns

tail wheel retracts
into fuselage

powerful but unreliable

Messerschmitt Me 262 turbojet engine rudder

With a top speed of 540 mph (869 km/h)

the Messerschmitt was the world’s first The first successful gas turbine aircraft engine
(above) was run on a test bench in Britain by
turbojet fighter and regarded as the Frank Whittle in 1937. Ten tubular combustion
chambers gave it unprecedented thrust. The
best fighter plane of WWII. bubble canopy gives Germans were the first to actually fly a jet
aircraft, the Heinkel He 178, in 1939. After
good all-around visibility WWII, the jet engine revolutionized air
transportation, reducing travel time and costs.

Eurofighter Typhoon engine
Regarded as one of the most nozzle
advanced combat aircraft, the
twin-engine Eurofighter Typhoon laser-guided short range
is deployed for air-to-air, and bomb air-to-air missile
air-to-surface duties.
nose wheel external
upper deck gives retracts rearward fuel tank
distinctive shape
high sweep angle of
wings for speed and

efficiency

four wing-mounted tail exhaust
engines provides power
to aircraft on
the ground

Boeing 747
The world’s first “jumbo” jet was capable of
handling almost 500 passengers. It became
one of the most influential and admired
passenger aircraft ever built.

HELICOPTERS main rotor blade vertical fin
provides lift provides high-speed
The first helicopter to raise itself in free flight was designed by
Paul Cornu, a French bicycle dealer, in 1907. The establishment windshield with directional control
of the helicopter industry took off with Igor Sikorsky’s panoramic visibility
development of the first practical single-rotor helicopter in Bell 206 JetRanger
1938 in the US. It spawned hundreds of helicopter types, Cierva C8 Autogiro An aircraft with the speed of
from tiny one-man carriers to fearsome war machines. Huge advances in vertical takeoff and landing a jet, and the “go anywhere”
came with Spaniard Juan del la Cierva’s Autogiro capability of a helicopter,
articulated rotor blade of the 1920s. It had a freely turning rotor, which the JetRanger is the most
can move independently is now used on almost all helicopters. successful and widely used
helicopter ever built.
of other blade

fuselage based on
biplane structure

344 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

TRANSPORTATION
FOR THE MASSES

Amazing advances in transportation took place during the 20th century. By the
century’s end, journeys took hours, not days, and mass travel became the norm.
The evolution of automobiles and trains transformed society and everyday life.

Streamlined The invention of the internal together, giving people the freedom
beauty ▷ combustion engine in the 19th to travel when and where they
This poster from 1941 century accelerated the pace of life wanted. Long-distance railroad lines
showcases the Empire in the 20th. At the turn of the 20th reduced the time it took to cross
State Express, a century, however, it was inconceivable entire continents. Journeys that
long-haul, stainless- that the average worker could afford previously took months were now
steel passenger train to buy a car, let alone leave home to completed in days. Holidays and
built in the Art Deco take a vacation. days out at the seaside became a
style. Powered by a reality for many families. Steam
huge steam engine, This all changed with Henry Ford’s engines were replaced with
the train provided groundbreaking introduction of the streamlined diesel passenger trains,
comfortable, factory assembly line, which turned and the electrification of the railroad
affordable travel. out cheaper, mass-produced vehicles. system encouraged widespread travel.
The car and the motorbike evolved

headlight aerodynamic
chimney
TRAINS
engine number front
The train became a vibrant form of on smokebox buffer
transport in the 20th century as a door
result of improvements to track and
engines that revolutionized the streamlined
railways. Although steam reigned shape
supreme for many decades, electric
and diesel trains became increasingly walkway
competitive rivals. When the first to support
high-speed passenger service opened in boiler work
Japan in 1964, it cut the journey time
from Tokyo to Osaka from 6.5 to 4 hours. LNER Class A4
Today’s high-speed trains are faster still The British 1938 Mallard captured the world
and can even compete with air travel. speed record for a steam locomotive,
reaching a top speed of 126mph (202km/h).
VGN Class SA air reservoir
Built for the Virginian Railroad in 1910, this
massive steam locomotive was used for footboard to
moving rail freight around, or “switching.” support crew
It was retired in 1957.
steam dome brass bell
light SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW

coal
bunker

TRANSPORTATION FOR THE MASSES 345

MOTORCYCLES single-cylinder blackout light for non-reflective,
engine night combat drab paint
From clumsy machines to sleek conditions
symbols of personal power, the BAT 2½ HP Harley-Davidson WLC
motorcycle has evolved from a Made in 1904, this modified bicycle with an adaptive system This is one of over 90,000 Harley-Davidsons
wooden bicycle fitted with a steam engine had a sprung saddle. It was used in keeps headlight produced during WWII, spawning a postwar
engine to a speedy sports vehicle. competitive racing and set numerous records. level as bike turns biker culture.
Used extensively by soldiers during
wartime and by police officers now, heated seat
motorcycles are regarded by many
as one of the most exciting forms
of transportation in the world.

side panel traditional yet
stylish fuel tank

spare wheel

leg shield

Lambretta LD 150 four-cylinder BMW K1600 GT
This classic 1950s Italian scooter, the first to engine This modern bike has a powerful six-cylinder
feature full sized leg-shields and protective side engine and is designed to carry two people in
panels, became a youth fashion accessory. Honda CB750 comfort on long-haul rides.
The first Japanese superbike, this 1970 model
boasted power, reliability, and performance.
It was able to reach 125 mph (201 km/h).

bullet nose number plate centrally
mounted on positioned
headlight driver’s seat
smokebox with tail
headlight
pilot light light above with tail
lamp
light below

cattle Modified DR V100
guard The diesel-fuelled East German DR V100 was built as
a passenger and goods train between 1966 and 1985.
Indian Railways Class WP It was also exported to other Communist countries.
After WWII, the WP became the standard
Indian passenger locomotive. This engine automated sliding
was named Akbar, after the Mughal emperor. doors

safety line warns crew of
overhead power cables

FRONT VIEW

British Rail Class 395
The super-fast and stylish electric Javelin
is Britain’s fastest commuter train, with

a 140 mph (225 km/h) top speed.
It was designed by Japanese
manufacturer Hitachi.

SIDE VIEW

346 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT

CARS open driving
compartment
More than any other invention, the automobile has transformed
everyday life. As inventors raced to make the first “road Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost
locomotive,” German engineering was complemented by French One of the most famous cars of all time, the Silver
flair and American enterprise. Innovation accelerated after WWII Ghost was designed in 1906. With a top speed of
and the modern vehicle took shape. Cars now have more 69 mph (110 km/h), it was silent and smooth.
computing power than was needed to take man to the moon.

tiller steering

headlight

wooden
wheels with
detachable rims

Benz Ideal rear-wheel
By 1900, when the Ideal was unveiled, Karl Benz brakes only
was the world’s leading car manufacturer. He had
made the first successful car in 1885.

extended nose

Citroën Type A
Europe’s first mass-produced car, the 1919 Type A was
powered by a 1.3-liter four-cylinder engine with a three-
speed gearbox. This French car was versatile and reliable.

drum brakes on
all four wheels

gently curving roof

Alfa Romeo 6C 1750
The most famous Alfa Romeo model, the 1750 had
separate road and racetrack versions. With a top speed
of 68–106 mph (110–170 km/h) it easily outperfomed
the competition in 1929.

front-opening
hood

full whitewall tires long wheelbase Lincoln-Zephyr
An American success story, the 1936 Zephyr had
a sleek, streamlined body, starting a styling trend
that would dominate the 1930s.

TRANSPORTATION FOR THE MASSES 347

Ford F-1 front trunk rear-
Ford’s legendary F-Series began in 1948 mounted
with eight levels of trucks. The F-1 was engine
a half-ton pickup. Ford sales hit record
air vent numbers, and the truck has endured.

running board Volkswagen Beetle
extends to rear Commissioned by Adolf Hitler during
WWII and designed by Ferdinand Porsche,
mudguard the “People’s Car” remains a design icon
and the best-selling car of all time.

roof folded back

Cadillac Series 62 mudguard
The massive fins and bullet taillights of this skirt
1959 Cadillac made it one of the most
chrome trim flamboyant and iconic cars of the decade.

driver’s seat above exposed
front wheels hinges

slightly recessed Austin Mini Seven
doors emphasize Small, but with space and pace, the Mini was
Britain’s first truly classless car, symbolic of
dynamic style the relaxed 1960s. It became the most
popular British car ever made.
Volkswagen Type 2
Recognized all over the world, Ferrari F40
inspiring affection and fanatical loyalty, the Launched in 1987 to commemorate
Type 2 was a “minibus” that became the Ferrari’s 40th anniversary, the F40 was the
symbol of nomadic hippydom. world’s fastest car, with a top speed of
201 mph (324 km/h).
small trunk

forward-lifting
hood

streamlined,
wind-resistant

design

Toyota Prius
Powered by a gas engine and an
electric battery, the Prius was the first
mass-produced hybrid car when it was
launched in Japan in 1997.

348 A SHRINKING WORLD 1900 TO PRESENT Engine
The four-cylinder engine
Steering wheel was simple and efficient.
Placed on the left, this wooden steering Cast in a single block, it
wheel spearheaded the left-hand drive was rated at 20 hp, giving
configuration. The spark and throttle levers a top speed of 45 mph
were mounted on the steering column. (72 km/h).

Speedometer Headlight
The speedometer was driven by a cog and a Made of brass, the
fragile cable, which often snapped. The speed headlights were fueled
restriction in 1910 was 10–12 mph (16–19 km/h) by acetylene gas created
in most American towns. by a generator.

Tin Lizzie windshield partly shields hand-powered, buttoned leather
In 1908, Henry Ford brought motoring to occupant from splashes klaxon-style horn upholstery
the masses with his Model T. He wanted or dirt from road
a car that the average worker could afford—a
car for all. Built using strong materials, raised eccentric pedal layout
high off the ground, and boasting three- (clutch, reverse, brake)
point suspension, the Model T was able to
endure the often unsurfaced, poor-quality
roads of the time.

water temperature
gauge on top of
radiator grille

front-mounted
engine

footplate on cylinder stores high ground clearance
running board acetylene to for challenging road
power lights conditions

wooden wheels (replaced
with wire in 1926)