184 TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS To understand what causes conflicts in schools, one needs to understand the organisational structure which inevitably leads to organisational politics, more so, in the Malaysian context where diversity is present in schools in all aspects. Aspects that need to be taken into consideration when studying the organisational structure and politics are the standards of performance and the assessment of performance. This topic provides an interesting perspective on Machiavellian tendencies as a platform to look at organisational politics. It is important that a leader knows what strategies he can use in dealing with disagreements. The potential for disagreement and conflict exists whenever and wherever people have contact. It basically involves one or more of the following: ă Threats; ă Incompatible interests or goals; or ă Incomplete understanding or hidden personal feelings. 1. Disagreement between individuals in an organisation can be a positive factor. Do you agree with this opinion? Please elaborate. 2. „You win, I win‰ has a positive psychological impact on stakeholders. How can this be achieved in schools between the teachers and the students? 3. How would you build effective communication channels in your school? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 7.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 185 In creative management of conflict, all parties need to: ă Recognise and acknowledge that disagreement and conflict exist. ă Facilitate open, accurate communication without hidden agendas, and active listening. ă Maintain an objective, not emotional position ă stay and deliberate on the issues, not people. ă Negotiation is a cooperative venture where we seek common interests to ensure everybody wins something. ă Make the necessary adjustments, reinforce, confirm and make the agreement work. Remember the words of Robert Townsend: „A good manager does not try to eliminate disagreement; he tries to keep it from wasting the energies of his people‰. Not all disagreements and conflicts can be resolved. Sometimes individuals do not think it is in their best interest to resolve it because the price is too high. Resolution means negotiation toward a creative solution but if one party is unwilling to do that, the conflict will continue as mentioned by Sergiovanni (1992). Assessment of performance Disagreement Machiavellian tendencies Organisational politics Organisational structure Standards of performance Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
186 TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswick, E., Levinson, D. J., & Sanford, R. N. (1950). The authoritarian personality. New York, NY: Harper. Ahmed, S. M. S., & Stewart, R. A. C. (1981). Factor analysis of the Machiavellian scale. Social Behavior and Personality, 9(1), 113ă115. Ammeter, A. P., Douglas, C., Gardner, W. L., Hochwater, W. A., & Ferris, G. R. (2002). Toward a political theory of leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 13(6), 751ă796. Andersson, L. M., & Bateman, T. S. (2000). Individual environmental initiative: Championing natural environmental issues in U. S. Business organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 43(4), 548ă570. Ashton, P. T., & Webb, R. B. (1986). Making a difference: TeachersÊ sense of efficacy and student achievement. New York, NY: Longman. Aziz, A., May, K., & Crotts, J. C. (2002). Relations of Machiavellian behaviors with sales performance of stockbrokers. Psychological Reports, 90(2), 451ă460. Barth, R. (1990). Improving schools from within: Teachers, parent and principals can make a difference. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Beatty, B. (2000). Teachers leading their own professional growth: Self-directed reflection and collaboration and changes in perception of self and work in secondary school teachers. Journal of In-Service, 26(1), 73ă98. Beatty, B. (2000). The emotions of educational leadership: Breaking the silence. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 3(4), 331ă358. Beatty, B. (2000, Nov 30ăDec 3). Pursuing the paradox of emotion and educational leadership. Paper presented at the New Zealand Association for Research in Education Annual Conference in Hamilton, New Zealand. Berlin, I. (1955). „The Originality of Machiavelli,‰ in Against the Current: essays in the History of Ideas. New Jersey, NJ: Princeton University Press. Blackmore, J. (1996). Doing „emotional labour‰ in the education market place: stories from the field of women in management. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 17(3), 337ă349. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 187 Blase, J., & Anderson, G. (1995). The Micropolitics of educational leadership. London: Cassell and New York, NY: TeachersÊ College Press. Blase, J., & Blase, J. (1997). The fire is back! Principals sharing governance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Bolman, L., & Deal T. (1991). Reframing organizations. San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass. Cheng, J. L. (1983). Organizational context and upward influence: An experimental study of the use of power tactics. Group and organizational Studies, 8(3), 337ă355. Christie, R., & Geis, F. (1970). Studies in machiavellianism. New York, NY: Academic Press. Christie, R., & Lehman, S. (1970). The structure of Machiavellian orientations. In R. Christie & F. Geis (Eds.), Studies in Machiavellianism (pp. 359ă387). New York, NY: Academic Press, Cronbach, L. (1984). Essentials of psychological testing (4th ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Damasio, A. (1997). DescartesÊ error: Emotion, reason and the human brain. New York, NY: Harper Collins. Denzin, N. (1984). On understanding emotion. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Eysenck, H. J. (1954). The psychology of politic. London, England: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Fetler, M. (1986). Accountability in California public schools. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 8(1), 31ă44. Fetler, M. (1991). A method for the construction of differentiated school norms. Applied Measurement in Education, 4(1), 53ă66. Fineman, S. (1993). Emotion in organizations. London, England: Sage Publications. Fried, R. (1995). The passionate teacher. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
188 TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS Galbraith, J. (1983). The anatomy of power. Chapter XV. Organization and the State. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Books. Greenberg, L., & Paivio, S. (1997). Working with emotions in psychotherapy. London, England: Guilford Press. Greenfield, W. (1999, April 19ă23). Moral leadership in schools: Fact or fancy. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada. Handy, C., & Aitken, R. (1986). Are schools different? London, England: Penguin. Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. (1998). WhatÊs worth fighting for out there? Toronto: Ontario Public School TeachersÊ Federation; New York: TeachersÊ College Press, Buckingham: Open University Press. Hargreaves, A. (1998). The emotional politics of teaching and teacher development: with implications for leadership. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 1(4), 315ă336. Hargreaves, A. (2000). Emotional geographies. A Paper presented at the AERA Annual Conference, New Orleans, USA. Hargreaves, A. (1998). The emotional practice of teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 14(8), 835ă854. Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to work. New York, NY: John Wiley. Hodgkinson, C. (1990). Educational leadership: The moral art. Albany NY: State University of New York Press. Hunter, J. E., Boster, F. J., & Gerbing, D. W. (1982). Machiavellian beliefs and personality: Construct invalidity of the Machiavellian dimension. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(6), 1293ă1305. Keyes, M., Hanley-Maxwell, C., & Capper, C. (1999). „Spirituality? ItÊs the core of my leadership‰: Empowering leadership in an inclusive elementary school. Educational Administration Quarterly, 35(2), 203ă237. Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (1993). Credibility: How leaders gain and lose it, why people demand it. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass Inc. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 189 Kumar, K., & Beyerlein, M., (1991). Construction and validation of an instrument measuring ingratiatory behaviors in organizational settings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(5), 619ă627. Kuo, H. K., & Marsella, A. J., (1977). The meaning and measurement of Machiavellianism in Chinese and American college students. Journal of Social Psychology, 101, 165ă173. Ledeen, M. (1999). Machiavelli on modern leadership. New York, NY: St. MartinÊs Press. Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (1990). Transformational Leadership: How principals can help reform school cultures. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 1(4), 249ă280. Leithwood, K., Jantzi, D., & Steinbach, R. (1999). Changing leadership for changing times. Philadelphia, PA.: Open University Press. Linn, R. (1993). Educational assessment: Expanded expectations and challenges. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 15(1), 1ă16. Loader, D. (1997). The inner principal. London, England: Falmer Press. Marshall, C., & Greenfield, W. (1987). The dynamics in the enculturation and the work in the assistant principalship. Urban Education, 22(1), 36ă52 Maurer, R. (1995). Beyond the wall of resistance. Austin, TX: Bard Press. Mitchell, D., & Encarnation D. (1984). Alternative state policy mechanisms for influencing school performance. Educational Researcher, 13(5), 4ă11. Nias, J. (1989). Primary teachers talking. London, England: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Nias, J. (1996). Thinking about feelings: The emotions in teaching. Cambridge Journal of Education, 26(3), 293ă306. Oakes, J. (1989). What educational indicators? The case for assessing the school context. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 11(2), 181ă199. Panitz, E. (1989). Psychometric investigation of the Mach IV scale measuring Machiavellianism. Psychological Reports, 64(3), 963ă968. Pert, C. (1998). Molecules of emotion. New York, NY: Scribner. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
190 TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS Porter, A. (1991). Creating a system of school process indicators. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. Spring, 13(1), 13ă29. Regan, H., & Brooks, G. (1995). Out of womenÊs experience: Creating relational leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Reimers, J. M., & Barbuto, J. E. (2002). The Machiavellian disposition and its moderating effect between sources of motivation and influence tactics. Proceedings of the 10th Annual Meeting of the Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management, Denver, Colorado, USA. Rosenholtz, S. (1989). TeachersÊ workplace. New York, NY: Longman. Salovey, P., & Mayer, D. (1990). Emotional Intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9(3), 185ă211. Senge, P. (1999). The dance of change. New York, NY: Doubleday. Sergiovanni, T. (1992). Moral leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Sergiovanni, T. (1994). Building community in schools. San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass publishers. Shakeschaft, C. (1987). Women in educational administration. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Young, I. M. (1997). Intersecting voices: Dilemmas of gender, political philosophy and policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Although creativity and innovation are closely intertwined by the public, they have often been studied separately using different methodologies and models. Creativity has been in the domain of psychology, with its emphasis on individuals and small groups, while innovation has been the focus of sociologists, economists and others who take a larger, systems perspective. This separation is unfortunate, because creativity is „producing something for the first time‰ which represents „a dramatic aspect of organisational change that may provide a key to understanding change phenomena and ultimately, organisational effectiveness and survival‰ as was explained by Woodman et al. (1993). Innovation, on the other hand, means making changes for the better on a certain human creation so that the finished product becomes more practical and useful. In the innovation process, creativity is highly involved and we may be unable to distinguish between the „creating‰ and the „innovating‰ process. It would be better if both were to be studied together especially in a social system such as schools. Topic 8 Creative Problem Solving LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Describe the characteristics of creative leadership; 2. Discuss the method to enhance creativity in our school settings; and 3. Apply the self-help technique to enhance creative problem solving in schools. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
192 TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING Creativity includes the generation of ideas, alternatives and possibilities explained by Smith (1998). Creativity research has a long history in psychology, focusing on individual differences in personality, cognitive abilities and problem-solving styles. However, recent theoretical and empirical work looks at creativity as something the brain does naturally, that is, creativity is an adaptive feature of normal cognitive functioning that evolved to aid problem solving under conditions of uncertainty. Under such circumstances, novel approaches and invention are highly advantageous. Those were the opinions of Simonton (2000) as well as Findlay and Lumsden (1988). CHARACTERISTICS OF CREATIVE LEADERS We do know some characteristics of creative leaders. They can be summed up as follows (see Figure 8.1): Figure 8.1: Characteristics of creative leaders 8.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING 193 Let us now discuss these characteristics in greater detail. (a) Creative Leaders have Modest Intelligence In summarising the personal characteristics of creative thinkers, Arieti (1976) concluded that they must be intelligent. The paradox is that they generally are not TOO intelligent. Excessive intelligence cripples creativity by imposing an examination of self and ideas that is too strict, and too „logical‰. (b) Creative Leaders are Well-informed An in-depth and broad profound knowledge of a problem area is needed in order to understand the limits of current dogma and also to identify those areas where creative thought will be most fruitful. However, too much knowledge impedes the creative process because there is a tendency to be dogmatic where alternative information is blocked which could be used in the creative synthesis process where alternative solutions could be found. (c) Creative Leaders are Original Thinkers Although original thinking is not the same as creativity, it is a prerequisite for creative thought. Originality requires an active search for something that is different. This may involve deliberate attempts to come up with contrasts, opposites, bizarre associations and symbolic thinking. Original thinking sometimes is just recognising flaws, where something is recognised as not adequate or needs to be done differently but to complete the creative process requires more than originality. On the other hand, original thoughts must be examined critically before they can be refined into useful and correct concepts whereas less creative people tend to be too quick to judge or reject ideas. Creative people think out carefully what they are looking for, and they clarify the reasons for their reactions to emerging ideas. They tend to search longer for original thoughts that can improve upon or even replace the emerging ideas. (d) Creative Leaders Ask (the Right) Questions Naturally a question asks for an answer or its solution to the problem. The trick is not only to ask questions, but to ask questions or pose problems in the most effective ways. Otherwise, the question can limit creative thinking if it restricts the choices of potential answers. Therefore, it is important to ask open-ended questions and not make too many assumptions about an acceptable answer. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
194 TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING (e) Creative Leaders are Prepared to be Creative The phrase simply means that creative people have a mindset that enables creativity to happen, as if by chance. We have all heard the famous axiom: Chance favours the prepared mind. Parkers (1959) But the more complete explanation is: Accident arises out of purpose.... The essence of invention isnÊt process, but purpose. Parkers (1959) In other words, creative people: (i) Desire to be creative; (ii) Believe that there is a creative solution; and (iii) Expect that they will be the ones to find it. (f) Some Characteristics of the Creative Person are Innate We know that creative people are self-directed, self-starting and to some extent, the attributes for creativity are inborn and cannot be „taught and trained‰. This was reflected by one evaluation of several studies of highly creative physical scientists by McClelland (1964) which revealed the following common denominators indicating that creative scientists were most likely to be: (i) Males; (ii) Intensely masculine in interests and outlook; (iii) From a background of radical Protestantism; (iv) Not very religious themselves; (v) Reticent about interpersonal contact; (vi) Disturbed by complex human emotions, especially aggression; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING 195 (vii) Hardworking, to the point of obsession; (viii) Music lovers, while disliking art and poetry; and (ix) Interested in analysis and structure of things. ORGANISATIONAL METHODS TO ENHANCE CREATIVITY Leaders know that creativity and innovation are the life blood of their organisation. New ideas can lead to programmes that are superior to those that are already going on or planned for in the organisation. If there were no better ideas, the inferior programme would still be offered and the public reception would decline which will jeopardise the future of the organisation. So, the mission of every leader is to continually search for ideas and programmes that are superior to the ones the organisation is currently committed to. So what can the leaders do to promote creativity and innovation? The most obvious answer is to use management initiatives to create a work environment that stimulates the existing staff to be more creative and innovative. (a) Creativity can be Stimulated by Leaders Although many people would challenge the notion that leaders can do anything to foster creativity because they believe creative people are born and not made, in reality, it can be created. In Japan, they have schools that teach creativity not only to children but also to adults. In fact, creativity is innate in every individual as reflected by children, but in the process of becoming an adult the creative traits begin to wear off and in some cases they are already gone by the time they become adults. 8.2 1. How would you encourage creativity among your students through curriculum and co-curriculum activities in your school? 2. Differentiate between innovative and creative leadership. 3. „Some characteristics of the creative leader are innate‰. Discuss this phrase. SELF-CHECK 8.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
196 TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING These creative traits can be brought back if leaders of organisations provide a permissive environment that can nourish creative traits for the benefit of the organisation itself. People who have studied the creative process have learned that everyone of normal intelligence has latent creative abilities that can be enhanced by training and by a favourable environment. Experiments where people have been asked to report their thoughts during an episode of invention led Perkins (1981) to conclude that creativity is a natural process of perception, understanding, logic, memory and thinking style that may occur every day. (b) The Unconscious Mind is Not Supernatural Some people believe that creativity emerges from unconscious thinking which might be true but it would not necessarily produce any special creativity, compared to other aspects of thought and behaviour. Most thinking operates in the unconscious in everything we do, including wearing our clothes to driving our car, to countless number of covert mental processes and activities. (c) Scratch-pad of the Mind The first important step in the creative thinking process is to have a clear understanding of what the problem is and, at the same time, to be able to state it clearly. The effective thinker begins by first focusing on the structure of the problem, rather than its technical detail. It is just like writing the problem statement onto a scratch pad, because the next series of mental operations occurs in the „scratch pad‰ of the mind, the so-called working memory of your past experiences. This working memory will also bring about creative operations that may help to formulate potential solutions. These ideas come from our permanent memory store, which is the collection of our lifetime database of knowledge and experience. Other potential alternatives are inputs from external sources such as reading, ideas from colleagues, data bases and other sources. Next, this information in the form of data and ideas can be processed logically such as by associating, sorting, and aligning into new or unusual categories and contexts, or more „illogically‰ by the use of images, abstractions, models, metaphors and analogies. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING 197 After these initial stages the process of thinking involves noticing clues and potential leads, realising combinations of alternatives that are significant and finally selecting those thoughts that lead to a new idea. Next, we have to choose an approach or a combination of approaches among alternative approaches for finding a solution. The process involves a progressive narrowing of options in the early stages of creation and a readiness to revise and reconsider earlier decisions at the later stages. This narrowing process requires the inventor to break down and reformulate the categories and relationships of thoughts and facts that are commonly applied to the problems and its usual solutions. The creative thinker examines all reasonable alternatives, including many which may not seem „reasonable‰ to most people. Each alternative needs to be examined in relation to other alternatives and in relation to the initial problem expressed in different ways. The solution to the problem may not be reached instantly for it needs to reduce the size of the problem into manageable parts and provide time and space for the alternative solution(s) to emerge. That may well be why one has to be immersed in the problem for long periods, with subconscious „incubation‰ operating to help sort through various alternatives and their combinations. All these mental activities must occur in the working memory, which unfortunately has very limited capacity. That is probably the reason why insight and creativity is so hard to come by. Researchers on creativity would do better to look for ways and means to create more capacity for our working memory and to make it more efficient. The later and final stages involve critical and logical analysis which help to refine the emerging ideas. Premature ideas should not be rejected outright for they might turn out to be the binding factors of many outrageous ideas at the end of the selection process. Sometimes, analysis will force the realisation that the wrong problem is being worked or that the problem needs to be restated. Eventually, out of these processes will emerge the „bright idea‰ that could lead to the final workable solution. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
198 TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING (d) Creativity Cannot be Strategically Planned We know that discovery and creative thought cannot be planned by a leader; such thought just happens, emerging often during the course of ongoing activity that may have nothing to do with the new ideas. It is just like the saying, „It comes out of the blue‰. In reviewing the literature on the creative process, Arieti (1976) concluded that there are three stages in creative work; an initial analysis that terminates when a „dead-end‰ is reached, a period of rest, recovery and relative inattention to the problem, and a sudden and unexpected burst of insight and solution. Although it seems that this last stage seems to be sudden, the actual processes described earlier on our mental scratch pad have probably been going on consciously and unconsciously for quite some time. (e) The Way We Classify Things Becomes Blocks to New Ideas Take, for example, when we classify people into categories that differentiate our main ethnic groups in Malaysia into stereotypes. Somehow it is difficult to break them. When we see Malays, we immediately consider them as poor farmers, while Indians were associated with poor estate workers, but when it came to the Chinese they were associated with traders and businessmen who were well to do as compared to others. These classifications led to stereotypes which became entrenched in the Malaysian minds. To make it worse, these stereotypes became a belief system where those categories led to the belief that Malays or Indians would not be able to be successful in business ventures because they believed that „the Chinese were genetically endowed with the business acumen‰. There are many examples of this kind from many parts of the world. Take the case of intelligent tests conducted on the African-Americans which showed that they were inferior mentally to the Caucasians. Based on that finding, they concluded that the African-Americans were unable to hold important positions and be leaders in organisations. They would not be successful in sports that require intelligent thinking. They could only be successful in sports that require physical strength. We all know that those perceptions are wrong. No ethnic group is inferior or superior to others because all those traits are the result of nurture rather than nature. Once the perception that anybody can be what he wants to be through aspiration and perspiration, irrespective of their ethnic background has been accepted, the mental block will be broken. This new thinking becomes „a new idea‰ that will bring about new solutions which were never thought of before due to the mental blocks created by our belief of the classifications created by us. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING 199 (f) Imagery is More Likely to Stimulate New Thought than Language Great discoveries may emerge from primitive imagery while words and language have no role or have very little roles in creative thought. Some famous scientists claim that their best thinking occurs in the form of visual images, even at the level of fantasy. Neuroscientists know that humans have a „split brain‰ wherein the left half controls analytical thought involved in speech and mathematics, while the right brain deals more holistically with imagery, music, art and assorted nonverbal thought. The creative process seems to depend on freeing our right brain from the domineering control of our left brain. Managers tend to reward people for left-brain thinking, which is rigorous and precise. Due to this inclination we tend to reward precision and not creativity and as the result of creativity is lost in most people. Creativity needs to be reawakened for there are many problems in society that need solutions to make our world more peaceful and better. SELF-HELP TECHNIQUES TO ENHANCE CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING Any individual has creative ability but it ranges from very little to very extensive. Creative acts cannot occur in a vacuum. In order to be creative, he must be able to identify a problem, must be motivated to solve it and must know some „facts‰ about the problem. They must be able to criticise their own ideas and refine them to make them easily managed and turn into an innovative concepts, processes or products. 8.3 1. How would creativity be a part of our school curriculum? 2. If creativity is to be cultivated among our students in schools, what pedagogical approach should be used in the teaching and learning process? 3. What is the relationship between „creativity‰ and „business development‰? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 8.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
200 TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING The creative person grows and develops and is liable to be influenced by the environment and self-education (Raudsepp, 1981; Roger von Oech, 1983; Nierenberg, 1982; Koestler, 1964; Parkes, 1959). Leaders have more control over the creative process than they think. If leaders know what kinds of people are more creative, they can make it a point to hire such people. The existing staff can be educated on creativity by the leaders and they also need to be shown that creativity is within the grasp of everybody. Finally, there is a host of management practices that create the work environment that enables creativity. (a) Create the Right Environment ă Creativity is Contagious Although we may not fully understand the processes of creativity, we know that they are „contagious‰. Certain environments contain something that enhances the creativity process. Krebs (1967) the Nobel prize-winning biochemist, has worked out the „scientific genealogies‰ of certain famous scientists. Krebs himself had a Nobel Laureate teacher, Otto Warburg, who in turn, was taught by Emil Fischer, who won a Nobel for his work on the chemistry of sugars. Fischer, in turn, was a pupil of another Laureate, Adolph von Baeyer, who won the prize for work on chemistry of dyes. Adolph von BaeyerÊs mentor was Reinhard Kekule van Stradonitz, famous for studies on organic compounds with ring structures. Kekule was a pupil of Justus von Liebig, who is the acknowledged „father‰ of organic chemistry. LiebigÊs teacher was a giant in the field of inorganic chemistry, Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac, who discovered many of the gas laws. Gay-Lussac was a pupil of Claude Louis Berthollet, who helped to introduce the concept of combustion and elucidated the chemistry of such compounds as chlorine, ammonia and cyanide. BertholletÊs mentor was the famous Antoine Laurent Lavoisier. Thus, this family tree of teachers and pupils was extended in an unbroken chain over 200 years. The creative fever can infect others as can be seen in the example of the famous industrial laboratory, Bell Labs. Seven of BellÊs scientists received the Nobel Prize. There are not many single work environments that have spawned such fundamental innovations as the transistor, the laser and fibreoptics. But the creative atmosphere at Bell is not limited to spectacular innovation. The staff at Bell acquired over 31,800 patents since the lab was formed in 1925, and the current rate is about one patent every day (Science 221, 1983). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING 201 (b) Expect Creativity Innovation correlates strongly with a personÊs perception of whether or not he is expected to be innovative as was concluded by Pelz and Andrews (1976). When leaders carry the burden of responsibility for innovation, the workers try to avoid it. Part of the reason is because the environment of most organisations discourage or penalise workers for innovation. (c) Challenge People Workers should be challenged to stimulate creative responses, but too much challenge will overburden the emotions and the mind, switching off the capacity for creative thought. Have you notice that the best ideas come into our minds when we are on vacation somewhere? Most creativity theorists believe that it is essential to have an intense and sustained struggle with a problem if creative solutions are to emerge. But you often wonder why creative flashes of insight will only occur when you are not thinking about the problem. In terms of leadership practices, Pelz and Andrews (1976) concluded from their study that a certain amount of „creative tension‰ had to exist between the conflicting states of worker security and challenge. They noted particularly that scientistsÊ and engineersÊ productivities increased when the laboratory changed established patterns or when technical disputes arose. Productivity also increased when the scientists and engineers were given positive reinforcement and was encouraged to participate in policy making. Peters and Waterman found that the best high-tech companies instituted management practices that were deliberately designed to stimulate competition, sometimes even to the extent of assigning the same problem to two different teams and creating a contest atmosphere to see who would come up with the best solution. (d) Get Some Kind of Peer Review The ultimate goal of the true professional is to be respected by his peers. If the professionals do not know how they stand in the eyes of their peers then the incentive for doing their best work is also absent. Most organisations do have peer review programmes but they often are administered in very negative ways, where the emphasis is judgmental and punitive. The real purpose should be to specify what is considered high achievement and who is doing it and to reassure workers that they will be judged on merit and productivity rather than on grounds that are not directly related to their actual duties and responsibilities. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
202 TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING (e) Get a System of Rewards for Creativity When workers know that management rewards new ideas, they will try to generate them. The rewards for new ideas should be made known and tangible to all staff. Rewards can take the form of more money in the form of bonuses or salary increments to a wide variety of incentives. More subtle and less expensive devices include arranging for professionals to present their ideas in semiformal gatherings of peers and superiors. It is particularly important to give direct access to policymakers, not only for the ego-gratifying effect on the workers, but also because this is the one way to ensure that policymakers are kept informed and stimulated. Professionals may need frequent prodding to produce reports or papers that bear their name. Nonetheless, such efforts produce a positive feedback that will stimulate the worker to future creative activity. (f) Get People Involved and Immersed in Problems Numerous anecdotes concerning great creative achievements have in common the feature that the discoverer was deeply immersed in the problem area (Arieti, 1976). You eat, you work and you sleep thinking of it, and because of this immersion an idea may appear suddenly. Not surprisingly, the best ideas have usually come in the fields that the discoverer knew a great deal about but there is a paradox here; knowledge often becomes a hurdle to creativity. We noticed that professionals who are overly specialised as a group are less productive than are their more broadly based colleagues (Arieti, 1976). This phenomenon is due to some sort of paralysis due to someone being embedded into a time-tested paradigm. We usually hear „we used to do that when we face problem‰. As a result of this paradigm paralysis it becomes almost impossible to come out of the situation. (g) Get Rid of the Disincentives The most common disincentives for creativity and innovation arise in an atmosphere of fear; fear of being penalised for failure, fear of not getting adequate administrative support or fear of not having enough time. An organisation that needs their people to be creative has to avoid those disincentives. In fact, it should spend money to experiment and to implement new procedures or products. Do you know how much money and time were spent before the Americans were able to successfully build the Space Shuttle? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING 203 (h) Give Your People Some Slack, Freedom and Time for Reflection Here we refer to mental freedom, as well as freedom from external constraints, to let new ideas emerge even if they violate common wisdom or the constraints of time, money and facilities. Arieti (1976) also makes the point that the creative person must have time where he does nothing. If the workers must always be „doing‰ something, they do not have the opportunity for uninterrupted reflection on their work. If the staff is too productive in the usual sense, it also leads to less creativity and the products are of lesser quality. One junior scientist was given some wise advice by his more experienced mentor: „Young man, you would do well to publish less so that you can publish better‰. Arieti (1976) asserts that creative thought usually involves a period of meditation and aloneness. Aloneness is akin to sensory deprivation, a state in which the subject is less distracted by conventional stimuli, modes of thinking and is free to tap his or her inner basic resources. The common emphasis on teamwork is justified, as seen in the Pelz and Andrews (1976) study. Yet each team member must have time alone, free of distractions and interruptions, to reflect creatively on the teamÊs problems. Arieti (1976) emphasised that continued pursuit of a problem is often required before the creative solution emerges. Leaders should give people time to pursue unresolved problems and not punish them as long as they are earnestly trying. In order to get creative thought to emerge from its incubation stage, one should go through a special training for switching off consciousness, thus giving the unconscious mind a chance to develop creative thoughts and solutions which were dormant in the unconscious mind. (i) Be Quick to Recognise and Use Error A rat uses its errors to help find the way through a maze, and in a similar but more sophisticated way, creative thinkers must be assisted by their leaders and colleagues to recognise and use their thinking errors as they grope with the creative solution to a problem. In scientific and technical arenas of thought, mistakes can be quite useful in posing issues in a new way and in inviting unique approaches to a problem. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
204 TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING (j) Be Quick to Recognise and Use Good Ideas Leaders cannot force creative thought from among their subordinates, but they certainly can be receptive to it when it occurs. The best way to value an idea is to implement it as soon as possible. (k) Make Your Staff Feel Secure The companies surveyed by Pelz and Andrews (1976) have found that it is important to provide opportunities for scientists and engineers to have their names associated with a product, a report or a process, such as: (i) Letting professionals present their own work for briefings, presenting reports, and so on; (ii) Giving them some autonomy; (iii) Minimising the supervision from above; and (iv) Letting them help set goals and priorities. The Pelz and Andrews (1976) study showed a clear increase in productivity in those workers. (l) Change Attitudes about Yes-men and Conformity Conformity is desired in any organisation to achieve its objectives but total blind conformity is not good for an organisation. It needs creativity for problem solving as well as finding a better means for higher production as well as new products. We cannot deny that in some organisations the percentage of conformity is higher such as the uniformed organisations; the army and the police while others are less. For example, in one formal test which quantified conformist tendencies in terms of percentage of responses to questions that were influenced by group pressure, military officers had the highest conformity score of 33 per cent; by comparison, college sophomores had a conformity score of 26 per cent, while scientists in industry had a score of only 14 per cent (Crutchfield, 1964). Notably, in every organisation there are potentially creative people, even though in some groups conformity may be higher than others. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING 205 Hickman and Silva (1984) have listed six common factors that hinder creativeness and innovation from being manifested. They are: (i) Resistance to change; (ii) Reliance on rules and conformance; (iii) Fear and self-doubt; (iv) Over-reliance on logic and precision; (v) Black and white thinking; and (vi) Over-reliance on practicality and efficiency. As practical remedies to such hindrances, Hickman and Silva (1984) suggest several exercises that will help both leaders and workers: (i) Set a personal quota of one new idea a day; (ii) Pick an organisational rule that gets in the way and break it; (iii) Read literature on creativity; (iv) Indulge in fantasy and wild thinking, particularly when you are swamped with technical detail; (v) Force yourself to consider many solutions for any problem; and (vi) Postpone evaluation of an idea by exploring its ramifications. (m) Show the Mavericks You Tolerate, Even Value Them By definition, creative people are more likely to be nonconformist, not only in their thinking but sometimes in their attitudes and behaviour. If such people are valued in an organisation for what their ideas can do for the group, then a certain amount of tolerance for unconventional behaviour is the price that has to be paid. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
206 TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING Sometimes creative, innovative people are uncomfortably aggressive. They may be driven by ambition and are not very tolerant of obstacles, be they material or managerial. „Best workers gripe the most‰, was the conclusion drawn by one analyst of a survey of industrial productivity. Clearly, malcontents and chronic complainers are not much of an asset to an organisation. But it is axiomatic that the best producers and self-starters are assertive, sometimes „pushy‰, and even obnoxious. In the Pelz and Andrews (1976) survey, there was a striking correlation between productivity and the fact that the scientists and engineers did NOT fully share the goals and interests of higher management. However, they were responsive to input and direction, both from management and from colleagues. (n) Provide Formal Means for Idea Generation Among the various tactics that can be used are frequent use of seminars and symposia, where the „in-house‰ people are expected to make presentations. Debate should be encouraged, but it needs to be conducted in a positive, non-threatening way. Brainstorming sessions can be especially useful, provided they are well-structured and controlled. The proper environment for effective brainstorming has been described by Osborn (1953). The basic premise is that creativity requires free and uninhibited thought, coupled with critical analysis and synthesis. However, the typical human cannot think imaginatively and critically at the same time. Thus, Osborn advocates a brainstorming session in which: (i) Criticism is ruled out; (ii) Free-wheeling is welcomed (the wilder the idea, the better); (iii) Many ideas are better than a few; and (iv) Combination of ideas into new ways is encouraged. To make sure that „imagineering‰ is fully stimulated, an atmosphere of excitement and enthusiasm is needed, along with a tolerant, non-critical attitude toward known ideas. But, if a brainstorming session ends at this point, then all one has is a collection of imaginative ideas that do not have real value. Subsequent critical analysis is required to filter in those ideas that can be criticised, reformulated and recombined into useful concepts that can lead to true innovation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING 207 (o) Create a Climate for Discussion and Disagreement In their analysis of successful executives, Hickman and Silva (1984) concluded that they never ceased their curious probing: „They are imaginative and innovative developers who can transcend old habits .... They make an abiding commitment to creativity, always setting aside the time and resources to nurture it‰. Such a climate stimulates workers to come forth with their ideas, giving management a chance to use those inputs to generate even better, more workable ideas. Creativity feeds upon itself, producing more and more creative ideas. The creativeness of professionals is directly proportional to the extent to which they can communicate with both supervisors and with peers. Leaders should openly solicit the ideas of workers and then listen to what they say. This serves not only the positive motivational purpose of making workers feel like they are important, but it also gives the leadership access to information and ideas they might otherwise not obtain. This principle lies at the heart of DemingÊs quality control philosophy, which has been so successfully employed by the Japanese industry. Workers need good, clear channels of communications with superiors, particularly the leaders who operate at the policy-making levels. Among the reasons this is important is that in this climate, workers have some hope that they have access to policymakers when they get a good idea. They need not fear that somebody else will „steal their thunder‰ and get the credit for their idea. The leadership, in turn, encourages the surfacing of new ideas only if they openly value it and provides positive reinforcement to those who advance new ideas, even ideas that are not feasible. (p) Optimise Interpersonal Interactions Progressive leaders actively seek ways to increase communication and break down interdepartmental barriers among its workers. Specific actions range from the physical design of work and recreation space to open forums where workers make presentations in front of their peers and superiors. Such devices not only improve technical communication per se, but they also make workers more aware of the skills and achievements of their peer competitors. This environment instils a desire to run faster just to keep up. (q) Get the Right People Together The principle of critical mass in personnel management is well-known. Bright people stimulate each other, particularly if each person has a different background and set of technical skills that he brings to a common problem. This team concept is explicitly fostered in many R&D companies. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
208 TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING (r) Create Study Teams, Evaluation Groups Many traditionally managed R&D operations have historically seen the value of creating interdisciplinary teams to solve problems. A recent workshop review of this management practice by NASA has confirmed its utility (Tumin, 1962). Where management often falls short is in implementing the good ideas that emerge from such study and evaluation groups. (s) Periodically Regroup the Organisational Teams Research teams grow stale with age, and their productivity generally falls off after four or five years, as the Pelz and Andrews (1976) study clearly showed. They also learned, however, that shuffling people around to new research teams was not effective if it was done against their will. (t) Give the Teams Autonomy The success of new venture teams is not only derived from the positive motivation that comes from championing a cause but also from the fact that the team is autonomous. Each member knows that he is responsible to the team and that the team is responsible for its own success or failure. If teams are allowed to operate in an environment where nobody can get the credit and nobody can take the blame for foul-ups, there is little incentive to do oneÊs best. (u) Keep People from Getting Too Specialised Overspecialisation gets in the way of creative thought. A research team with people of diverse backgrounds creates a stimulating intellectual environment that can promote the evaluation of problems from a broader perspective and lead to new ways of seeing problems and solutions. Moreover, many projects require a diversity of technical skills, which is obviously provided in a diversely structured team. Many of us have habitually considered technical expertise as a critical component for productivity. Thus, workers who specialise are considered experts. But Pelz and Andrews found that the most productive workers were those who specialised in more than one technical area. Presumably, this served as a stimulus for creativeness. A related observation was that research teams that have worked a long time in a certain area, and acquired status as the in-house experts, gradually declined in their productivity. Better results are sometimes achieved when management deliberately assigns a project to a team other than the one with the most expertise. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING 209 Pelz and Andrews (1976) also found, to their surprise, that productivity was greater in those scientists and engineers who worked at several levels, including both basic and applied research. Those who focused on either basic research or applied research only were usually much less productive. This may indicate that scientists and engineers are more productive because they are capable enough to work at several different levels. However, it is also possible that efforts to make them work at different levels actually can stimulate their creativity and productivity. Unexpectedly, it was the younger workers whose productivity was most impaired by being required to focus in-depth on a subject. Leaders are advised not to assign young workers to a narrow piece of the problem, but rather to see that they read and talk about it from many angles. (v) Recognise and Exploit the Age Effects Conventional wisdom holds that young people are the most creative. In Physics, for example, it is commonly believed that great discoveries must be made before the age of 35, or they will not happen at all. When this issue was examined by Pelz and Andrews, they found a biphasic curve, with a peak in the 30s, followed by a decline, especially in the late 40s. However, there was another spurt of creative productivity after 50. The late 40s decline was quite distinct, and was most marked with government workers, compared with those in industry or the universities. At all ages, and in all work environments, productivity was greatest in those scientists who were motivated by their own ideas rather than the ideas of management. (w) Newly Formed Research Groups are the Most Creative and Productive For example, when research directors of 21 industrial labs were asked to rank their teams or sections on such criteria as „creativity‰, they found that the most creative groups were less than 16 months old. According to the survey by Pelz and Andrews (1976), the height of a groupÊs creative powers lasts about five years, after which they generally decline. They explain this phenomenon on the basis of their idea that a certain amount of creative tension is needed; in this case, the tension and stimulation are achieved by placing staff on a new team in which the insecurity of proving oneself to new peers brings out the best in each worker. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
210 TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING The typical decline with age of the group can be partially offset if the group becomes especially cohesive, while at the same time becoming intellectually competitive. The cohesiveness is illustrated by the frequency of communication among team members, which under normal circumstances is quite high during the first year, but falls off drastically as the group ages. Competitiveness included competition among individuals in the team as well as competition between a given team and other teams. Stagnation also sets in because an older group tends to get specialised, and the membersÊ approaches to problems become more stable and stereotyped. The loss of a broader perspective, and the creativity that goes with it, is best offset when management challenges an older group with problems outside its expertise. Leaders are advised to avoid letting a group come to believe that they are the in-house experts in a special area; in fact, some leaders will deliberately assign a problem within an older groupÊs specialty to another group which has no such expertise. (x) Reorganise The more productive professionals in the Pelz and Andrews (1976) study were those in organisations that had a relatively „flat‰ organisation tree, with few levels at which veto or interference can occur. Pelz and Andrews (1976) also found that conventional management schemes that were designed to make workers dependent on their supervisors were counterproductive. Specifically, real productivity declined when the primary source of evaluation was the immediate supervisor. As Pelz and Andrews (1976) put it: „If you deliberately wanted to stamp out independent thought in the subordinates, could you design a better system?‰ (y) Establishing a Climate for Creative Thinking Is creativity a personality trait that is available to only a few? No. Research has shown everyone has some creativity, but it has been stifled by FreudÊs thinking that artistry and creativity are associated with mental illness and the scientific emphasis on materialism and analytical thinking. Partridge notes that there are „... 120 different, special and measurable aspects of creative thinking which particularly distinguish humans from other species. These wide-ranging creative faculties have been, and continue to be, critical to mankindÊs ability to adopt to changing situations, environments and systems....Extensive studies of creative thinking have firmly established that individuals exhibiting higher than average scores in creative thinking also exhibit higher than average scores in areas of mental/ emotional health. Systematic courses of instruction in applied imagination produce significant gains in personality traits such as confidence, selfreliance, persuasiveness, initiative and leadership‰ (Robert & Patridge, 1997). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING 211 The challenge is to create an environment that will bring out the creativity of everyone and make those who have demonstrated creativity even more creative. Creative leadership must facilitate positive relationships in organisations to produce profitable growth through innovation. We also know that creativity is not a personality trait that is available to a few geniuses. Everyone has unique knowledge and experiences that can be tapped, given the proper environment. Creative leaders are characterised by traits and personality such as intelligence, being well-informed, creative and original thinkers, having the ability to ask the right questions and possessing a desire to be creative. It is important that organisations have in place, ways to stimulate creativity and innovation among its members not only to enhance productivity but also for creative problem solving. Creative problem solving in schools are important and everyone should have the skills to apply self-help techniques to enhance creative problem solving. This environment must be free-flowing with ideas and non-judging to make people go through the mental blocks that became stumbling blocks since early childhood. 1. As a leader of an organisation, discuss how would you: (a) Create a climate for discussion and disagreement; (b) Optimise inter-personnel interactions; and (c) Keep people from getting too specialised? 2. Discuss how to change the attitudes of „yes-men‰ and „conformity‰ in our school settings. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 8.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
212 TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING These mental blocks are associated with the risk of being wrong. Many educational processes give rewards only for getting the right answer, not for experimenting with new approaches or exploring the risky unknown. The motivation for innovating comes largely from the joy of doing something that has never been done before. It is like going on an expedition and risking everything to be the first person to climb a mountain or sail alone around the world like what was experienced by DatoÊ Azhar. The same drive also exists within a composer or an artist who wishes to create something for immortality. Creativity can transform a dream or wish into a reality that can make the life of others more meaningful and ease them from hunger, disease and ignorance. Creativity Creative leaders Creative problem solving Positive relationships Self-help techniques Amabile, T. M. (1997). Motivating creativity in organizations: On doing what you love and loving what you do. California Management Review, 40(1), 39ă58. Anderson, J. V. (1992). Weirder than fiction: the reality and myths of creativity. Academy of Management Executive, 6(4), 41. Andrews, F. M. (1975). Social and psychological factors which influence the creative process. In Taylor, A., & Getzels, W. (Eds.), Perspectives in Creativity (pp. 37ă59). Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Co. Arieti, S. (1976). Creativity: The magic synthesis. New York, NY: Basic Books. Bruner, I. S. (1964). Contemporary approaches to creative thinking. In Gruber, H. E., Terrell, G., & Wertheimer, M. (Eds). New York, NY: Atherton Press. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING 213 Crutchfield, R. S. (1964). Contemporary approaches to creative thinking. In Gruber, H. E., Terrell, G., & Wertheimer, M. (Eds). New York, NY: Atherton Press. Firestien, R. L. (1996). Leading on the creative edge. Colorado Springs, CO: Pinon. Hickman, C. R., & Silva, M. A. (1984). Creating excellence. New York, NY: New American Library. Hill, G. C., & Clark, D. (1998, June 5). Motorola Plans to Slash Staff, Take A Charge. The Wall Street Journal, pp. A3. Hamel, G. (1997, June 23). Killer strategies that make shareholders rich. Fortune, 135(12), 70ă84. Isaksen, S. G., & Parnes, S. J. (1992). Curriculum Planning for Creative Thinking and Problem Solving. Journal of Creative Behavior, 19(1), 422ă440. Isen, A. M. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1122ă1131. Kirton, M. (1989). Adaptors and innovators: Styles of creativity and problem solving. Routledge: London and New York. Koestler, A. (1959). The act of creation, New York, NY: Dell. Kohn, A. (1993). Punished by rewards. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. MacLean, P. D. (1990). The triune brain in evolution: Role in paleocerebral functions. New York, NY: Plenum Press. McClelland, D. G. (1964). Contemporary approaches to creative thinking. In H. E. Gruber, G. Terrell. & M. Wertheimer (Eds.), New York, NY: Atherton Press. Nierenberg, G. (1982). The art of creative thinking. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. Parkes, A. S. (1959). The art of scientific discovery. Perspectives in Biological Medicine I, 366ă378. Perkins, D. N. (1981). The mindÊs best work. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
214 TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING Pelz, D. C., & Andrews, F. M. (1976). Scientists in organizations: Productive climates for research and development. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. Raudsepp, E. (1981). How creative are you. New York, NY: PutnamÊs Sons. Robert, A., & Partridge, M. D. (1997). Epilogue. In S. J. Parnes, Optimize the magic of your mind. Buffalo, NY: Bearly Limited. Rogers, E. (1962). Diffusion of innovation. New York, NY: The Free Press. Roger von Oech. (1983). A whack on the side of the head. New York, NY: Warner Books. Selye, H. (1964). From dream to discovery: On Being a Scientist. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Solomon, C. M. (1990). What an Idea: Creativity Training. Personal Journal, 473ă81. Stacey, R. D. (1992). Managing the unknowable: Strategic boundaries between order and chaos in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Stacey, R. D. (1996). Complexity and creativity in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Strickland, A. G., & Coulson, L. T. (2004). Learning creative process: A basic life skill. In Costa, A. L., & Liebman, R. M. (Eds.), Envisioning process as content: Toward a Renaissance curriculum. New York, NY: Sage Publications. Taylor, A., & Getzels, J. W. (1975). Perspectives in creativity. Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Co. Tumin, M. (1962). Obstacles to creativity. In Parnes, S. J., & Harding, H. F. (Eds.), A source book for creative thinking (pp. 105ă113). New York, NY. Vehar, J. R., Firestien, R. L., & Miller, B. (1997). Creativity unbound: An introduction to creative problem solving, Williamsville, NY: Innovation Systems Group. Wheatley, M. J. (1994). Leadership and the new science. San Francisco, CA: BerrettKoehler Publishers, Inc. Woodman, R., Sawyer, J., & Griffin, R. (1993). Toward a theory of organizational creativity. The Academy of Management Review, 18(2), 293ă321, Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Communication can be the making or breaking of all relationships. Whenever two individuals meet, they have to communicate verbally as well as use body language to convey their intents. There are a number of ways of communicating which use oneÊs verbal skills, tactile skills, kinaesthetic skills as well as skills in expressing oneÊs self through written forms. As a matter of reference, we, as a society in general, judge a person within a matter of seconds to the level and degree of their intelligence based on how well or poorly they communicate. If a person is a marvellous orator filled with passion and colourful stories and anecdotes that we Topic 9 Communication and Skills in Resolving Conflicts LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Explain the factors that contribute to the improvement of inspirational and supportive communication in the school environment; 2. Discuss the methods that can be used in schools to develop effective communication; 3. Describe the cross-cultural communication barriers in our schools; 4. Discuss the conflicts that occur in our schools; and 5. Apply the principles of conflict resolutions to solve conflicts in schools. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
216 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS can relate to, then that person is judged as a superior being, smart and intelligent, and „a somebody‰ in society regardless of his mental capacity. This impression may prove to be inaccurate but that judgment has been the norm of how people judge. INSPIRATIONAL COMMUNICATION Everybody communicates in one way or another, but few managers deliver their messages effectively. Good communication is the life blood of organisations. It takes many forms, such as speaking, writing and listening though its purpose is always to convey a message to recipients. Use it effectively to handle information and improve relationships. 9.1.1 Being Effective Effective communication and, therefore, effective schools hinge on people understanding your meaning, and replying in terms that move the exchange forward; preferably in the direction you would like it to go. Communicating is always a two-way process. In management, you communicate to get things done, pass on and obtain information, reach decisions, achieve joint understanding and develop relationships. This is a continuous and cyclical process. 9.1.2 Recognising Barriers There are always at least two parties involved in any communication, each of whom may have different wants, needs and attitudes. These wants and needs can present barriers if they conflict with those of the other party, and such barriers may stop you conveying or receiving the right message. Any communication must overcome such barriers if it is to be successful and the first step is to recognise that they exist. 9.1.3 Communicating Positively Breaking down barriers is one of the first steps toward good inspirational communication. Maintaining eye contact, listening to what the other person is saying and mirroring body language helps in successful communication. Facing the person you are talking to shows you are not afraid to listen to what he said. Tilting your head slightly shows you are listening. Break down barriers by adopting the other personÊs pose and actions. Look at the other person in the eye. 9.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 217 9.1.4 Achieving Clarity The three rules that govern good inspirational communication are all associated with clarity: (a) Be clear in your own mind about what you want to communicate; (b) Deliver the message clearly; (c) Ensure that the message has been clearly and correctly understood; and (d) Good communication means saying what you mean ă and fully comprehending any feedback. 9.1.5 Choosing a Method It is essential when communicating a message that you give serious thought to the medium that you choose. For many, this choice is often between the spoken and the written word. If you decide that you want speed and convenience, you may well choose speech as the best form of communication. Alternatively you may want something more permanent and orderly ă a typed document, for example - which will attract a considered reply. Electronic media have generated even more possibilities by creating a hybrid form of speech and writing. Thus, e-mails have the speed and informality of a phone conversation, yet they are in letter form and can be filed. The purpose of the message will dictate which method to choose. Decide on your message first, and then select the best method to convey it, making sure that you have mastered its technique. 9.1.6 Cultural Differences Broad generalisations are often made about a cultureÊs use of words and gestures. Some Malaysian and other Asians find it easier than some Europeans to be silent. The Germans, Nordics and British are generally less voluble than many people in the Latin nations, and are often more restrained in gesture. Some British seem to avoid saying what they mean, while Australians may surprise others by forcefully saying exactly what they mean. Many Americans can be very straightforward too. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
218 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 9.1.7 Combining Methods Methods of communication can be grouped into five main types: (a) Written word; (b) Spoken word; (c) Symbolic gesture; (d) Visual image; and (e) Combination of these. Though the first four methods work well individually, it is now known that using two or more different communication methods together increases interest, comprehension and retention. Methods are more effective when combined with others. Examples of a combined approach include communicating via commercial media and electronic technology, such as multimedia and video conferencing. Multimedia allows better use of usual elements, and is increasing the medium of choice when it comes to communicating with large numbers of people, especially employees in a big organisation. For further reading, refer to Table 9.1. Table 9.1: Choosing Methods of Communications Type of Communication Examples Usefulness Written Word In any language and in various media, the written word is basic to literate societies. Letters, memos, reports, proposals, notes, contracts, summaries, agendas, notices, regulations, minutes, plans and discussion documents. The written word is the basis of organisational communication, and is used because it is relatively permanent and accessible. Spoken Word Communication that is effective only when it is heard by the right people. Conversations, interviews, meetings, phone calls, debates, requests, debriefings, announcements and speeches. Verbal exchanges in person and by phone are used because of their immediacy; they are the chief means by which organisations work on a day-to-day basis. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 219 Symbolic Gestures Any positive or negative behaviour that can be seen or heard by the intended target. Gestures, facial expressions, actions, deeds, tone of voice, silence, stance, posture, movement, immobility, presence and absence. Actions and body language profoundly but unconsciously affect people - propaganda depends on the manipulation of positive and negative signs. Visual Images Images that can be perceived by a target group. Photographs (slides and prints), paintings, drawings, illustrations, graphics, cartoons, charts, videos, logos, film, doodles, collages and colour schemes. Visual images are used because they convey powerful conscious and unconscious messages. Combination of All Multimedia combination of the different methods above, often involving IT. Television, newspapers, magazines, leaflets, booklets, flyers, posters, Internet, Intranet, Worldwide Web, video, radio, cassettes and CDROMs. Media are especially useful when they can be participative. The more professional the use of multimedia, the more effective and productive they are likely to be. 9.1.8 Understanding Body Language Your body language ă a huge range of unconscious physical movements ă can either strengthen communication or damage it. Even if you are sitting completely still, you may be unknowingly communicating powerful message about your real feelings. 9.1.9 Communicating by Body Language Posture is all-important in body language. On a first meeting, these three postures would create very different impressions. The positive posture might have the best effect on the outcome by encouraging open communication, while the negative one would make communication difficult. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
220 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 9.1.10 Reading Body Language Because of its subtlety and range, body language is difficult to read ă and to control. However a broad understanding of body language is one route to understanding the real opinions of others. For instance, if people are inwardly feeling uncomfortable because they are lying, their awkward body language will betray the lie. Table 9.2 share some of the probable interpretation of body language. Table 9.2: Probable Interpretation of Body Language Positive Neutral Negative Body facing front and open posture show confidence Hands on hips indicate determination and ability to take control Direct gaze and broad smile show friendly attention Direct gaze shows attention Relaxed arms and legs show lack of tension Indirect gaze is evasive Ear pulling indicates doubt Body turned away signifies rejection of what other person is saying Slight slumping shows lack of confidence 9.1.11 Conquering Nerves The nervousness people feel before making a presentation or attending an interview is very natural. Their minds prepare them for action via their nervous system, so nervousness is due in part to glands pumping the hormone adrenaline into their blood. Use body language to appear more confident than you feel by making a conscious effort to smile and to relax your arms. Look people in the eye while you are talking or listening to them, keep your posture comfortably straight, and do not fiddle with your hands. 9.1.12 Cultural Differences: Personal Space Some people in Malaysia tend to leave more personal space around them than other nationalities, and are more likely to move away if they feel that their space is being invaded. People who live in rural areas may also stand farther apart than city dwellers. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 221 9.1.13 Keeping Your Distance Leaving an acceptable distance between people is part of body language, and this distance changes depending on the situation. For instance, guests at a social gathering stand closer to one another than strangers in a business situation. Always take care not to intrude into another personal territory in case you arouse defensive or hostile reactions. 9.1.14 Creating an Impression First impressions are very important. It is thought that the initial five seconds of any first meeting are more important than the next five minutes, so attention to detail can make a huge difference. Think about grooming, appropriate clothing and err on the conservative side. Even if an informal look is required, ensure your garments and shoes are in impeccable condition. Before going into a meeting, check your appearance in a mirror to make sure that your hair is neat. Making an impact ă grooming and posture always create an impression. Some understandings of using gestures are explain in Table 9.3. Table 9.3: Understanding and Using Gestures Wrong Right Slovenly stance Upright posture Messy hair Neat hair Crumpled T-Shirt Neatly buttoned jacket Dirty Shoes Shining shoes Gestures, together with other nonverbal communications such as posture and facial expressions, are an important part of body language. Knowing how to gesture for effect, on public platforms or in face-to-face meetings, will help to convey your message. 9.1.15 Recognising Gestures All skilled public speakers use gestures for emphasis. For example, John Kennedy used a chopping motion, while Bill Clinton pointed his finger. Devices like smacking your fist into an open palm and spreading your palms can reinforce points you make verbally. Remember that over assertive gestures, such as banging a table, or other signs of anger, can alienate people. Also, if you do bang a table, take care not to drown your words. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
222 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS Single gestures may combine to form complex patterns. For instance, in a private meeting, you may recognise that a colleague is appraising you while listening to you, by the position of their fingers on their cheek or chin. However, to know whether the appraisal is positive or negative, you need to observe other signs, such as whether their legs are crossed defensively, or if their head and chin are lowered aggressively. 9.1.16 Cultural Differences: Nonverbal Language The nonverbal language of gestures varies from country to country. Some gestures to watch for include the Malaysian thumb and forefinger gesture for OK; pointing with a finger (considered rude for Malays); shaking your head meaning „no‰ (means „yes‰ to Indians); and hugging in public (unacceptable for Malaysians). 9.1.17 Giving Body Signals Supportive gestures, such as making eye contact and nodding while somebody is talking can create empathy ă unless the person you are speaking to can tell that you are concealing your true feelings. Everyone can control their body language to an extent, but not totally. Choose your words with care, being as honest as possible; otherwise, your body language may contradict you. The following are examples of the interpretation of body signal: (a) Hand on chin indicates approval; (b) Raised Eyebrows Indicate Interest; (c) Gesturing with your hands adds emphasis; (d) Listening with approval ă approval listening is shown by the slight tilt of the head together with friendly eye contact; (e) Paying attention ă eyes making contact and the body leaning forward show alertness and readiness to assist the speaker; (f) Emphasising a point ă using a hand gesture emphatically is one way of reinforcing a verbal point; (g) Indirect gaze adds to sense of uncertainty; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 223 (h) Arm wrapped around body is a form of self-comfort; (i) Knitted brow and closed eyes show doubt; (j) Showing uncertainty ă pen-biting is a throwback to the need to be nursed, this shows fear and lack of confidence; (k) Needing reassurance ă one hand around the neck and the other around the waist show a need for reassurance; and (l) Experiencing conflict ă closed eyes and nose pinching reveal inner confusion and conflict about what is being heard. 9.1.18 Showing Attentiveness When you are in search of information, consensus or a working relationship, the more obviously you listen attentively, the better. You may need to speak to get a response, but show you do not wish to dominate the conversation. Ask open questions, which lead to discussion, and keep your responses brief. Repeat key words silently as you hear them to help you to remember what is said. 9.1.19 Listening Skills: Putting Methods into Practice Empathise by imagining yourself in the other personÊs position, trying to understand what they are thinking and letting them feel comfortable ă possibly by relating to their emotional experiences. Pay close attention to what the person is saying, talk very little and use encouraging nods and words. Use analytical questions to discover the reasons behind the speakerÊs statements, especially if you need to understand a sequence of facts or thoughts. Ask questions carefully, so you can pick up clues from the answers and use the personÊs responses to help you form your next set of questions. If you need to achieve a desired result, make statements to which others can respond with ideas. Listen and give your answers to othersÊ remarks in a way that suggests which ideas can be enacted and how they might be implemented. Alternatively, include a different solution in your next question. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
224 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 9.1.20 Points to Remember Confidence is inspired in a speaker if you listen intently. What you are told should be regarded as trustworthy until proved otherwise. Misunderstandings are caused by wishful listening ă hearing only what you want to hear. Constant interruptions put off people who find it difficult to get their point of view across. 9.1.21 Interpreting Dialogue Take statements at face value without reading hidden meanings into what is being said. Test your understanding by rephrasing statements and repeating them to the speaker. It should then be clear that you have understood each other ă or they may correct you and clarify their statement. However, watch for physical signs, such as evasive eye contact and verbal signs such as hesitation or contradiction that provide clues to the truthfulness of the message. Be careful not to hear only what you want to hear and nothing else. 9.1.22 Using Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) One basic theory behind neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is that the way in which people speak shows how they think. Thinking preferences can be categorised by choice of phrase. Categories include the visual, which is indicated by phrases such as „I see where youÊre coming from‰, and the auditory, indicated by phrases such as, „This sounds like a problem to me‰. By listening attentively, you can harmonise a conversation by „mirroring‰. That is, you can reply to visual language with visual, auditory with auditory and so on. This helps you to establish rapport with the other person. While listening intently and mirroring thinking preferences, you can also physically mirror the person. Adopting a similar posture and using the same gestures can create empathy. 9.1.23 Listening and Mirroring NLP techniques can be used to take the tension out of a situation. For example, if you strongly disagree with someone seated opposite you, listen to them speak, and then speak yourself, using similar imagery and phraseology. If they are sitting defensively, subtly mirror their posture, then slowly change it into a more open one, as above, to encourage them to be less defensive. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 225 9.1.24 Asking Questions How you ask questions is very important in establishing a basis for good inspirational communication. Why, what, how and when are very powerful words. Use them often to seek either from yourself or from others, the answers needed to manage effectively. (a) Ask a specific question if you want to hear a specific answer. (b) Use open questions to gain insight into the other personÊs character, and to invite a response. (c) Write a list of questions before you start a meeting. (d) Do not be afraid to pause while thinking of your next question. 9.1.25 Knowing What to Ask The right questions open the door to knowledge and understanding. The art of questioning lies in knowing which questions to ask and when to ask them. Address your first question to yourself: If you could press a magic button and get every piece of information you want, what would you want to know? The answer will help you compose the right questions. If you are planning a meeting, prepare a list of any answers you need to obtain. As the meeting progresses, check off the answers you receive. If new questions occur to you while others are talking, note them down and raise them later. 9.1.26 Choosing Questions When preparing questions in advance, always look at the type of question that best meets your aims (see Table 9.4). You may want to initiate a discussion to obtain specific information, attain a particular end, or send a command cloaked as a query. However, be aware that prepared questions will rarely have enough answers to them, may be incomplete or may prompt a completely new line of questioning. Keep asking questions until you are satisfied that you have received the answers you require. When asking prepared questions, watch out for clues in the answers that you can follow-up later with a new set of questions. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
226 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS Table 9.4: Choosing Questions for Different Responses Types of Question Examples Open Question does not invite any particular answer, but opens up discussion. Q: What do you think about the school setting up a canteen for all staff members? A: I think it is a good idea for a number of reasons. Closed Question is specific and must be answered with a yes or a no, or with details as appropriate. Q: Do you ever read the school magazine or newsletter? A: No. Fact-finding Question is aimed at getting information on a particular subject. Q: What percentage of staff has replied to the employee attitude survey? A: Out of 2,000 questionnaires, we got 1,400 replies ă thatÊs 70 per cent. Follow-up Question is intended to get more information or to elicit an opinion. Q: Is this a good response compared with last time? A: Two-thirds is average, so this indicates reasonably good morale. Feedback Question is aimed at getting a particular type of information. Q: Do you think that communications within the school have improved? A: Yes. I find it is useful being able to talk to my manager in our new weekly meetings. 9.1.27 Striking the Right Tone Your tone of voice is a part of communication in itself ă for example, you may convey anger by speaking harshly or sympathy by speaking softly. The wrong tone may generate a counterproductive response, so work on improving your ability to manage your tone of voice. Using a tape recorder, play back your voice. Is there any unintentional sharpness? Is it too conciliatory? Practise until you are happy with how you sound. You can often steer people toward agreement by using an optimistic and confident tone of voice. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 227 9.1.28 Conclusion The importance of interpersonal skills is increasingly critical because of four factors of growing importance in most organisations these days; technology, time intensity, diversity and liability. Beginning from the very basic of all interpersonal skills is understanding the similarities and differences in our inherent temperaments. These „relational skills‰ are the building blocks or the foundation for every type of communication. By understanding relational skills ă skills that build and maintain relationships ă we can effectively communicate with our peers, subordinates and superiors on their terms and in their mode of communication. Relational skills pertain to how well you relate to a person. These skills include the abilities to establish rapport, instil trust, foster cooperation, form alliances, persuade, mediate conflict and communicate clearly and constructively. SUPPORTIVE COMMUNICATION Skilful communication is important for school leadership or head teachers because they are responsible for assessing teachers and studentsÊ performances. Supportive communication is interpersonal communication that has the goal of preserving the relationship between the principal and school member, while still addressing the problem at hand (Whetten & Cameron, 2002). Supportive communication is imperative for effective personal management activities. The following eight basic attributes of supportive communication can be incorporated into our personal management activities to improve the teachers, staff and students relationship. 9.2 1. How does a person in todayÊs stressed out environment learn to communicate clearly and effectively with everyone and still feel like a uniquely created individual? 2. How do we train ourselves to communicate effectively in our schools? 3. What are the benefits of effective communication in organisations? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 9.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
228 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 9.2.1 Problem-oriented, Not Person-oriented Problem-oriented communication focuses on problems and solutions as opposed to blaming people. Problem-oriented communication works well during the personal management activities because the principal can focus on the school memberÊs behaviours and achievement. On the other hand person-oriented communication focuses on things that cannot be controlled and might send a message of inadequacy to the school member. For example, calling a staff member „irresponsible‰ describes the person whereas „we donÊt see things the same way‰ describes the problem. The major problem with person-oriented communication is that personality traits are not easily changed while behaviour can be changed. 9.2.2 Based on Congruence, Not Incongruence Congruence occurs when what is said, both verbally and nonverbally, matches what the individual is thinking and feeling (Knapp, 1996). There is general agreement among researchers that the best relationships are based on congruence (Knapp, 1996; Hyman, 1989; Schnake, Dumler, Cochran & Barnett, 1990). Incongruence can occur under two different circumstances. First, it can occur when there is a mismatch between what one is experiencing and what one is aware of. For example, a school member may not be aware that he is experiencing hostility toward a student, even though the student can sense it. The second type of incongruence occurs when there is a mismatch between what one thinks or feels and what one communicates. This is common in relationships when one party is less than honest in its communication with the other. For example, a school leader may be very upset about an incident concerning a teacher and a student but deny saying that the feeling exists. It is important that school leaders or department heads be honest and genuine when coaching or counselling their junior teachers because, often, those who do not express what is on their mind create the perception of a „hidden agenda.‰ If a school member senses that not all is being said, the relationship may become distrusting and/or superficial (Haas & Arnold, 1995). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 229 9.2.3 Descriptive, Not Evaluative When a judgment is made or a label is placed on individuals or their behaviour, evaluative communication has taken place. A school leader or department head who says, „You did this wrong‰ often results in the faculty member becoming defensive. A probable response (perhaps in silence) might be „No, I did not do it wrong‰. Evaluative statements result in a deterioration of the department head/ school member relationship. People often make evaluative statements when the issue is emotionally charged or when a person feels threatened. An alternative to evaluation is descriptive communication. This entails three steps: (a) The leader describes objectively the event, behaviour or circumstance. He or avoids accusations and presents the data or evidence. For example, „Five students have come to me to complain about you not keeping the office hours that you stated in your syllabus‰. (b) Entails focusing on the behaviour and oneÊs reaction, not on the school memberÊs attributes. This step might include describing oneÊs feelings and the objective consequences that have or will result. The school leadership might say; „IÊm concerned because how can we expect students to do what they say if we donÊt do what we say?‰ (c) Focuses on a solution. The school leadership or department head should avoid discussing who is right or wrong and should suggest one alternative (but be open to other alternatives). He might suggest the following; „We both need to win back the studentsÊ confidence and show that we are responsive. I suggest you hold an extra office hour tomorrow for your students‰. 9.2.4 Validates Rather than Invalidates Individuals The goal of validating communication is to help people feel valued. Invalidating communication results in negative feelings of self-worth. It denies the presence and importance of individuals by conveying superiority, rigidity or indifference (Cupach & Spitzberg, 1994). People often do not take time, do not listen, do not try to understand, but interrupt, anticipate, criticise or disregard what is said; in their own remarks they are frequently vague, inconsistent, verbose, insincere or dogmatic. As a result, people often conclude conversations feeling more inadequate, more misunderstood and more alienated than when they started (Barnlund, 1968). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
230 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS On the other hand, validating communication helps people feel recognised, understood and accepted. A major part of validating communication when there is a superior/subordinate relationship is egalitarian communication, whereby subordinates are treated as worthwhile, competent and insightful. Joint problem solving is emphasised rather than the projection of a superior position. 9.2.5 Specific (Useful), Not Global (Not Useful) Generally, the more specific the communication the more motivating it will be. A school leader or department head who says to a teacher or staff member, „You have trouble managing your time‰ is too general to be useful. A more specific comment might be „You spent an hour today photocopying articles when you could have asked the office boy to do it‰. Specific statements avoid global statements that might lead to defensiveness. For example, the global statement „You have no consideration for othersÊ feelings‰ is likely to be met with a defensive statement „Yes I do, I am always considerate of othersÊ feelings‰. A specific statement is much more effective; „By using sarcasm in your response to my question, you gave me the impression that you do not care about my feelings.‰ The response is more likely to not be defensive: „I am sorry. I know I am often sarcastic without thinking of how it affects others‰. 9.2.6 Conjunctive, Not Disjunctive Conjunctive communication flows smoothly from what was stated previously. Disjunctive communication is disjointed and disconnected from what was said previously. Interpersonal communication between the school leadership and school member can become disjunctive in at least two ways. First, when there is not an equal opportunity to speak between the parties communication can become disjunctive. This can occur when one party dominates the conversation or interrupts the other party frequently. It is important that both school leadership and school member collaboratively communicate. Topic control is another way that communication can become disjunctive. A unilateral decision by one party (as opposed to a bilateral decision) to decide the next topic of conversation does not foster a supportive communication process. In an empirical study of perceived communication competence, Wiemann (1997) reported that people who took turns speaking, did not hog air time, and who connected what they said to what others had said in the past were judged to be competent communicators (Knapp, 1996). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 231 Thus, school leadership skilled in conjunctive communication may be perceived as better communicators by their junior teachers. This can be accomplished by asking questions based on the school memberÊs previous statement, by waiting for a sentence to be completed before responding and by saying only a few sentences at a time to give the school member an opportunity to speak. By using conjunctive communication, the department head will not only confirm the worth of the school member, but will also foster teamwork and joint problem solving. 9.2.7 Owned, Not Disowned Owning communication uses first-person words such as „I‰ and „me‰. Disowning communication uses third-person words or first-person plural words such as „we think‰ or „one might say‰. The problem with disowning communication is that the communicator avoids investing in the relationship because he has not taken responsibility for the message. A junior teacher may perceive disowned communication from his department head as uncaring and aloof. It fosters ambiguity since the school member may feel that the department headÊs statements reflect someone elseÊs viewpoint. Glasser (2000) based his approach to mental health (reality therapy) on the assumption that taking responsibility for oneÊs statements builds both self-confidence and selfworth. (Glasser, 2000) The same can be assumed in the department member relationship. 9.2.8 Requires Listening, Not One-way Message Delivery The previous seven attributes of supportive communication focus on message delivery. However, just as important, is listening effectively and responding to the other personÊs statements. „In any conversation, the person who talks the most is the one who learns the least about the other person‰ (Maier, Solem & Maier, 1973). Therefore, a good department head must be perceived as being important to effective communication. Kramer (2000) reported that good listening skills accounted for 40 per cent of the variance associated with effective leadership (Kramer, 2000). Indeed, people judged to be „wise‰ and the most sought-after for interaction are also the best listeners (Maier et al., 1973; Sternberg, 1990). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
232 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS About 80 per cent of most responses are evaluative or judging. A goal of supportive communication is to suspend judgment and evaluation as a first response to a statement. This is neither easy nor automatic. When people are preoccupied with meeting their own needs (for example, I must win this discussion), have already made a prior judgment, or view the communicator negatively, poor listening results. According to Rogers and Farson (1976), good listening conveys that: IÊm interested in you as a person, and I respect your thoughts and even if I donÊt agree with them, I know they are valid for you. I feel sure you have a contribution to make. I think youÊre worth listening to and I want you to know IÊm the kind of person you can talk to. One impediment to effective communication in organisations revolves around interpersonal relationships. Supportive communication is especially critical to an effective and satisfying relationship between department heads in schools and their junior teachers. CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION The phrase cross-cultural communication describes the ability to successfully form, foster and improve relationships with members of a culture different from oneÊs own. It is based on knowledge of many factors, such as the other cultureÊs values, perceptions, manners, social structure, and decision-making practices, as well as an understanding of how members of the group communicate ă verbally, non-verbally, in person, in writing and in various activities and social contexts. Everything that occurs within a school and especially in the classroom, involves communication, the act of sharing information. Sometimes communication involves the use of oral or written verbal symbols. On other occasions, communication involves various types of nonverbal symbols, including body language. 9.3 Discuss how basic attributes of supportive communication can be incorporated into personnel management activities to improve teachers, staff and student relationships. Share your answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 9.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 233 Communication is the medium for instruction, assessment, interpersonal relationships, group interactions, parent and community relations and counselling. Most behaviour problems in schools, and their resolutions, involve some type of communication. In sum, communication permeates education. Communication is culture bound. The way an individual communicates emanates from his culture. Of course, a person may know more than one culture or may be competent in a combination of cultures. Nonetheless, one basic truth prevails: communication is a product of culture. Students with different cultural norms are at risk if teachers have little knowledge, sensitivity or appreciation of the diversity in communication styles. Such teachers may perceive differences as problems and respond to studentsÊ diversify with negative attitudes, low expectations and culturally inappropriate teaching and assessment procedures. Culturally and communicatively diverse students, in turn, may respond with low self-concepts and low academic achievement to a school climate they perceive as hostile. The result is reflected in these studentsÊ excessive placements in special education, reduced placements in talented and gifted programmes and high suspension rates. In culturally diverse communities, differences may be expected to exist in the communication styles of students, teachers, parents, administrators and noninstructional staff. Perhaps the most important reason for educators to understand cross cultural communication is to improve their relations with the diverse groups of students and parents they will encounter. If left ignored, communication differences will inevitably lead to various types of miscommunication which may lead, in turn, to conflicts which erode school climate and cause certain groups of students usually African-Americans and other minority students to feel unwelcome. The fact that these circumstances occur is a tragedy, of course. The greater tragedy, however, is that educators do not always know how to eliminate or minimise this type of discord. Tactics for Removing Cross-cultural Communication Barriers Once we have established the prerequisites for understanding communication issues, we should then seek to remove cross-cultural communication barriers from the school environment. The major tactics that might be employed for this purpose fall under two categories: (a) Removing language which appears to stereotype students; and (b) Reducing violations of cultural rules during discussions and conversations. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)