134 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION In the Malaysian education scene, policy changes were often made which upset some quarters of Malaysian society but the policy makers felt that these changes had to be implemented to cope with the dynamic changes in society. Take the examples of the most controversial decisions made by the Ministry of Education in 2002 when English was made the medium of instruction for the teaching of Mathematics and Science at all levels of the Malaysian education system. The stated aim of this policy change was to improve the English proficiency among Malaysian students. Though publicly the criticism was not vocal, in private it became a hot issue. Many questions were raised such as: (a) Can students improve their command of the English Language by using English as the medium of instruction for teaching Mathematics and Science? (b) Can students from the rural areas and from the lower socioeconomic background benefit from this policy change? (c) How much English is used in the teaching of Mathematics and Science? (d) Are there other better means to improve the English Language proficiency among Malaysian students? (e) If students are unable to master the English Language, is using English to teach Mathematics and Science a calamity to these students? (f) Is there any country that excels in education because of using two mediums of instruction in the school system? Discuss these questions by answering them. Please rationalise each answer to the above questions and the alternative answers may reflect the actual rationale for the policy change. These questions are important for the decision maker to answer. The answers could only be available after at least one cycle of students entering the school system has left it after their School Certificate Examination which takes about eleven years of schooling. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 135 The school is considered a social system where bureaucracy becomes a part of the organisation. The school is a social system and, as a social system, it is important to know how it differs from other systems. The school system is characterised by its bureaucratic set up, which is much in line with that of the Weberian bureaucracy. There are advantages as well as the disadvantages of bureaucracy and by knowing both sides of the coin, one can optimise the usage of bureaucracy to achieve organisational objectives. If you were a decision maker, how would you make the programme of using English as a medium of instruction a success, where the objectives of improving the standard of English and a better understanding of Mathematics and Science among Malaysian students could be achieved? Discuss. Share your answer in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.6 1. Name the important factors that need to be taken into consideration in the process of making a decision. 2. What is the relationship between „value orientation‰ and „perception screen‰? Explain. 3. Name the similarities and differences between „the classical model‰ and „the administrative model‰. SELF-CHECK 5.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
136 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION It is important to know the functional and dysfunctional aspects of bureaucracy. The Weberian model of bureaucracy has become an integral part of any organisation after modifying it to suit the needs of our modern organisations where the democratisation process has reduced red tape, making the place of work a conducive environment to achieve organisational objectives. The three social theories are the role theory, the decision-making theory and the value theory. These theories will help a leader to understand the processes of any organisation and by knowing and understanding them you can optimise your organisational output. Knowledge of value theory is important as it enables the school principal to understand the dynamics of cultural values. Knowledge of decision-making theory is useful and leaders need to understand the decision-making process. As schools are organisations where teaching and learning takes place, principals need to know their specific roles to be effective school leaders. In the school system, the principal needs to know how to make an accurate timely decision and know his own roles as well as the roles of his teachers. This knowledge enables him to be a more effective principal in achieving the mission and the vision of our schools. Decision-making theory Role theory Social organisation Social system Value theory Weberian bureaucracy Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 137 Barker, S. (1997). Is your successor in your schoolhouse? Finding principal candidates. NASSP Bulletin, 85ă91. Beck, L., & Murphy, J. (1993). Understanding the principalship: Metaphorical Themes 1920să1990s. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Bernard, C. I. (1966). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Blau, P. M., & Scott, W. R. (1962). Formal organizations: A comparative approach. San Francisco, CA: Chandler. Bidwell, C. E. (1965). The school as a formal organization. In J. G. March (Ed.). Handbook of Organization (pp. 972ă1022). Chicago, IL: Rand McNally. Broudy, H. S. (1965). Conflicts in Values. In Ohm R. G., & Monahan, W. G. (Eds.). Educational administration ă Philosophy in action. Norman, OK: College of Education. Caldwell, B. (1998). Strategic leadership, resource management and effective school reform. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, California, USA. Foo, Say Fooi. (2003). Pengurusan dan keberkesanan sekolah. In Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie & S. F. Foo (Eds.), Pengurusan dan Kepimpinan Pendidikan ă Satu Langkah Ke hadapan 2003 (pp. 166ă180). Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia: Penerbit Universiti Putra Malaysia. Getzels, J. W., & Guba, E. G. (1957). Social behavior and the administrative process. School Review, 65(4), 423ă441. Getzels, J. W., Lipham, J., & Campbell, R. F. (1968). Educational administration as a social process: Theory, research, and practice. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
138 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION Getzels, J. W. (1967). Administration as a Social Process. In A. Halpin (Ed.), Administrative theory in education (pp. 150ă165). New York, NY: Macmillan. Hallinger, P., & Bridges, E. (1997). Problem-based leadership development: Preparing educational leaders for changing times. Journal of School Leadership, 7(6), 592ă608. Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (2001). Educational administration: Theory research, and practice (6th ed.). Singapore: McGrawHill. Lipham, J. M., & Hoeh Jr., J. A. (1974). The principalship: Foundations and functions. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers. Murphey, J., & Adams, J. (1998). Reformong americaÊs schools: 1980ă2000. Journal of Educational Administration, 36(5), 426ă444. Rriffiths, D. (1960). Administrative theory. New York, NY: Appleton. Scott, W. R. (1998). Organizations: Rational, natural, and open systems (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Waller, W. (1932). The sociology of teaching. New York, NY: Wiley. Weber, M. (1947). The theory of social and economic organizations. In T. Parsons (Trans.). New York, NY: Free Press. Zaidatul Akmaliah, & Foo Say Fooi, (Eds.) (2003). Pengurusan dan kepimpinan pendidikan: Satu langkah ke hadapan. Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia: Penerbit Universiti Putra Malaysia. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION An organisation of the new millennium requires a leader who empowers his subordinates to execute their multi-tasking duties and responsibilities effectively. In an era where people with higher education diplomas and degrees are in abundance and with the rise of a more transparent bureaucracy, most of the staff members are well-trained executives. These executives are able and willing to take up more responsibilities and multi-task. In the past, there would be stenographers to type and take dictation from the boss and peon to carry-out mundane duties such as posting letters and cleaning the tables of the bosses. Now the executives Topic 6 Tactics for Becoming an Empowering Leader LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Describe what empowerment is; 2. Explain how empowerment is applied to education and specify the obstacles when implementing it; 3. Explain the reasons why empowerment fails to materialise in the education sector; 4. Identify the ingredients for successful empowerment; and 5. State precisely the issues faced by leaders in the conduct of their organisations. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
140 TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER are willing to take the responsibility to carry out these simple tasks as well as analyse problems and make decisions for the organisation. This ability is an asset to the organisation, and this capability is achieved through the process of empowerment of staff members. THE DEFINITION OF EMPOWERMENT Empowerment, although used mainly in literature on teacher empowerment, can also be defined as: (a) The opportunities a student has for autonomy, choice, responsibility, and participation in decision-making in organisations (Lightfoot, 1986). (b) Jenkins (1988) stated „To empower others is to give a stakeholder share in the movement and direction of the enterprise‰ (p. 149). Jenkins (1988) and Short and Greer (1989) agreed that students who are able to initiate and carry out new ideas by involvement in decision making should, in turn, take more responsibility for their learning and exhibit higher levels of engagement of learning experiences. Traditionally, students have been passive listeners to what the teachers have to say and as the result of this tradition, students get detached little by little to what is happening in many classrooms. They might become unmotivated and little learning would result. With student empowerment, learning will be handed to the students and this will free them from the shackles of the classroom, and as a result, they can achieve more than what the teachers can give. The teachers will be the agents of change, and the facilitators of the studentsÊ learning process. Zimmerman and Rappaport (1988) described empowerment as a construct that ties personal competencies and abilities to environments that provide opportunities for choice and autonomy in demonstrating those competencies. Dunst (1991) suggested that empowerment consists of two issues: (a) Enabling experiences, provided within an organisation that fosters autonomy, choice, control and responsibility; and (b) Allow the individual to display existing competencies as well as learn new competencies that support and strengthen functioning. 6.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER 141 When the two issues mentioned here become permissible, then empowerment will bring out the best of everyone in the school organisation. Teachers become braver to experiment with their skills and expertise to produce better outcomes from among the students. Students, in turn, would stretch their ability to display their competencies which will further strengthen their capacities to produce their best. EMPOWERMENT IN EDUCATION Empowerment is the word that was presumed to be the „magic‰ wand for education reforms of the 1980s. From the historical perspective, both empowerment and participative decision making are synonyms but actually they are two distinct steps in the process of empowerment (see Figure 6.1). We could say that both steps are on the same continuum where participative decision making is the one of the earlier processes for preparing subordinates for empowerment. Before empowerment could be established, the staff members have to take responsibility by acclimatising themselves to leadership roles. Figure 6.1: The process of empowerment The training ground for taking responsibility was through participative decision making. By taking part in the process the individual who did play a role in making the decision would feel responsible for the implementation of the decision as well as make sure that the decision taken would achieve the desired objectives. In short, empowerment carries the meaning of giving power by a leader to an individual, usually a subordinate or a group of subordinates, to carry out certain responsibility or duty in place of the leader. A successful empowerment exercise would create a feeling of collective responsibility by all staff members and more work could be done as the result of the process. The same scenario can also be applied to our schools. Schools have become more sophisticated with the presence of trained specialised teachers, educated parents, and well-informed students with the presence of Internet facilities in homes and schools. These teachers could be empowered by the principals so that whatever skills they have could be made use to achieve their schoolsÊ objectives. 6.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
142 TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER Principals have become more enlightened and more professional in outlook, while many of them have already achieved their post-graduate degrees ă MasterÊs and PhDs. The democratic process in all social and governmental activities encourages empowerment in schools. 6.2.1 Obstacles in Empowerment Empowerment is not a simple process that can easily be accomplished overnight. To be successful in implementing empowerment, teachers, staff members, parents and the principals must have mature judgement (Short & Greer 1977). Not all schools were successful in the implementation of empowerment. The authors cited that nine schools participated in the empowerment study for three years. Three schools were judged unsuccessful in their empowerment efforts. Although at first it seemed that the scenarios of each of the unsuccessful school are different from each other, closer investigations showed that the principals simply did not yield and share the decision-making process and responsibilities with their teachers. 6.2.2 Reasons for Empowerment Failure The following are the reasons for empowerment failure: (a) The failure of empowerment was due to the unwillingness of the principals to yield and share the decision-making process. (b) Not training the people who are empowered by the leaders to take responsibilities successfully. (c) Not enough time is given to planning and implementing the process so as to familiarise the subordinates with the new responsibilities. After they have proven themselves to be able to carry out those responsibilities successfully, only then they are empowered to carry out certain leadership tasks. (d) The leader gives a free hand to his empowered subordinates right from the start and due to inexperience they might fail to carry out their empowered responsibilities. The leader should mentor them until a time when they become familiar with the processes and then they can stand own their own. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER 143 THE NATURE OF EMPOWERMENT Our school system is based on a Western model of the past era where teachers were subservient to their bosses, the principals and other officers especially those who were working in the offices of the Ministry of Education. Frase and Sorrenson (1992) noticed that as the result of this lack of authority and power these teachers lose their creativity, commitment and energy which otherwise could be used to contribute to the betterment of the school. The interaction between teachers would promote better teaching, better curricular and co-curricular activities that can lead to an easier change process and shifts of paradigms where there is an urgent need to do so. The 21st century is a fast-pace era, faster than the past century, where changes occur more frequently than before. In order to cope with the fast changes so that the nation is able to change with the times, we have to involve every individual in society to be ready for the changes. Individuals in society will be ready with the task if they are empowered with the right knowledge, skills and attitude. These individuals depend on the type of education that they received when they were in schools and later in the institutions of higher learning. Here is where the teachers play their proper role. If teachers do not have the power and authority to carry out their responsibilities in schools, then they just behave like mere robots; following orders and directions from their superiors. Their direct superiors, in turn, have to obey what they have been directed to do. The whole process of the education system is not just obeying orders. If this process is the norm in any organisation, then there is no way for the education system to pave the way for coping with the changes and become the catalyst for the changes themselves. Even though the teachers have post graduate degrees, the school system will remain the same. 6.3.1 Classroom Empowerment The type of empowerment that the teachers have in our schools is the so-called „autonomy‰ in using methodology of teaching in the classroom, complete control of students in his class, class content and evaluation in the classroom, but they have very little say in what happens in his school outside his own classroom. Teachers have no say in determining who should be their principals, in setting their own schedules as well as deciding what should be taught in the classroom. 6.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
144 TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER Short and Greer (1997) stated that in American schools „Teachers often find themselves teaching in situations where important decisions are made by persons far removed from the actual activities of the school, decisions that limit the teachersÊ abilities to meet the educational needs of students and their own needs for feelings of significance and self-worth.‰ If we were to observe our Malaysian educational practices, we will find that a similar situation is occurring even though attempts have been made to improve the situation. There are many issues that are raised by our teachers as well the public that reflect the lack of empowerment in the teachers in various matters that affect their lives as well as their students. The following issues are very familiar to many of us: (a) Is it the teacherÊs responsibility to teach the students or to complete the syllabus provided by the Ministry of Education? (b) Should co-curriculum activities be considered as merit for university entrance? (c) Should a teacher teach subjects that are not their specialisation? (d) Do teachers have a say in selecting their school principal? (e) Do teachers have a say in confirming the post of a principal and a senior assistant? These are some of the questions that need an affirmative answer if teachers are to be empowered. At present, the Malaysian education system is not flexible enough to empower the teachers in the above areas of concern. Although the issue mentioned in item „a‰ has been debated for a long time, the answer has always been mixed. There are teachers who teach the students to master the curriculum according to their best ability irrespective of whether they finish the syllabus or not but they are reprimanded by their conservative principal. At the same time, there are also principals who are willing to experiment various methodologies in the teaching and learning process to achieve the targeted objectives. All the mentioned questions are issues because teachers or even principals are not empowered to make independent decisions. They will remain as issues for the present Malaysian education system for the time being but needs and requirements change with time. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER 145 INGREDIENTS FOR A SUCCESSFUL EMPOWERMENT In order to implement a successful empowerment exercise in the process of making an organisation more productive, the leader of the organisation must lay out the right environment before it can thrive. It is very important to build trust between the parties of implementers and the people who will support the empowerment process. The understanding between all parties will make the paradigm shift exercise an easier task. Let us look at the various factors and understand how they play their respective roles effectively. 6.4 1. Explain why participative decision-making process is an important exercise for individuals in an organisation before they can be empowered to certain tasks and responsibilities. 2. Discuss the reasons for the failure of empowerment. 3. Besides the five issues that are faced by our schools and teachers, there are other important problems that hinder the development of our school system to compete with the best schools in the world. Name them and explain. 4. Give your opinions on the following issues: (a) Should co-curriculum activities be considered for university entrance? (b) Should a teacher teach subjects that are not within their area of specialisation? (c) Do teachers have a say in selecting their school principal? (d) Do teachers have a say in confirming a principal and a senior assistant? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 6.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
146 TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER 6.4.1 Building Trust Trust between the parties where empowerment is to be implemented is vital for its success. In schools, principals are the key factors in building a trusting environment. If the principal presents himself as the authority in all matters of the school, then a trusting environment is not possible. Even though the principal may declare that he is willing to share the responsibility with his staff in all matters, it is not necessary that in reality he is really willing to do so. The principal might utter as reported by Short and Greer (1997), „IÊve spent four years studying for my doctorate just so I could make the decisions in the school‰ just to tell his colleagues that he had really worked so hard to earn his doctorate, might indicate that he is not willing to empower his subordinates. Another phrase that indicates that the principal is the person who will have a difficult time building an atmosphere of trust is „but if anything goes wrong, IÊm the one who will be held responsible.‰ According to the findings of a research by Short and Greer (1997) such principals were identified as those who had problem in releasing control. It was found that some principals, regardless of their verbal support for empowering teachers and shared governance, just could not give up any of their power to control. (a) Empowerment can Only be a Productive Tool if a Trusting Relationship Exists between Various Parties The following trusting relationships are considered important in ensuring the right atmosphere exists before implementing empowerment. (i) Principals trusting teachers; (ii) Teachers trusting principals; (iii) Trust in bureaucracy; (iv) Trust between an autonomous-school principal and the district office; (v) Trust among teachers; (vi) Trust between teachers and students; (vii) Trust in the school culture; and (viii) Trust in the healthy organisation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER 147 The trusting relationships mentioned earlier can be established if the governing authority, in the case of Malaysia, the Ministry of Education takes the lead by preparing the individuals for the bigger responsibility of being empowered to implement whatever policy changes that the Ministry would like to introduce. Policy changes have to be made and training of individuals to be empowered should go through various critical processes to gain experience, knowledge, skills and most important of all attitude change through paradigm shifts. (b) Signs of a Healthy Organisation The following are the explanation for signs of a healthy organisation: (i) An organisation in which critical processes are well-developed and effective is known as a healthy organisation (Miles, 1965). (ii) Schmuck and Runkel (1972) cited that among the critical processes are communication, decision making, goal setting, problem solving and conflict management. (iii) In the healthy organisation, challenges are addressed, solutions to problems are found and innovations and new methods of doing things are initiated by the organisation. (iv) Once a high degree of trust is established between the parties then empowerment would most likely be successfully implemented. Now let us look at the theoretical point of view of the business of empowerment where leadership issues and trust go hand in hand before success could be achieved. 6.4.2 Leadership Issues Studies have shown that the most successful principals are the trusting individuals who have strong visions and strong principles for their schoolsÊ future. They are strong leaders who clearly understand where they want their schools to go; they know what strategies to use to achieve their objectives as well as what objectives to achieve. Theoretically, these principals can be classified under Theory Y principals (McGregor, 1960). According to Short and Greer (1997), they believe that: Work is natural as play or rest. Persons will exercise self-direction when working toward meaningful objectives. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
148 TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER Commitment is related to the rewards associated with achievement. Individuals learn to accept and seek responsibility. The capacity to help the organisation solve its problems is widely distributed among the members of the organisation. In most organisations the intellectual potential is only partially utilised. (a) Theory Y Inclination The following are the explanations for Theory Y inclination: (i) A principal with the Theory Y inclination is more trusting of others and as the result of this inclination he would be more likely to empower his subordinates and to trust them to carry out the responsibility of being empowered. (ii) The belief that their subordinates can be successfully empowered would enable the teachers who have been empowered by their principals to have self-confidence and self-esteem to carry out their ideas and experiments. (iii) This freedom due to the empowered process enables the schools to progress towards achieving their objectives which if this freedom does not exist then there would not be any changes that could lead to better education for all. (iv) The knowledge and skill of these teachers who have achieved postgraduate degrees could be made use for school improvement. (b) Theory X Inclination On the other hand, principals with the Theory X inclination are those whose attitudes are the result of their belief that people basically do not like to work and therefore are not to be trusted to do their jobs without close supervision. As the result of this inclination, they would not implement what Theory Y principals implement. These principals will not empower their teachers and, if empowerment is to be introduced, they are unable to empower their teachers. To ensure a successful process of empowerment of teachers, it is best to select principals who are inclined to Theory Y but if the teachers need close supervision then principals who are inclined towards Theory X would be in a better position to succeed. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER 149 EFFECTIVE DELEGATION AND EMPOWERMENT Once the decision on empowering the teachers and the students has been made, the school authorities would have to create opportunities for them to get used to the idea of being empowered. Short and Greer (1997) stated that the major thrust to empower school participants take the form of providing teachers with the following: (a) A significant role in the school decision-making process, therefore, developing a sense of shared governance; (b) Control over their work environment and work conditions; and (c) Opportunities to contribute to the school in a range of professional roles: teacher, administrator, curriculum developer, mentor and learner. The delegation of some of the responsibilities to the teachers empowers the teachers to be more responsible and in the process they will be more deeply involved in ensuring the schoolÊs objectives meet their targets. 6.5 1. What do you understand by the following statements? (a) Trust in the school culture; and (b) Trust in the healthy organisation. 2. What is the meaning of „empowering students‰? 3. What are the benefits of empowering students? Discuss from the perspectives of the students, teachers and the school. 4. What are the merits and demerits of those leaders who are inclined towards Theory Y? 5. When will leaders be inclined towards Theory X? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 6.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
150 TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER The empowerment of teachers will facilitate the empowerment of students. Once the teachers are empowered they, in turn, will provide more opportunities for students to become empowered through decision making including more choices and responsibility for their own learning. 6.5.1 Creating Life-long Learners Once teachers and students have more control on what they want to do they will have a strong desire for more learning. Empowerment has created a craving for more learning and as the result of this desire we are able to create a society of lifelong learners. Peters (1987) predicted that with the advent of self-managing teams and problem-solving networks in the work place, the collective knowledge, skills and creative energy of a group of individuals will be the structure used for task completion in effective organisations. The jobs at present are already demanding organisational participants who are flexible in both thinking and action, as knowledge expands and job requirements shift to different paradigms. Participants in the workplace must be able to work in collegial, collaborative problem-solving teams that function with great independence (Dede, 1989). Participants in any work group who are lifelong learners will be more self-motivated and satisfaction is derived from the information and knowledge that they gain from the quest. As a result of this change in the mindset, participative management and decision making will become more successful and productive. Empowerment also creates work groups that are self-managing. As the result of this change, leaders in organisations will have more opportunities to be more creative in experimenting with new ideas. 6.5.2 Participative Management and Decision Making The following are the explanations for participative management and decision making: (a) Crane (1976) defined participative decision making as a management approach which allows and encourages subordinates to participate in making decisions that will affect them. (b) Lowin (cited in Dunstan, 1981) has found that participative management is an organisational operation by which decisions are reached by including those persons who are to execute those decisions. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER 151 (c) Erickson and Gmelch (1977) reported that the overall benefits of adopting a team-management approach to school governance include improving the quality of communications and decision-making practices, staff motivation, and the enhanced coordination of tasks and plans. In an era of administrative enlightenment where leaders are more willing to empower their staff, research findings have shown positive outcomes of the process. More leaders are willing to empower their staff and leaders who are more inclined towards Theory X have begun to shift their paradigms. Teachers in Malaysian secondary schools are more highly educated with at least a basic degree, and as now many teachers are pursuing a higher degree, empowerment of these teachers should be a practice in schools. With the projected plan of making at least 50 per cent of the primary school teachers graduate teachers by 2010, the process of empowerment to bring our primary schools to a higher level of effectiveness will become more urgent. At present, OUM is playing a leading role in making sure that at least 7000 of these primary school teachers annually will enter OUM degree programmes which are specially developed for them. 6.5.3 Self-managing Work Groups Empowerment of teachers and students will bring about self-confidence and selfesteem among them. They will believe that they can provide the expertise and experience to the work groups in their schools. After a few successes, as the result of this empowerment process, they can self-manage their work groups. The school principal does not need to check them all the time and breathe down their necks to ensure that the school projects are completed on time. In self-managing work groups, employees take personal responsibility for the outcomes of their work, manage their own performance and monitor, reinforce, and reward the work of the group (Hackman, 1986). Kasten, Short and Jarmin (1989) have found that interdisciplinary teaching teams in secondary schools are an example of self-managing teams. With creative and innovative thinking becoming an integral part of our school curriculum, empowerment has become a very important tool to ensure whatever theory they learn about the processes of innovative and creative thinking are implemented. Empowerment can be made a vehicle for creativity and innovation. This skill will become a very important trait in later life where it is needed in the workplace. A nation can only be at the top of any competition through the ability of its people to generate creative and innovative products and ideas. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
152 TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER TEAM WORKING In the context of Asia, team working is still an integral part of society. In the Malay language, the term „gotong-royong‰ which means working together in a group to help with whatever the community has decided to do, such as cleaning up the village to get rid of the breeding grounds for mosquitoes or to prepare for a wedding feast, is still being practised. This approach is the most effective way to complete a heavy task. In modern organisations, team working has been introduced, in one form or another, and many have been amazed by the positive differences it has made, but for others they have been disappointed by their results. To succeed, it is important that organisations consider all factors that make team working successful. Before one considers introducing team working in his organisation, one needs to understand some very important fundamental lessons. A successful team working is the result of collaboration between team members through collaborative management of the work team. The reality is that much of the organisationÊs work is accomplished directly or indirectly through teams where work team culture exerts a significant influence on individual behaviour (French & Bell Jr., 1999). 6.6.1 What is a Team? Homer explained what a team could do: „Light is a task when many share the toil‰. Also consider the classical definition as given by Bernard Babington Smith: „A group in which the individuals have a common aim and in which the jobs and skills of each member fit in with those of others as ă to take a very mechanical and static analogy ă in jigsaw puzzle, pieces fit together without distortion and together produce an overall pattern‰. From these definitions, we might say that team members complement each other and the team can produce more than the sum of individual components. Team working can provide for an organisation a way of achieving more from the same resources. An effective team is defined as one that achieves its aim in the most efficient way and is then ready to take on more challenging tasks. Let us read Case Study 1, following the section on Commitment of Senior Management, which illustrates a success story of „empowerment‰. 6.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER 153 6.6.2 Commitment of Senior Management The factor that is of paramount importance required for the successful introduction of team working is that senior management must be committed and enthusiastic. Cane (1996) cited that if the senior management has a positive perception towards team working, then it is more likely for the organisation to be successful than if they consider that the teams do not add anything to the organisation except confusion. Those perceptions are: (a) A very successful way of getting the best from individuals; (b) A way to tap creativity and increase commitment by encouraging close relationships and added responsibility; and (c) A way to higher productivity, better quality and greater efficiency. If the senior management subscribes to team working, then the foundation of empowerment to the team members has been laid out. From this foundation team working can produce the desired results. Effective teams could be instituted by establishing the characteristics that made up an effective team. Parker (1990) developed a list of characteristics of effective teams as cited by French and Bell Jr. (1999, p. 157). The following are the characteristics of an effective team: (a) Clear purpose ă defined and accepted vision, mission, goal or task and an action plan. (b) Informality ă comfortable and relaxed atmosphere. (c) Participation ă everyone is encouraged to participate. (d) Listening ă effective listening skills by all members which are reflected by questioning, paraphrasing and summarising. (e) Civilised disagreement ă does not suppress disagreement and comfortable with it. (f) Consensus decision making ă substantial agreement through in-depth discussions and avoidance of voting. (g) Open communication ă transparent and few hidden agendas. (h) Clear roles and work assignments ă work evenly divided and clear expectations. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
154 TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER (i) Shared leadership ă everyone shares in effective leadership behaviours. (j) External relations ă team members help each other to develop outside relationships. (k) Style diversity ă team members have a wide range of skills. (l) Self-assessment ă assessment of the team is made periodically to assess their team function. The formal team leader plays a leading role in ensuring that all team members understand their roles well and inculcate themselves with all the skills that are needed in establishing an effective team. Let us now refer to the following case study that shows empowerment and team working. Case Study 1 In this secondary school, significant changes that began during the second year of the project indicated a growing focus on student empowerment. It was at this time that several teachers wrote and received a grant providing the school with technical assistance and stipends for teachers, working with consultants, to implement whole language instruction. A retreat was held during the school semester break, with the district education officer, the two assistant district education officers, and the TESL subject matter expert in attendance. One of the teachers provided the key information presented during the retreat. As a result, a number of changes occurred in the instructional programme. Many of the changes emanated from teacher identification of significant issues and concerns about meeting the needs of students at the school. Instead of complaining about those concerns, the teachers shifted their focus toward generating ideas for solutions and forwarded those problems to the Empowerment Committee. This presented a radical change from the manner in which teachers addressed concerns early in the project. It appeared that involvement in the decision process created more of a sense of problem ownership on the part of the teachers. For example, teachers implemented the portfolio assessment process. They had experimented with the concept through a project mini-grant the past year and found strategies that made portfolios useful to them. In particular, they discovered that though individual videos prepared for portfolios were expensive, parents were eager to contribute blank videos at the begging of the year to be used in the year-long videotaping of children for individual portfolios. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER 155 The teachers saw videos as valuable in documenting students who exhibited some of the characteristics of an empowered child; responsibility, creativity and group leadership. Most important to the teachers was the use of portfolios for student self-assessment purposes. Students would have conferences with their teachers and assess their work in the portfolio. In fact, students chose their „best pieces‰ for a showcase section of their portfolio and were able to discuss why they chose those particular examples of their work. In addition, the teachers sought an increased emphasis on whole language instruction, and the strategy was adopted by additional grade levels. Finally, the multi-age team adopted cooperative learning strategies with great success. In the first semester of the third year, the teachers and students made a video about the school and their attempts to empower teachers and students. The teachers presented the video at a meeting with the school inspectorate personnel. According to the principal of this school, the most significant impact made throughout the empowerment effort was the manner in which teachers worked together to provide a better place for students to learn. The level of dialogue and effort to find more effective ways to help students develop academic skills was enlarged over the three years. (This case study was adapted from the actual case study provided by Short and Greer, 1997, p. 169ă170) 6.6.3 Why Team Working? When an innovation is introduced, it is important for the staff members to understand why the new innovation is to replace or complement the existing way of doing things. The staff members are used to the old comfort zone and they might refuse to cooperate but, first of all, senior management needs to be committed to the idea, that is, the idea of achieving better business performance through the effective use of teams or else there will be little benefit from team working. Cane (1996) concluded that when teams are clearly focused they have been proved to lead to: (a) Higher productivity; (b) More new ideas; (c) Greater employee satisfaction and motivation; and (d) Higher and more consistent performance. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
156 TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER Let us read the following case studies of companies that have achieved their objectives through team working: Case Study 2 Daiichi Hotel TokyoÊs Daiichi Hotel Annex was voted number one in a recent customer satisfaction survey and believes that the way it successfully introduced team working is largely responsible. The hotel staff is divided into three teams: (a) Room related; (b) Eating and drinking; and (c) Cooking. Within each team, staff cover all specific job functions. For example, within the room-related team, the concierge, bell-boy and receptionist all cover for each other at busy times, or when something unusual happens. The company training manual compares this approach to that of a successful baseball team where players with specialist skills also provide support for other team members. The Daiichi Hotel believes that: (a) Team working can make an important contribution to customer satisfaction; (b) Multitasking can be used to improve service levels; and (c) Good team members support each other in busy periods. (Cane, 1996, p. 114) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER 157 Case Study 3 Dettmers Industries US manufacturers, Dettmers Industries, make seating and tables for the aviation industry. The company is an advanced exponent of team working and has very successfully developed the concept in a way it has found appropriate to its own needs. In 1993 it was voted one of the best small firms to work for by Inc. magazine. Dettmers believes that employees can be very creative if they are given the opportunity ⁄ and the education. Too often, they believe, organisations start from the premise that people are stupid and incapable of contributing or planning ideas. But by introducing team working and then focusing the companyÊs education system on these teams, Dettmers have brought the social element back into learning. Teams at Dettmers go further than in most organisations; they are responsible for hiring their own personnel, electing their own leaders, setting their own schedules and even deciding their own salaries. Organising the workforce into multidisciplinary teams responsible for the total manufacturing process has led to improvements in productivity (deliveries, for example, now take 25 days instead of the industry average of 60 days), quality and innovation. Dettmers gives the team the right to decide when they want to recruit a new member who is then taken on for a three-month introductory period during which they are paid less than the market rate. During this period, they learn the team skills and get to understand the DettmersÊ philosophy. The team votes after three months whether to include the new member permanently. From this point on, they will earn their salary in the same way as established team members and usually make up the deficit within a few months. The company believes that applicants who are prepared to start at a lower rate are looking for „more than just a job‰. Dettmers believes their experience proves that team working provides tangible business benefits: (a) Proves that with education and the right conditions employees can and will make a contribution. (b) Provides discipline and values to help improve the standards and performance of all employees. (c) Team-based pay with a tangible reward for effort can maintain team performance. (Cane, 1996, p. 115ă116) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
158 TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER The term „empowerment‰ has been defined in various ways by different writers. The main element in empowerment is the opportunity to carry out new ideas and be involved in the decision-making process. Empowerment is linked to leadership roles and one cannot be empowered if one refuses to take up leadership roles. There are various obstacles to empowerment and several elements have to be present before empowerment can be exercised, such as trust and leadership opportunities. There are benefits when empowerment is practised, such as creating lifelong learners, participative management and self-management which leads to autonomy. Empowerment is seen in team working, which is important for the success of an organisation. 1. As a principal how would you delegate your responsibilities to your teachers with the objective of getting a more dedicated staff in sharing your vision and mission? 2. How would you deal with your principal who is reluctant in relinquishing his responsibilities which were delegated to you? 3. If you were to build an effective team, how would you go about selecting team members and training them so that they could possess the desired characteristics? 4. As a principal, discuss how you would implement the process of participative management and decision making among the staff members of your school. 5. How would you empower your students to be highly motivated and independent knowledge seekers? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 6.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER 159 Empowering teachers is an important part of the maturing process of the school system. With the advancement of a knowledge-based society and the implementation of lifelong learning in the education system, empowerment of teachers and students has become an important component of the teaching and learning process. With the existence of online learning, the advancement of the Internet learning facilities and digital libraries, the traditional school has changed its function permanently. A school in the traditional sense gives us a picture of a teacher teaching the students in front of the classroom while the students listen attentively and make notes whenever necessary. The present scenario differs greatly where teachers have become facilitators to the process of learning. Teachers guide their students, and the students on their own either individually or as a team of peers, will seek the information needed through the Internet, physical libraries or by consulting the experts for the answer to their assignments. There is a wider scope of knowledge to pursue and more freedom for the students to apply whatever knowledge and experience that they have already gained in their quest for knowledge through various sources. This is only possible if empowerment of teachers and students have become an integral part of the education system. Empowerment can only be a success if the educational authorities are really aware that the requirement of a successful empowering process includes paradigm shifts among the powerful senior officers within the education system. The ideology of trust should exist between the various components of the education system. The policy makers should trust the implementers, the principals should trust their teachers, and the teachers should trust their students. This trust will empower them to carry out their responsibilities creatively and, as the result of this freedom, the potential of every individual may be realised and productivity in all areas will be manifested and increased. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
160 TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER The result of this shift in the thinking of future citizens of the nation will be reflected in the all spheres of life of the nation. Optimism and activism will guide the nation to greater heights to achieve Vision 2020, but all this will only be wishful thinking if we do not prepare our teachers and leaders to be effective empowering agents. Effective delegation Empowerment Lifelong learners Participative management Self-managing Team working Trust Cane, S. (1996). Kaizen strategies for winning through people. London, England: Pittman Publishing. Dede, C. (1989). The evolution of information technology: Implications for curriculum. Educational Leadership, 47(1), 23ă26. Dunstan, J. F. (1981). An ethnographic study of decision-making processes and leadership behaviour at the schoolwide level in selected secondary schools. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin Research and Development Center for Individualized Schooling. Dunst, R. (1991, February). Issues in empowerment. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the ChildrenÊs Mental Health and Service Policy Convention, Tampa, Florida, USA. Erickson, K. A., & Gmelch, W. H. (1977). School management teams: Their structure, function and operation. Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service. Frase, L. E., & Sorrenson, L. (1992). TeacherÊs motivation and satisfaction: Impact on participatory management. NASSP Bulletin, 76(540), 37ă44. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER 161 French, W. L., & Bell Jr., C. H. (1999). Organization development ă Behavioural science interventions for organizational improvement. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hackman, J. R. (1986). The psychology of self-management in organizations. In M. S. Pollack & R. O. Perloff (Eds.), Psychology and work: Productivity change and employment (pp. 85ă136). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Jenkins, K. (1988). Metaphor and mindset for educational leadership. The Educational Forum, 52(2), 143ă151. Kasten, K. L., Short, P. M., & Jarmin, H. (1989). Self-managing work groups and the professional lives of teachers: A case study. The Urban Review, 21(2), 63ă80. Lightfoot, S. L. (1986). On the goodness of schools: Themes of empowerment. Peabody Journal of Education, 63(3), 9ă28. Parker, G. M. (1990). Team players and teamwork: The new competitive business strategy. San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass. Peters, T. (1987). Thriving on chaos: Handbook for a management revolution. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf. Short, P. M., & Greer, J. T. (1989, April). Increasing teacher autonomy through shared governance: Effects on policy making and student outcomes. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, California, USA. Short, P. M., & Greer, J. T. (1997). Leadership in empowered schools ă Themes from innovative efforts. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Zimmerman, M. A., & Rappaport, J. (1988). Citizen participation, perceived control, and psychological empowerment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16(5), 725ă750. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION An „organisation‰ can be defined as an entity that comprises of elements with varied functions that contribute to the whole and to collective functions. Different theories of organisational structure, human resource, culture and politics focus on different elements and functions. To examine the relationship between politics and accountability, it helps to characterise these theories and suggest how they apply to schools. Consideration of these different organisational perspectives also helps to clarify the idea of „politics‰ in the context of accountability. Topic 7 Factors that Contribute to Organisational Politics LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Explain the aspects of organisational structure in the school system; 2. Discuss the standards and performance for improving organisational politics in the school system; 3. Describe the emotional insecurity in the school setting; 4. Criticise Machiavellian tendencies; and 5. Discuss the issues and strategies to resolve disagreements in our school environment. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 163 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE Structurally, schools are relatively closed systems with explicit inputs, processes and outcomes. Two central issues are how to divide and coordinate the work. Schools are organised by classes that are classified as „standard‰ for the primary school and „form‰ for the secondary school and sometimes by curriculum or type of student (academic, vocational or special needs). Different types of facilities to suit the specific needs of the primary or secondary schools are needed. Vertical lines of control run from the Ministry of Education, the state education officers, the district education officers, the inspector of schools, principals to the academic staff. There are explicit rules and procedures for providing instruction, delivering services and administering the system whereas plans, budgets and accounting systems help to monitor school operations. A number of factors influence structure. Bigger schools tend to require more coordinating mechanisms and clearer lines of authority. The „core technology‰ ă teaching and learning ă and beliefs about cause and effect relations are important factors. For example, vocational and higher education preparatory programmes often involve different curricula, equipment needs, instructional techniques, kinds of students and student learning outcomes. The socioeconomic background and the location of the schools can influence student performance in the schools. Different school goals will produce different structures, for example, academic excellence, citizenship, character development, efficiency or equity. An emphasis on equity where students are treated according to their needs might result in highly diverse classrooms, collaborative teaching styles and a wide array of services for disadvantaged students with differentiated teaching and learning. An efficiency goal to standardise instruction might encourage tracking and sorting of students according to their abilities. In the Malaysian context, the structure of the schools depends on the types of schools which are categorised under the medium of instruction as well as the specialisation of the schools such as technical and vocational, residential, urban or rural schools. Malaysian primary schools provide education in at least three medium of instruction: namely Malay for the national schools, while Mandarin and Tamil for the vernacular schools. 7.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
164 TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS When these students graduated from these schools they would be joining government-owned secondary schools using Malay language as the medium of instruction, but if the parents would like to pursue private education in the Chinese language they can do so by joining private secondary schools administered by the schoolsÊ Board of Directors. Since 2006, the Government relaxed the rules regarding the opening up of international schools where it introduced a ruling that any international school can enrol Malaysians up to 40 per cent of their student total enrolment. This freedom has given Malaysians a choice to pursue the type of education that their children should have. Since these schools are governed by their respective controlling bodies, their organisational structure differs. These differences cause some conflicts among the communities but the democratic nature of the education system tends to lead to a healthy competition if viewed from the positive side of the situation. 7.1.1 Politics Schools in Malaysia are set up by the government and fully controlled by the Ministry of Education. Therefore politics in schools is minimal in this sense. They do not have to compete with one another for funding as well as for human resource. Annual grants are allocated by the Ministry of Education fairly based on the size of the schools as well as to their types. Teachers are sent by the Ministry of Education based on the schoolsÊ requirements. Even though these schools are less political in procuring funding and staffing, but in other areas „politics‰ cannot be avoided. Principals and principals to-be would lobby the Ministry of Education for coveted posts especially posts that they consider as conduits for higher positions, such as working in high-profile positions. They would prefer to work at the headquarters rather than holding posts in remote areas. Those working in Putra Jaya feel that they have the power of influence in policy matters and as a result they would be recognised for promotion to higher positions. Back-biting and bad-mouthing colleagues are sometimes used to promote one-self. They have to play „politics‰ to survive. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 165 Funding and human resources are two important factors to ensure the schoolÊs success. To procure funding and the right mix of trained, talented and dedicated teachers requires the principal of a private educational institution to play „politics‰. He has to compete with other institutions for these two scarce resources. Funding in a private school is either through endowment by a philanthropist(s) or through fees by students. The heads of these institutions have to develop strategies to gain the confidence of the public to enrol in their institutions. These strategies include the inclusion of personalities that will attract potential customers. These personalities often are political in nature, and were at one time or another close to the seats of power or who were politically powerful. As a consequence of this situation, quality might be brushed aside in the squabbles for power. The wrong person for the job might lead the institution due to his political clout. From the positive side, this intense politicking might bring out the best in a person. If this politicking produces intense competition in the improvement of academic programmes to attract students, then one day we may have private institutions that are at par with the Ivy League universities such as Harvard, MIT or Oxbridge. 7.1.2 Human Resources Human resource management is an important factor in successful organisations which is discussed in other topics of this module. The human resource personnel should have the skills of managing people to produce their potentials for the benefit of the organisation as well as their own welfare. The human resource managers in the schools should harmonise the needs of schools with the needs of people who work in them. One opinion assumes that managers direct and control the work of subordinates, who prefer to be led and who resist change (Theory X). Another opinion has the view that managers must arrange conditions so that the employeeÊs self-interest coincides with the organisationÊs interests (Theory Y). In practice, managers may find it difficult to achieve harmony. As people mature and develop they become more independent, attain a broader perspective and range of skills, and develop a longer time perspective. This developmental process appears to be true not only for teachers, but also for other professionals who provide education services. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
166 TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS However, organisations often treat people like children by requiring higher level managers to direct and control subordinates and as the result this domination can result in psychological failure, passivity and dependence. When this tragedy occurs, the organisation might become stagnated and, in the long run, collapse. 7.1.3 Culture „Evaluation is a ritual whose function is to calm the anxieties of the citizenry and to perpetuate an image of government rationality, efficiency and accountability. The very act of requiring and commissioning evaluations may create the impression that government is committed to the pursuit of publicly espoused goals, such as increasing student achievement ....‰ (Floden & Weiner, 1978, cited in Bolman & Deal, p. 284). Due to the very fact that evaluation serves the purposes mentioned previously, it has become a culture of life in any society. Meanings of symbols, artefacts, happenings and the interpretation of their experience in organisations depends on culture. Although a realist may dismiss these cultural symbols, rituals, or myths, the symbolic point of view values „meaning‰ more highly than „reality‰. The more ambiguous and uncertain a situation, the less easy it is to be rationally analysed, and the more likely that people will create symbols that support faith rather than facts to avoid unpredictability and to establish predictability. Diplomas, textbooks, tests, grades, report cards, whiteboards and the like are, in fact, symbols that all have one kind of meaning for a school planner. They are also deeply embedded symbols that define what many people expect from a „school.‰ The performance report of a school relies on the meanings people put on the accountability for responsibility, integrity and trust that people have on the school. People entrust their children directly to schools because they have indirectly paid taxes which in part was use for school funding. A report on the measurable benefits of education for children can have several meanings. The report can affirm school integrity by documenting the consistency of the schoolÊs mission, for example, teaching and learning, with the goals of the educational programme and student outcomes. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 167 The act of reporting can also affirm the schoolÊs willingness to take responsibility for carrying out its mission. The connotations of integrity and responsibility are stronger if people perceive schools as accepting accountability. By contrast, if the perception is of government coercion, the connotation is negative. In the case of Malaysian schools, school autonomy is minimal and initiatives for achieving better studentsÊ performance is more of the second nature (coercion) and as a result the initiatives were always towards meeting the targets set by the Ministry of Education at the expanse of „real‰ education. Ideally school performance should be the result of voluntary efforts by the school personnel, from the principal to the teachers, and the clerical staff. The achievement would be the product of their voluntary free will and it would be sweeter and self-sustaining for psychological processes which enrich their personalities to do better. 7.1.4 Government In Malaysia, the Government is perceived as an agent that can bring about changes in the education policy by the public and has a monolithic power to implement its goals. This act can be seen in many instances such as the change of language medium for the teaching of mathematics and science in all schools at the expense of other languages in schools. On the other hand, this perception is considered as a fallacy by Galbraith (1983) because he proposed that modern governments do not typically behave as large disciplined units. He distinguishes three aspects of government namely: (a) An inner orientation; (b) An exterior orientation; and (c) A force that mediates between the two orientations. These orientations respond to different areas of responsibility and in practice have different viewpoints on accountability. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
168 TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS The inner orientation refers loosely to the bureaucracy and the many organisations that administer the tasks of government (see Figure 7.1). Continuity and relative autonomy characterise the inner orientation. The power of the bureaucracy is in preparing budgets, overseeing programmes and developing regulations. The inner orientation also promotes its goals to the public by providing information in the form of speeches, memoranda, advisories, press conferences, etc. Figure 7.1: Orientations of governments According to Galbraith (1983) the exterior orientation comprises the legislature, voters and many organisations that seek to influence both the legislators and voters. Organised groups such as teacher unions, administrator associations and political action committees may seek to influence and sway legislators and voters, either by lobbying or by public information campaigns. For example, a union might oppose student assessment in the context of performance reviews, but might support assessment as a justification for increased funding for schools. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 169 The mediator or the force that mediates between the two aforementationed orientations are embodied in the chief executive, ministers, cabinet, staff and appointees who are empowered to control budgets, legislation and have the persuasive powers to mediate. 7.1.5 Regulation Regulation is one way that government can exert power and enforce accountability. Rules and regulations introduced in our Malaysian education system are meant for controlling our schools to achieve objectives set by the government. Mandatory programmes originated by the ministry are engines to ensure conformity among schools and facilitate control from higher levels of the bureaucracy. These objectives are in line with Malaysian development plans. As for the year 2016, Malaysia is in its 11th Malaysia Plan. Historically, government rules and regulations have accompanied new funding for categorical programmes, such as the establishment of vocational schools, residential schools for bright rural kids and special education, etc. Perhaps the pressure for the development of our education is due to the realisation that in order for Malaysia to advance into a modern era, educational development is a surer way of establishing a modern vibrant Malaysia. In a developed economy such as the US, regulations are seen as burdensome and as an ineffective way of attaining programme goals whatever the original intent. In a developing economy such as in Malaysia, regulation ensures better performance by the schools but this mode of regulating our schools and education system will not be effective once maturity sets in. A mature society perhaps by 2020 needs more autonomy where a high percentage of the populace are highly educated with college or university degrees and society is highly literate and wellinformed. Regulations cannot be effective to create change all the time. Performance reports are sometimes proposed as an alternative to regulation that can be a more effective tool for meeting programme goals. However, ThurowÊs (1981) analysis of regulation suggests that performance reports actually are a kind of regulation. Further, an attempt to substitute performance reports for existing regulation is likely to encounter resistance. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
170 TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE In the US, the Government views performance reports as instruments of policy to help promote education reforms. Here are quotes on some examples of various views on performance reports as instruments of policy: (a) Oakes (1986) wrote „Decisions about desired outcomes and conditions will determine the nature of any indicator system ... these decisions will be political‰. (b) Brown (1990) cited that accountability systems are „very powerful policy tools‰. „An apparent strategy imbedded in most statesÊ (the states in US) indicator systems is that they will be used to guide future policy‰. (c) Oakes (1991) said that an education indicator information system „can be used by policymakers responsible for defining the nationÊs education agenda to monitor the education outcomes they consider most significant‰. 7.2 1. Our Malaysian education system subscribes to a multi-lingual school system where the medium of instruction is based on the needs of the different ethnic groups. As the result of this policy, there are at least three mediums of instruction for the primary schools and two medium of instruction for secondary schools. Do you agree with this policy? Please rationalise your answer. 2. English has been adopted as the medium of instruction for the teaching of Mathematics and Science in all schools. What is the most important rationale for the policy change? 3. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of schools as a private organisation rather than a public one. 4. Education is an important agenda in Malaysian politics. Explain how it is used by the politicians in ensuring that they will get the support of the people. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 7.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 171 (d) Linn (1993) mentioned that the function of an accountability mechanism „is to oversee (monitor and evaluate) the performance of the education system and to propose needed changes to policy makers‰. The earlier mentioned statements presume that there is a relationship between accountability and politics. Traditionally, educators define accountability as a system with goals (educational reform), inputs (indicators), processes (reporting, incentives) and results (school change). How does „politics‰ enter the picture? How effective are accountability systems? One barrier to answering these questions is that the traditional view of accountability tends to mix up political matters (decisions about the use of limited resources) with structural issues, (roles and responsibilities of management and staff), with human resource issues, (authoritarian versus need oriented management styles), or culture, (the symbols, rituals, myths). For example, Mitchell and Encarnation (1984) consider such diverse „policy mechanisms‰ as structural organisation, revenue generation, resource allocation, programme definition, personnel training, assessment and curriculum ă an approach that clusters diverse aspects of organisations into the single category of „policy‰. „Politics‰ is a word that has lost any precise meaning due to the over-use of that word to mean many other things. A second barrier to answering the questions is the common view of a singular government, which fails to discriminate the internal from the external orientations of government and the forces that mediate between these orientations which was mentioned earlier. These different aspects of government often have distinct perspectives on policy which sometimes causes conflicts among them. 7.2.1 Conventional Wisdom While state approaches vary, there is consensus on the elements of a standard performance report system having a common opinion on performance (Oakes, 1986; Kagan & Coley, 1989; Blank, 1993). A performance report system begins with a systemic model based on research of how schools and the education system function. The model specifies major inputs (financial, staffing and students), processes (curriculum, instruction and services) and desired results (student achievement, skills, attitudes, college attendance or employment). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
172 TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS To be useful, the indicators, defined as „measures of the condition of education‰, must meet certain criteria, for example, measure the central features of schooling, measure what is actually taught, provide policy relevant information, focus on the school site, allow for fair comparisons, and maximise usefulness and minimise burden. Some authorities emphasise outcome indicators (Murnane, 1987), others argue for contextual information (Oakes, 1989), and yet others recommend measures of process (Porter, 1991). In Malaysia, it is high time for educational authorities to encourage research in all areas of education at all levels by providing some funding. We have already developed our education system from the primary to the tertiary levels. We need to improve what we have already built and developed such as in the areas of curriculum, pedagogy, school discipline, class size, facilities such as science laboratories, sports and games. Most urban schools are still being utilised as a double session schools which make it difficult to administer them effectively. These schools are less friendly due to its gigantic size, and students might not feel that they belong to it. These research studies would enable experts in their own disciplines, from among the teachers, to have a deeper interest in their schools and students. They will carry out the school improvement process more diligently from the findings of their own studies. The schools can disseminate their findings through proper channels that can be set up by the schools themselves such as by using their own websites. The district and state education office can be the instruments to disseminate research findings for reference of other schools. Schools can compare their own present to past performance by tracking an indicator over a period of years provided that the schools keep all records for future reference. Norms can help to judge school performance in comparison to an overall population, or to a subgroup of schools that are socially or demographically similar. Fetler (1991) wrote that school performance can be predicted by statistical regression using relevant background measures that are not readily controlled by schools, for example, parent education or economic status. Salganik (1994) stated that comparisons can also be made after standardising all school scores to a common (state or national) demographic mixture. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 173 7.2.2 Performance Assessment Assessment, at all levels, is seen as the key strategy in bringing about significant educational improvement and reform. It gives educators more tools to evaluate the quality of learning ă and then make necessary adjustments. Moving beyond the standardised, multiple choice test as the primary accountability tool, the new approach to assessment helps educators measure what matters ă including a studentÊs ability to analyse, organise, interpret, explain, synthesise, evaluate and communicate important experiences as was cited by Mitchell and Encarnation (1984). The idea of using assessment to implement reform is relatively new. Cronbach (1984) omits education reform as a use of tests. In the mid-1980s Mitchell and Encarnation (1984) summarised the policy goals of testing and assessment in the US to include student placement, programme evaluation and certification of competence. Policy makers had not yet made a strong connection between assessment and reforms in curriculum, instructional methods or staff development. By the mid1990s the terms of the debate had changed. Prominent educators such as Tucker, Sizer, Resnick and Anrig (1992) viewed performance assessment, in harmony with curriculum and staff development, as a way to implement educational reform. There is a move towards performance-based assessment as the educational system moves toward a more holistic assessment of the students. The change from Penilaian Menegah Rendah (PMR) to PT3 for Form 3 students, where course works feature predominantly is an example of performance-based assessment. This is the assessment of not only what students know, but also how they use what they know to produce the tasks given. The Malaysian education system has evolved over the decades after independence. Can you cite two major reforms that were implemented throughout these years? SELF-CHECK 7.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
174 TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS MACHIAVELLIAN TENDENCIES MachiavelliÊs perspectives and views are well-known, most notably such generalisations as „the ends justify the means‰ and the belief that unethical behaviour is acceptable, even necessary, if it helps attain goals or protect political position. Historically, many philosophers have disagreed on MachiavelliÊs intentions (Berlin, 1955), but the most popular meaning as understood by these philosophers of 500 years ago had been widely discussed especially based on ideas which derived from Elizabethan thought. Berlin elaborates: „He [Machiavelli] is a man inspired by the Devil to lead good men to their doom, the great subverted, the teacher of evil, ⁄ the inspirer of St. BartholomewÊs Eve, the original Iago‰. They condemned his ideas without really understanding what he actually meant. Modern scholars have adopted this perspective of Machiavelli to examine and understand political dynamics in organisations as were done by many scholars such as Andersson and Bateman (2000); Cheng, (1983); Harrell-Cook et al., (1999); Harrison et al., (1998); Hochwater et al., (2000); Kumar and Beyerlein, (1991); Shankar et al., (1994); Vecchio and Sussmann (1991). One key factor that was often neglected in discussion of Machiavellian beliefs was MachiavelliÊs conviction that leadership is a pursuit that serves the needs of the „common good‰ (Ledeen, 1999). Contemporary political scholar Michael Ledeen (1999) clarifies the intentions of Machiavelli in his book Machiavelli on Modern Leadership (1999), which strengthens our understanding of Machiavelli when he states: Even after half a millennium, MachiavelliÊs advice to leaders is as contemporary as tomorrow. He goes to the essence every time. He doesnÊt allow us the comfort of easy generalisations or soothing moralisms. He wants leaders to play for the highest stakes of all ă the advancement of the human enterprise and the defense of the common good ă and it infuriates him to see leaders of corporations, religions, armies and nations ignoring the basic rules of power (p. 185). 7.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 175 Service to others, rather than self-interest, is the purpose of leadership according to Machiavelli (Berlin, 1955; Ledeen, 1999). His writings were intended for leaders that were prevalent during his time, who were religious leaders, military leaders and statesmen. His thoughts were primarily based on the life of Moses, the Biblical and Koranic Israelite leader who created a new religion and a new state. This concept of service to others has been all but eliminated from current Machiavellian thought. Ledeen clarifies: Nobody else has dealt with the political and moral requirements of leadership with such brutal clarity as Machiavelli⁄ Machiavelli understands the pathology of this often fatal disease of the body politic. He has identified and catalogued the microbes that infect leadersÊ minds and spirits, dragging us down to ruin. Anyone looking at the modern world through MachiavelliÊs eyes will see, as he saw in his own day, an epidemic of corruption, causing a perilous shortage of virtuous leaders and a growing threat to freedom. His diagnosis helps us better understand our own problems and the qualities required of leaders capable of restoring virtue and preserving free institutions (p. ix, xxii). MachiavelliÊs thoughts on leadership were more due to a result of frustration at the rampant corruption that occurred during his times. He thought that the only way to change the worsening situation was by finding ways and means, at any cost, to achieve the objectives of achieving a paradigm shift in the abolishment of corruption and mismanagement. 7.3.1 The Tendencies of Machiavellian Leadership Measurement It is clear that political behaviour is as much a reality today as it was for Machiavelli. It is very important to have methods for assessment of leadersÊ capacity for political strength and ability to persevere for the common good, with moral character and virtue. However, in recent leadership research such as by Reimers and Barbuto (2002), it was noticed that Machiavellianism has been over simplified to the extent that most scholars narrowly define Machiavellian behaviour as manipulative, cruel and self-centred, neglecting the potential benefits of Machiavellianism as a political skill in organisations. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
176 TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS Due to the negative connotations and tenets associated with Machiavellianism, many study participants were reluctant to complete the Mach IV questionnaires and/or receive feedback about political behaviour within their organisations. The following example illustrates a case in which research participants resisted and refused feedback of study results because of the inclusion of the Machiavellian construct. MachiavelliÊs ideas are so well-known and, at the same time, they have a negative connotation to them that causes some difficulty for researchers to utilise the Mach IV, the research measure to assess Machiavellianism as a personality construct. One such research project was conducted within a nation-wide insurance organisation in the US to assess leaders and the impact of Machiavellianism on the relationship between motivation and influence tactics (Reimers & Barbuto, 2002). 86 per cent of the respondents responded, which is an excellent rate of return. Christie and Gris (1970) reported that an agreement was made with the sponsoring organisation that the results of the study would be shared with the interested participants as part of a developmental process. The researchers first presented the results to eight members of the leadership team within the organisation. In general, the participants were interested and enthusiastic about the results. They were particularly impressed that their organisation had scored „so low‰ on the Machiavellian measure, the Mach IV. It surprised the researchers, as the mean score for this sample was .91, based on a 1ă5 Likert scale. An average score on the normal curve would be expected to be around 2.5. Based on these results, the organisation was nearly non-Machiavellian. In fact, it appeared the organisation was almost politically naive. Yet, the leadership team with whom the researchers met was pleased with this result. Days went by before the researcher had the opportunity to ask when they might present the results of the study. The team member of the organisation stated, „We donÊt want the results of our Machiavellianism scores revealed for everyone to see‰. The researcher responded, „But why? The organisation scored rather low in Machiavellianism.‰ The study participant replied, „Yes, but we just donÊt want to discuss Machiavellianism within our organisation‰. After that the researchers did not hear anything more about presenting the results of the study to the group. This reaction is common whenever the word Machiavellianism is uttered at refereed conferences, in departmental meetings and even in informal conversation. The overriding implications are interpersonal manipulation, cruel punishment, and „ends-justify-the- means‰ thinking. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 177 7.3.2 Origins of the Machiavellian Construct The contemporary understanding of Machiavellianism begins to make sense when one examines the origins of the Mach IV, based on Niccolo MachiavelliÊs book, The Prince (1513/1902). This book was written after Machiavelli had been stripped of his political power and essentially isolated by the political leaders of his time. Machiavelli had been an effective statesman for the Republic of Florence, participating in high-level decisions, negotiating agreements and commanding battles. In addition to his official duties and travel, Machiavelli raised seven children and still found time to write prolifically about power, politics, war and philosophy. It is because of MachiavelliÊs letters to friends and superiors that we have access to his thoughts today. But all this came to an end with the downfall of the republic and the seizure of power by the Medici family in 1512. Machiavelli spent time in prison and was tortured, but ultimately was allowed to remain in exile at his country villa just outside Florence. This was where The Prince (1513/1902) was born, written as a letter to the new power regime, the Medici, in order to gain employment. These unfortunate circumstances made people think that his writings were the result of frustration, but if we were to delve further into his writings we could sense his genius in ensuring that the vision of the organisation of his time could be better off if the leaders were to employ the tactics of this visionary. 7.3.3 Instrument Development Richard Christie developed the 20-item Mach IV in 1970. It has not been revised since then and it is intended to assess adults, aged 18 to 65 years. The Mach IV was developed to measure political personality orientation of leaders in organisations. Political personality, as defined by Christie and Geis (1970), is „a disposition in which formal and informal power is used to control and/or manipulate others‰. Christie (1970) and his colleagues at the Center for Advanced Studies in the Behavioural Sciences became interested in those who occupied formal leadership positions and the authoritarian personality. They realised that many formal leaders were ineffective in political tactics and inflexible in their behaviours. Those extreme positions barred them from making compromises necessary for political success. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
178 TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS Through in-depth literature reviews, Christie and his colleagues discovered that much of the research done on those wielding power over others was psychological in nature. In fact, much of the research focused on the psychopathology of such leaders. Because these leaders were in the limelight, it was a temptation to analyse them for psychological deviation. Christie found that this line of research is faulty because he felt that those who exerted influence over others were more prone to psychopathology than those who did not. Christie and his colleagues developed a psychological construct, based on their readings, which defined the political leader. Four general characteristics emerged from their research: (a) A relative lack of affection in interpersonal relationships (lack of empathy for others); (b) A lack of concern with conventional morality (utilitarian rather than moral view); (c) A lack of gross psychopathology (instrumentalist rather than rational view of others); and (d) Low ideological commitment (focus on task completion rather than longrange ideological goals). After the personality characteristics were defined, Christie and his colleagues set out to discover if individuals with these characteristics actually existed in society. Using the model outline mentioned earlier, they interviewed respondents about the people who were responsible for their training. The qualitative interviews revealed findings consistent with the political behaviour construct as stated in the four categories given earlier. 1. Why are leaders afraid of being labeled „Machiavellian‰? 2. Do you think that „Machiavellian‰ leadership can be effective in bringing about change and reforms? Explain. 3. If the four personality characteristics cited earlier exist in school principals, would the school achieved its vision and mission to be a „learning organisation‰? SELF-CHECK 7.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 179 DISAGREEMENT If you seriously disagree with someone, how do you respond? Do you ... (a) Get mad inside but keep quiet and give the other the „silent‰ treatment? (b) Withdraw to a safe distance because you do not like to argue? (c) Get angry, criticise, call names, use sarcasm or some other aggressive behaviour? (d) Give in; say „I guess you are right‰ with a big sigh, be submissive in order to avoid disagreement and conflict. (e) Deny or pretend that „everything is okay‰ ă no disagreement or conflict exists. These are common, but usually unsuccessful, methods of coping with disagreement between family members or friends and in work settings. 7.4.1 Myths or Misconceptions about Disagreement and Conflict Conflict and disagreement are the same ă FALSE. Disagreement is a difference of opinion while conflict is more threatening. Disagreement is usually restrained and fairly calm; conflict is often unreasoned and angry. Harmony is normal and conflict is abnormal ă FALSE. Conflict is natural, normal and inevitable whenever people interact together. Conflict is the result of personality differences ă FALSE. Personalities do not conflict ă it is peopleÊs behaviour that conflicts. Too often we use „personality conflict‰ as an excuse to do nothing about the conflict. 7.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
180 TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 7.4.2 Why Does Disagreement Occur? Studies on human behaviour indicate that some disagreement is inevitable in human relationships. Clashes often occur more over perceived differences rather than real ones. People anticipate barriers to achieving their goals that may or may not be there. Look at Figure 7.2. Figure 7.2: Causes of disagreement Disagreement occurs when: (a) There is a lack of communication. Failure to share ideas and feelings (between wife and husband for example) allows the other person to „fill in the gap‰. We „read in‰ what we think the other person will say or anticipate and how the other person will respond. Then, we often suspect negative things which provoke anxiety, leading us to look for the worst. If this continues, trust becomes lower and we may become suspicious and defensive. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 181 (b) There is a value disagreement in which two people have different attitudes, beliefs and expectations. These differences may interfere in making decisions if we are inflexible and hold rigid, dogmatic beliefs about the „right way‰ to do things. Different values and beliefs influence two people to choose different goals or different methods to achieve the same goals. Since each goal requires an investment of time, effort and some sacrifice, we cannot pursue one goal without sacrificing the other to some extent. (c) There is a lack of effective leadership or decision making. Lack of agreement about „whoÊs in charge‰ or „how we are going to get things done‰ in any situation can be a source of conflict. For example, if one parent in a family expects democratic decision making and the other wants to be the boss, they may not be able to resolve honest differences of opinion. Then when differences exist, they become side-tracked into a hassle over who will decide or whose opinion is going to be accepted as the „right‰ one. The resulting conflict becomes a „win-lose‰ struggle. (d) There are discrepancies in role performances. Difficulties can arise if two people see their own and each otherÊs roles differently. For example, if the wifeÊs and husbandÊs concepts of their roles are very different from each other, conflict may arise. But, if the manÊs role as a male and husband matches well with the womanÊs role as a female and wife, conflict will be minimal. (e) There is low productivity. To accomplish tasks and achieve goals is a necessary ingredient in any work or family environment. Also, if the task is not done, we may get angry. If the other person responds to our anger by performing the task, a response pattern of anger is established in order to get results. Couples with low productivity in their marriage may try nagging, making trade-offs (IÊll do this if you do that), and criticising, but these tend to produce only short-term success. (f) Change causes disequilibrium. While change is considered to be a „given‰ for people working and living together, another „given‰ is that people prefer secure, predictable patterned responses to the unknown. When changes occur abruptly and unpredictably, conflict may follow, for example: Out of the blue one night suddenly the wife says „send me back to my parents‰ which implies a divorce. The wife must have been under stress due to forces that may have been at work for a long time to cause such a change, but its appearance was so sudden and provokes anger, anxiety and confusion. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
182 TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS (g) Accumulation of unresolved prior disagreement. As the number of past unresolved disagreement increases between individuals and societies, so does the accumulation of anger and anxiety. Many people shy away from disagreement management because memories of past conflicts still hurt. Probably the most lasting of those „scars‰ have been caused by disagreement with those we are closest to ă family, close friends and trusted colleagues. 7.4.3 Strategies for Dealing with Disagreement Disagreement alone is usually not the cause of antagonism, hostility and conflict between individuals and cultures. Usually, failure to listen and allow alternative views to be heard causes these feelings. There are five broad strategies people usually use in dealing with disagreement and conflict ă power, compromise, withdraw-avoid, placate-yield and synergy. (a) „I Win, You Lose‰ This process involves the use of power and winning by force. It may take the form of just body language, or simply outmanoeuvring the opposition. If you prefer this style as your main strategy, you view conflict as having two possible outcomes only ă winning or losing. If you win, your self-esteem is enhanced. If you lose or are „wrong‰, this is a loss of status because you consider yourself as incompetent or weak. The result is an aggressive and unreasonable approach to conflict management; where the objective is to overpower your opponent. This style is used in the family as well as the workplace. (b) „I Win a Little, You Win a Little‰ This is a compromise position where „You‰ and „I‰ gain and lose something after a negotiation where each person makes some concessions to the other. Within this style, the other person may still be seen as an opponent. Compromise is seen as a means for making the solution more tolerable to each party. It is a persuasive and often manipulative conflict management style in which both ends are frequently played against the middle in an attempt to serve the „common good‰ (for example: Let us all give a little for the „good of all members‰). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS 183 (c) „I Lose, You Lose‰ The main feature of this strategy is „withdraw and avoid‰ strategy. There is a feeling of „hopelessness‰. This strategy is designed to protect you from being tangled-up in endless struggles that cannot be won by both parties. An expectation of „losing‰ characterises this style and, rather than undergo such frustration, you will psychologically leave the conflict. It is an escape route for persons who have unsuccessfully tried other styles and have decided to „fight another day‰. This strategy usually results in frustration and resentment. (d) „I Lose (A Little), You Win (A Little)‰ This is a giving-in style which reflects a concern for the effect of conflict on the well-being and durability of all relationships you enter. The assumption is that human relationships are so fragile that they cannot endure the trauma of working through genuine differences. So the tendency is to avoid conflict and appease others by ignoring, denying and avoiding conflict. If you give in to the other side to protect your relationship with the other party you may preserve this relationship but this situation may frustrate you, and you might feel that you are being bullied and dominated by the other side. (e) „I Win, You Win‰ If this style is a dominant style for your conflict management, then this synergistic approach attaches major importance to both the goals of the parties involved and to the well-being of the relationships. This is a „win-win‰ outcome and assumes that you and others will cooperate enthusiastically since the total effect is greater than what could be achieved by individual efforts. Tolerance for differences and recognising the legitimacy of feelings are vital for the success of this strategy. Each individual must agree to abide by the rules of negotiation and agree to solve the conflict constructively. Nothing is hidden and everything is brought out in the open to be dealt with effectively. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)