- 240 - Literature Review i. Smart City According to the Smart City Framework Malaysia (MSCF) (2019–2025), a smart city is any place that makes use of information and communication technology (ICT) and cutting-edge technology to address local issues and challenges in order to improve the economy, quality of life, and environmental sustainability. Furthermore, the term "smart city" refers to a broader definition that takes into account both an economic and environmental viewpoint in addition to the sociotechnical approach (Rani and Boubekeur, 2020). Kee and Ching (2020) defined a smart city as one where investments in traditional and modern ICT communication infrastructure, along with a high quality of life, as well as the management of natural resources and government. ii. Smart Tourism Smart Tourism is a combination of ICT and tourism, signifying the technological influence in the tourism industry. Gretzel et al. (2015), states that it suggests a new tourism approach based on the application of cutting-edge information technology to change travelling experiences into a more sustainable, efficient, and enriching ways. The idea of a "smart city" has gained traction in tourism as the development of software environments that provide access of information on tourists. The information on tourists may include reviews, ratings, and recommendations from travelers for lodging, eateries and drink outlets and sites of cultural importance (Figueredo et al., 2018). This shows that Smart Tourism is developing on the basis of data created by the information being collected, exchanged, and processed. Smart Tourism can be divided into 3 components which are Smart Experience, Smart Business Ecosystem and Smart Destination (Gretzel et al, 2015). a) Smart Destination: Defined as the destinations utilizing the available technology to co-create value, pleasure and experiences for the tourist (Guo, 2014). b) Smart Experience: Focuses on technology-mediated tourism experiences and their enhancement through personalization, context awareness and real-time monitoring (Buhalis, 2015). c) Smart Business Ecosystem: Consists of complex business ecosystem that creates and supports the exchange of touristic resources and the co-creation of the tourism experience (Gretzel et al, 2015). iii. Heritage Tourism in Malaysia Heritage tourism, which includes travel to locations, artifacts, and events that accurately depict the histories and cultures of the past, is one of the new trends that have led to the tourist sector's substantial contribution to the Malaysian economy (National Trust, 2014). Heritage tourism is not relatively new since in Malaysia, there have been 5 heritage sites that have been recognized by UNESCO. This has a huge impact on Malaysia’s economy and its tourism development. This statement is supported by Jabil Mapjabil et. Al (2021), due to its substantial impact on the national economy and local communities, the tourism sector is one of the development agendas that most nations in the world, including Malaysia. Malaysia government has also made some strategies to help in developing tourism to meet some of the objectives such as enhanced foreign exchange earnings, rising income levels and employment prospects, promoting regional development, diversifying the economy, and boosting government revenue (Ahmad Tharmizzie, 2010; Jabil Mapjabil et. Al, 2021).
- 241 - iv. Heritage Tourists There is a lot of ways to define heritage tourist according to past studies. For example, Zhou, J et al., (2021) defined cultural heritage tourist as "travelling to engage in experiences and locations that faithful traveling capture the narratives and characters of the past and present”. Heritage tourist can also be defined as individuals appreciating the emotional connection and historic values attached to heritage townscapes (Hakala et al. 2011; Nabendu Sekhar Kar et al. 2020). Across all of these definitions, one element is consistent: which is the heritage tourist’s main interest is to finding out regarding the elements of heritage in an area. Tourists who partake in understanding the collection of both intangible and material components that together define a place's identity (Hossain, 2024). Torralba (2015) states that, there is a broad range of traits that fit the description of the heritage tourists. This statement is supported by Alcocer et al (2019), which states that imply that different tourists may have different motivations for participating in cultural activities and that their level of engagement with the historical-culture experience may also differ. The reason for tourist to visit heritage sites may vary depending on the reasons for taking a cultural visit, adding to a profile of this kind of visitor that is distinguished by a high-income level and driven by additional cultural activities like going to a festival, seeing monuments, or meeting people from different backgrounds and cultures (Chen and Huang 2018; Antón et al. 2017; Ramires et al. 2018). There are 5 types of heritage tourists by Alcocer et al. (2020): Table 1: Types of cultural tourists based on ‘Measurement of Satisfaction in Sustainable Tourism: A Cultural Heritage Site in Spain Types of Heritage Tourists Definition Complete Heritage Tourist One whose primary purpose for visiting is cultural tourism and who aims to a far more meaningful cultural encounter Heritage Visitor Even if heritage tourism is the primary reason for travel, these tourists are not looking for a deep encounter Heritage Discoverer Despite not traveling for cultural purposes, this visitor still has a significant cultural encounter. Heritage Casual Seeking for heritage experience while travelling, yet this is not the primary reason. Heritage Accidentally Their primary reason for traveling is not heritage. Though this tourist ends up taking part in heritage activity by accident (Source: Alcocer et al., 2020) Methodology i. Phase 1: Conceptual Phase The conceptual phase will consist of literature review, existing research reports as well as questionnaire survey. The key sources for the research are methods of observation and interview activities. Secondary sources include books, websites, newspapers, journals, journal guidelines, magazines, government reports, and historical data. This phase is the process of identifying research problems and objectives. ii. Phase 2: Empirical Phase The study will be using one of the qualitative research methods which is a questionnaire will be used in order to get the data regarding the tourist activities and expectations from the heritage sites. This approach is utilized to obtain a true image of the issues present
- 242 - in the study. The findings of questionnaire from respondents are going to be used to as the primary data. The questions will be on how the respondents benefitted from impacts of Smart Tourism towards heritage tourism and how they accept changes brought by its components. iii. Phase 3: Analytic Phase Through this study, the researcher chose to use the descriptive analysis method to give a true image of the scope of the study. This method of descriptive analysis involves data processing obtained through the questionnaires. This analysis focuses on a specific theme which aims to know in more detail and be able to prove something that related to a specific theme. Therefore, the purpose of the descriptive analysis is to produce a discovery based on the theme of a main subject. Findings Based on the literature study, early findings regarding Smart Tourism for heritage tourists' experiences at the World Heritage Site Melaka could have a positive impact. The Smart Tourism concept can greatly improve heritage tourists' experiences exploring Malacca's historical and cultural assets. One of the Smart Tourism components which is Smart Experience are being focused to provide visitors immersive and customized experiences that deepen their understanding of the site's heritage values. Examples of these initiatives would include smartphone applications that offer augmented reality tours, interactive exhibitions, and location-based services. Moreover, preliminary findings suggest that Smart Tourism offers to sustainably grow the tourist industry by reducing negative impacts on the site's authenticity and the local community. These initiatives aim to fulfill the changing demands and expectations of heritage visitors while ensuring the preservation of Melaka's historical values for future generations. With the help of technology, it can improve tourist and destination management such as controlling tourist flows, minimizing congestion, and encouraging responsible tourism activities. However, as smart concept is still considered to be evolving, there is still a few challenges that need to be addressed to fully achieve the potential of Smart Tourism in Malacca. Challenges such as digital gap, privacy concerns, and the need for ongoing innovation and adaptation remain areas that need to be resolved in the future. Results and Further Inquires The following study must identify ways that Smart Tourism be implemented in the area. The study also needs to understand the impacts of Smart Tourism towards the historical landmarks and how it improves heritage tourists’ expectation. These are several research questions that have be prepared to be use a guide for the study: i. What are the Smart Tourism components that are suitable to be used in heritage tourism development? ii. How does Smart Tourism and its components impact towards World Heritage Site development? iii. What are the impacts of Smart Tourism and its components towards heritage tourists’ experience?
- 243 - Conclusion The purpose of the study is to provide a deeper knowledge of the effects of Smart Tourism on heritage tourism. Identifying the suitable components are important because it can affect the type of impacts of Smart Tourism towards the heritage sites itself. By integrating Smart Tourism and heritage tourism, it can improve tourists’ experiences while preserving its historical and cultural integrity. Heritage sites may provide visitors with immersive experiences with the help of digital advancements like augmented reality, smartphone applications, and IoT integration. This can improve the tourists’ experience as well as the heritage site itself. Since Malacca is a well-known heritage site, this can also improve the heritage sector in Malacca and boost the economy of the area. The implementation of smart concept in heritage sites are align with the Malaysia’s plan which is to be a Smart Nation by 2040. With the incorporation of smart concept, this offers a chance to maintain the originality and distinctiveness of World Heritage Site while boosting their accessibility and enjoyment for both current and future generations, as heritage tourism continues to expand. References Adhalina, N. (2011). The Different Language Style and Language Function Between Students and Teachers in Updating Their Status in Facebook Webpage (A Case Study of the Topic National Final Examination 2011) (Doctoral dissertation, University of Diponegoro). Alessandra, A. J., O'Connor, M. J., & Van Dyke, J. (1994). People Smarts: Bending the Golden Rule to Give Others what They Want. Pfeiffer. Ministry of Housing and Local Government. Malaysia Smart City Framework: Ministry of Housing and Local Government: Putrajaya, Malaysia, 2019 Kee, D.M.H.; Ching, S.L. An assessment of the viability of the smart parking system: The case of a smart city initiative in Malaysia. Glob. Bus. Organ. Excell. 2020, 39, 26–34 Lee, P., Hunter, W. C., & Chung, N. (2020). Smart Tourism city: Developments and transformations. Sustainability, 12(10), 3958. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12103958 Gretzel, U., Sigala, M., Xiang, Z., & Koo, C. (2015). Smart Tourism: Foundations and developments. Electronic Markets, 25(3), 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12525-015-0196-8 Kar, N. S., Basu, A., Kundu, M., & Giri, A. (2020). Urban heritage tourism in Chandernagore, India: Revival of shared Indo-French legacy. GeoJournal, 87(3), 1575–1591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-020-10328-8 Isa, M.N.; Hua, T.C.; Jazuli, A.R.M.; Shaharuddin, S.; Yusof, S.N.M. Cadastral in Supporting Smart Cities in Malaysia. In Proceedings of the FIG Working Week 2017 Surveying the World of Tomorrow—From Digitalisation to Augmented Reality, Helsinki, Finland, 29 May–2 June 2017. Liu, D.; Guo, K.; Wang, B.; Peng, Y. Summary and perspective survey on digital twin technology. Yi Qi Yi Biao Xue Bao/Chin. J. Sci. Instrum. 2018, 19, 1–10. Rani, N.S.A.; Boubekeur, I. Proposed framework on public and private partnership for smart cities growth in Malaysia. Test Eng. Manag. 2020, 82, 5632–5639. Figueredo, M., Ribeiro, J., Cacho, N., Thome, A., Cacho, A., Lopes, F., & Araujo, V. (2018). From photos to travel itinerary: A Tourism Recommender System for Smart Tourism destination. 2018 IEEE Fourth International Conference on Big Data Computing Service and Applications (BigDataService). https://doi.org/10.1109/bigdataservice.2018.00021 Guo, Y., Liu, H., & Chai, Y. (2014). The embedding convergence of smart cities and tourism internet of things in China: An advance perspective. Advances in Hospitality and Tourism Research (AHTR), 2(1), 54-69. Buhalis, A., & Amaranggana, A. (2015). Smart Tourism Destinations Enhancing Tourism Experience Through Personalisation of Services. In I. Tussyadiah & A. Inversini (Eds.), Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2015 (pp. 377– 389). Cham: Springer International Publishing Switzerland. DOI: 10.1007/978–3-319–14343–9_28. National Trust. (2014). Heritage Tourism, International National Trusts Organisation. Available at: http://www.preservationnation.org/information-center/economics-ofrevitalization/heritage-tourism/ Mapjabil, J., Salleh, N. M., Paramaswaran, Y., Eranza, D. R. D., Marzuki, M., & Rosmiza, M. Z. (2021). Potensi Bandar Taiping Sebagai Tarikan Pelancongan Warisan Di Perak. Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Environment Management, 6 (23), 93-103. Zhou, J., Fu, J., & Deng, Y. (2021). Heritage values of ancient vernacular residences in traditional villages in Western Hunan, China: Spatial patterns and influencing factors. Building and Environment, 188, 107473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107473 Hossain, M. S. (2024, April). Tourism Culture Heritage and Society Answer-2019 1. a) Different heritage tourism from cultural tourism Heritage tourism and cultural tourism are both types of tourism that focus. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380163507_Tourism_Culture_Heritage_and_Society_Answer2019_1_a_Differe nt_heritage_tourism_from_cultural_tourism_Heritage_tourism_and_cultural_tourism_are_both_types_of_tourism_that_fo cus Torralba, L. T. (2015). TOURIST DIMENSION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE CITY OF LORCA (REGION OF MURCIA, SPAIN). Cuadernos de Turismo, (36), 499. Huete-Alcocer, N., López-Ruiz, V. R., & Grigorescu, A. (2019). Measurement of satisfaction in Sustainable Tourism: A cultural heritage site in Spain. Sustainability, 11(23), 6774. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11236774 Ramires, A., Brandao, F. and Sousa, A. C. (2018), “Motivation-based cluster analysis of international tourists visiting a World Heritage City: the case of Porto, Portugal”, Journal of Destination Marketing and Development, Vol. 8, pp. 49-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2016.12.001
- 244 - ID-55: Exploring Avian Biodiversity and the Relationship to Land Cover at UTM Campus Ariq Nafil Athallah Apri 1 , Mohammad Rafee Majid 2 1,2 Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Johor [email protected] 1 , [email protected] 2 Highlight: The abstract elucidates the overall relationship between avian biodiversity and land cover. It commences with an introduction, delineating these two aspects and providing a preamble before delving into subsequent stages. This is followed by a literature review, drawing from two sources pertinent to land cover and avian biodiversity. From the literature review, various insights regarding the necessary requisites for conducting this research will be synthesized. Subsequently, the methodology section expounds on the data collection and retrieval processes. The final outcomes derived from the obtained data will be presented, followed by a discussion of the findings, and concluding remarks. Keywords: Avian, Biodiversity, Landcover Introduction In the realm of urban biodiversity research, there's a growing acknowledgment of the significance of urban environments as crucial habitats for wildlife. Among the various aspects studied, avian populations stand out due to their roles in indicating environmental health and providing ecosystem services. It's vital to comprehend the factors that affect avian biodiversity in urban settings to develop effective conservation strategies and foster harmonious humanwildlife coexistence. This study delves into the dynamics of avian biodiversity within the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) Campus, nestled in the urban landscape of Skudai, Malaysia. Through an investigation into avian species' distribution and habitat preferences within UTM Campus, this study aim to uncover the intricate relationships between land cover features and avian communities. This research endeavors to offer valuable insights into the conservation and management of avian biodiversity in urban areas, potentially influencing sustainable urban planning practices. Literature Review In this section, several sources relevant to this study will be cited, elucidated, and correlated with the implementations they have undertaken. These sources will serve as references to guide future research endeavors. The research selected for this literature review will contribute to a deeper understanding of avian biodiversity and land cover distribution, which will be further elaborated in the methodology and findings sections. i. Mapping and Modelling of Animal Diversity Index in Green Campus Using Integrated Geospatial Technique and in-situ Camera Trapping The study conducted by Mazlan Hashim and his team focuses on the modelling and mapping of animal diversity utilizing integrated geospatial techniques and in situ camera trapping. In their report, authored by Mazlan Hashim, Shinya Numata, Syarifudding Ahamad, they elaborate on how geospatial analysis technique can be highly beneficial in data collection and mapping effort. Their reseach involved deploying cameras at 103 selected location to survey animal, resulting in the identification of 15 species. With the same geographical backdrop and a focus on the relationship between biodiversity and associated wildlife, this paper embarks on a series of mapping and data collection endeavors. It serves as a reference for employing Remote Sensing mapping techniques and geospatial analysis. Commencing with the delineation of land cover and species
- 245 - distribution, these papers elucidate how they categorize animals and environments, analyzing them through the maps they construct. This paper endeavors to employ a similar methodology, first identifying land cover and avian biodiversity, then synthesizing them into a cohesive discussion framework to be explored in the findings. ii. Influence of landscape matrix on urban bird abundance: evidence from Malaysian citizen science data. The paper serves as a reference for bird sampling, albeit employing a different approach. In this study, bird sampling will be conducted through the iNaturalist website (https://www.inaturalist.org), providing a detailed account of their distribution through land cover classification. Additionally, observations will be supplemented with analysis of existing data. Methodology The research methodology employed in this study involves a systematic approach to collecting and analyzing data on avian biodiversity. Initially, data collection begins by sourcing information from iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org), a citizen science platform, which provides valuable observations of bird species within the study area. These observations are then organized and visualized using mapping tools such as ArcMap, facilitating a spatial analysis Land cover to help with the avian distribution patterns across the research area. This report will delve into the land cover of the UTM campus, followed by the discovery of bird data scattered within it. The image below depicts a map of the UTM land cover involving several aspects that could serve as benchmarks when examining the collected bird data. Figure 1: Land cover at UTM (Source: iNaturalist Website, 2024) After classifying the land cover, data collection commenced with gathering data from the iNaturalist website (https://www.inaturalist.org), revealing approximately 429 observations comprising 78 bird species recorded within the UTM campus border. The data collected had no specific time boundaries, thus the 429 entries on iNaturalist represent data spanning a considerable period. In summary, the research methodology encompasses data collection from iNaturalist, spatial analysis using mapping tools, and a detailed investigation into the ecological significance of bird species. Through this multifaceted approach, the study seeks to contribute to our understanding of avian biodiversity.
- 246 - Findings In the findings section, the data will be presented, starting from the classification of land cover, bird data collection, to the conclusions drawn from the ensuing discussion. i. Land cover classification The land cover depicted in this report is created using data from ESRI, Microsoft (www.arcgis.com). The land cover map above illustrates several important data points, including forested areas where birds reside and built-up areas that birds frequently visit when foraging and engaging in activities. Given that built-up areas represent points of intersection between humans and animals, particularly birds, the discussion this report will attempt to address is whether many birds are found in human civilization centers, even though the UTM campus is surrounded by secondary forests, which serve as their habitat. Other factors such as rivers and water ponds, which are vital sources of life, may also play a role. Will birds be more commonly observed in areas near water, or conversely? This is one of the key questions that will be explored. In map above UTM secondary forest have various place in UTM campuses. Difference can be observed. The northwest UTM region for instance, feature tall trees akin to rubber plantations, resulting in birds nesting high above and away from human reach. However, many of there birds still interact during the day. Conversely, the lower part of UTM consist a lush short vegetation inhabited by birds that more frequently interact with humans, for example, house crow often scavenges human food leftover, while bee-eaters utilize flowers and insect found near human settlement. These birds are often found near UTM lakes, where human activities are abundant, leading to ample food resources in the form of human leftover. Figure 2: Distribution of bird in INaturalist (Source: iNaturalist Website, 2024) The image above illustrates the pinpoint locations of each bird found on the UTM campus, totaling 429 birds of 78 different species. At first glance, the distribution of birds from the iNaturalist website shows clustering in the southwest region, with fewer observations in various other areas of the UTM campus. ii. Observation of bird Table 1: Name of bird No. Name of bird Number of Observation 01 Oriental Magpie-Robin (Copsychus saularis) 45 observations 02 Zebra Dove Geopelia striata 39 observations 03 House Crow Corvus splender 32 observations 04 Asian Glossy Starling Aplonis paneyansis 28 observations 05 Grey Heron Ardea cinerea 19 observation 06 Yellow-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus goiavier 19 observations 07 Pink-necked Green-Pigeon Treron vernans 16 observations 08 Crested Serpent-Eagle Spilornis cheela 13 observations 09 Common Flameback Dinopium javanense 13 observations 10 White-throated Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis 13 observations
- 247 - 11 Rock Pigeon Columba livia 12 observations 12 Collared Kingfisher Todiramphus chloris 11 observations 13 Common Myna Acridotheres tristis 10 observations 14 Black-naped Oriole Oriolus chinensis 9 observations 15 Striated Heron Butorides striata 9 observations 16 Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus 9 observations 17 Great Egret Ardea alba 8 observations 18 Olive-winged Bulbul Pycnonotus plumosus 8 observations 19 Asian Openbill Anastomus oscitans 7 observations 20 Purple Heron Ardea purpurea 7 observations 21 Common Iora Aegithina tiphia 7 observations 22 Brown-throated Sunbird Anthreptes malacensis 7 observations 23 Little Egret Egretta garzetta 6 observations 24 Pacific Swallow Hirundo tahitica 6 observations 25 White-breasted Waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus 5 observations 26 Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius 5 observations 27 Dark Swiftlets Genus Aerodramus 5 observations 28 Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker Dicaeum cruentatum 4 observations 29 Pin-striped Tit-Babbler Mixornis gularis 4 observations 30 Coppersmith Barbet Psilopogon haemacephalus 4 observations 31 Spotted Dove Spilopelia chinensis 4 observations 32 Large-billed Crow Corvus macrorhynchos 3 observations 33 Banded Woodpecker Chrysophlegma miniaceum 3 observations 34 Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus 2 observations 35 Dollarbird Eurystomus orientalis 2 observations 36 Stork-billed Kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis 2 observations 37 Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus 2 observations 38 Black-winged Flycatcher-Shrike Hemipus hirundinaceus 2 observations 39 Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer montanus 2 observations 40 Scaly-breasted Munia Lonchura punctulata 2 observations 41 Oriental Honey-Buzzard Pernis ptilorhynchus 2 observations 42 Crimson Sunbird Aethopyga siparaja 2 observations 43 Greater Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus 2 observations 44 Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica 2 observations 45 Medium Egret Ardea intermedia 2 observations 46 Barred Eagle-Owl Ketupa sumatrana 2 observations 47 White-bellied Sea-Eagle Icthyophaga leucogaster 2 observations 48 Lesser Coucal Centropus bengalensis 1 observation 49 Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis 1 observation 50 Brush Cuckoo Cacomantis variolosus 1 observation 51 Plaintive Cuckoo Cacomantis merulinus 1 observation 52 Blue-tailed Bee-Eater Merops philippinus 1 observation 53 Blue-eared Kingfisher Alcedo meninting 1 observation 54 Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis 1 observation 55 Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola 1 observation 56 Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax 1 observation 57 Crested Goshawk Accipiter trivirgatus 1 observation 58 Swan Goose Anser cygnoides 1 observation 59 Yellow-bellied Prinia Prinia flaviventris 1 observation 60 Ashy Minivet Pericrocotus divaricatus 1 observation 61 Malaysian Pied-Fantail Rhipidura javanica 1 observation 62 Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus 1 observation 63 Yellow-rumped Flycatcher Ficedula zanthopygia 1 observation 64 Orange-bellied Flowerpecker Dicaeum trigonostigma 1 observation 65 Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus 1 observation 66 Ashy Tailorbird Orthotomus ruficeps 1 observation 67 Dark-necked Tailorbird Orthotomus atrogularis 1 observation 68 Chestnut-breasted Malkoha Phaenicophaeus curvirostris 1 observation 69 Little Tern Sternula albifrons 1 observation 70 Large-tailed Nightjar Caprimulgus macrurus 1 observation 71 White-rumped Shama Copsychus malabaricus 1 observation 72 Blue-throated Bee-Eater Merops viridis 1 observation 73 Asian Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica 1 observation 74 Sunda Pygmy Woodpecker Yungipicus moluccensis 1 observation 75 Cream-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus simplex 1 observation 76 Ornate Sunbird Cinnyris ornatus 1 observation 77 Eastern Cattle Egret Bubulcus coromandus 1 observation
- 248 - 78 Black-headed Bulbul Microtarsus melanocephalos 1 observation (Source: iNaturalist, 2024) iii. Discussion The discussion in this report begins by acknowledging that some of the data in iNaturalist cannot be considered factual due to the nature of the website, which relies on volunteer contributions. There are two potential reasons why this data may not be valid. Firstly, it is possible that the observed birds are the same individuals, and secondly, the accuracy of bird names and species observed can be questionable. To address this, the report takes two preventive measures. Firstly, it avoids providing a time range for data collection, resulting in a total of 429 observed birds. Secondly, the author conducted self-research by exploring various areas within UTM to obtain valid bird data. The distribution of recorded birds in iNaturalist observations is diverse, with 78 species identified. The report aims to analyze the birds found in UTM based on their observed locations or records on the iNaturalist website. The central area of the UTM campus has numerous observations, indicating that birds with nests or homes within UTM continue to forage or engage in activities near humans, especially during the day. This demonstrates a positive distribution of birds and biodiversity, indicating their adaptation to human presence. Additionally, observations are abundant along the riverbanks and UTM lake periphery. As UTM campus features many water ponds and rivers, birds instinctively remain in proximity to water sources for survival. Despite being surrounded by secondary forests within UTM, these areas do not significantly impact bird discoveries and data collection. Interestingly, birds are more frequently found in areas near human activities rather than within the secondary forests. In conclusion, two possibilities arise. Firstly, birds rely on humanassociated areas for food and activity, as humans often provide ample food sources and water. Alternatively, the initial data collected may be insufficient, requiring further observation over a longer period to draw more comprehensive conclusions. Conclusion Within the diverse landscape of UTM, myriad species, including both humans and birds, find their home. Biodiversity teaches us invaluable lessons about the interconnectedness of human and animal habitats. This report provides insights into the land cover and bird species distribution in UTM, prompting discussions on the impact of bird distribution on human life. Ultimately, as we strive for sustainable development that benefits everyone, we must consider various aspects, including environmental factors. This report aims to contribute to sustainable environmental development in the UTM area, ensuring the safety and well-being of all its inhabitants, be they human, animal, or plant. References Puan, C. L., Yeong, K. L., Ong, K. W., Fauzi, M. I. A., Yahya, M. S., & Khoo, S. S. (2019, September 1). Influence of landscape matrix on urban bird abundance: evidence from Malaysian citizen science data. Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity; Elsevier BV. Beninde, J., Delaney, T. W., Gonzalez, G., & Shaffer, H. B. (2023, June 6). Harnessing iNaturalist to quantify hotspots of urban biodiversity: the Los Angeles case study. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution; Frontiers Media. Li, E., Parker, S. S., Pauly, G. B., Randall, J. M., Brown, B. V., & Cohen, B. S. (2019, July 17). An Urban Biodiversity Assessment Framework That Combines an Urban Habitat Classification Scheme and Citizen Science Data. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution; Frontiers Media. Stevenson, R. D., Merrill, C., & Burn, P. R. (2021, December 1). Useful Biodiversity Data Were Obtained by Novice Observers Using iNaturalist During College Orientation Retreats. Citizen Science; Ubiquity Press. Sanllorente, O., Ríos-Guisado, R., Izquierdo, L., Molina, J. L., Mourocq, E., & Ibáñez‐Álamo, J. D. (2023, August 1). The importance of university campuses for the avian diversity of cities. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening.
- 249 - ID-56: Tamarind Trees - Integrating Nature's Strength into Tsunami Mitigation Strategies in Banda Aceh, Indonesia Febri Rachmatul Ikram 1 , Ak Mohd Rafiq Ak Matusin 2 ¹ Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Johor Bahru. ² Centre for Innovative Planning and Development (CIPD), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Johor Bahru [email protected] 1 , [email protected] 2 Highlight: This study investigates the resilience of tamarind trees in Banda Aceh after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, exploring their ability to mitigate tsunamis in the landscape. Using a quantitative approach and systematic review methodology, this study creates a conceptual framework that outlines factors such as tree characteristics, environmental conditions, and policy implications. The study seeks to improve community resilience by providing insights on how to incorporate tamarind trees into coastal planning. This research has implications for disaster preparedness and environmental conservation. It is significant not only for Banda Aceh but also for coastal regions worldwide that are dealing with similar challenges. The valuable perspectives offered by this research can be applied globally. Keywords: Landscape Arrangement, Mitigation System, Tamarind Tree, Tsunami Introduction The Indian Ocean Tsunami of December 26, 2004, was one of the most devastating natural disasters in modern history. A massive undersea earthquake with a magnitude of 9.1-9.3 off the west coast of Northern Sumatra, Indonesia, caused the tsunami. The disaster's aftermath was felt in several countries throughout the Indian Ocean region. The earthquake's epicenter was near the subduction zone where the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates collided. The tsunami waves, which reached heights of up to 100 feet (30 meters), struck the coastal areas of countries such as Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, India, and others with unprecedented force. Aceh, an Indonesian province on the northern tip of Sumatra, was among the hardest hit. The tsunami's sheer size and destructive power caused widespread devastation, resulting in loss of life, community displacement, and extensive infrastructure damage. Because of the proximity of the earthquake's epicenter, the impact was particularly severe in Aceh. The coastal communities were hit by massive waves that swept inland, wreaking havoc across a large area of land. The provincial capital, Banda Aceh, bore the brunt of the disaster. The aftermath revealed widespread destruction of homes, buildings, and critical infrastructure, as well as a tragic loss of human life. The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami elicited a historic international humanitarian response. The disaster emphasized the importance of improved early warning systems and increased global collaboration in disaster preparedness and response. Following that, efforts were made to improve coastal regions' capacity to mitigate the impact of tsunamis, including the development of early warning systems, improved disaster management strategies, and community awareness programs to better prepare and protect vulnerable populations in the event of future tsunamis. The tragic events of the Aceh Tsunami in 2004 highlighted the importance of taking proactive measures to reduce the risk and impact of such catastrophic natural disasters. Despite significant damage, related to the vegetation that was already present in the city at the time, several Tamarind Trees in Banda Aceh demonstrated incredible resistance to the tsunami waves. The tamarind tree (Tamarindus indica) is well-known for its robust tree shape and strong roots. When the Aceh Tsunami hit, several tamarind trees in Banda Aceh's coastal area were able to survive and withstand most of the tsunami wave energy. These strategically placed trees demonstrate their resistance to the enormous pressure of sea water, becoming
- 250 - a symbol of natural wonder and ecosystem resilience. However, as a tsunami disaster mitigation system, to what extent can tamarind trees be incorporated into natural landscapes? Therefore, this study seeks to suggest the utilization of the Tamarind Tree as a botanical element that can serve as the primary barrier in a tsunami disaster mitigation system by use of strategic landscaping. The importance of this research stems from the possibility of using tamarind trees as part of a disaster mitigation strategy. More research is needed to fully comprehend how tamarind trees can be effectively integrated into coastal landscape planning as a disaster mitigation system. The focus of this approach's potential and limitations is on factors such as tree density, spatial distribution, and interactions between tamarind trees and tsunami wave dynamics. Literature Review Integrating landscape arrangement and mitigation systems is essential for improving disaster resilience, especially in vulnerable regions such as Banda Aceh, Indonesia. Landscape arrangement entails the meticulous choice and positioning of plant material to enhance both aesthetic appeal and ecological well-being, guided by the principle of selecting the appropriate plant for the appropriate location. At the same time, landscape ecology offers perceptions into the spatial dynamics of landscapes, guiding conservation and land use plans. Mitigation systems consist of proactive measures, such as engineering interventions and communitybased initiatives, that are designed to decrease the impact of natural hazards on populations that are at risk. Robust mitigation systems are crucial in Banda Aceh, where the risk of tsunamis is significant. This study aims to clarify methods for improving resilience in regions prone to hazards by using an integrated approach based on ecological principles and disaster management strategies. i. Tamarind Tree Tamarindus indica L., also referred to as the Tamarind tree, is a unique genus that falls under the subfamily Caesalpinioideae of the Leguminosae family (Fabaceae). It is considered one of the most valuable adaptive tropical fruit tree species in the Indian subcontinent. This coniferous tree, ranging from medium to large in size, can grow to heights of up to 24 meters with a circumference of 7 meters. Tamarind wood is widely used in various fields such as furniture, construction, agriculture, transportation, and various artisanal and industrial applications (Bhadoriya et al. 2011). ii. Landscape Arrangement Selecting and placing plants in the landscape is the art and science of arranging plant material to make a healthy, and functionality. The mix of science and art is expressed in the guiding principle of “right plant, right place,” meaning to select plants that can thrive in the growing conditions of the site and locate them for both visual appeal and health. Selecting and arranging plants are the last steps in the overall design process after the site analysis is complete and the activity areas located and designed. Developing the planting plan is a sequential process, but it is important to remember that the process is not completely linear; sometimes decisions about plant material require reworking previous steps in the sequence and adjusting the plan (Hansen, 2012). iii. Mitigation System Mitigation strategies are policies or procedures that lead to more or less pre-planned actions that operate before or during a hazard event to reduce its impact on vulnerable populations. Common examples include land-use and development planning; engineering strategies such as tsunami barriers, river, or tidal flood defences, and seismically resilient buildings; and warning systems that foster education, evacuation plans, and
- 251 - communication to enable mitigation actions at the time of hazard events or in anticipation of them. Methodology This study utilizes a quantitative approach, employing a systematic review methodology to analyze the presented themes. Quantitative research aims to improve comprehension of particular phenomena or research inquiries through the utilization of statistical analysis and numerical data. A quantitative approach in a systematic review entails the collection, synthesis, and evaluation of data from quantitative studies to obtain accurate and detailed insights into the topic at hand. This study employs a systematic review to condense and integrate existing literature, with the goal of identifying trends, associations, and noteworthy discoveries, while emphasizing thorough analysis and important measurements. This research employs a quantitative approach and adheres to the seven recommended procedures outlined by Apuke and Oberiri (2017) for writing review articles. The following steps provide a structured framework for conducting a thorough literature review: i. Developing a research question. ii. Conducting thorough literature review. iii. Re-define research questions. iv. Design research methodology/study. v. Create research proposals. vi. Collect and analyse data. vii. Draw conclusions and relate findings. By following these stages, this research guarantees a systematic and meticulous method for examining and combining the current literature on the use of Tamarind tree as a landscape mitigation system in Banda Aceh. Findings This conceptual framework illustrates how tamarind trees in Banda Aceh might serve as an effective landscape mitigation system. The concept includes a range of interconnected elements, such as the characteristics of tamarind trees, ecological conditions, factors influencing tsunami impact, resources provided by the ecosystem, connection to the community, and potential effects on policies. These elements collectively influence the comprehension of how tamarind trees contribute to disaster resilience in coastal regions. The main features of the conceptual framework are as follows: i. Characteristic The effectiveness of tamarind trees in mitigating the impact of tsunamis is influenced by key factors such as density, height, canopy coverage, and root system depth. Taller trees that have thick canopies and extensive root systems can offer increased protection against wave energy and erosion, as well as provide a larger habitat for biodiversity. ii. Environmental Conditions The resilience of tamarind trees is determined by the connection between the soil type, climate conditions, as well as topography of the area. For instance, trees planted in sandy soil may exhibit distinct growth patterns and anchoring abilities in contrast to those planted in clay soil. Likewise, trees in regions experiencing abundant rainfall may cultivate more extensive root systems to obtain water, thereby strengthening their stability.
- 252 - iii. Tsunami Impact Parameters Tamarind trees have a direct impact on parameters related to tsunamis, including the height of water damage, the speed of the flowing water, and the energy of the waves. Trees function as natural obstacles, diminishing the intensity of approaching waves and decelerating the movement of water, thus lessening the extent of flooding and erosion. iv. Policy Implications Coastal planning and management policies must incorporate tamarind tree-based mitigation strategies if they are to be effective in the long run. To ensure the sustainability and scalability of tamarind tree plantings in mitigating tsunami risks, it is important to incorporate them into land use plans, coastal development regulations, and disaster risk reduction strategies. Furthermore, it is imperative to develop maintenance and monitoring protocols for tamarind tree plantings in order to guarantee their sustained efficacy in the long run. Conclusion Tamarind trees are important in many ways when it comes to integrating them into landscape plans for mitigating tsunami disasters. The main purpose of the study is to enhance the ability of communities to withstand and recover from disasters by identifying optimal landscape configurations that incorporate Tamarind Trees. This nature-based approach aims to reduce the impact of Tsunami disasters and protect coastal communities. Furthermore, the research contributes to the conservation of the environment by advocating for the implementation of sustainable landscape planning practices. The results hold significance not only for Banda Aceh but also for the rest of the world, as they offer valuable perspectives for other shorelines experiencing similar challenges. Moreover, the research enhances scientific comprehension of how particular vegetation affects Tsunami mitigation, offering valuable insights for future research and education. Essentially, the study is a thorough and important endeavour with wide-ranging consequences for disaster preparedness, cultural conservation, and environmentally friendly urban development. References Meutia, Z. D. (2021). NATURAL LANDSCAPEPLANNING ASTSUNAMI DISASTER MITIGATION CASESTUDY: ULEU LHEUE AREA, BANDAACEH.https://jurnal.usk.ac.id/IJDM/article/downloadSuppFile/22919/5165 Soviana, W., & Achmad, A. (2023, February). Analysis of tsunami disaster mitigation priority on urban area settlement. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 1140, No. 1, p. 012022). IOP Publishing. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/1140/1/012022/meta Amri, I., & Giyarsih, S. R. (2022). Monitoring urban physical growth in tsunami-affected areas: A case study of Banda Aceh City, Indonesia. Geojournal, 87(3), 1929-1944.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10708-020-10362-6 Agussaini, H., Sirojuzilam, S., Rujiman, R., & Purwoko, A. (2022). A New Approach of the Tsunami Mitigation Strategies for the City of Banda Aceh, Indonesia. Indonesian Journal of Geography, 54(1), 62-69. https://journal.ugm.ac.id/ijg/article/view/66500 Irwansyah, M., Zuliansyah, S., & Hasan, I. (2021). Sustainable landscape for high urban temperature mitigation in the disasterprone coastal city of Banda Aceh, Indonesia. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 630, No. 1, p. 012010). IOP Publishing. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/630/1/012010/meta McIntyre, N., Turner, M., Gardner, R., & O'Neill, R. (2001). Landscape Ecology Explained@@@Landscape Ecology in Theory and Practice: Pattern and Process. Ecology, 83, 301. https://doi.org/10.2307/2680145. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012- 9658(2002)083 [0301: LEE]2.0.CO;2 Apuke, Oberiri. (2017). Quantitative Research Methods: A Synopsis Approach. Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review (Kuwait Chapter 6. 40-47.10.12816/0040336. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320346875_Quantitative_Research_Methods_A_Synopsis_Approach Hansen, G. (2012). Landscape Design: Drawing a Planting Plan. EDIS. https://journals.flvc.org/edis/article/view/119578 Day, S., & Fearnley, C. (2015). A classification of mitigation strategies for natural hazards: implications for the understanding of interactions between mitigation strategies. Natural Hazards, 79, 1219-1238. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11069-015-1899-z Bhadoriya, S. S., Ganeshpurkar, A., Narwaria, J., Rai, G., & Jain, A. P. (2011). Tamarindus indica: Extent of explored potential. Pharmacognosy reviews, 5(9), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3210002/
- 253 - ID-57: A Photographic Exploration of Aceh's Dark Tourism Sites Said Naufal Hibrizi1 , Nadzirah Hosen2 1,2 Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Johor [email protected] , [email protected] Highlight: This paper is analysing how visual representations shape and reflect the visitor experience at sites associated with death, tragedy, and the macabre. By examining photographic content from various dark tourism destinations, the study explores the ethical, emotional, and cultural dimensions captured through the lens. It addresses the motivations behind photographing these sites, the narratives constructed through images, and the impact on both the viewer and the depicted locations. The research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how photography in dark tourism contexts contributes to the broader discourse on memory, heritage, and the commodification of tragedy. Keywords: Dark tourism, Aceh, Photography, Tourist Introduction Dark tourism, often referred to as “Thanatourism”, is a phenomenon in which individuals or groups deliberately seek out and visit sites associated with death, suffering, tragedy, or historical events of a sober nature. These destinations hold a particular appeal for people interested in exploring the darker aspects of human history and the collective human experience. The term “dark tourism” may evoke unhealthy or uncomfortable feelings, but the motivations behind such visits are varied and can range from a genuine search for historical understanding to curiosity about the mysterious or a desire for a more interesting and memorable travel experience. The reasons why individuals engage in illicit tourism are varied. Some are driven by a genuine curiosity about education, seeking to deepen their understanding of historical events and their impact on society and individuals. Others may be motivated by the search for deeper and more meaningful travel experiences that go beyond traditional tourist attractions. Additionally, some dark tourism sites serve as important memorials or educational centres, dedicated to preserving the memory of the events that occurred and ensuring that future generations remember and learn from them. Literature Review In this report we also refer to tourist photography, where we look for basic ideas based on tourist photography, such as looking at aspects of tourist photography. We also look for priority aspects of tourism from tourists through aspects of photography, in terms of creating this research this can be valuable information. Apart from that, perception in tourist influence is also a point of literature review in this report where we have to understand the tourist's point of view which will be a reference in this report, for example, what is the motivation of tourists to know about this aspect of tourism, where do tourists know about it, etc. Development in Aceh before and after the tsunami is also important information because we can see that economic development in Aceh has changed drastically due to the disaster, especially in the tourism aspect, where there is a change in the view of tourism before and after the tsunami disaster. Aspects such as security and comfort for tourists are aspects that must be improved by the government to increase tourism in Aceh again. This topic also covers several aspects that must be understood in depth, including:
- 254 - i. Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (GAM) The Free Aceh Movement (GAM) is a separatist group active in Aceh Province, Indonesia. GAM was founded on December 4, 1976, with the aim of achieving full independence or autonomy for Aceh. At the height of the conflict in the early 2000s, GAM engaged in guerilla warfare and other armed actions to achieve its goals. In this incident there were also several bloodshed tragedies in the context of the conflict between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian government, especially during the peak period of the conflict in the early 2000s. At that time, the armed conflict in Aceh caused many casualties and had serious humanitarian impacts. During that time there were several soul-wrenching tragedies, including the North Aceh KKA intersection tragedy (1999), the Arakundo tragedy (1999), Rumoh Geudong (1989) and also several sadistic armed clashes. The Indonesian government responded to this conflict by introducing military law in Aceh in 2003. This measure was received with controversy and resulted in increased human rights violations, including reports of torture and killings by the military. ii. Tsunami Aceh 2004 On 26 December 2004 At around 07.58 WIB, a powerful earthquake hit Aceh. This earthquake measuring 9.3 on the Richter scale (SR) caused a series of devastating tsunamis along the land directly bordering the Indian Ocean. Aceh is the worst affected area apart from Sri Lanka, Thailand and India. This disaster had a huge impact and changed the face of the Aceh coast drastically. The deadly tsunami waves claimed approximately 220,000 lives and caused serious injuries to many people. Infrastructure along the coast was destroyed, including houses, bridges and other public facilities. Many people lost their homes and were forced to flee, while economic sectors, such as fishing and tourism, suffered major losses. The deep psychological impact was felt throughout society, with people having to deal with the loss of family members, friends and property. International response and assistance arrived quickly, assisting in rescue and reconstruction efforts. The Aceh tsunami also triggered policy changes in disaster management, strengthening awareness of the importance of early warning systems and disaster preparation. In addition, this disaster provided momentum to increase attention to sustainable development efforts and the role of the international community in assisting post-disaster recovery. iii. Tourist Perspective on dark tourism The experiences and viewpoints of tourists who visit dark tourism sites, which are destinations associated with death, tragedy, and suffering. The study investigates the motivations, emotions, and reflections of visitors, aiming to understand why people are drawn to these sober locations and how their experiences shape their perspectives on history, morality, and human nature. Through qualitative analysis of visitor narratives and surveys, the research examines how tourists interpret and engage with the stories and environments of dark tourism sites. The findings highlight the complex interplay between curiosity, empathy, education, and voyeurism in shaping the dark tourism experience, providing insights into the broader implications for heritage management and ethical tourism practices.The following are some of the main research objectives: a. To categorise common themes and motifs of dark tourism sites in Aceh as reflected in tourist photographs b. To analyse the reflection of broader narrative of Aceh's dark tourism in these themes c. To synthesise the contribution of these themes to the understanding of dark tourism in Aceh and their implications for site management
- 255 - Methodology In this study, several methodologies are applied which function to analyse the theory and systematic methods used in the field of study. This method is also an important aspect because in this method I can collect basic data from the study of this report so that it can make this study more structured Based on figure The first method is based on photos, which is a versatile method for collecting data in various fields. It can be used to view historical data from tourists, describe living situations, and other applications. Photo-elicitation is a method based on the idea of using photographs to stimulate and elicit dialogue. In this research, photography methods can be used for data collection as well as a form of data analysis, such as seeing the value of dark tourism in Aceh through the eyes of tourists. This research is qualitative in nature, consisting of semi-structured interviews, surveys, observations, visual analysis and in-depth examination of the social media used along with the blogs and websites themselves. Data or photos are also obtained through observation and asking tourists or seeing what they share on social media platforms. a. Collect data (collection and curation of tourist photographs) The main objective of this data collection is to collect as much reliable information and data as possible from tourists who come to Aceh. This data focuses more on the theme, namely dark tourism, which based on photography captured by tourists will be a very functional aspect for basic information. from this report. Once the data is deemed sufficient, the next stage is the stage of analysing the data. b. Data Analysis This data analysis functions to retrieve and examine a wealth of data that has been obtained in the data collection and investigate it. This analytical data also functions to see trends, make estimates, and manage data and information to help continue reporting well c. Thematic Analysis Thematic analysis is one way to analyse data with the aim of identifying patterns or finding themes through data that has been collected by researchers (Braun & Clarke, 2006). At this stage the intention is to examine in detail the qualitative data that has been obtained in order to find the relationship between patterns in an aspect and explain the extent to which a phenomenon occurs through the researcher's eyes. Findings Dark tourism is defined by visits to places associated with tragic or contentious events, such as a national park, a city, or a location associated with terrorism. Although dark tourism can provide unique and memorable experiences, it also has a number of potential negative consequences. Some anticipated outcomes of dark tourism include the following: i. Education: Dark tourism can be a way to understand and remember certain histories. Visitors can learn more about historical events and their impact on society and the world.
- 256 - ii. Economic Recovery: Several dark tourism destinations can become a source of economic income for the local area. Tourist visits can create jobs and stimulate economic growth in areas that may be experiencing difficulties. iii. Growth of the Tourism business: Dark tourism can spur the growth of the tourism business in a given location, but this growth must be controlled carefully so that it does not jeopardize the area's cultural integrity or security. iv. Awareness and appreciation: Dark tourism can increase awareness about significant historical events and inspire visitors to consider their implications. This can help to increase respect for human rights, peace, and humanity. The aim of this research is to examine the potential for dark tourism based on exploration of photography. This study focuses on the capital city of Aceh province, namely Banda Aceh, Indonesia. The theory that will be discussed in this research is the tourist's perspective on dark tourism areas in Aceh through research based on tourist photography. In this research, the relationship between dark tourism and tourists' subjective photography is based on the experiences and views of tourists. Conclusion The significance of the study of dark tourism from a photography perspective and how this process impacts tourism in an area and of course preserves the important history of the area. The initiative of tourists to come to the dark tourism area is also an important aspect discussed in this report and is also an important point for developing tourism in the Aceh region, especially in the dark tourism aspect. Apart from that, the experience that tourists get is also very helpful in developing tourism. This is like how a tourist experiences and what learning he gets when visiting the area. In conclusion, in this report we conducted research into aspects of dark tourism based on photography of tourists, for example to what extent tourists are aware of dark tourism in Aceh and to what extent dark tourism in Aceh has developed. Through the methods above we can identify the extent to which this aspect of tourism has developed References Bathory, R. L. (2022). Journey into the Dark: The Photographic Practise and Imagery University of Roehampton. Ridzuan, H. I., & Hamed, M. K. (2019). THE POTENTIALS OF DARK TOURISM IN BANDA ACEH, Future Academy.
- 257 - ID-58: Food Security Criteria for Urban Planning Nurul Sharmila Omar 1 , Mohd Alif Mohd Puzi 2 ¹ ² Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Johor [email protected] , [email protected] Highlight: Food security is an important aspect of every developing nation in the process of achieving sustainable development. This study will focus on basic human needs including a variety of things, namely nourishment. A well-balanced diet is essential for providing enough energy and nutrients to move actively. Further attention should be placed not just on substance content, but also on issues of food safety such as chemical, physical, and biological dangers in food. The annual increase in global population has put pressure on the demand for a variety of demands. However, limited resources and unlimited human requirements result in not meeting all basic wants if not well handled. As a result, food is one of the most basic needs that must be met in order for a country's economic and social development to stay progressive and competitive. The national food system must be enhanced to ensure its resilience and sustainability. This includes enhancing performance across the food chain in areas such as production, processing, distribution, preparation, and food and nutrition safety. Keywords: Food Security, Agriculture Sector, Land Resources, Urban Farming Introduction Food security has given significant impact to various sectors, particularly in agriculture. Essentially, agricultural production activities depend heavily on land resources. The Food Security Policy Action Plan 2021-2025 has been developed to strengthen the country's food security by taking into account issues and challenges along the food supply chain starting from agricultural inputs to food waste. The National Food Security Policy Action Plan (DSMN Action Plan) 2021-2025 which includes 5 strategic cores, 15 strategies and 96 initiatives is expected to be able to ensure the country's food supply at all times, especially in the face of unforeseen situations. At the same time, land is also needed as vital resources for the country development. Despite of the initiative of urbanism to better the country development process, it has raised concern among the land administrator regarding the status of the national’s food security. Food security has been threatened by the needs of the physical development due to urbanisation. According to the 1996 World Food Summit definition, food security is achieved ‘when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Food security is important to ensure that the society could still survive should a catastrophic event take place in the surrounding regions, for instance in the event of a war. If there are disruptions in the supply of food from external sources, and there 4 are no backups to the supply, the people residing in Malaysia, including locals and visitors could face shortage of food, which in turn leads to a shift in the economic equilibrium of the country which may be disastrous to the survival of the country as a sovereign nation. For example, according to the International Food Policy Research Institute (Gustafson, 2019), the main drivers of acute hunger and food crises in 2018 were persistent conflict and adverse weather events. Therefore, in order for Malaysia to continue functioning as per normal during a period of global crisis, it needs to be able to ensure food security to provide for its urban population. This article attempts to study the criteria of food security on the agriculture sector and examined the role of urban farming to safeguard the land resources for food security purposes. It is hope that, this article will form an inclusive understanding regarding the idea of secured food security in pursuing the betterment of an economic progress without compromising the needs for the national food security.
- 258 - Literature Review In 2050, the demand for food is expected to increase greatly. One of the main factors that contribute to the increment of food demand is the growth of world population. The future food needs are projected based on population growth and it is found to be quite reliable. Malaysia is part of the Southeast Asia region and among the fastest developing countries in the world (Scott, 2001). In 2014, the total population has reached approximately 30.3 million compare to 29.8 million people in previous years. This number is expected to increase gradually and projected to reach 43 million people by the year 2050 (Department of Statistic Malaysia, 2014). Thus, this trend will indirectly increase food demand tremendously. In order to fulfil the demand of the growing population, Malaysia has invested billions to maintain food supply. In 2013, Malaysia has remained as a net importer for food worth approximately RM15.6 billion for sugar, dairy products, cereal, vegetable and fruits as well as cocoa (MIDA, 2014). Moreover, UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) also estimated that the imports of rice in 2014 have increased to over 1.1 million tons which is more than the average level in the previous year (FAO, 2006). In terms of the size of agriculture land allocation, the distribution of agriculture land in Malaysia throughout its 13 states are covered around 4.06 million hectares. Since 1980s, one of the major challenges experienced by Malaysia’s agriculture sector is land accessibility, as agricultural land was been converted into other urban use particularly for industry, infrastructure and housing purposes (Bai, 2012). According to the statistic provided by the World Bank, agricultural land in Malaysia was last measured at 23.95% in 2009 (Rybczynski, 2005). The Land Use Planning Study of the National Food Resource Area (KaGuMN) is a complete document related to specific planning for national food security. Prepare a Land Use Master Plan for the Maintenance, Preservation, Conservation and Improvement of the National Food Resource Area by 2040. Study for land use planning for the State Food Resource Area consisting of food crops, fishing activities and animal husbandry in Peninsular Malaysia and the Federal Territory of Labuan to ensure Security National Food by the year 2040 and in line with the target. However, However, according to the Action Plan Security Policy National Food, there are 5 core of the Food Security Action Plan's primary components that are supportive of research such as: Table 1: Action Plan Security Policy National Food 2021-2025 Strategic Core Definition Core 1: Increasing Technology Utilisation ● Improve technological adaptation in system food ● Expand development technology based climate mitigation ● Reduce waste in food systems Core 2: Strengthening Research and Development ● Develop seeds and breeds high impact ● Identify potential alternative foods Core 3: Food Security Data Empowerment ● Implement Studies & Surveys Based on SecurityFood ● Develop measuring indicator related to food security ● Develop big data system security analyticsfood Core 4: Expansion of Strategic Collaboration ● Introducing incentive based food security ● Expand strategic cooperation international in security food field ● Facilitating sector involvement private in the food system Core 5: Strengthening the Governance of Departments and Agencies ● Strengthen monitoring related to food security ● Strengthening infrastructure in the food system ● Empowering advocacy related to food security ● Strengthening the act and rules to guarantee ● resource sustainability
- 259 - The four main dimensions of food security: i. Physical availability of food: Food availability addresses the “supply side” of food security and is determined by the level of food production, stock levels and net trade. Malaysia occupies a commendable position in the 2019 Global Food Security Index, jumping to 28th place as compared to 48th in 2018. The national level food availability data indicates that there are sufficient supply of major food commodities for the population. All major foods are available in sufficient quantities to meet the market demands food access is no longer an issue for most Malaysians, with better processing, transport and storage systems and distribution arrangements. Various indicators are used to assess the food security element for availability, including (i) the extent of agricultural land area, (ii) the adequacy of agricultural crop production, (iii) transportation road capacity for agricultural produce, and (iv) infrastructure and utility capacity for agriculture. ii. Economic and physical access to food: An adequate supply of food at the national or international level does not in itself guarantee household level food security. Concerns about insufficient food access have resulted in a greater policy focus on incomes, expenditure, markets and prices in achieving food security objectives. Malaysia’s population currently stands at 32,760,284 and is increasing at the rate of 0.6 percent per annum. Increased population will increase food demand. Annually, Malaysia spends dependency on food import purchases. Thus, the considerations of socio economics in terms of food security are vital in the planning process which directly touches on the food policy. Some of the scholars have thoughtlessly accepted this goal and others have also vigorously criticised the idea (Azizan and Hussin, 2015). The complexity of food policy consists of the production policy, the price and stability as well as the policy demand from the public. Any policy decisions regarding the demand and production of food will influence the global food prices and stability. Besides, it will also give an impact on the environment and the efforts to end poverty and hunger significantly. Therefore, food policy lies within the wider policy setting. In confronting the challenges of global food security, it has demanded the critical action in terms of the supply and demand, the governance to address the effect of any policy action regarding to environment, and lastly the needs of the world’s poorest. iii. Food utilization: Utilization is commonly understood as the way the body makes the most of various nutrients in the food. Sufficient energy and nutrient intake by individuals are the result of good care and feeding practices, food preparation, diversity of the diet and intra-household distribution of food. Combined with good biological utilization of food consumed, this determines the nutritional status of individuals. iv. Stability of the other three dimensions over time: Even if your food intake is adequate today, you are still considered to be food insecure if you have inadequate access to food on a periodic basis, risking a deterioration of your nutritional status. Adverse weather conditions, political instability, or economic factors (unemployment, rising food prices) may have an impact on your food security status. To reflect the importance of sustainable agro-ecosystem, Malaysia has invested heavily in biotechnology to improve crop yield and increase its resistance to environmental stress. Adopting and integrating the IR4.0 technology is a way forward to optimise the production of agricultural system. This conforms to government’s call for automation and modernisation in the agricultural sector through the efficient use of land and cultivation of cash crops to provide better returns and increase farmers’ income. Agriculture is
- 260 - fundamental in shaping food security and nutrition, where the food produced by farmers and fisherfolk sufficiently supply and satisfy the population. Realising this, the Malaysian government has taken steps to emphasise on self-sustainability. Agro-ecosystem management and agricultural planning has been revamped to ensure sustainability and to include green-friendly values. According to Sim Tze Tzin (2022), the food security of a nation is measured broadly by four criteria: the availability of food, its affordability, safety and quality, and the state of natural resources and resilience of the food sector. a. Agricultural land reform Land is key to all agricultural advancement. If more land is allocated to farmers, more food can be produced. Peninsular Malaysia currently has eight million hectares of agricultural land. Around six million hectares, or 75%, are allocated to oil palm plantations. Another one million hectares, or 12.5%, are for rubber plantations. This leaves only one million hectares for all agro-food activities, including rice growing, vegetable farming, fruit farming, rearing of ruminants and fish and shrimp cultivation. The limited supply of land has severely hindered agricultural advancement in Malaysia. With limited land available, small farmers often face a multitude of problems. New entrants to farming have difficulty applying for agricultural land. b. Technology in farming Farming used to be seen as backward and unsophisticated. With new farming technology, modern farming is now a high-tech, high-investment business. Modern farming can apply technology to the entire supply chain. Modern paddy planting can use GPS-guided, unmanned autonomous vehicles. Farmers can then use drones to apply fertilisers and pesticides and use GPS-guided autonomous vehicles to harvest. These farming technologies are already in the market. In a few years, they will be fully commercialised and will transform the agriculture sector. Malaysian farmers must quickly change their mindset, embrace change and adopt these technologies in stages. Technology can transform our agricultural sector into a high-yield, highefficiency modern farming industry. It will reduce costs of production and make our exfarm prices competitive. With higher yields and stable supply, we can import less vegetables and rice from abroad. This will improve food security in Malaysia. c. Malaysia Food Culture To understand the issue of food security in a highly populated urban setting, it is equally important to also look into the cultural aspect of food in the context of Malaysia, in essence, their “hawker culture”. Malaysia is globally known for its 15 unique hawker culture, which, if defined in its original definition, can be considered somewhat a misnomer. According to Oxford’s English dictionary, a “hawker” is defined as a noun that describes “a person who travels about selling goods, typically advertising them by shouting.” A hawker in Malaysia however, is vastly different from its counterparts in surrounding countries such as Singspore, Indonesia and Thailand. The hawkers in Malaysia are housed in hawker centres with proper tables, tray return centres and are relatively clean and orderly. Hence, this “sanitised” version of a hawker provided Malaysia with a unique identity recognised globally, as hawker centres are ubiquitous.
- 261 - Methodology The study uses a qualitative research method in data collection and analysis, which entails conducting observational surveys, interviewing individual respondents, and reviewing existing literature from secondary data sources as literature review (Journals, Publications) and Official Acts & Regulations. Qualitative research was based mainly on literature study of previous cultural research on Malaysian’s food to evaluate food security criteria and urban farming. Qualitative data was also obtained through questionnaire that was distributed to a random respondent. During the initial analysis, literature review was conducted to determine the definition and factors that affect food security. This stage of literature review yields useful information that help to bolster the data collection by providing evidence-based secondary data that are vital in putting the questionnaire responses in context. Finding The goal of the research is to identify the issues related to food security in Malaysia from both local and imported sources and ascertain the impact that it would have on improving the prospect of building a self-sufficient (in terms of food supply) nation. The findings of the research would be used to formulate an architectural scheme that would allow the highly urbanised community in Malaysia to coexist with resources to help build a sustainable and self-reliant food supply in Malaysia. Conclusion The issue of food security is important in Malaysia as it is a major global trading and financial hub for the region, and the city-state needs to ensure that all residents are able to have access to quality nutrition to ensure the economy would not be affected by any global disruptions such as wars, plagues and economic downturn. For example, at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a general sense of uncertainty and fear in the public with regards to food supply when the international borders were closed indefinitely. The literature review and questionnaire results have also proven that food security is often a major topic of discussion for the city-state. The survey revealed that at least 3/4th of the survey participants would consider panic buying and hoarding food items should there be any global scale event that could possibly affect the supply of food. The government has also made it a priority to be less reliant on outside sources and be sheltered from the impact of global supply chain disruptions by adopting the multi-basket (diversification) strategy, stockpiling, and also setting out the ambitious 30 by 30 project which refers to the goal of producing 30% of food locally by 2030. References Kementerian Pertanian dan Keterjaminan Makanan (2023). Pelan Tindakan Dasar Sekuriti Makanan Negara 2021-2025. PLANMalaysia (2017). Dasar Perancangan Fizikal Negara 2030. Kementerian Pertanian dan Industri Makanan (2021). Dasar Agromakanan Negara 2.0 2021-2030. Nurfarhain Mohamed Ruslia, Zainura Zainon Noorb, Shazwin Mat Taiba,Noor Salehan Mohammad Sabli, 2022: A Review of Evapotranspiration and Factors of Climate Change for Rice and Food Security in Malaysia Nik Ahmad Munawwar Bin Nik Din (2022): Food Security Issues And Architectural Intervention Of Urban Farming In Singapore Cascade Tuholske1 & Kwaw Andam2 & Jordan Blekking3 & Tom Evans4 & Kelly Caylor1, 2020: Comparing measures of urban food security in Accra, Ghana Abul Quasem Al-Amina, Ferdous Ahmedb (2016): Food Security Challenge of Climate Change: An Analysis for Policy Selection
- 262 - ID-59: Flood Inundation Trends Assessment Using Water Spectral Indices in Northern Coast Central Java, Indonesia Indah Cahyaning Sari1 , Yunita Ratih Wijayanti 2 1 School of Architecture, Design and Planning, The University of Queensland, Australia 2 Regional Development Planning Agency, Indonesia [email protected] , [email protected] Highlight: Fast-growing development in the northern coastal region of Central Java, Indonesia, is one of triggering factors of tidal flooding, increasing the risk of climate-related disasters. Notably, the most severe flood disaster happened in 2024, with the vast majority of the Northern Coastal Region suffered from flood. This research analyzed the trend of flood accumulation in Northern Coast Central Java particularly Demak, Kudus, and Pati Regency span between 2020 and 2024 timeframe. The study introduces a technique for detecting flood events based on specific water spectral values and visualizing flood spatial distribution. The investigation also examined the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) and values, revealing that the NDWI Rogers method yielded highly comparable results closely aligned with its updated of Modified NDWI when utilizing Short-Wave Infrared (SWIR) bands. In contrast, McFeeters' NDWI, utilizing the Near-Infrared (NIR) band, tended to provide less accurate mapping of flooded areas due to its lower reflectivity, despite its higher water absorption capacity. This indicates that Rogers' NDWI offers a more precise depiction of the flood situation in the Northen Coast of Central Java Region. Keywords: Flood Trends, Sentinel-2, Google Earth Engine, Remote Sensing Introduction Urbanization in the northern coastal region of Central Java, Indonesia, has increased the risk of climate-related disasters, with half of flood disasters occurring within 10 km of the shoreline (Rudiarto, et. Al 2018). Located in the strategic network connecting East and West Java Province, the Northern Coast of Central Java is undergoing rapid development across multiple sectors, which caused tidal flooding in Northern Coast of Central Java and has a significant impact on many aspects, including economic, social, and environmental (Rahman et al, 2021). Tidal floods are the result of sea tides filling coastal areas below the average sea level, and can last for a significant duration, reaching up to one week, with daily variations in water levels (Haloho & Purnaweni, 2020). The situation is made even worse by the destruction of the Tuntang river embankment, which extends from Semarang City's border to Jepara Regency in Central Java Province, leading to significant flooding (Danurrachman et al, 2023). The flood occurance reached its peak in 2024 and was the worst flood disaster in the preceding three decades. Extreme weather that produced rainfall over 238 millimeters—more than what dams and levees could hold—was what set this off. As a result, the embankments along the Wulan and Jratun rivers, which separate Demak and Kudus Regencies, had suffered damage. A further element that affected the water discharge through the north coast region was the illegal logging practice, which decreased the upstream areas' ability to absorb water. An investigation into the flood trends that have occurred up to the peak event in 2024 in Demak Regency and its surrounding areas represents a crucial step in the process of improving the accuracy and speed with which flood patterns and their causal factors can be predicted. In this endeavour, the use of remote sensing techniques, which employ a water spectral approach, represents one of the principal methods that can be employed. The utilization of contemporary remote sensing techniques offers considerable potential for the monitoring and management of dynamic changes in expansive surface waters, the extraction of hydrological parameters, and the modeling of air balance (El Bastawesy, 2015). McFeeters (1996) introduced the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) through the use of the near-infrared (NIR) and green channels of Landsat, which enables the visualization and amplification of
- 263 - open water features. Furthermore, Xu (2006) modified McFeeters' (1996) NDWI by substituting the mid-infrared band with the NIR band. The NDWI, defined as (reflectivity at 0.86 µm - reflectivity at 1.24 µm) / (reflectivity at 0.86 µm + reflectivity at 1.24 µm), was proposed by Gao (1996) as a means of extracting air in vegetation. In a related development, Rogers and Kearney (2004) introduced a version of NDWI that employs the red channel and the short-wave infrared (SWIR) channel on Landsat TM. In this study, the three air indices proposed by McFeeters (1996), Rogers and Kearney (2004), and Xu (2006) will be utilized to observe flood trends. The selection of these methods is based on their general ability to provide visual representations and insights into water characteristics. Literature Review A spectral water index is a single number based on arithmetic operations (e.g., ratio, difference, normalized difference, etc.) calculated from two or more spectral bands. Therefore, an appropriate index threshold is set to distinguish water bodies from other land cover characteristics based on their spectral characteristics. The design of the spectral index is based on the fact that water absorbs energy in the near-infrared (NIR) and short-wave infrared (SWIR) wavelengths. The arithmetic operation enhances the spectral signal by increasing the reflectance contrast between different wavelengths, while simultaneously removing the majority of the noise components commonly found in different wavelength ranges. These include sensor calibration, lighting changes, and soil, terrain, and atmospheric changes (Zhang, & Wylie, 2009).One of the water spectral indices is NDWI. NDWI is derived using principles similar to those used to derive NDVI. The NDWI assessment is calculated as follows: The index is designed to achieve three objectives: (1) maximize water reflectance using green wavelengths; (2) minimize low NIR reflectance by water features; and (3) utilize high NIR reflectance by vegetation and soil features. As a result, water features have positive values, while vegetation and soil usually have zero or negative values. McFeeters (1996) set 0 as the threshold. In other words, a cover type is classified as water if the normalized difference water index (NDWI) value is > 0, and as non-water if the NDWI value is ≤ 0. For further clarification, Gao (1996) developed a distinct version of NDWI, which was designed to assess moisture content in vegetation. Despite sharing the same name, the McFeeters and Gao versions of the NDWI are based on different principles from each other. Gao's NDWI is calculated through the normalized difference between the NIR and SWIR bands. However, in this research, Gao's NDWI will not be utilized. In contrast, Rogers and Kearney (2004) employed the red and SWIR bands (i.e., bands 4 and 11 on Sentinel 2) to compute their NDWI. Xu (2006) demonstrated that the NDWI McFeeters method was not sufficiently discriminatory between water body and building characteristics. This was due to the fact that the NIR reflectance was lower than the green reflectance, resulting in constructed features exhibiting similar positive values to water bodies. To address the shortcomings of McFeeters' NDWI, Xu (2006) proposed a modified NDWI (MNDWI) that employs the SWIR band (band 11 of Sentinel 2) instead of the NIR. GREEN+NIR NDWI= GREEN-NIR RED+SWIR NDWI= RED-SWIR
- 264 - Methodology This study employs Sentinel-2 satellite data. Sentinel-2 offers a more detailed spatial resolution (10-20 m) and a higher frequency of data capture (every 5 days), despite having a shorter observation period. The principal advantage of Sentinel-2 is its more frequent temporal resolution, which enables more accurate observations of the Earth's surface and greater overlap in observation times between S2A and S2B. This is particularly beneficial in areas with a high propensity for clouds, such as Indonesia (Gourav, Fiona, & Astrid, 2020). The Sentinel2 data utilized in this study encompasses the January to March period from 2020 to 2024, a timeframe that coincides with significant flood events within the study area. The NDWI analysis was conducted using the Google Earth Engine platform and subsequently processed with QGIS. Findings Figure 1 depicts observations of flood accumulation trends generated by McFeeters, Xu, and Rogers. McFeeters has identified the occurrence of flooding when the water spectral value exceeds 0, with the white to blue colors in the figure indicating the distribution of flooding. From 2020 to 2024, research conducted in Demak, Kudus, and Pati districts demonstrated that all three indices consistently documented flood inundation levels. Table 1 indicates that the most severe flooding occurred in 2024, with the entire Demak area inundated. Furthermore, an analysis of the NDWI values for each year reveals that MNDWI and Rogers' NDWI yield remarkably similar values. This is due to the fact that both methods employ the SWIR band in their calculations, in contrast to McFeeters' NDWI, which utilizes the NIR band. The NIR band exhibits a high water absorption capacity, yet it is less effective in reflecting water, which often results in the generation of inaccurate maps of flooded areas (Akhtar et al., 2015). This indicates that the McFeeters NDWI tends to underestimate the extent of inundation, whereas MNDWI and Rogers NDWI offers greater accuracy in depicting the actual flood conditions in the Demak, Kudus, and Pati districts. Figure 1: Flood Inundation Trends Assessment Using Water Spectral Indices GREEN+SWIR MNDWI= GREEN-SWIR
- 265 - Table 1: Total Innudation Area in Northern Coast Central Java (Demak, Pati, Kudus) (km2 ) Method 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 MNDWI 490 384 271 479 579 NDWI McFeeter 113 89 17 105 112 NDWI Roger 420 337 240 414 484 (Source: Authors, 2024) A comparison of data from 2020 to 2024 (Figure 1 and Table 1) reveals a reduction in flood extent in 2021, as indicated by the MNDWI, NDWI McFeeter, and NDWI Roger calculations. While all three calculations demonstrate a decline in flood extent, the highest index value in Roger's calculation does not exhibit a notable decrease. This downward trend in flood distribution persists until 2022, when the highest value of NDWI in all three experts drops by half and the flood extent is drastically reduced. This condition indicates that the flood management intervention on the North Coast of Java Island is quite effective. However, not long after, in 2023, the extent of flooding again doubled compared to the previous year. This upward trend reached its peak in 2024, exhibiting a considerable surge in flood extent. This suggests that, despite the initial efficacy of management efforts, challenges in controlling flooding persist and necessitate the implementation of a more comprehensive and sustainable management strategy to address the fluctuations that occur. The five-year flood trend that occurs on the North Coast of Java Island has yet to form an effective flood management pattern. This is because data within a five-year time span is still considered too short to accurately identify flood trends and patterns. Therefore, it is necessary to collect data over a longer period of time, such as 10 or 20 years, so that clearer and more consistent flood patterns can be detected. This comprehensive understanding of flood patterns on the North Coast of Java Island is of paramount importance as a foundation for future flood disaster mitigation planning. With a more nuanced grasp of flood patterns, the government and relevant stakeholders can devise and implement more efficacious and parsimonious flood management strategies, thereby mitigating the deleterious effects of flooding on society and the environment. Furthermore, the availability of longer data allows for more accurate flood predictions, which in turn facilitates the formulation of long-term policies that can enhance the region's resilience to flood disasters. Conclusion In conclusion, this study demonstrates the significant role of remote sensing techniques and water spectral indices in understanding flood distribution patterns. The selection of water spectral indices, such as MNDWI or Roger's NDWI using SWIR bands, demonstrated greater effectiveness in capturing and describing flood dynamics compared to McFeeter's NDWI. These techniques provide a more accurate and detailed picture of changes in flood extent over time, making them highly useful for analysis and decision-making.With regard to the utilisation of data from Sentinel-2, although it possesses satisfactory resolution, it is still constrained in its capacity to provide long-term trend data, given that this satellite commenced operations in 2017. In order to obtain longer-term trend data, encompassing a period of over 10 years, data from longer-term sources, such as Landsat, are required, which can provide historical data dating back decades. References Danurrachman, Y., Maryono, M., Muhammad, F., Soeprobowati, T. R., & Maas, P. (2023). Physico-Chemical and Biological Water Quality of Tuntang Estuary, Demak, Central Java as A Base for Sustainable River Management. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia, 12(4). Gao, B.-c. (1996). A normalized difference water index for remote sensing of vegetation liquid water from space. Remote Sensing of Environment, 257-266. El Bastawesy, M., Gabr, S., Mohamed, Ihab, (2015). Assessment of hydrological changes in the Nile River due to the construction of Renaissance Dam in Ethiopia. Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Space Sci, 65–75.
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- 267 - ID-60: The Role of Stakeholders in Implementation of Community Based Tourism (Case Study: Historical Village – Peneleh Surabaya Indonesia) Khafizh Salsabila Widya1 ¹ Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Civil, Planning, and Geo Engineering, Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology 60111 East Java Indonesia [email protected] Highlight: Peneleh has a historical heritage attraction. The dynamics of tourism is shown through a gradual increase in tourist visits after a significant decline due to the Covid-19. In supporting community based tourism, there has been a Tourism Awareness Group but the weakness of them and low participation of community can threaten Peneleh. The community as stakeholders has their respective roles that need to be explored. The research data were obtained through observation and interviews through snowballing and purposive sampling. Data was analyzed using statistical scoring techniques and content analysis. The output is the role mapping of community in tourism development. Keywords: Community Based Tourism; Heritage Tourism; Peneleh; Stakeholders Role Introduction Peneleh as a historical tourism village area in Surabaya, the City of Heroes, has scattered historical sites such as: Langgar Dukur Kayu, Jobong Well, Ir. Soekarno House, HOS Tjokroaminoto Museum, De Begraafplaats cemetery, and many more (Fadil Persada et al., 2021; Maruto & Huda, 2020; Masyhuri, 2022). Peneleh's tourism problem due to the Covid-19 pandemic is a significant decrease in tourists from the HOS Tjokroaminoto Museum reaching 72.29% in 2020 (2,660 visitors) (Disbudporapar, 2022). Another problem is the low participation of the community in developing tourism (Bashiroh et al., 2018) which can threaten the existence of Peneleh as a historical tourism village area. On the one hand, Peneleh located in urban Surabaya – urban development can threaten the existence of tourism due to degradation of environmental quality, erosion of local culture, to the loss of the impression of an authentic tourism experience (Weng et al., 2019). Meanwhile, the development of tourism in urban areas can also threaten the existence of infrastructure, resources, and local communities (Nikolaeva et al., 2019). Thus, a sustainable tourism concept is needed that can support the resilience of the city and vice versa (Jiménez-Medina et al., 2021). Peneleh is a village that its development must consider the community as social capital (Tiyasmono et al., 2019). The community as the main element forming the village, is an actor who can bring other points of view to support tourism development (Prima, 2014). The community as stakeholders have influences, interests, and roles that are the key to success in tourism development (Fifiyanti & Damanik, 2021). Thus, the purpose of this study is to analyze the role of community stakeholders as capital in realizing sustainable tourism development. The scope of this research area is Peneleh Village, Genteng District, Surabaya City which has villages in it including: Peneleh, Polak Wonorejo, Plampitan, Pandean, Grogol, Lawang Seketeng, Peneleh Tomb, Undaan Kulon, Klimbungan, and Jagalan. Literature Review The things or value which are inherited, heritage is a network of interrelated elements-tangible and intangible, natural and cultural (human), personal and collective (Hall & McArthur, 1996). Heritage tourism is tourism that utilizes cultural heritage and historical heritage as a tourist attraction with the aim of saving the heritage itself, attracting visitors, and benefiting economically from the tourism itself (Lussetyowati, 2015).
- 268 - Community Based Tourism (CBT) is a form of tourism that involves active participation and involvement of local communities in the management and development of tourism activities in their area (Musavengane & Kloppers, 2020). Stakeholders are defined as individuals, groups or organizations that have interests, are involved, or are influenced (positively or negatively) by development activities or programs (A.Hidayah et al., 2019), in this study is the historical tourism development program. Stakeholders in development programs are classified based on their roles, including: a) Conseptor, making the concept of tourism development based on existing conditions (Paristha et al., 2022); b) Policy creator/regulator, making regulations and policies related to tourism development; c) Implementer, implementing policies and managing tourism (Mathis & Jackson, 2002; Nugroho et al., 2014); d) Facilitator, facilitate all tourism development needs including infrastructure provision (Mathis & Jackson, 2002; Nugroho et al., 2014; Paristha et al., 2022); e) Coordinator, coordinates other stakeholders involved that supports tourism development (Nugroho et al., 2014); f) Accelerator, accelerate tourism development, including promotional activities (Nugroho et al., 2014; Paristha et al., 2022). Methodology Data collection using a rationalistic approach, stakeholders’ role and CBT are used as grand theories. Research type used a mixed method (quantitative and qualitative). The role of community stakeholders was explored using in-depth interview techniques to key informants: Tourism Awareness Groups, communities of history lovers, community leaders, and local communities. Experts set as research samples using snowballing and purposive sampling techniques with informants: (1) Hendrik, Head of Peneleh Tourism Awareness Group; (2) Agus, Jobong Well Custodian; (3) Andre, Langgar Dukur Kayu Custodian; (4) Farida, Village Administrator/Head of RT IV Pandean; (5) Ida, business actor; (6) Kuncar, Leader of Begandring Association; and (7) Yanuar, a local community. Stakeholder mapping analysis techniques are used based on the assessment of importance and influence, measured using the Likert Scale 1-5 of a ranking order: 1 = Very Insignificant/Interested; 2 = No Influence/Interest; 3 = Neutral; 4 = Influential/Interested; and 5 = Very Influential/Concerned. Determination of the final value of each stakeholder through the calculation of the average value of influence (as a point on the x-axis) and the average value of importance (as a point on the y-axis). Furthermore, the distribution of these points is mapped into the Cartesian coordinate system (x, y), a matrix of stakeholder mapping. In addition to matrix mapping, interpretation of the level of importance and influence of stakeholders in implementation of CBT Peneleh also carried out through Content Analysis techniques on stakeholder statement from the results of in-depth interviews. Findings Seven community stakeholders have their own levels of influence and importance in the implementation of CBT in Peneleh. Based on the assessment that has been carried out during the in-depth interview, it was found that the distribution of stakeholder positions was divided into the following four quadrant matrices.
- 269 - Figure 1: Stakeholder Mapping Matrix (Source: Analysis Results, 2024) i. Quadrant I: Players, stakeholders who are active because they have high importance and influence in implementing CBT in Peneleh, include: Peneleh Peneleh Tourism Awareness Group, Begandring Association, and Jobong Well Custodian. ii. Quadrant II: Subject, has high importance but low influence in implementing CBT in Peneleh, the Custodian of Langgar Dukur Kayu. iii. Quadrant III: Crowd, stakeholders who have low interest and low influence in implementing CBT in Peneleh, include: Village administrators/Head of RT and local communities. iv. Quadrant IV: Contest setter, has high influence but low importance in implementing CBT in Peneleh is business actors. Based on stakeholder roles, the division of actors according to their roles can be seen in the following figure. Figure 2: The Role of Community Stakeholders in the Development of Peneleh Tourism (Source: Analysis Results, 2024)
- 270 - Tourism Awarness Group as the conceptor made the concept of historical tourism travel (Movement and independence; Majapahit in Peneleh; Islam in Peneleh; and Dutch colonial traces). As a regulator, Tourism Awarness Group participates in setting rules of tourist fare, reminding visiting hours, and limiting threats that can damage the destination. As a coordinator, Tourism Awarness Group coordinates business actors to make food served to tourists. As an accelerator, Tourism Awarness Group promotes Peneleh through social media platforms as well as distributing historical tourism brochures to places such as bazaars, exhibitions and festivals. As a facilitator, Tourism Awarness Group has division of marketing, IT, and homestay/lodging. As an implementer, Tourism Awareness Group applies three roles: riding (accompanying tourists to visit each destination); guiding (providing historical information and education to tourists); and Sapta Pesona (embodying security, order, cleanliness, coolness, beauty, friendliness, and memories). "In this Tourism Awareness Group there are three things to do, the first is as riders, accompanying to the first, second, third place. After that we guide to give information and education. The third at the same time we also take care of beauty, for example, there is garbage we take, throw away." (Head of Peneleh Tourism Awareness Group) Next, the Jobong Well Custodian as an implementer, caring and maintaining the Jobong Well site, starting from draining and cleaning, providing Arabic incense fragrance to drive small animals out of the well. As a facilitator serves tourists who want to see the Jobong Well directly and tell the narrative of the historical story. "I am responsible, I start opening the well that the lid is heavy, then I serve the tourists with historical narratives as I am the key of history who knows the first discovery of this well." (Jobong Well Custodian) The Custodian of Langgar Dukur Kayu as a facilitator hosting, serving tourists by telling the history of sites, especially those found in Lawang Seketeng. As a coordinator, he is reminding and coordinating local community to be friendly when welcoming tourists, maintain the safety and comfort of the village area. As an implementer, his role is to take care of the village, starting from maintaining the cleanliness of the environment, maintaining the existence of Terakota sites, cleaning the Majapahit Well, and cleaning the Langgar Dukur Kayu. "We are still taking care the Terakota, we see that there may be leaks, clogging; The Majapahit Well we see may have dirt coming in; We keep the Langgar Dukur clean also its chastity." (Langgar Dukur Kayu Custodian) The head of RT as a village administrator acts as a coordinator who coordinates local community, especially woman who do not have activities to be involved in activities organized by the City Government. As a regulator, the head of RT plays a role as the authority in granting permits for all activities held, especially in Pandean Gang IV. As a facilitator, the Head of RT becomes a mediator between the government and the community as the community can be actively involved in activities held by Government. "If the city government has activities, I ask for help for the community of my citizens to be involved." (Head of RT IV Pandean) Next, Begandring as an association of cultural and historical heritage activists of Surabaya City, also has a significant role for the development of tourism in Peneleh. As a conceptor, Begandring created the Surabaya Urban Track program which involves the participation of local community through the concept of heritage walk with a route around historical sites in Peneleh. As a facilitator, Begandring mobilizes the local community to be involved in Peneleh's tourism development activities professionally. As an implementer, Begandring explores the document historical stories that are still hidden in various places in Surabaya including Peneleh. As a coordinator, Begandring plays a role in connecting various authorities and stakeholders in tourism development, including the Government, academics, mass media, CSR/private, also local communities. As an accelerator, Begandring always strives to promote
- 271 - the historical tourism area of Peneleh to a wide audience through various ways such as organizing the event Surabaya Urban Track in Peneleh, uploading and expanding content on social media (begandring.com website), and encouraging competitive activities such as vlog making and filming located in Peneleh. "We made a creative idea, making a program called Suroboyo Urban Track which initiated and involved citizen participation." (Leader of Begandring Association) The business actors act as implementers who are making food/drinks to be served to tourists or sold to them. As well as the local communities only act as implementers, providing energy of communal work, cleaning the environment and preparing the needs for welcoming tourists. Conclusion Based on the analysis of stakeholders mapping and stakeholders role in developing Peneleh tourism, Tourism Awareness Group is located in Quadran I/player; it has roles as conceptor, regulator, facilitator, implementer, coordinator and accelerator. The Jobong Well Custodian is located in Quadran I/player; he acts as facilitator and implementer. Begandring association is located in Quadran I/player; they have roles as conceptor, facilitator, implementer, coordinator, and accelerator. Langgar Dukur Kayu Custodian is located in Quadran II/subject; he acts as facilitator, implementer, coordinator, and accelerator. Head of RT/village administrator is located in Quadran III/crowd; she acts as regulator, facilitator, and coordinator. Local community is located in Quadran III/crowd and act as implementer. Business actors is located in Quadran IV/contest setter and act as implementer. References A.Hidayah, N., Hutagalung, S. S., & Hermawan, D. (2019). ANALISIS PERAN STAKEHOLDER DALAM PENGEMBANGAN OBJEK PARIWISATA ALAM DAN SEJARAH DI KELURAHAN PAJARESUK KABUPATEN PRINGSEWU. Publikauma : Jurnal Administrasi Publik Universitas Medan Area, 7(1), 55. https://doi.org/10.31289/publika.v7i1.2179 Bashiroh, A., Putra, J., & Akromi, L. K. (2018). Kampung Peneleh Surabaya Berbasis Ecotourism. Fadil Persada, S., Kunaifi, A., Saktia Ardiantoro, D., Nareswari, N., & Bustanul Arifin Noer, dan. (2021). Peran Bisnis pada Upaya Pemajuan Usaha Kampung Sejarah Penelah di Surabaya: Pengembangan Value Proposition Produk Cindermata. In Jurnal Direktorat Riset dan Pengabdian Kepada Masyarakat-DRPM ITS (Vol. 5, Issue 1). Fifiyanti, D., & Damanik, J. (2021). PEMETAAN PERAN DAN KONTRIBUSI PEMANGKU KEPENTINGAN DALAM PENGEMBANGAN EKOWISATA DESA BURAI. Jurnal Ilmu Sosial Dan Humaniora, 10(3), 448. https://doi.org/10.23887/jish-undiksha.v10i3.36893 Hall, C. M., & McArthur, S. (1996). Heritage Management in Australia and New Zealand. 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- 272 - ID-61: A Study of the Carbon Credit Framework in Malaysia's Petroleum Refineries Industry Ag Mohd Izzuddin Ag Abu Bakar1 , Nabila Farhana Jamaludin2 1,2 Chemical Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia [email protected] 1 , [email protected] 2 Highlight: Continuous and increasing demand on the fossil fuels processed by the petroleum refineries increases their production year by year, with accompanying increment in greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission. This study will develop a strategic framework on carbon credit as a mechanism for reducing emissions from particularly the petroleum refinery operations. A series of steps including identification of total plant emissions of GHGs, setting the emission cap by applying the benchmark approach, negating the emission value by projected emission reduction through implementation of mitigation measures on-site and last but not least, comparing the net total emission with the emission cap set. The implementation of mitigation measures follow hierarchy of "Avoidance," "Elimination," "Reduction," and "Offset". Other than that, the emission allowances carbon currency in this framework is suggested because utilizing carbon credits is an additional method of emission offsets. By comparing the net total emission to the emission cap, the participating entity are to either able to trade their extra carbon credit by emitting below the emission cap or needed to purchase carbon credit from carbon market for exceeding the emissions cap. Keywords: Carbon Credit; Cap and Trade; Emission Cap; Mitigation Hierarchy, Emission Allowances Introduction This study delves into the petroleum refining industry, a crucial sector in the global energy landscape responsible for refining crude oil into essential products for modern life. Despite its importance, petroleum refineries are significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions, presenting environmental challenges and regulatory issues in the fight against climate change (Klemes and Kravanja, 2013). In recent years, there has been a global push to reduce carbon emissions, with around 140 countries considering net-zero targets to combat climate change (Rahman, 2021). In alignment with this trend, Malaysia aims to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 (Choo, 2021). To support this goal, Malaysia launched its first Voluntary Carbon Market (VCM) in December 2022, providing a platform for companies to participate in carbon offsetting and contribute to emissions reduction efforts. Carbon credits have become valuable tools for promoting sustainable practices and reducing emissions by financing projects that lower greenhouse gas emissions. However, the refinery sector faces challenges such as fluctuating carbon footprints, regulatory complexities, technological advancements, and economic viability in effectively implementing carbon credit schemes. Refinery plants, as significant sources of global carbon emissions, need a baseline for monitoring, reducing, and offsetting these emissions effectively. Rajendran (2022), in his study investigating carbon credit schemes in the refinery sector, offers insightful analysis on opportunities, challenges, and best practices, aiming to pave the way for a more environmentally conscious and sustainable future. By advancing understanding of tailored carbon credit systems for these sectors, the study seeks to facilitate the transition to a lowcarbon economy while mitigating the environmental risks associated with refinery emissions. Literature Review Carbon trading mechanisms, such as the cap-and-trade system, play a crucial role in reducing carbon emissions across various sectors like construction, manufacturing, and energy. These mechanisms influence operational decisions and market dynamics, requiring optimal pricing strategies to effectively curb greenhouse gas emissions (Wen et al., 2019; Liu & Wang, 2015).
- 273 - Studies delve into the impact of such mechanisms on decision-making behaviors, especially in industries like public buildings in China, underscoring the importance of well-structured trading systems (Li et al., 2021). The design of enterprise carbon trading mechanisms has been shown to influence willingness to participate, highlighting the need for well-structured trading systems to encourage emission reductions (Zha et al., 2022). The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), the world's largest emissions trading system, operates on the cap-and-trade principle, setting emission limits for participating entities and allowing trading of emission allowances. Entities failing to meet reduction targets face penalties, while those exceeding targets can sell surplus allowances. The EU ETS aims to incentivize investment in cleaner technologies and reduce carbon footprints, contributing to the transition to a low-carbon economy. Despite encountering challenges, it remains a pivotal instrument in the EU's climate change mitigation efforts, with studies highlighting its role in reducing carbon emissions (Haslenda et al., 2022). Overall, carbon trading mechanisms are essential in global efforts to combat climate change and promote sustainable development. Methodology The carbon credit framework pertaining refinery industry consists of 2 parts which are “Carbon Emission Baseline Study” and “Carbon Credit Framework”. As shown in Figure 1, the steps follow the sequence of: (1) Emission Source Assessment, (2) Emission Baseline Cap, (3) Identify Mitigation Measures, (4) Calculation of Net Total Emission, (5) Compare Net Total Emission v Emission Cap, and (6) Carbon Trading. Figure 1: Flowchart of Carbon Credit Framework Methodology
- 274 - i. Emission Source Assessment It starts with initiating a comprehensive assessment of the GHGs emission from the petroleum refinery plant, carbon accounting. This assessment should encompass meticulous examination of the entire production process, from crude oil intake to final products output. This includes scope 1 and scope 2 emissions. Sophisticated emissions monitoring systems and data collection techniques can be utilized to accurately quantify emissions from each stage of petroleum refining processes. The assessment conducted based on actual feedstock crude intake to the refinery plants, reflected directly by the effective plant capacity. The emission assessment will need to include the source of emission by process inside the plant such as combustion process, FCC unit, hydrogen plant and flaring. From these emission sources assessment, the total plant emission will be calculated by summing up all the emissions value at source. By the end of each year, by doing verified and validated carbon accounting, entities or companies are to input their total emissions for their respective refinery plants. ii. Emission Baseline Cap To establish the emission cap for each refinery plant, a benchmarking approach is employed, drawing insights from the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). For this framework, a cap is set based on the performance of the top three bestperforming plants in Malaysia with the lowest total emissions from the previous baseline year. The resulting emission cap for this framework is determined as the average value of the emissions from three best-performing plants. This step includes consideration on the size and capacity of each plant to ensure equitable comparison. Equation 1 below used to obtain the 3 emission cap benchmarks based on the participating plant’s design capacity. Benchmark Plant Emission (tCO2e) = GHG Intensity of Benchmark Plant ( tCO2e bbl ) × Design Capacity of Participating Plant ( bbl d )− (1) iii. Identification of Mitigation Measures The next step is identifying mitigation measures taken by the refinery plants with their respective emission reduction values. This reduction values must be validated through official organisation that does verification of carbon accounting. The mitigation hierarchy sequence follows the most preferrable measures from “Avoidance”, “Elimination”, “Reduction” and “Offset” as shown in Figure 2. Examples of mitigation measures can include and not limited the ones shown in Table 1 as long as the reduction accounting is done properly, credited and validated accredited bodies. Figure 2: Mitigation Measures Hierarchy
- 275 - Table 1: Examples of Mitigation Measures with Reduction Values Mitigation Measures Hierarchy Measures Description Reduction Value (tCO2e) Avoidance Process Optimization To minimize energy consumption and waste generation 10,000 (Rodat et al., 2011) Elimination Adoption of lowcarbon fuels Emission reduction recorded in steelmaking industry 30% of original fuel emission Reduction Electricity saving Reduces fuel needed in Combined Heat Power (CHP) cycle 0.255 (IPCC, 2005) Offset Plantation of 1 Mangrove Tree Encourages more absorption of CO2 from atmosphere 1.810 per tree planted (Haslenda et. Al, 2022) iv. Calculation of Net Total Emissions In this step, the net total emissions for each refinery plant are calculated by deducting the emissions mitigated through validated measures (Step 3) from the total emissions (Step 1). The total emissions are now converted to net total emissions, where the emissions cap are applied to. This value represents the residual emissions that remain after the implementation of mitigation measures and reflects the actual emissions that need to be accounted for by each company. v. Compare Net Total Emissions vs Emission Cap The net total emission (Step 4) are compared against the emission cap (Step 2). This comparison is conducted on the basis of effective production capacity, ensuring a fair assessment of each refinery plant's emissions performance relative to its operational scale. If the net total emission exceed the emission cap, it indicates that the plant has surpassed its allocated emission allowances, thus the company is required to take corrective action. Specifically, the company must procure additional emission allowances through auctions or purchases from carbon markets to offset the excess emissions. Conversely, if the net total emissions are lower than the emission cap, suggesting that the plant has effectively managed its emissions and has surplus emission allowances, the company can leverage this surplus for financial gain. The surplus allowances can be traded with other companies or saved for future compliance periods. vi. Carbon Trading In this framework, the carbon credit currency in play is called the emission allowances. 1 allowance are equivalent to right to emit 1 tonne of CO2e. Each year, company are to surrender sufficient amount of allowances to fully account for their emissions. From the total quantity allowances issued per year, allowances are auction unless they are allocated for free. Companies with surplus emission allowances, obtained through efficient emissions management or investments in emissions reduction measures, have the opportunity to trade these allowances on carbon markets for monetary value. This trading activity enables companies to generate additional revenues while facilitating emissions reductions on a broader scale. Findings One of the key findings of the research paper is refinery plants implementing more mitigation measures in Step 3 will result in greater reduction value of total emissions. When compared in Step 5, it can be proven more mitigation measures can negate the total emission up to a breaking point where more of reduction values will produce emission allowances that is tradeable for generating revenue or saved for the use of future years. From the surplus
- 276 - allowances obtained, comparison on amount of revenue generated can be made based on the current carbon price in other carbon markets such as in the Europe and China region. Greater interest in producing more mitigation measures to obtain monetary value will furnish economic incentives for companies to invest in cleaner technologies and diminish their carbon footprint while fostering innovation and the advancement of low-carbon solutions. Other than that, the research can show that equitable comparison between 2 plants of different production capacity, big and small plants in which the bigger plant are expected to emit more CO2e per plant capacity than the small refinery plant. This framework is designed to have higher emission cap for bigger plants utilizing the effective plant capacity in Step 2 of establishing emission baseline cap, while smaller plants are capped at lower emission caps. This is to ensure equitable comparison of emission cap in relative to the top three benchmarks refinery plants despite having different plant size and capacity. The framework strategy of allocating a portion of allocation for free according to the emissions cap is to help smaller plants with no mitigation measures to be able to catch up with the carbon credit framework by implementing their own mitigation measures on-site. Year by year, this framework is expected to foreseen reduction in emissions by refinery plants, thus future phases of the framework are to include linear reduction of free allocation of emission allowances respective to emission caps. By implementing effective carbon trading policies and mechanisms, countries can work towards achieving emission reduction targets and promoting sustainable development. Conclusion Establishing this framework is essential to encourage emissions reduction projects and rewarding those who invest in sustainability. This framework will aid the refinery plants for a start in Malaysia, in the efforts of emissions management and decarbonisation journey. In the long run, further study needs to be done to address more emission sources in refinery operation in greater detail. More and more of feasible mitigation measures and their corresponding emission reduction values are to be studied and added as potential mitigation measures implementable on any refinery plants participating in this framework. Options of trading the allowances in the national auction market via the framework’s governing body versus obtaining carbon credit currency from international carbon market requires the comparisons between the cost of purchasing carbon credits in carbon markets against the cost of trading emission allowances in the national auction market. References Wen, H., et al. (2019). Cap-and-trade mechanism in reducing carbon emissions: A case study in manufacturing. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 102, 102348. Choo, M. S. (2021). Malaysia aims to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. The Edge Markets. Retrieved from https://www.theedgemarkets.com/article/malaysia-aims-achieve-netzero-greenhouse-gas-emissions-2050. Haslenda, Z., Afiq, M., Hesam, K., & Islam, Z. F. (2022). Decarbonisation of the Industrial Sector Through Greenhouse Gas Mitigation, Offset, and Emission Trading Schemes. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 97, 511–516. doi: 10.3303/CET2297086. IPCC. (2005). Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage. Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. Klemeš, J., & Kravanja, Z. (2013). Carbon footprint analysis in the petroleum industry: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of Cleaner Production, 51, 364-377. Li, H., et al. (2021). Stimulation and coordination mechanisms of carbon emission trading markets in public buildings sector: A case study in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 322, 129032. Liu, Q., & Wang, Y. (2015). Optimal carbon pricing strategies in emission trading markets. Energy Economics, 48, 233-244. Rahman, M. M. (2021). Net-zero emissions target: What do 140 countries plan? Carbon Brief. Retrieved from https://www.carbonbrief.org/net-zero-emissions-target-what-do-140-countries-plan. Rajendran, A. S. (2022). Carbon trading schemes in and refinery sectors: Opportunities and challenges. Journal of Environmental Management, 302, 113769. Rodat, S., et al. (2011). Characterisation of carbon blacks produced by solar thermal dissociation of methane. Carbon, 49(9), 3084-3091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2011.03.030. Wen, H., et al. (2019). Cap-and-trade mechanism in reducing carbon emissions: A case study in manufacturing. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 102, 102348. Zha, X., et al. (2022). Design of enterprise carbon trading mechanisms and their influence on willingness to participate. Energy Policy, 172, 112118.
- 277 - ID-62: Collective Efficiency in the Coconut Coir Cluster in Buluspesantren Subdistrict, Kebumen Regency Amalia A.A. Dewi 1 , Holi Bina Wijaya 2 1,2 Center for Participatory Planning (P5), Diponegoro University, Indonesia [email protected] , [email protected] Highlight: Kebumen Regency, a significant coconut-producing region in Central Java, generates coconut fiber waste, which is transformed into economically valuable crafts. This qualitative research, relying on primary data from interviews, examines the coir cluster established in 1997 in Rantewringin Village. Collective efficiency, stemming from industrial agglomeration, involves external economies and joint action, manifesting through information exchange and shared facilities. However, in Rantewringin Village, collective efficiency hasn't materialized due to the absence of a craftsman forum, resulting in limited joint action and a focus on individual business growth, thereby hindering the benefits of agglomeration. Keywords: Cluster, Joint Action, External Economy, Collective Efficiency Introduction The role of MSMEs in the Indonesian economy is quite strategic, MSMEs contribute to 60.51% of GDP and are able to absorb almost 96.92% of the total national workforce (Limanseto, 2023). Given the important role of MSMEs in the economy, the government continues to encourage MSMEs to be able to compete in the current era of globalization and digitalization. One of the current efforts is the development of MSMEs through a cluster approach (Ferdinand, 2016). In general, clusters in Indonesia are still in the form of MSME centers, a group of small and medium scale industries that are concentrated in the same location and have been developing for a long time. These clusters are the simplest with no government intervention and generally develop in rural areas (Ferdinand, 2016). One of the oldest clusters in Indonesia is the coir cluster in Rantewringin Village, Buluspesantren District, Kebumen Regency.Indonesia has great potential in the plantation sector, especially the coconut commodity. Kebumen Regency is one of the largest coconut producers in Central Java Province. In 2022, coconut production in Kebumen Regency reached 246,285 tons from a plantation area of 30,105 hectares. The large production of coconut fruit in Kebumen Regency on the other hand also produces a lot of coconut fiber waste. This condition has led to the emergence of creative ideas from people in Kebumen Regency, especially coastal communities in Rantewringin Village, Buluspesantren District. Coconut coir waste is processed into economically valuable crafts such as mats, flower pots, mines, cocofiber, cocopeat and many other types. The Coconut Coir Cluster was formed in 1997 in Rantewringin Village, spearheaded by Darda and Mahasim. The cheap and abundant price of coconut coir encouraged Darda and Mahasim to process it into crafts with economic value. The initial product made was a doormat with the characteristic inscription "WELCOME" with various sizes of the same, only after that began to produce other crafts. Marketing of coconut fiber handicraft products has expanded throughout the country, especially in Kalimantan, Sumatra and Papua, even to foreign countries such as Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, China, and Australia. In addition to absorbing labor and creating jobs, the business established by Darda and Mahasim also triggered the emergence of similar businesses, especially in Rantewringin Village and surrounding villages in Buluspesantren Sub-district, which then formed a business cluster. At the beginning of its development until it reached its peak, almost all residents of Rantewringin Village worked as coconut fiber craftsmen, especially mats. The skill of weaving coconut fiber into mats is passed down from generation to generation. One of the well-known concepts regarding cluster development is collective efficiency. The concept of collective efficiency in clusters was introduced by (Schmitz, 1997) as a competitive advantage gained from the external economy and joint action.Therefore, this research discusses the realization of collective efficiency in the Coconut
- 278 - Coir Cluster in Rantewringin Village, Buluspesantren District. Therefore, it is important to understand how such collective efficiency can be formed in the Coir Cluster in Rantewringin Village. Literature Review The concept of clusters is explained by (Porter, 1990) in his book entitled "The Competitive Advantage of Nation". Clusters are geographic concentrations of interconnected firms and institutions in a particular sector (Porter, 1990). Clustering encourages innovation, which is important for maintaining a firm's competitive advantage. Clusters encourage competition, companies compete fiercely to win and retain customers. According to (van Dijk & Sverrisson, 2003) especially in developing countries, clusters are similar firms that are located in close proximity and which in turn create opportunities for aglomeration. Similarly, (Schmitz, 1997) defines a cluster as a group of small producers that make the same or similar products in close proximity. Such clustering opens up efficiency gains for companies, but according to (Schmitz & Nadvi, 1999) economic gains cannot be generated only from the agglomeration that form an external economy but there needs to be a joint action which is then known as the concept of collective efficiency. Clusters according to (Menzel & Fornahl, 2009) have life cycle stages that can be divided into four, namely emerging cluster, growing cluster, sustaining cluster and declining cluster. The first cycle or emerging cluster will experience development if it is able to reach a critical period and the company's growth rate exceeds the level of non-cluster companies. The second is the growing cluster which is characterized by an increase in employment and a high number of start-up companies. The third is the sustaining cluster, which shows high growth compared to each industry or a significant decline in the number of companies or employees or can be said to be stagnating. The fourth is the declining cluster, which is characterized by a decrease in the number of companies and especially employees due to failure, mergers, and rationalization. Collective efficiency is the competitive advantage gained from external economies and joint action (Schmitz, 1997). Collective efficiency helps explain how clusters grow, become competitive and remain competitive or otherwise. The concept of external economies was introduced by Marshall as external economies of scale, which are cost savings due to the size or growth of output in the industry at large (Bergman et al., 2020). These external economies are essentially spatial externalities, which are economic side effects of proximity between economic actors (Bergman et al., 2020). External economies arise when social costs or benefits are higher than private benefits. Such benefits can include specialized labor pools, easy access to specialized input and service suppliers, and rapid dissemination of new knowledge (Schmitz & Nadvi, 1999). According to (Schmitz, 1999) in (Phelps & Wijaya, 2016) the external economy has a latent nature in developing countries that requires release through collective efforts. Joint action is an active element of collective efficiency that refers to joint collaborative efforts to improve effectiveness and competitiveness in the cluster (Lema & Vang, 2018). In developing countries such as Indonesia, joint actions are needed to encourage the creation of collective efficiency through both internal and external linkages (Phelps & Wijaya, 2020; Tambunan, 2005). According to Giuliani et al. (2005) in (Lema & Vang, 2018) joint actions can occur in vertical relationships: backward (suppliers and subcontractors), and forward (traders and buyers). It can also occur in horizontal relationships: bilaterally (between two or more local producers cooperating on joint product marketing, messaging, joint use of specialized equipment, joint product development and knowledge exchange) and multilaterally (cooperation of several local producers through institutions including business associations). The economic benefits of a cluster can only be achieved if there are well-developed internal networks between firms and external networks between firms and actors outside the cluster.This study aims to identify the forms of collective efficiency in the coir cluster in Buluspesantren sub-district. Failure to develop collective efficiency has an impact on cluster growth. The output is expected to provide recommendations for the development of the coir cluster in Buluspesantren sub-district, Kebumen district.
- 279 - Methodology This research applies a qualitative research approach. Qualitative research methods are often referred to as naturalistic research methods because they are conducted in natural conditions. The choice of a qualitative approach in this study aims to deeply understand the characteristics and realization of collective efficiency in the coir cluster in Buluspesantren District, Kebumen Regency. The data used is primary data obtained by conducting in-depth interviews with informants. Sampling used non-probability sampling techniques by purposive sampling. The purposive sampling technique was carried out by selecting informants who had in-depth knowledge of the coir cluster. The analysis technique used in this research is descriptive qualitative analysis. Figure 1 Analysis Framework (Source: Researcher Analysis, 2024) Findings i. History of the Coir Cluster in Rantewringin Village The history of the coconut fiber cluster is inseparable from the role of Darda and Mahasim, who first had the idea to process coconut fiber waste since 1997 in Rantewringin Village, Buluspesantren District, Kebumen Regency. The large production of coconut fruit in Kebumen Regency, especially in the coastal areas, is a great potential for the coconut fiber handicraft industry. One of the first products produced, which later became the "branding" of this cluster, was a doormat and coconut fiber rope, which locals commonly refer to as tali tambang. Then it developed more varied with innovations that until now have produced such as bags, hats, cocopeat, cocofiber, hats, bird's nests, mines, brooms and so on. The business was responded well by consumers with high demand. This then attracted other villagers to participate in becoming coconut fiber craftsmen. Residents who are mostly farmers who have a lot of free time then utilize their time to work as craftsmen until the planting season or harvest season arrives. Many requests come from domestic sources such as Sumatra, Sulawesi and Kalimantan, and many requests from abroad are from China, Hong Kong, Korea, Japan and Australia. Domestic demand is to meet the needs of traditional gold mines and mat demand from government agencies, schools and hotels. Even to meet demand, craftsmen have to bring in raw materials from other sub-districts. At that time, every week they could send 3 to 4 full trucks to meet foreign market demand. Production carried out without the use of chemicals earned Mr. Darda an award from the Ministry of Industry as the Green Industry Award and a cemari award (European product quality standard). His efforts also took him to various countries to attend business meetings. The large number of businesses that produce similar goods in close proximity form a business cluster. This is supported by the abundance of skilled human resources. Almost all villagers, including teenagers, have the ability to make mats or ropes and various other
- 280 - crafts. Entrepreneurs in the coir craft can be divided into three: small craftsmen/ home production, partners/workers, and juragan. However, handicraft production is not as big as it used to be, currently focusing only on domestic demand such as supplying to the construction of IKN. ii. The role of Joint Action a. Vertical Linkages The form of vertical linkage activities is the linkage between juragan and raw material suppliers (backward linkage) and the linkage between juragan and consumers (forward linkage). Backward linkages that occur in the coir cluster involve the juragan with suppliers, coir craftsmen, and partners. The juragan obtains both raw materials in the form of coconut fiber and semi-finished materials in the form of rope from suppliers. In the production process, the juragan has employees and partners who are small craftsmen who get paid for each craft made. In addition to producing their own products, the juragan also buys handicrafts from small craftsmen to meet market demand. Forward linkages that occur in the coir cluster involve the juragan and various consumers. There are local consumers from Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi as well as overseas consumers such as China, Hong Kong, Korea, Japan, and Australia. Demand for coir products increased rapidly in 2014. At that time, consumers usually have given criteria for products that suit their desires. However, in 2024, demand has decreased because there are substitute products that are more affordable. b. Horizontal Linkages The form of horizontal activity linkage is the linkage between juragan or coir craftsmen. The relationship between business actors in the coir cluster is not well established. There is no organization or association as a forum for business actors. This certainly has an impact on the absence of product standardization, competition between business actors and the lack of linkages. Changes in conditions that show a decrease in demand have led to a loss of cooperation between small craftsmen. Formerly when demand was high, small craftsmen worked together to buy raw materials from outside the village to reduce transportation costs. In establishing cooperation, of course, the most important factor is trust. In horizontal cooperation, especially between juragan and small craftsmen, there is great trust. This is because often small craftsmen and partners ask for money first and then get paid using their services/products. This can happen because of the juragan's trust in their partners and craftsmen. iii. The role of External Economies a. Information Exchange Grouping businesses in close proximity has benefits, one of which is the rapid exchange of information. Companies that are members of a cluster can develop better than companies that are outside the cluster. This is due to the rapid spread of information within the cluster through craftsmen who socialize or craftsmen who change masters. The exchange of information in the coir cluster encourages product innovation. The craftsmen in the cluster are able to follow product trends or market demand. Initially, the coir cluster did not have a wide variety of handicraft products, only mats and ropes. The rapid exchange of information helped artisans innovate by producing other products such as pots, bags, hats, bird's nests, and many other products.
- 281 - b. Easy access to skilled labor One of the benefits of clustering or agglomeration is easy access to skilled labor. In the coir cluster in Rantewringin Village, Buluspesantren Sub-district, almost all residents have the ability to produce crafts. In fact, this ability is passed down from generation to generation, especially to young women. Although the work as a maker of coconut fiber handicrafts is not the main livelihood of Rantewringin villagers. This is because the majority of villagers work in the agricultural sector. When the planting season and harvest season are over, they focus on craft production. Even so, residents still have the skills to produce crafts. However, conditions have deteriorated, currently the work of Rantewringin villagers has varied not only in the agricultural and craft sectors. Many work in the government sector, migrate or as employees. This is exacerbated by the condition of teenagers and young mothers who no longer have skills in making crafts. This is because handicraft production is not as big as it used to be and is not considered profitable enough. The coir cluster in Rantewringin Village is currently facing a lack of human resources as skilled labor. c. Use of shared facilities The next form of external economy is the use of shared facilities. Business groupings or business clusters create social/shared benefits. The shared facilities needed in each cluster are of course different. In the coir cluster in Rantewringin Village, there are no special facilities built for shared use. This is because competition still dominates, with each business trying to fulfill their own production facility needs. However, it is known that in the past, to dry the results of the mat craft, business actors in the cluster utilized public facilities, namely the village field. This is in contrast to the current situation, where the juragan and other business owners utilize their large yard to dry their raw materials and products before marketing them. There is also no shared use of facilities, such as warehouses for storage and so on. Each company tries to use its own strengths. Conlusion The realization of collective efficiency in the coir cluster in Rantewringin Village, Buluspesantren Subdistrict, Kebumen Regency can be seen from the form of joint action and the form of external economy that occurs. Joint actions are classified into vertical linkages and horizontal linkages. Meanwhile, the forms of economic externalities are classified into three, namely agglomeration, information exchange, access to skilled labor and use of shared facilities. Collective efficiency can be realized if the forming factors can be implemented throughout the cluster area, while in the development of the coconut coir cluster in Rantewringin Village so far it has not been formed. The benefits of agglomeration have not yet been realized due to the absence of joint action. Cooperation that occurs is only between juragan and craftsmen and traders and buyers. Cooperation between juragan or business actors in the coir cluster in Rantewringin Village is still minimal. The shared facilities used only utilize village facilities, namely the field as a place for drying crafts. References Bergman, E. M., Feser, E. J., Bergman, E. M., & Feser, E. J. (2020). Industrial and Regional Clusters: Concepts and Comparative Applications, 2nd ed. 1999. Ferdinand, F. (2016). Cluster Development Strategy of Tempe Chips Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises in Sanan Malang. Journal of Management Applications, 14(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.18202/jam23026332.14.1.01 Lema, R., & Vang, J. (2018). Collective efficiency: A prerequisite for cluster development? World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development, 14(3), 348–376. https://doi.org/10.1504/WREMSD.2018.091690 Limanseto, H. (2023). Coordinating Minister Airlangga: MSMEs Potential to Become Capital in Economic Development Ecosystem. https://www.ekon.go.id/publikasi/detail/5047/menko-airlangga-potensi-umkm-menjadi-modal-dalamekosistem-pengembangan-ekonomi
- 282 - Menzel, M. P., & Fornahl, D. (2009). Cluster life cycles-dimensions and rationales of cluster evolution. Industrial and Corporate Change, 19(1), 205–238. https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/dtp036 Phelps, N. A., & Wijaya, H. B. (2016). Joint action in action? Local economic development forums and industry cluster development in Central Java, Indonesia. International Development Planning Review, 38(4), 425–448. https://doi.org/10.3828/idpr.2016.24 Phelps, N. A., & Wijaya, H. B. (2020). Growth and growth constraints in craft industry clusters: The batik industries of Central Java. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 41(2), 248–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjtg.12311 Porter, M. (1990). The Competitive Advantage of Nations. Schmitz, H. (1997). COLLECTIVE EFFICIENCY AND INCREASING RETURNS. 44(March), 1–28. Schmitz, H., & Nadvi, K. (1999). Clustering and industrialization: Introduction. World Development, 27(9), 1503–1514. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00072-8 Tambunan, T. (2005). Promoting small and medium enterprises with a clustering approach: A policy experience from Indonesia. Journal of Small Business Management, 43(2), 138–154. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-627X.2005.00130.x van Dijk, M. P., & Sverrisson, A. (2003). Enterprise clusters in developing countries: Mechanisms of transition and stagnation. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 15(3), 183–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985620210159239 Wiratmadja, I. I., Gvindaraju, R., & Handayani, D. (2016). INNOVATION AND PRODUCTIVITY IN INDONESIAN IT CLUSTERS: THE INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL ECONOMIES AND JOINT ACTION Iwan Inrawan Wiratmadja 1 , Rajesri Govindaraju 1* , Dwi Handayani 1 1. 1097–1106.
- 283 - ID-63: First and Last-mile Importance on Daily Ridership Numbers: A Case Study on TransJakarta and Mikrotrans (JakLingko) Relationship Ananda Krisna Pratama 1 , Nisa Sabira Alhakim 2 ¹ ² Center for Participatory Planning (P5) Faculty of Engineering, Diponegoro University, Indonesia [email protected] 1 , [email protected] 2 Highlight: First—and last-mile problems made people reluctant to use the public transit system after the fact that the bus station was too far from their origins or destinations. We use descriptive statistics to determine whether the feeder system works to increase TransJakarta daily ridership numbers. With Mikrotrans as its feeder, the daily ridership number jumped to a 53% increase from stagnation in the years before the feeder system was introduced. TransJakarta efforts to reach its consumers have succeeded in its way. Keywords: first-mile last mile, TransJakarta, daily ridership, feeder, Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) Introduction Sustainable transportation is a crucial aspect of contemporary urban planning and environmental policy. It refers to modes of transportation that have a low environmental impact, are economically feasible, and are socially inclusive. Sustainable transportation is essential for several reasons, including reducing greenhouse gas emissions, mitigating climate change, improving public health, and enhancing the quality of urban life (Preston L Schiller & Jeffrey Kenworthy, 2017). Additionally, sustainable transportation enhances the quality of urban life by reducing traffic congestion and noise pollution. Cities that prioritize public transport, cycling lanes, and pedestrian pathways often experience less congestion, leading to shorter commute times and a more pleasant urban environment. This improvement in urban livability can attract more residents and businesses, fostering economic growth and community development. Sustainable transportation is vital for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, improving public health, and enhancing urban quality of life (Preston L Schiller & Jeffrey Kenworthy, 2017). As urban areas continue to grow, adopting sustainable transportation systems will be essential in creating more livable, healthy, and environmentally friendly cities. On the other hand, urban sprawl, characterized by the spread of development over a large area with low population density, poses significant challenges to public transport systems. One of the most critical issues in this context is the "first-mile, last-mile" problem, which refers to the difficulty of accessing public transport from one's origin and destination points. This problem often leads to reduced public transport usage, as people find it more convenient to use personal vehicles. The first-mile, last-mile problem significantly deters public transport use in sprawling urban areas. In these regions, residential and commercial areas are often spread out, making it difficult for residents to access public transport stops conveniently (Park et al., 2021). This issue is compounded by the lack of adequate pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, which further discourages the use of public transport. A study by the Transportation Research Board highlights that the ease of access to public transport stations is a critical factor in encouraging its use. To address this issue, urban planners and policymakers must implement integrated transport solutions that connect people efficiently to main transit lines. One effective strategy is the development of feeder services, such as shuttle buses or on-demand transit, that bridge the gap between residential areas and main public transport hubs. Additionally, improving pedestrian and cycling infrastructure can make it easier and safer for people to reach public transport stations, thereby increasing usage.
- 284 - The concept of public transportation has evolved significantly over the years, with a growing emphasis on sustainable, efficient, and inclusive systems. In this context, the role of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems has become increasingly prominent, particularly in urban areas where they can significantly reduce congestion and pollution. One such notable example is TransJakarta, a provincially-owned corporation in Jakarta, Indonesia, which operates the world's longest BRT system, spanning 251.2 kilometers. This system has been instrumental in transforming the city's public transportation landscape, with a daily ridership of approximately 956,000 passengers as of 2019 (Rachmat R Fauzi, 2016). However, the success of such systems is not solely dependent on the BRT infrastructure itself but also on the integration of complementary services, such as the first and last-mile connections, which are crucial for the system's overall effectiveness. The first and last mile, also known as the first and last kilometers, refer to the initial and final segments of a passenger's journey, typically involving walking, cycling, or using other modes of transportation to reach the BRT station or exit. These segments are critical because they can significantly impact the overall ridership numbers and the system's overall efficiency. For instance, if the first and last-mile connections are inadequate or unreliable, passengers may choose alternative modes of transportation, such as private vehicles, leading to decreased ridership and increased congestion. In the case of TransJakarta, integrating the first and last-mile services is crucial for its daily ridership numbers. The system relies heavily on the Mikrotrans (JakLingko) service, which provides feeder routes to and from the BRT stations. This service is essential for connecting passengers to the BRT system, particularly in areas where the BRT infrastructure may not be as extensive. The relationship between TransJakarta and Mikrotrans is significant, as it highlights the importance of integrating different modes of transportation to create a seamless travel experience for passengers. This study investigates the importance of the first and last-mile connections on daily ridership numbers, using TransJakarta and Mikrotrans as a case study. It will analyze the current state of Jakarta's first and last-mile services. Additionally, it will explore the strategies that TransJakarta and Mikrotrans have employed to improve the first and last-mile connections and their impact on daily ridership numbers. The study will draw on existing literature and data from various sources, including reports from TransJakarta and Mikrotrans, as well as academic research on public transportation systems. The findings of this study will provide valuable insights for policymakers, transportation planners, and operators seeking to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of public transportation systems, particularly in urban areas. In conclusion, the first and last-mile connections play a vital role in the overall performance of public transportation systems like TransJakarta. By understanding the challenges and opportunities in this area, we can develop strategies to improve the first and last-mile services, ultimately enhancing the daily ridership numbers and the system's overall efficiency. This study aims to contribute to this understanding by examining the relationship between TransJakarta and Mikrotrans and the impact of the first and last-mile connections on daily ridership numbers in Jakarta.
- 285 - Literature Review Sustainable transportation has become a global concern, with cities trying to reduce their environmental impact and improve the quality of life for their citizens. The concept of sustainable transportation includes not only the transportation modes themselves but also the infrastructure, policies, and social aspects that support them. A key challenge in achieving sustainable transportation is the first and last-mile experience, which refers to the initial and final parts of a passenger's journey, typically involving walking, cycling, or using other modes of transportation to reach the transit station. These parts are critical because they can significantly impact the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the transit system. Several studies have highlighted the importance of addressing the first and last-mile challenges. For instance, a study by the Transportation Research Board found that the first and last mile can account for up to 50% of the total travel time in urban areas (Nafrah Maudina & Eko Priyo Purnomo, 2023), making it a significant barrier to transit use. Another study by the Journal of Transport and Land Use found that the first and last mile can be a significant barrier to transit use, particularly for low-income and minority populations (Levine, 2024). Transit agencies have been exploring innovative solutions to address these challenges to improve the first and last-mile experience. For instance, a study by the Journal of Public Transportation found that the use of real-time information and mobile apps can significantly improve the transit customer experience, particularly by reducing wait times and improving route planning (Emmanuel Augustine Etukudoh et al., 2024). Another study by Transportation Research Part A found that the use of data analytics can help transit agencies optimize their services, reduce costs, and improve passenger satisfaction. TransJakarta, a provincially-owned company in Jakarta, Indonesia, is a notable example of a successful transit system that has addressed the first and last-mile challenges. The system operates the world's longest Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system, spanning 251.2 kilometers, and has been instrumental in transforming the city's public transportation landscape. A study by the Journal of Transport and Land Use found that TransJakarta has reduced congestion by up to 20% and improved air quality by up to 30% (Basheer et al., 2020). Another study found that TransJakarta has improved the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the city's public transportation system (Fauzi, 2016) TransJakarta has also been successful in improving the transit customer experience. The system has implemented various innovative solutions, including real-time information and mobile apps, to improve the transit customer experience (Angelina et al., 2017). For instance, the system has implemented a mobile app that allows passengers to track the location of their bus in real-time, reducing wait times and improving route planning. The system has also implemented a range of other innovative solutions, including the use of data analytics to optimize bus routes and reduce congestion. Sustainable transportation is a critical component of achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 11. The first and last-mile, transit customer experience and TransJakarta are all important aspects of sustainable transportation that can significantly impact the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the transit system. By addressing the challenges posed by the first and last mile and improving the transit customer experience, transit agencies can create a seamless travel experience for passengers and contribute to a more sustainable future.
- 286 - Methodology This study uses a mixed-methods approach combining both qualitative and quantitative data. The quantitative data includes daily ridership numbers, bus operations, and route coverage from 2015 to 2018. The data was collected from official Transjakarta reports. The qualitative data consists of literature reviews on the impact of TransJakarta on urban development and the role of bus rapid transit and feeder systems in enhancing public transportation. Findings Initial efforts made by TransJakarta to solve first-mile and last-mile problems in 2016 is to issue non-BRT services with other bus/microbus operators all around Jakarta, nowadays TransJakarta as a company isn’t operating all 4,785 fleets. Instead, TransJakarta is a transit system management that cooperates with up to 20 bus/Mikrotrans operators. Enabling nonBRT services with other operators in 2016 introduced us to Minitrans and Metrotrans to fill the gaps that 13 corridors (at that time) didn’t serve. Within its second year of operation, this nonBRT service is integrated with the BRT system and its 13 corridors. Instead of any other feeders, Metrotrans and Minitrans act as a connection between main corridors. In 2024 Metrotrans and Minitrans have 45 routes connecting between 14 main corridors and 15 other routes connecting to JIS (Jakarta International Stadium) and Dukuh Atas TOD. Metrotrans and Minitrans success as a between-BRT connection didn’t fully solve ridership stagnation as in 2016-2017, daily ridership numbers only grew 7% rather than the previous year when they recorded a 38% increase in daily ridership numbers. Instead, in 2018, Jakarta’s government launched OK Otrip, which changed its name to JakLingko and then to Mikrotrans when it fully cooperated with TransJakarta (the company). Mikrotrans fleets is a 10-man microbus (angkutan kota/angkot) with its original routes but slightly modified to accommodate integration with TransJakarta bus stop. One thing that made people interested other than refurbished fleets instead of old fleets is free Mikrotrans fare (0 rupiah), passengers have to use tap-on-bus system and not charged a single cent when using Mikrotrans. Because the Mikrotrans route uses an existing and already massive (modified) route but for free and newer fleets, people started to use Mikrotrans as a first-choice mode for the first-last-mile experience because it reaches other places that the bus cannot serve, like in the middle of residential or any other places. Within the first year Mikrotrans (JakLingko at that time) launched, TransJakarta's daily ridership numbers jumped to 721.900 passengers/day, which is a 53% increase from last year. Figure 1: TransJakarta daily ridership from 2015-2018 (Source: TransJakarta, 2019)
- 287 - At first, many worried that Mikrotrans would become a competitor for TransJakarta and compete with each other in some routes (particularly in routes with massive ridership) (Maharani, 2017) because of the nature of microbus (angkutan kota/angkot) companies that opposed the existence of TransJakarta until this day. These microbus companies worry that the BRT system (or TransJakarta as a whole system) stole their customers. TransJakarta also expects that with the zero-fare (free) system Mikrotrans had, TransJakarta ridership will decline sooner or later. This is when the government as regulator handed over Mikrotrans management to TransJakarta (company) and had full control over what Mikrotrans would or would not serve. This decision leads to many benefits for the two parties, TransJakarta can modify Mikrotrans routes to accommodate integration with the TransJakarta bus system and serve other segments of customers/passengers that were unwilling to use TransJakarta before because the first-last-mile experience is poor. On the other hand, Mikrotrans (its operators) got incentives to increase the number of passengers who want to use TransJakarta (because of its integration) while still operating its routes like any other day. Conclusion Some people reluctantly used TransJakarta in its first 13 years of service because the firstmile and last-mile experience is poor or nonexistent, particularly people who rarely used TransJakarta or the public transit system in Jakarta. Poor conditions on first-mile and last-mile problems made those groups of people more unwilling to use Jakarta’s transit system, just to be sure these “First-mile and Last-mile Problems” are real-world problems and not just some theory as shown examples before in Utah (Park et al., 2021). Of course, poor first-mile-lastmile services are not the only reasons for people's unwillingness to use them; other factors include the lack of public trust in the system due to its poor management and maintenance. This was evident in the early years of TransJakarta's operation, where commuters faced frequent delays, overcrowding, and poor road conditions (ITDP, 2013). Another major concern was the limited coverage of the system, which made it difficult for people to access the service. The initial routes were not large enough to serve the entire city's needs, leading to dissatisfaction among commuters who had to rely on other modes of transportation. Lastly, the lack of integration with other modes of transportation, such as the MRT and LRT, limited the system's potential to provide a comprehensive transportation solution for the city. This lack of integration made it difficult for commuters to seamlessly transition between different modes of transportation, further reducing the appeal of TransJakarta (ITDP, 2019). That is why integrating Mikrotrans into the TransJakarta system has many positive impacts, including an increase in daily ridership. It solves many reasons that made people unwilling to use TransJakarta, one of which is transit coverage. Microbus (angkot) solves coverage problems with its reach and reliability to serve the most remote settlement in the outer skirt of Jakarta, but its integration with TransJakarta (and its zero-fare system) brought a mass transformation to the transit system in Jakarta and also massive shifts in the people mode choice. Further recommendations for these integrations involve TransJakarta and Mikrotrans reliability on transit-hopping behavior and optimizing its first-last mile reach to almost every residential or trip-generating zone. Another recommendation is expanding the real-time tracking features for all fleets, including Metrotrans, Minitrans, and Mikrotrans, to reduce bus station congestion and increase customer satisfaction. Even though real-time fleet tracking is superb and integrated public transit is considered impressive, the real problem with TransJakarta (and Mikrotrans) is its lane system on roads, especially in congested and narrow roads. TransJakarta, with its medium or large bus, sometimes did not have a dedicated lane and got stuck in a traffic jam with another vehicle, increasing its headway and messing up the schedule. Jakarta’s motorist behaviors must be corrected (they cannot enter this dedicated lane) and authorities must be stricter with the dedicated lane offense.
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- 289 - ID-64: Evaluate The Effectiveness of using Reverse Vending Machine (RVW) Nur Auzaimah Mohd Ali 1 , Nor Suzylah Sohaimi 2 ¹ Ghazali Shafie Graduate School of Government (GSGSG), Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06050, Kedah ² Universiti Utara Malaysia [email protected] Highlight: Malaysia's waste management framework is unique in that it incorporates both formal and informal sectors. The lack of consistency in the massive volume of uncollected rubbish, as well as the purposeful reluctance to dump waste in landfills, have created substantial barriers to policy implementation. The researcher's purpose to examine the factors that impact the use of RVWs in solid waste management in affordable housing, as well as to assess the effectiveness of utilizing RVWs in inexpensive housing. RVWs are an effective and environmentally friendly means of handling solid waste. This concept aims to increase recycling rates by addressing the issue of plastic waste and reducing the number of water bottles that end up in landfills. Keywords: Affordable Housing; Reverse Vending Machine (RVW); Solid Waste Introduction According to the estimate of solid waste generation in Malaysia, as much as 13,945,489 tons in a year has accumulated (National Solid Waste Management Department, 2021). If this trend continues, around 12 billion tons of solid waste, the weight equivalent of 25 000 Empire State Building, has been estimated to reach to landfill sites or enter the environment by 2050 (National Geographic, 2018). Hence, the country of Malaysia needs to compete with developed countries in technology and needs to create and implement various industrial strategies and policies to encourage society to recycle resources by facilitating the use of recycled resources again (Zaman and Ahsan, 2019). Without the use of RVMs, the issue of solid waste is difficult to overcome, and has a negative impact on the environment, people, and the country. The first issue is that plastic bags cause air pollution that leads to the increase of climate change phenomenon (Vasarhelyi, 2021). Second, ingestion of the plastic, it can impede the digestion system from working normally, at the end it blocks the intestine and causes a bacterial infection that leads to death (Haney, 2020). Third, estimated in 2015, the amount of plastic in the ocean showed about 150 million metric tons of plastic have polluted the oceans and affected the deaths of 80 people different species (Readfearn, 2020). Based on the issue, the researcher wants to analyse the factors that affect the use of RVWs in solid waste management in affordable housing areas and examine the effectiveness of using RVWs in affordable housing. Literature Review Solid waste management is the most important municipal service by the people. An average estimate of 0.64kg of municipal solid waste (MSW) per day per person (Hoornweg, BhadaTata & Perinaz, 2012). Recycling is the most environmentally friendly method of waste management. (Mwanza & Mbohwa, 2016). There are several techniques to separate Plastic Solid Waste (PSW), but the separation of this waste only uses human interaction, it is not considered to be less efficient. RVM is an innovative idea to collect recyclable materials such as plastic, aluminium and paper. RVM encourages the community to dispose of waste sustainably (Tomari, Kadir & Jabbar, 2017). Based on the Comprehensive Model of recycling behavior (Valle et.al. 2005), the variables that influence recycling behavior are attitudes towards recycling, personal norms, recycling knowledge, solid waste management facilities and government attitudes. For example, Strydom's (2018) study in South Africa said that subjective norms have a positive effect on residents' recycling intentions. Hornik et al. (1995) also stated that internal facilitators and external facilitators have several influences on