HMEF5023 Educational Leadership Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
HMEF5023 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP Assoc Prof Dr Yousof @ Saat Md Yasin Dr Ashley Ng Yoon Mooi AMN Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Course Guide xiăxvi Topic 1 The Nature of Leadership 1 1.1 Interpretation of Leadership 2 1.2 Leadership and Management 4 1.3 Leadership Roles 6 1.3.1 Figurehead 7 1.3.2 Spokesperson 7 1.3.3 Negotiator 7 1.3.4 Coach 7 1.3.5 Team Builder 7 1.3.6 Team Player 8 1.3.7 Technical Problem Solver 8 1.3.8 Entrepreneur 8 1.3.9 Strategic Planner 8 1.4 Traits of Effective Leadership 9 1.4.1 The Communicator 11 1.4.2 The Educator 13 1.4.3 The Envisioner 14 1.4.4 The Facilitator 15 1.4.5 The Change Master 16 1.4.6 The Culture Builder 17 1.4.7 The Activator 18 1.4.8 The Producer 20 1.4.9 The Character Builder 21 1.4.10 The Contributor 22 1.5 Leadership and Power 24 1.5.1 Power ă A Focus on Individuals 25 1.5.2 Power ă Shared Leadership 25 1.6 Changing Perspectives on Leadership 26 1.6.1 Charismatic Leadership 27 1.6.2 Transactional and Transformational Leadership 30 1.6.3 Instructional Leadership 34 1.6.4 Moral Leadership 37 Summary 39 Key Terms 40 References 40 Table of Contents Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Topic 2 Effective Leadership Behaviours and Attitudes 44 2.1 Trait Theories 45 2.2 Behavioural Theories 46 2.2.1 Theory X and Theory Y 46 2.2.2 Ohio State University 48 2.2.3 University of Iowa 48 2.2.4 Managerial Grid 49 2.3 The Leadership Style 51 2.3.1 Situations Style 51 2.3.2 Conclusion 54 2.4 Selecting the Best Leadership Style 56 2.4.1 Principal Leadership Style and Achievement 56 2.4.2 Conclusion 60 2.5 The Ethical Practice of Educational Leadership 61 2.5.1 Concept of Ethics in Leadership 61 2.5.2 Conclusion 64 Summary 65 Key Terms 66 References 66 Topic 3 Contingency and Situational Leadership 70 3.1 FiedlerÊs Contingency Theory of Leadership Effectiveness 71 3.2 The Path-goal Theory of Leadership Effectiveness 73 3.2.1 The Assumptions of Path-goal Theory 75 3.2.2 Choice of Leadership Behaviours 75 3.3 The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Model 77 Summary 80 Key Terms 80 References 80 Topic 4 Leadership and Motivation 82 4.1 What is Motivation? 83 4.2 Leadership and Motivation 84 4.3 Motivation Theories 85 4.3.1 McClellandÊs Motivation Theory 85 4.3.2 VroomÊs Expectancy Theory 87 4.3.3 Locke and LathamÊs Goal-setting Theory 89 4.4 Behaviour Modification and Motivation 93 4.4.1 Behaviour Modification 93 4.4.2 Stages of Management of Behavioural Change 95 4.4.3 Conclusion 98 Summary 99 Key Terms 100 References 100 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TABLE OF CONTENTS v Topic 5 The School as a Social Organisation 102 5.1 The School as a Social System 103 5.2 The Rise of Weberian Bureaucracy and Structures 105 in Schools 5.2.1 Division of Labour 106 5.2.2 Impersonal Orientation 106 5.2.3 Hierarchy of Authority 106 5.2.4 Rules and Regulations 106 5.2.5 Career Orientation 107 5.3 The Benefits of Bureaucracy 107 5.4 Criticisms of the Weberian Bureaucratic Model 108 5.5 Functions and Dysfunctions of the Weberian 109 Bureaucratic Model 5.6 Role Theory 111 5.6.1 Sources of the Role of the Principal 111 5.6.2 The PrincipalÊs Role 112 5.6.3 A Model of Role Relationships 113 5.6.4 Role Expectations 114 5.7 Value Theory 117 5.7.1 Value Analysis 117 5.7.2 The Relationship between School and Society 120 5.7.3 Current Educational Trends 124 5.8 Decision-making Theory 127 5.8.1 Problematic State and Awareness of the Situation 129 5.8.2 Information 130 5.8.3 Value Orientation 130 5.8.4 Perception Screen 131 5.8.5 Selection of Alternative Decisions 131 5.8.6 Decision Choice 131 5.8.7 Implementing and Evaluating the Decision 132 5.9 Models of Decision Making 132 Summary 135 Key Terms 136 References 137 Topic 6 Tactics for Becoming an Empowering Leader 139 6.1 The Definition of Empowerment 140 6.2 Empowerment in Education 141 6.2.1 Obstacles in Empowerment 142 6.2.2 Reasons for Empowerment Failure 142 6.3 The Nature of Empowerment 143 6.3.1 Classroom Empowerment 143 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
vi TABLE OF CONTENTS 6.4 Ingredients for a Successful Empowerment 145 6.4.1 Building Trust 146 6.4.2 Leadership Issues 147 6.5 Effective Delegation and Empowerment 149 6.5.1 Creating Life-long Learners 150 6.5.2 Participative Management and Decision Making 150 6.5.3 Self-managing Work Groups 151 6.6 Team Working 152 6.6.1 What is a Team? 152 6.6.2 Commitment of Senior Management 153 6.6.3 Why Team Working? 155 Summary 158 Key Terms 160 References 160 Topic 7 Factors that Contribute to Organisational Politics 162 7.1 Organisational Structure 163 7.1.1 Politics 164 7.1.2 Human Resources 165 7.1.3 Culture 166 7.1.4 Government 167 7.1.5 Regulation 169 7.2 Organisational Structure 170 7.2.1 Conventional Wisdom 171 7.2.2 Performance Assessment 173 7.3 Machiavellian Tendencies 174 7.3.1 The Tendencies of Machiavellian Leadership 175 Measurement 7.3.2 Origins of the Machiavellian Construct 177 7.3.3 Instrument Development 177 7.4 Disagreement 179 7.4.1 Myths or Misconceptions about Disagreement 179 and Conflict 7.4.2 Why Does Disagreement Occur? 180 7.4.3 Strategies for Dealing with Disagreement 182 Summary 184 Key Terms 185 References 186 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii Topic 8 Creative Problem Solving 191 8.1 Characteristics of Creative Leaders 192 8.2 Organisational Methods to Enhance Creativity 195 8.3 Self-help Techniques to Enhance Creative Problem 199 Solving Summary 211 Key Terms 212 References 212 Topic 9 Communication and Skills in Resolving Conflicts 215 9.1 Inspirational Communication 216 9.1.1 Being Effective 216 9.1.2 Recognising Barriers 216 9.1.3 Communicating Positively 216 9.1.4 Achieving Clarity 217 9.1.5 Choosing a Method 217 9.1.6 Cultural Differences 217 9.1.7 Combining Methods 218 9.1.8 Understanding Body Language 219 9.1.9 Communicating by Body Language 219 9.1.10 Reading Body Language 220 9.1.11 Conquering Nerves 220 9.1.12 Cultural Differences: Personal Space 220 9.1.13 Keeping Your Distance 221 9.1.14 Creating an Impression 221 9.1.15 Recognising Gestures 221 9.1.16 Cultural Differences: Nonverbal Language 222 9.1.17 Giving Body Signals 222 9.1.18 Showing Attentiveness 223 9.1.19 Listening Skills: Putting Methods into Practice 223 9.1.20 Points to Remember 224 9.1.21 Interpreting Dialogue 224 9.1.22 Using Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) 224 9.1.23 Listening and Mirroring 224 9.1.24 Asking Questions 225 9.1.25 Knowing What to Ask 225 9.1.26 Choosing Questions 225 9.1.27 Striking the Right Tone 226 9.1.28 Conclusion 227 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS 9.2 Supportive Communication 227 9.2.1 Problem-oriented, Not Person-oriented 228 9.2.2 Based on Congruence, Not Incongruence 228 9.2.3 Descriptive, Not Evaluative 229 9.2.4 Validates Rather than Invalidates Individuals 229 9.2.5 Specific (Useful), Not Global (Not Useful) 230 9.2.6 Conjunctive, Not Disjunctive 230 9.2.7 Owned, Not Disowned 231 9.2.8 Requires Listening, Not One-way Message 231 Delivery 9.3 Cross-cultural Communication 232 9.4 Resolving Conflicts 236 9.4.1 Conflict is Normal: Anticipating Conflicts Likely 238 to Arise in the Workplace 9.4.2 Conflict Style and Their Consequences 239 9.4.3 How we Respond to Conflict: Thoughts, Feelings 240 and Physical Responses 9.4.4 The Role of Perceptions in Conflict 242 9.4.5 Why do we Tend to Avoid Dealing with Conflict? 243 Summary 245 Key Terms 245 References 246 Topic 10 Shaping TomorrowÊs Leadership and Organisation 249 10.1 Models For Working and Organising 250 10.1.1 Understanding Change 250 10.1.2 Process for Initiating Top-down Transformation 251 10.1.3 Process for Initiating Bottom-up Transformation 253 10.2 Organising for Strategic Advantage 253 10.3 Working and Organising in a Wired World 255 10.3.1 Multi-tasking 256 10.3.2 Information and Knowledge Management 256 10.4 Leading People in the Organisation of the Future 257 10.5 Strategic Leadership 258 10.6 Knowledge Management and the Learning Organisation 259 10.6.1 Effective Knowledge Management 260 10.6.2 Learning Organisation 261 10.6.3 Knowledge Management and Learning 262 Organisation in the School System Summary 263 Key Terms 264 References 262 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE xi COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in order to complete the course successfully. Please refer to the Course Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important study components or points that you might miss or overlook. INTRODUCTION HMEF5023 Educational Leadership is one of the courses offered at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks. COURSE AUDIENCE This course is offered to all learners taking the Master of Education. The main aim of this course is to give you the theoretical foundation of educational leadership and organisation to enable you to understand and utilise the theoretical concepts in managing and administering your organisation or school effectively with minimal obstacles. As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the course is conducted. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
xii COURSE GUIDE STUDY SCHEDULE It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be accumulated. Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours Study Activities Study Hours Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3 Study the module 60 Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10 Online participation 12 Revision 15 Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20 TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this course, you should be able to: 1. Explain the concept of leadership in educational organisations; 2. Analyse leadership and organisational theories in their study tasks and research; 3. Demonstrate the understanding of problem solving in educational contexts; and 4. Evaluate critically the educational leadership practices in selected case studies and research for improvement. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE xiii COURSE SYNOPSIS This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as follows: Topic 1 introduces the interpretation of leadership and its roles. This topic also discusses the traits of leadership and changing perspectives on leadership. In this topic, you will learn the differences between leadership in management and power. Topic 2 discusses the effectiveness of leadership behaviours and attitudes. Here, you will be exposed to the early trait theories and modern trait theories and also leadership styles. Finally, you will learn the ethical practices of an educational leader. Topic 3 discusses contingency and situational leadership. In this topic, we will examine FiedlerÊs contingency theory of leadership effectiveness, path-goal theory of leadership effectiveness and finally, the Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership theory. Topic 4 discusses the context of leadership and motivation. Here, you will be exposed to McClellandÊs motivation theory, VroomÊs expectancy theory and LathamÊs goal-setting theory. Topic 5 examines the school as a social organisation. In this topic, you will learn about Weberian bureaucracy and structures in school. Finally, you will also discuss the role theory, the value theory and the decision-making theory. Topic 6 describes the tactics for becoming an empowering leader. In this topic, you will learn the definition of empowerment, its obstacles, its nature, its benefits and also the key points in successful empowerment. Topic 7 describes the factors that contribute to organisational politics. Here, you will be exposed to standard performances, Machiavellian perspectives and potential disagreement. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
xiv COURSE GUIDE Topic 8 discusses creative problem solving. Here, you will learn the characteristics of creative leaders, methods to enhance creativity and self-help techniques to enhance creative problem solving. Topic 9 examines the communication and skills in resolving conflicts. Here, you will be exposed to inspirational and supportive communication. You will also learn about cross-cultural communication and resolving conflicts. Topic 10 deals with shaping tomorrowÊs leadership and organisation. In this topic, we will also discuss the models for working and organising for strategic advantage and finally knowledge management in learning organisation. TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text arrangement for each topic is as follows: Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your understanding of the topic. Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few subsections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can be found directly from the module itself. Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE xv Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to revisit the details in the module. Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to explain, you should look for the terms in the module. References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course. PRIOR KNOWLEDGE No prior knowledge required. ASSESSMENT METHOD Please refer to myINSPIRE. REFERENCES Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York, NY: Free Press. Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass and Stogdills handbook of leadership theory, research and managerial applications (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Free Press. Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Grint, K. (1997). Leadership: Classical, contemporary and critical approaches, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
xvi COURSE GUIDE Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1982). Management of organization behavior: Utilizing human resources. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hickman, C. R., & Silva, M. A. (1984). Creating excellence. New York, NY: New American Library. Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (1991). Educational administration: theory research and practice. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (2001). Educational administration: Theory, research, and practice (6th ed.). Singapore: McGraw-Hill International Edition. Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1995). The leadership challenge. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Sadler, P. (1997). Leadership. London, England: Kogan. Sergiovanni, T. J. (1992). Moral leadership: Getting to the heart of school leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership. A survey of theory and research. New York, NY: Free Press. Van Maurik, J. (2001). Writers on leadership. London, England: Penguin. Yukl, G. A. (2010). Leadership in organisations (7th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall International. TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL LIBRARY The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books, Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION This is the first topic out of 10 prepared for the course entitled „Educational Leadership‰ which will introduce you to the foundations of leadership and organisation in general. Whenever applicable, the educational scene will be focused on and used as an illustration. The theories and concepts will enable learners for the Master of Education to understand the dynamics of education which influence the development of a nation. The leader of any organisation plays a very important role in determining its well-being. If the leader is effective, then the vision and the objectives of the organisation will be achieved and the organisation progresses further. Topic 1 The Nature of Leadership LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Discuss the roles of a leader; 2. Differentiate between leadership and management; 3. Discuss the traits of effective leadership; 4. Explore the importance of a principalÊs instructional leadership; 5. Explore the role of power in leadership and the leader-follower relationship; and 6. Discuss the changing perspectives on leadership. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
2 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP Many a time, the ineffectiveness of a school is directly related to the inefficiency of the principal or headmaster. He might have been appointed as the leader just because of seniority but the measure of efficiency was never utilised for the appointment. The leader might have not gone through the process of experience and formally learnt the skills and knowledge of becoming a leader in our schools. Therefore, this course could be of help to aspiring principals, to know the theories behind the activities of leading as well as the skills needed to be an effective leader. INTERPRETATION OF LEADERSHIP In simple terms, a leader is a person who leads a group of people to achieve certain objectives which might have been agreed on by the followers but set by the leader or as in a democratic organisation. They might have been derived through discussions and deliberations by all members including the leader. A leader plays the major role in ensuring that the group objectives are finally realised. In every group even though no leader is appointed, a leader would appear among them naturally. In a battle, if the leader is killed, the second person in command will automatically take over the leadership, but if all leaders of the platoon were to die, the person who provides some ideas and suggestions for their survival and well-being usually will be accepted by the platoon as their natural leader. This person, who assumes leadership indirectly not by choice but more so for the sake of his wellbeing as well his friendsÊ survival, will rise above others in the group. The real meaning of leadership can be understood partly by observing the behaviour of a person who is perceived as a leader. A person could be termed as a leader if he inspires, influences and motivates people to achieve certain goals and makes constructive changes in his organisation. In the case of Tun Mahathir Mohammad, the current Prime Minister of Malaysia, one could easily come to a conclusion that he is the leader of Malaysians. During his first tenure as Prime Minister, he not only inspired the people to achieve higher goals in everything they did but also made paradigm shifts in the policies of socioeconomic development projects. These characteristics were also observed in our fifth Prime Minister, Tun DatoÊ Sri Haji Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. 1.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 3 The other definition of leadership by some quarters included the criteria of making a difference. A person will only be esteemed as a leader if what he exercises makes a difference and this difference can facilitate positive changes. If an organisation is in shambles when a person takes over the leadership of the organisation but after a reasonable period of time he manages to turn the organisation around where it becomes sound financially and positive vibes are present everywhere in the organisation, then we can come to the conclusion that the person who caused the positive changes was a leader. Other interpretations of leadership lead to almost the same conclusion such as a person is a leader if he has the ability to inspire and stimulate others. According to W. Chan Kim and Maubourgne (1992), „Leadership is the ability to inspire confidence and support among people who are needed to achieve organisational goals.‰ We find that this opinion is similar to the other explanations regarding leadership as explained earlier. As a summary, we could say that leadership has been defined in many different ways. Du Brin (2001) cited that there were about 35,000 research articles, magazine articles and books that have been written about leadership. Some of the definitions given by him are as follows: (a) Interpersonal influence, directed through communication toward goal attainment. (b) The influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with directions and orders. (c) An act that causes others to act or respond in a shared direction. (d) The art of influencing people by persuasion or example to follow a line of action. (e) The principal dynamic force that motivates and coordinates the organisation in the accomplishment of its objectives (Bass, 1990). (f) A willingness to take the blame (as defined by legendary football quarterback Joe Montana) (Zaslow, 1998). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
4 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP We can sense that leadership is associated with „interpersonal influence, communication, goal attainment, motivation and coordination and willingness to take the blame‰. These words and phrases distinguish a leader from others. If a person in any grouping has that quality and practices the role of a leader, he would be the natural leader of the group. In most successful organisations, the person appointed as a leader would have to build his personality by incorporating those traits as a part of his personality. Usually, a leader is seldom born but made. Anyone can be a leader if he desires to be one and may adopt all the characteristics of a good leader as a part of his personality. After reading the meaning of leadership in its various shades, we should move deeper into the realm of leadership roles. The roles undertaken by a leader are many faceted and if we look into them, it seems that every one of us has undertaken a few of the roles if not all of them. Let us proceed. LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT Are leadership and management the same? Both leadership and management are about working with people and involve influence. Leadership is about effective goal accomplishment and so is management. The question of whether leadership is different from or similar to management is an ongoing debate in leadership literature. The distinction between leadership and management is critical because it will enable us to develop our thinking about other concepts such as leading change in organisations and can lead to a deeper understanding of leadership theories such as transformational and transactional leadership. Although leading and managing are conceived as different processes (Rost, 1991) with Zaleznik (1977) adopting a narrower view that leaders and managers are distinctly different types of people, there are writers (Bass, 1985; Northouse, 2013; Yukl, 2002) who argue that the functions of management are consistent with the definition of leadership set forth in subtopic 1.1. Table 1.1 shows that the functions of management and leadership are different in scope but Kotter (1998) argued that both management and leadership are essential if an organisation is to succeed. For example, an organisation which is strong in management but has no leadership would have an outcome that is stifling and bureaucratic. On the other hand, with strong leadership but weak management, the outcome would be meaningless and lack direction. To be effective, an organisation needs to be nourished by both competent management and leadership. Both are two sides of the same coin (Schein, 1997). 1.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 5 Table 1.1: Functions of Management and Leadership Management Leadership Emphasis on Order and Consistency Emphasis on Change and Movement Planning and Budgeting: Establishing agendas Setting timetables Allocating resources Establishing Direction: Creating a vision Clarifying big picture Setting strategies Organising and Staffing: Providing structure Making job placements Establishing rules and procedures Aligning People: Communicating goals Seeking commitments Building teams and coalitions Controlling and Problem Solving: Developing incentives Generating creative solutions Taking corrective action Motivating and Inspiring: Inspiring and energising Empowering subordinates Satisfying unmet needs Source: Northouse (2013) 1. Explain what you understand by the following qualities of a leader and a manager: interpersonal influence, communication, goal attainment, motivation and coordination, and willingness to take the blame. 2. In a crisis, who do you think will become a natural „leader‰ a manager or a leader? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.1 What do you understand by leadership? Explain. SELF-CHECK 1.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
6 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP LEADERSHIP ROLES A leader in any organisation plays a very important role to ensure its well-being. To understand leadership, we should examine the various roles undertaken by a leader. Although leadership is not a panacea for all problems found in an organisation, it can play important roles to alleviate some if not the majority of them and lead the organisation towards achieving its target. DuBurin (2001) claimed that researchers in this subject identified nine roles that are played by leaders as shown in Figure 1.1. These roles are very important for the survival of a leader in an organisation. If he does not take the lead in those roles, others would have to take them and in the process it would erode the leadership base and others would usurp them and the leader would be side-lined and discarded. Figure 1.1: Nine roles played by leaders We will now discuss the nine roles one by one. 1.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 7 1.3.1 Figurehead The term here does not downgrade the role of a leader. Usually, before a person is promoted into the leadership role, he would have gone through the mill. He would have the experience of taking responsibilities of doing the difficult tasks when still climbing the ladder of the organisation. When a person is appointed as the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), he has already mastered the nitty-gritty of the organisation and he does not have to do the job. He attends ceremonies just like the Governor or the King in a constitutional monarchy. 1.3.2 Spokesperson Another important role of leadership is to be the spokesperson of the organisation. One of the criteria of promotion is oneÊs thorough knowledge of the organisation. Therefore, it is most appropriate for the leader to be the representative of the organisation. 1.3.3 Negotiator A leader is judged by his ability to negotiate difficult bargaining situations especially with trade unions or for bargaining the best deal from vendors or business partners. 1.3.4 Coach An effective leader would help subordinates by coaching them to be more effective. Some of the coaching activities that leaders implement are related to tips on human relations procedures and skills as well as communication skills. 1.3.5 Team Builder A very important aspect of leadership is building an effective team where team members cooperate effectively with each other. The members feel that they all belong to the organisation and have high group morale. They are also encouraged to talk about their accomplishments, problems and concerns and they would try to help and motivate each other in the process of reaching greater heights of achievements. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
8 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 1.3.6 Team Player A leader should also be a team player who has to exhibit appropriate behaviours such as abiding by the team decision. 1.3.7 Technical Problem Solver Technical problem solving is usually the responsibility of middle managers and supervisors. They are usually prepared for higher positions in the organisation, and among their duties is to help team members to solve their technical problems. 1.3.8 Entrepreneur An important aspect of leadership, especially in a private organisation, is the role of an entrepreneur by contributing innovative ideas on how to attract more students to enrol into courses offered by the institute. 1.3.9 Strategic Planner The top management team is always involved in strategic planning after getting valuable information and data from various sources. Strategic planning is vital in ensuring a healthy environment with growth projections that are synonymous with market demands of the future. After scrutinising all the mentioned roles, we may observe that a leader has to have not only theoretical knowledge, but also have the right attitudes and the correct skills. The leader has to be a good actor at first and in the process, absorb all the traits that are required to be a successful role player in all the nine roles. A leader who can adapt himself to the roles that are demanded out of him will be able to bring together his staff to support him and the organisation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 9 TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP All the roles mentioned previously that have to be played by a leader could be measured by various means such as by looking at the result; whether there is harmony between the staff in the organisation, and whether it makes a profit. These variables can be measured through questionnaires or by participant observation. The effectiveness of oneÊs leadership could also be observed through the traits of the leader himself. McEwan (2003) in his book 10 Traits of Highly Effective Principals ă From Good to Great Performance described that effective principals who are school leaders, could be observed through the 10 traits. The accounts by these effective leaders could inspire educational leaders to achieve higher levels of efficiency. 1.4 1. Why is the role of an entrepreneur important? 2. Select four of the leadership roles that you would consider to be the most important and give reasons why. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.2 What is the difference between a „team builder‰ and a „team player‰? SELF-CHECK 1.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
10 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP Figure 1.2: Ten Important indicators of effective leadership Figure 1.2 show us 10 traits as important indications of effective leadership. All these traits should be present in an individual leader and they should be part of the personality of the individual. In order to have a deeper understanding of these traits, we will probe into each one of them. Benchmarks were set for each trait and a leader could only be considered as effective if the benchmarks standards are met. McEwanÊs (2003) strict adherence to her benchmarks ensured that if the leaders under scrutiny were to fulfil each one of the benchmarks, their standing as leaders would be solid and there would be few disagreements about their status. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 11 1.4.1 The Communicator Communication skills are very important in any leadership function. A leader has to communicate his ideas and instructions to his subordinates as well as to others. If the message is not vividly communicated, misunderstandings could arise and as the result of this inability, he would be rendered as an ineffective leader. McEwan gave the following characteristics which are used as benchmarks for this trait. As a communicator, a leader has to: (a) Attend to the needs of the staff; (b) Listen and understand to the grouses and opinions of his subordinates; (c) Empathise with whatever difficulties encountered by the staff and provide means to ease them through cooperation; (d) Disclose himself to others; (e) Get the whole story; (f) Ask the right questions; (g) Say what he means and mean what he says. A leader should be straight forward and not beat about the bush; (h) Accept criticism; (i) Give correction; (j) Communicate creatively; (k) Disagree agreeably; (l) Pay attention to parents; (m) Connect emotionally and professionally with staff; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
12 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP (n) Communicate with students; (o) Can talk to the boss; (p) Connect in productive, helping and healing ways; (q) Care enough to send the very best; (r) Know how to sweet talk; and (s) Write, speak and teach. These characteristics of the communicator could be important reminders for each one of us since we are leaders in various capacities holding many roles at all times. An aspiring leader would benefit from knowing those important traits because he needs to immortalise those traits within his personality and mould his character accordingly. An effective leader does not necessarily have those characteristics at the optimum level because it is very rare for a person to excel in everything he does. What is needed is the awareness of the importance of all those traits and slowly indoctrinating oneself into those traits and practising the kaizen philosophy where continuous improvement is a sure way of improving oneself. 1. What does it mean to „know how to sweet talk‰? 2. What is meant by „agree to disagree‰? 3. In your career you would have met and worked under various leaders. Discuss one of these leaders using the characteristics of leadership as points of reference, and give your verdict whether he belongs to the effective group of leaders or leaders that need to go through various leadership trainings and workshops. Share your answers in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 13 1.4.2 The Educator Every one of us is an educator even though we are not professional teachers. We educate our children to behave and toilet-train our pets. As a leader, this role is benchmarked against some characteristics that are deemed as the trait of an educator. As an educator, he should exhibit the following characteristics: (a) Believes that all students can learn; (b) Provides training and support for teachers; (c) Creates cognitive dissonance to ensure the development of creativity among the students; (d) Establishes, implements and achieves academic standards; (e) Focuses on instruction; (f) Models continuous learning; (g) Develops teacher leaders; (h) Pays attention to what matters most; and (i) Creates learning communities. An educational leader must be an educator in order to succeed. His interest is embedded in the creation of a conducive environment for growth for all; the students, academic and non-academic staff as well. He is unselfish in sharing his knowledge and experiences with others in the organisation to ensure the achievement of the vision of his organisation. 1. What is „a learning community‰? Explain. 2. The principal who is classified as „an educator‰ has many positive traits that are useful in leading a school. What type of school do you think that he will be the most useful in? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
14 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 1.4.3 The Envisioner The following are the characteristics of the envisioner: (a) Has sixth sense and can sense future happenings; (b) Feels called to make a difference; (c) Has resolve, goals and life vision; (d) Can see the invisible; (e) Knows where they are headed; (f) Has compelling visions that enables him to use this ability to venture into unchartered territory; and (g) Can articulate his visions and then make them happen. The „envisioner‰ is an important trait for strategic planners for this ability would enable the organisation to charter future plans accurately and in the process minimise wastage in time as well as manpower. An organisation which can do this will be able to withstand changes and uncertainties in the market place as well as new challenges in the future. How would an „envisioner‰ react to the changes in the education policy, such as the change of the medium of instruction from Malay to English in the teaching of mathematics and science from Malay to English? Discuss and share your answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.5 List the characteristics of an „envisioner‰. SELF-CHECK 1.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 15 1.4.4 The Facilitator The following are the characteristics of the facilitator: (a) Bonds people into a community of leaders; (b) Taps the potential of people; (c) Says „we‰ instead of „I‰; (d) Favours people over paperwork; (e) Builds up emotional bank accounts through understanding, appreciating, and affirming of another individual; (f) Cultivates his own well-being and develops an anti-burnout mechanism by developing his self-esteem; (g) Values diversity; (h) Shares the „power pie‰; (i) Accentuates the positive aspects of his followers; (j) Promotes parental involvement in school activities; (k) Celebrates whenever successes are achieved for this will be a motivating element for the students; and (l) Spends time with students which will make the students feel that the principal has an interest in their welfare. A „facilitator‰ is a person who facilitates the smooth running of affairs among members within the organisation as well as with outsiders. He sees people in a positive light and feels that they have potentials for the betterment of the organisation that others do not see. This trait can be cultivated and made use for developing organisational well-being. It helps others to see things in a positive way and boost the possibility of cooperation and collaboration from the most unlikely people. He can make things happen. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
16 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 1.4.5 The Change Master The following are the characteristics of the change master: (a) Can handle uncertainty and ambiguity; (b) Respects resisters which show that the leader knows how to handle difficult and delicate situations in a change process; (c) Is futuristic because a leader who designs change actions are usually forward looking and has the ability to adapt his organisation earlier than the resisters; (d) Uses a situational approach; (e) Knows the power is within oneself; (f) Values the process because it is an important experience; (g) Plans for short-term victories for building up confidence; (h) Procures resources to ensure that the change process would not be hindered; (i) Trusts his team; (j) Does not only require his followers to change but he himself is willing to change because a leader leads by example; 1. How does a leader „bond people into a community of leaders‰? 2. If a school is having communication problems among the teachers and between the teachers and the students, what would you do if you are a „facilitator‰ principal? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.6 1. What does „building up emotional bank accounts‰ mean? 2. In your own words, explain „the sharing of the power pie‰. SELF-CHECK 1.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 17 (k) Must also be a motivator; and (l) Understands the whole change process is a mark of an effective leader. He knows how to plan for change as well as manage it well to ensure cooperation from his staff. He knows that changing paradigms are difficult to begin with, and therefore he anticipates there would be resisters and knows how to deal with them. In time, the resisters will become supporters when they see the reasons and rationale for the change. 1.4.6 The Culture Builder The following are the characteristics of the culture builder: (a) Understands and appreciates the power of culture; (b) Knows what a good culture looks like, in order to plan and execute the cultural building plan of the organisation; (c) Facilitates the development of core values; (d) Communicates these values clearly to all team members; (e) Rewards and cheers those who support and enhance the culture motivating others to do the same; (f) Builds a culture that people choose; and (g) Knows the small stuff is really the big stuff, which helps the organisation to achieve its objectives faster. 1. Where do you think is the best place for the „change master‰ to serve in the Malaysian school system? 2. Explain „futuristic‰ and the benefit of this characteristic. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.7 Who is a „change master‰? SELF-CHECK 1.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
18 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP To build a culture takes time and effort. In the case of building a culture in a school it takes at least a generation of students, which is approximately five years of continuous effort. The effort must be sustained and the newly formed culture has to be nourished and propagated. When new students enter the school, they must be acculturated into the established culture of the school. The teachers and the principal are the main participants through leadership by example where students will emulate them. If a positive and nourishing culture is established, then it will be easier for it to be sustained and improved upon from generation to generation. 1.4.7 The Activator The following are the characteristics of the activator: (a) Mobilises people to work towards achieving the target; (b) Is also an entrepreneurial leader; (c) Does not want to be told ă a proactive indicator of a leader; (d) Is a risk taker because by doing so he can make the organisation be in the forefront of the industry; What would the „culture builder‰ do if he is given the opportunity to head a newly established secondary school in the inner city where most of the students are from the lower socioeconomic background? Share your answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.8 Describe what is meant by „understanding and appreciating the power of culture‰? SELF-CHECK 1.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 19 (e) Asks for forgiveness rather than permission whenever he wants to begin a new venture; (f) Runs to daylight as used by McEwan (2003) ă meaning taking advantage of an opportunity (Waterman 1990); (g) Does not micromanage the teachers because he feels that teachers should be given the freedom to do things their own way; (h) Makes things happen; (i) „He is outrageous‰ in a positive tone which is an indicator of admiration indicating that he is a rare breed who achieved whatever targets were set for him and has beaten all odds though he might be eccentric; and (j) Is a cheerleader because he encourages and motivates. Original thinkers are usually outrageous and unconventional but they are able to see things that others cannot. This trait is an advantage because he is prepared for things to come, leaving others aghast when what he forecasted really happens. He becomes an effective leader and would change the organisation that he is heading into a better organisation when he leaves. 1. What do you think will happen to the school if the principal has only the characteristics of an „activator‰? Discuss. 2. What would an „activator‰ do when he faces a crisis? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.9 What is meant by „being outrageous‰ as used in 1.4.7(i)? SELF-CHECK 1.7 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
20 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 1.4.8 The Producer The characteristics of the producer are as follows: (a) Believes that achievement is the bottom line; (b) Never mistakes activities for achievements because unplanned activities would not achieve anything; (c) Is data driven; (d) Pays attention to individual students; (e) Has an academically-focused mission; (f) Makes research-based decisions; and (g) Holds teachers accountable for all activities by them. A producer is driven by hard data. He will not waste his time and resources into something that he does not know will have a chance of winning. This careful trait ensures that the organisation does not spend time and effort in wasteful activities. Compare and contrast the „producer‰ with the „activator‰. Are they compatible? Share your answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.10 The producer „never mistakes activities for achievements‰. Explain. SELF-CHECK 1.8 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 21 1.4.9 The Character Builder McEwan (2003) indicated the following characteristics as an indicator of a leader who builds the character of his team members. If a leader has all the characteristics, it is an excellent indicator that the school or organisation is going to achieve its vision. (a) He is human; which means that he has his weak moments however perfect he is in the eyes of his followers; (b) He is trustworthy; (c) He has integrity; (d) He is authentic which means that the leader is real and can be counted on; (e) He is respectful; (f) He is generous in giving advice and willing to coach others in the improvement process; (g) He hires staff members with character. This means that the staff members have strong personalities and characteristics which would help him to achieve the organisational objectives; (h) He is consistent in his words and actions; (i) He leads by example; and (j) He seeks to develop the character of students. A leader with character is trusted by the organisation as well as his subordinates. His personality is pleasant and his followers will find it easy to emulate him to get the respect from him as well as from people who have dealings with the organisation. Since he leads by example, the students who are in the formative stage of development will have a good example in him. 1. In your opinion what are the five most important characteristics of „the character builder‰? Why? 2. Elaborate on the statement, „A leader hires staff members with character‰. SELF-CHECK 1.9 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
22 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 1.4.10 The Contributor The contributor plays a vital role because he is very concerned with his customersÊ needs, and he strives to fulfil them. He is very thorough in everything he does to ensure that whatever changes he wants to implement; they must go through a rigid inspection and introspection first. Some of his characteristics are as follows: (a) Leads by serving others; (b) Is self-aware and reflective; (c) Is a good steward for others to trust and follow; and (d) Has a strong will. The contributor pays attention to details and this trait ensures that nothing is missing or misplaced. Costly mistakes can be avoided and his superiors can trust this leader to deliver the goods on time and miscommunication will be minimised because he double checks when there is any slightest doubt. All the mentioned characteristics and traits of effective leaders will, no doubt, bring about the desired results of any organisation. It seems that a combination of the earlier traits, are found in various degrees in leaders who were later studied under a different light using different criteria. The changing perspectives on leadership studies bring about a new light of understanding of the leadership types. As a teacher in a school that is headed by a principal who is a „character builder‰, how would you help in making the school an „effective school‰? Share your answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.11 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 23 After reading the roles and characteristics of an effective leader, you would have a good idea of what qualities you should have if you were to be an effective leader of a school and perhaps later on, an effective education leader in any school system. To test whether you have really grasped the content of the above materials you may answer the following questions: (a) In order to play the leadership roles effectively, a leader should have acquired the necessary qualities of the nine leadership roles stated in this topic. How would an aspiring leader acquire those qualities? Discuss. (b) Out of the nine roles discussed in this topic, name five of the more important roles that a principal should have mastered in order to be an effective leader. Discuss the rational for choosing them. (c) In our education system, when do you think a leader plays the role of: (i) A strategic planner? (ii) An entrepreneur? (iii) A figurehead? (d) Developing positive traits takes time. Do you think leaders can be trained to acquire the traits of effective leadership through training courses and workshops? Discuss. (e) Out of the ten traits of effective leadership, in your opinion, name three of the most important ones. Give reasons for choosing them. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.12 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
24 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP LEADERSHIP AND POWER The element of power appears conspicuous in leadership as power is fundamentally inherent in the leadership process. The use of power, at its most basic level, is defined by Dahl (1957) as somebody influencing another person to do something they would otherwise not do. Most leadership definitions make references to influencing followers, where some source of power is arguably needed to be able to influence others. Yet, power has never been strongly featured in the study of leadership due to its negative connotations of abusive and bad leadership. The study of leadership in the absence of in-depth considerations of power and the power asymmetric in leadership studies and practices has led to the false assumption of leadership as inherently good and positive (Collinson, 2011; Gordon, 2011). Table 1.2 shows three sources of power and their links to leadership. Table 1.2: Influence, Persuasion and Authority Sources of Power Description Link to Leadership Influence Process of producing an effect on somebodyÊs behaviour, attitude, vales, etc. An essential activity of a leader and an active use of power to get somebody or a group to achieve a set goal. Persuasion Urging with somebody convincingly to do something or believe something. A particular way a leader can influence others, can be seen as a form of political behaviour or tactic. Authority The right (legal or positional) to determine control, assign tasks and responsibilities, solve conflicts, set rules and procedures, reward and punish. Come with formal positions of leadership and management within an organisational hierarchy. Source: Schedlitzki & Edwards (2014) 1.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 25 1.5.1 Power – A Focus on Individuals Power is described as the ability of an individual or group to influence another individual or group. This is linked to different mechanisms of influencing, such as coercive, remunerative and normative. These mechanisms are likely to produce different reactions from those who are influenced, such as commitment, compliance or resistance (Etzioni, 1988). Most leadership theories (Topic 2, Topic 3 and Topic 4) take this view of power and seek to give leaders advice on what types and sources of power they have and how they can use these in the light of how their followers will react to it (Yukl, 2010). This view of power is behavioural as it focuses on the individualÊs use of power and interaction with others. Such a view is concerned with observable, behavioural actions and reactions and the active use of power to resolve conflicts and make decisions. Such power gains its legitimacy through the hierarchy and rules within the organisation (Jackson & Parry, 2011). As a result, such power is usually associated with the managerÊs power over his subordinates in line with the supervisory role and the organisationÊs rules of conduct. 1.5.2 Power – Shared Leadership With recognition given to distributed leadership, the focus of power has shifted from the individual to that of equal distribution between leaders and followers (Gordon, 2011). With this dispersed leadership movement, there arises a totally different way of looking at the relationships between the leader and the followers. Collinson (2011) echoes GordonÊs (2011, p. 185) view that the power relations between the leader and the follower are „likely to be interdependent and asymmetrical, ambiguous, frequently shifting, potentially contradictory and often contested‰. This recognises that despite the asymmetrical power relationship, followers are not entirely powerless (Schedlitzki & Edwards, 2014). Shared leadership, or often known as distributed leadership, is practised when subordinates are given the opportunities to make decisions that affect them in the organisation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
26 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP CHANGING PERSPECTIVES ON LEADERSHIP So far we have been looking at leadership from the traits and role perspectives which are traditional in nature. Most of this theory development and research which follows a traditional model occurred before 1980s and a lot of research had been generated, and many theories were developed such as the Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) studies which started at Ohio State University in the 1940s. It was originally developed and refined by John K. Hemphill and Alvin Coons in 1950, and in 1952 it was later refined by Andrew Halpin and B. J. Winter (Hoy & Miskel 2001). There were four major findings that emerged from the Ohio State University LBDQ studies (Halpin, 1966). Halpin summarised their findings in the following words: (a) Initiating structure and consideration are fundamental dimensions of leader behaviour. (b) Effective leader behaviour tends most often to be associated with frequent behaviours on both dimensions. (c) Superiors and subordinates tend to evaluate the contributions of the leader behaviour dimensions oppositely in assessing effectiveness. Superiors tend to emphasise initiating structure; subordinates are more concerned with consideration. (d) Only a slight relationship exists between how leaders say they should behave and how subordinates describe that they do behave. From the four major findings, we can observe that the common ground between the leaders and their subordinates are limited and they have very little in common to share. Leaders seemed to emphasise initiating the structure while the subordinates are more concerned with consideration, and if both sides go different ways then the relationship stops to function and the organisation breaks down. In order for the organisation to run smoothly to achieve its objectives, the common ground for both sides to interact actively must be broad enough so that both sides would perceive that their interests were taken care of. Only then the leadership becomes effective. 1.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 27 This pattern of leadership studies slowly began to change and, in the 1990s, a new paradigm in leadership studies emerged. It was termed as „The New Leadership‰. In the early 1990s, charismatic and transformational leadership theories provoked a high level of interest among scholars and practitioners, and by the end of the decade, dozens of research studies were conducted (Conger, 1999). This new approach towards leadership was different from the traditional approach (Hoy & Miskel, 2001). The following discussions on the new approach towards leadership will provide a better picture and understanding of their positions. 1.6.1 Charismatic Leadership Max Weber (1947) first conceptualised charisma as a mode of influence based on the followersÊ perceptions that the leader displayed exceptional qualities. Whenever a leader displays the ability to solve a problem through an envisioning of strategic plans and deliberations on how to go about doing it, especially in a crisis, he would have a following. If his solutions to the problem bring about the desired results, then his followers would show strong and intense loyalty to the leader. In history, we have seen leaders such as Hitler of Germany, Soekarno of Indonesia and Mathma Ghandi of India as examples of charismatic leaders. Their followers showed intense loyalty towards them and would follow the instructions of these leaders. From the examples given, we know that charisma does not differentiate between good and evil (House & Howell, 1992) and these charismatic leaders emerged during crisis. In the case of Hitler, there is very little disagreement that he was a charismatic leader with negative and evil connotations. House (1977) defined charismatic leadership as distinguishable from other leadership by its characteristics. Charismatic leaders are characterised by dominance, self-confidence, need to influence and strong conviction in the moral correctness of their beliefs. These charismatic leaders would be able to bring about positive changes in society to achieve their visions successfully, if their policies and visions are based on a sound philosophy and principles. On the other hand, if these charismatic leaders based their philosophy on false notions and destructive philosophies, then the societies they lead would create anarchy as what happened to Hitler of Germany during the Second World War and Radovan Milosevic of Serbia after the break-up of Yugoslavia in 1990s. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
28 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP House and Howell (1992) refined the personality traits of charismatic leadership which were first constructed by House (1977). The refined personality traits include the following: (a) Achievement-oriented; (b) Creatively- and innovatively-oriented; (c) Very energetic and has a high level of involvement; (d) Self-confident; (e) Has a need for social influence with concern for the moral use of power; (f) Takes high risk and has a deep work involvement; and (g) Nurturing, sensitive socially and considerate towards followers. From these personality traits, we would envision that the charismatic leaders as characterised by House and Howell (1992) are sought after leaders because those traits are necessary ingredients for successful organisations. In an educational context, we would be able to achieve better academic results, while the creative and innovative traits of the principal would lead the way for the teachers and the students to follow. Any paradigm shifts that were to be implemented would have the least resistance from the followers. The leaderÊs deep involvement and willingness to take risks would bring about intense support from the staff and the possibility of achieving the objectives are very likely. To judge whether a leader is charismatic or not depends on the followers. It is the followers who determine whether their leader is charismatic or otherwise. Conger and Kanungo (1988) explained that the attribution of charisma gradually begins to form as followers observe the leaderÊs behaviour. Charismatic leaders engage in behaviours that create a sense of leader success. The leader can sense his success and in the process, his support becomes stronger from his followers. Both Conger and Kanungo (1988) summarised that charismatic leaders show the following behaviour: (a) Has a future vision; (b) Manages impressions; (c) Makes self-sacrifices; (d) Takes personal risks; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 29 (e) Models behaviour for followers to imitate; (f) Engages in unconventional behaviour for followers to imitate; and (g) Shares power. This summary shares similar characteristics described by House and Howell (1992). Before Conger and Kanungo (1988) and House and Howell (1992), in 1977, House had hypothesised that charismatic leaders have the greatest influence on followersÊ emotions. Michael Jackson, the King of Pop could be cited as a charismatic leader in the pop music world, whereby millions of his followers and supporters all over the world were hysterical at the news of his release from all wrong doings. Shamir and Howell (1999) contended that charismatic leadership is more likely to emerge and be effective in weak situations. In the case of Indonesia during the war for independence from the Dutch, the country was unstable and weak. The country may have disintegrated into small independent states along ethnic lines but President Soekarno was able to forge a united Indonesia through his ability to persuade the people of Indonesia to remain within the Republic. His success in this area enabled him to have a large group of staunch followers all over the country who were willing to listen to his lengthy speech for hours and they emulated him in his oratory ability as well as his dressing. The people of Indonesia still have warm regards for him and remember him as instrumental for achieving independence and unity for Indonesia. The likelihood of having a charismatic leader in a developed democracy is most unlikely, because people have all the basic needs and have no threats within their society. Therefore, there is no need for a charismatic leader to sway them to achieve grand visions or to climb greater heights. They are already there! Charismatic leaders seemed to become rarer at the turn of the 21st century due to the globalised environment including third world countries. However, on a smaller scale and in a more localised manner, it does occur from time to time. What these leaders possess is not fully charisma but rather a combination of various forms of characteristics and styles. Leaders have become more „normal‰ and down-to-earth and they can easily be accessed by their followers. As such, whatever charismatic qualities they have seemed to dissipate and the real qualities become apparent to their followers. As the result of this perception change, other types of leadership were coined to describe the new changes in the leadership styles which are more suited to the new democratic process as people become more educated worldwide. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
30 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP In our school system, sometimes there exist schools that have a combination of problems due to many factors. Sometimes the problems might be caused by neglect by all sides ă the principal, teachers, parents and students as well as the department of education. Where the neglect continues for a long period of time it develops into a negative culture that can destroy the school. To rehabilitate the school takes a lot of effort and time. Probably this is the time and place when the services of a charismatic leader is needed. 1.6.2 Transactional and Transformational Leadership There are two other leadership types that are classified as the same category but positioned at different points on the same continuum. They are classified as transactional and transformational leadership approaches. Bernard M. Bass (1985) on the basis of James MacGregor BurnÊs (1978) ideas of transactional and transformational political leaders was among the first who made an attempt to deliberate on the characteristics of transformational leadership. 1. Some people contend that most charismatic leaders are ineffective. Do you agree with them? Discuss. 2. Where do you think a charismatic principal would serve best? Give reasons. 3. Is charismatic leadership acquired or inborn? Elaborate your answer. 4. Can an individual who aspires to be a leader develop some charismatic traits? If he can, how? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.13 What are the refined personality traits of a charismatic leader according to House and Howell (1992)? SELF-CHECK 1.10 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 31 According to Burns (1978), transactional leaders motivate their followers by exchanging rewards for the services rendered. In an organisation, the employees and the employers do barter trading where the services and goods rendered by the employees are exchanged for the wages at the end of the month. This analogy illustrates the transaction between the leaders and the subordinates. When this transactional leadership mode is applied to schools, the leaders recognise what the followers want and the leader tries to provide them with this. In exchange for the reward, the teachers will provide their services through teaching and involvement in co-curricular activities. Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) summarised transactional leaders as giving followers things they want in exchange for things leaders want. If the expectations of the leaders and the followers are congruent with each other, then the organisation would be in harmony and the objectives set would be met but there is a limit to this type of transaction. In a dynamic organisation where new things need to be developed and paradigm shifts need to be made to face the challenges in the market place, a different type of leadership is needed. In contrast to transactional leaders, transformational leadership goes beyond exchanges and inducements for desired performance and products or services (Bennis & Nanus, 1985). Transformational leaders would use other means of motivating their followers to be self-motivated and empowering themselves to produce unexpected performance beyond what they themselves could envisage. According to Yukl (1998) transformational leaders build commitment into the organisationÊs objectives and empower followers to achieve those objectives. He cited that transformational leaders are expected to: (a) Define the need for change; (b) Create new visions and muster commitment to the visions; (c) Concentrate on long-term goals; (d) Inspire followers to transcend their own interests to pursue higher order goals; (e) Change their organisation to accommodate their vision rather than work within the existing one; and (f) Mentor followers to take greater responsibility for their own development and that of others. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
32 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP These six actions that are taken up by transformational leaders are actually qualities of effective leaders, which have been deliberated upon earlier, who are open to paradigm shifts and innovations. Willingness to adopt new ways of doing „other things‰ as well adopting innovations in doing the „traditional things‰ is a sign of a transformational leadership. Transformational leaders feel that there is a need for change in the organisation and the needed change is defined in specific and measurable terms to ensure that the process of ongoing evaluation could be implemented to measure the success of the change process. Transformational leaders also mentor their followers to empower themselves by taking greater responsibility for their own development and others in the organisation. This mentoring process enables the subordinates to be more effective through the process of learning new knowledge, skills and instilling the right attitudes before they can really be empowered by the leaders. Bass (1998) and Avolio (1999) contend that transactional leadership forms the basis of a sustainable leadership system. In any organisation the qualities of a transactional leader enable the organisation to face dynamic challenges and help them not to succumb to the onslaughts of globalisation. Instead, the process of globalisation would transform the organisation into a desired vehicle to spread its strategic plans and visions in difficult-to-access places. In the process of leadership, the practise of transactional leadership is the beginning of a higher form of leadership namely transformational leadership which is at the higher end of the same continuum. When an organisation has become more effective through transactional leadership, it is a sign that the organisation could be positively transformed further through the implementation of transformational leadership. The source of transformational leadership is in the personal values and beliefs of the leaders. These values and beliefs lead to a strong desire to transform the organisation into a new entity and the strong beliefs and values would sustain the momentum needed to achieve the strategic objectives. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 33 Bass (1998) views that transformational leaders go beyond transactional leaders by employing the four Is as shown in Figure 1.3. Figure 1.3: Four Is of transformational leaders When transactional leaders move further within the same continuum to become transactional leaders they have to go some steps further. The influence that they want to have on their followers should be strong enough so that the followers would idealise it and willingly follow the footsteps taken by these transformational leaders. The motivation that they devise is of a type that inspires them intellectually and the experience that the followers have is individualised. The experience would be more meaningful through the individualisation process. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)