34 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP In the context of the school, these transformational leaders should inspire the teachers to believe in themselves through the process of strategic planning as well as implementing the visions and sharing equally the successes of the change strategy that they have achieved. The teachers would feel that they belong to the successes as intensely as the leaders themselves. The leaders should have pride in their followers and feel that they belong to the same community as the followers. As society progresses, the style of leadership approaches also moves with the changes in society. At the time when it was effective to use transactional leadership, it was widely used in managing subordinates in organisations As society progressed and workers were more educated than before, the transactional leadership approach moved to a higher and more enlightened level into the transformational leadership stage. Malaysian education, for example, is actively involved in the reengineering process of the school system to prepare for 2020 when Malaysia will achieve its developed nation status. Primary school teachers and headmasters are being retrained to higher education so that by the year 2020 all of them will hold at least a bachelor degree which would make them experts in their specialisation of teaching elementary students in the primary schools. This process of change needs both transactional and transformational leadership styles to ensure an everlasting change through effective implementations of programmes to achieve the objectives of Vision 2020 in education. 1.6.3 Instructional Leadership A critical role of a school leader is that of an instructional leader, although the principal alone is not solely responsible for leadership of instruction (Hoy & Hoy, 2003). Teachers deliver classroom instruction as they have the subject expertise, but it is the principalÊs responsibility to create an environment and develop a school climate that facilitates quality instructional programmes conducive to providing the very best instructional practices. Thus, the onus falls on the principal to forge a partnership with teachers with the primary goal of the improvement of teaching and learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 35 Hallinger (1982) developed 10 job functions that reflect the areas of responsibility of the principal as an instructional leader as shown in Figure 1.4. Figure 1.4: The 10 job functions of an instructional leader Let us now discuss the 10 job functions in greater detail. (a) Frame the School Goals The principal determines the areas in which the school focuses its resources during a given year with emphasis on student achievement. All school resources are mobilised to achieve a few but well-coordinated objectives. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
36 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP (b) Communicate the School Goals Goals are effectively communicated to teachers, parents and students to be realised. The principal discusses and review these goals with teachers on a regular basis. Such communication can be through school bulletins, newsletters, school handbooks and during assemblies. (c) Supervise and Evaluate Instruction Goals of the school are being translated into practice in the classrooms. Classroom instruction is evaluated and instructional supports to teachers are provided. Classroom instruction is monitored through numerous informal classroom visits. (d) Coordinate the Curriculum Content taught in classes and the student assessments are closely aligned with school curricular objectives. (e) Monitor Student Progress Test results are analysed, interpreted and discussed in a concise form with staff at an appropriate time. (f) Protect Instructional Time Teachers are provided with blocks of uninterrupted time so that they are able to implement better classroom management and instructional skills. (g) Maintain High Visibility Interaction between the principal and students as well as teachers increases with the principalÊs visibility in the school and classroom. It also has a positive effect on student behaviour and classroom instruction. (h) Provide Incentives for Teachers Teachers are rewarded through praises, compliments, promotion opportunities and monetary gain when they deserve them. (i) Provide Professional Development The principal arranges and provides relevant opportunities for staff development, especially in improving instruction. Such programmes are closely related to the schoolÊs goals. (j) Provide Incentives for Learning The principal plays an important role in creating a school-learning climate with emphasis on academic achievement. StudentsÊ achievement should be rewarded and recognised by peers and teachers. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 37 1.6.4 Moral Leadership Transformational leadership would be more potent if it was accompanied by certain values and beliefs that are used as guiding principles. The other form of leadership that are based on values and beliefs which complement and strengthen transformational leadership is termed by Sergiovanni (1991) as moral leadership. The proponents of moral leadership believe that leadership practice should not only be considered legitimate if it is only based by secular authority, science and deductive reasoning and logic which at present dominate management thinking. That criterion is not wholesome due to other elements that guide human actions and thinking. Therefore, it should also include sense experience, intuition, sacred authority and emotion. In many societies, they form the basis of leadership actions where secular authority is of utmost importance. 1. How would you explain why the transactional and transformational leadership approaches are on the same continuum in the school context? 2. Can all leaders acquire transformational leadership traits through training? Explain. 3. Describe how a transformational leader executes the mission and vision of a school that he leads to achieve the status of an „effective school‰. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.14 1. What are expected out of transformational leaders? 2. What do you understand by the phrase, „There are two other leadership types that are classified as the same category but positioned at different points on the same continuum‰? SELF-CHECK 1.11 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
38 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP We should also ask the question, „What motivates and inspires leaders and followers to work in extraordinary ways? Is it for the money?‰ The answer lies in something else. It is connected with emotions, values and our connections with other people which count a great deal but are downplayed as sources of motivation. As an illustration, we can cite the example of a billionaire who makes billions of dollars but he travels economy class, does not employ a driver and lives in a modest house. He spends millions of dollars annually on helping the poor. He finds satisfaction in doing that and his ability to help the poor and others who are in need motivates him to work in extraordinary ways. He feels that it is a religious duty for him to work in the best means he can and whatever profits he earned is a trust from God that should benefit the society he lives in, where he is a part of it. Sources of authority for leadership are also important. In a traditional sense, bureaucratic authority, psychological authority and technical-rational authority are cited, but Sergiovanni (1991) considered moral authority also as important. Moral authority which is based on sacred authority would make a leader walk the extra mile. The leader is willing to do the ordinary chores such as cleaning the toilets as he believes in „leadership by example‰ which is the basis for moral leadership. In other words his motivation is intrinsic in nature. His rewards do not come from worldly things but in the hereafter. When moral values become part of leadership, then leadership will become less important and schools will be transformed from organisations into communities where professionalism is viewed as statement of competence and as a virtue. When this situation has become a tradition, every member of the community will be selfmotivated and the motivation is mostly driven by their moral intrinsic values. Theoretically, the organisation would function well even though there is no designated leader. In a school setting, collegiality among the teachers will be an important characteristic of moral leadership. Collegiality is a professional virtue which comes from within the teachers themselves where they would help each other to strive for greater heights in achieving the objectives that were also set by them. By building shared values, empowerment in all areas of concern, collegiality among all staff members would make schools more effective and whatever transformation that the school desired would achieve its targets. Transformational leadership with the principles of moral values would probably make the leader and the organisation more effective. The problem of indiscipline among students and staff would be less severe and more manageable if the students value the moral principles that govern their behaviour as well as the leadership style of their leaders. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 39 In modern secular societies moral values are relative and, as the result of this stand, they tend to be overlooked and side-lined whenever major paradigm shifts have to be implemented. It sometimes causes a breakdown in family and societal values that can result in grave social problems. The same thing can occur in our education system if we were to exclude moral values. Before we are able to inculcate moral values among our students, the school leadership and the teachers should be the prime examples of moral virtues. These moral values should be present in all decisions, management, communication and relationships between every individual in the schools. The effectiveness of any programme depends on the right combination of variables which include the right fundamental philosophy and values of the organisation and individuals, a sound vision, strategic plans, the right knowledge and skills of the members and a leader who is wise, knowledgeable, knows what leadership approaches to adopt and withholds high moral values. Leadership is associated with interpersonal influence, communication, goal attainment, motivation and coordination and willingness to take blame. The distinction between leadership and management is critical but to be effective, an organisation needs to be nourished by both competent management and leadership. 1. „If the administration of a school does not base itself on moral values, it will face grave problems of indiscipline among students as well as teachers‰. Do you agree? Explain. 2. Are Malaysian schools lacking in moral leadership? Give your views. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.15 1. What is moral leadership? 2. What do supporters of moral leadership believe in strongly? SELF-CHECK 1.12 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
40 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP The nine roles of a leader are figurehead, spokesperson, negotiator, coach, team builder, team player, technical problem solver, entrepreneur and strategic planner. This topic looked into the leader from a solo perspective, based on the great man theory, where leadership is seen to be practised by one person who occupies the top position. An effective leader possesses 10 traits: a skilled communicator, an educator, an envisioner, a facilitator, a change master, a culture builder, an activator, a producer, a character builder and a contributor. The idea of leadership as an influence process evolved from the solo leader concept when leadership is viewed as charismatic, transformational and transactional. Moral leadership is considered important and by incorporating moral values and beliefs, transformational leadership would be more potent. Instructional leadership is an important leadership style in education setting. It is linked to student achievement and school performance. The leader who exercises position, power and influence in leadership differentiates the types of leadership. Charismatic leadership Leadership Moral leadership Transactional leadership Transformational leadership Avolio, B. J. (1999). Full leadership development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectation. New York, NY: Free Press. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 41 Bass, B. M. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industrial, military, and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass & StogdillÊs handbook of leadership: Theory, research & managerial applications. New York, NY: The Free Press. Bennis, W., & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders: The strategies of taking charge. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Collinson, D. (2011). Critical leadership studies. In A. Bryman, D. Collinson, K. Grint, B. Jackson, & M. Uhl-Bien (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of leadership. (pp. 181ă194). London, England: Sage. Conger, J. A. (1999). Charismatic and transformational leadership in organizations: An insiderÊs perspective on these developing streams of research. Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), 145ă179. Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. (1988). The empowerment process: Integrating theory and practice. Academy of Management Journal, 13(3), 471ă482. Dahl, R. A. (1957). The concept of power. Behavioural Science, 2(3), 201ă205. DuBrin. (2001). Leadership: Research findings, practice, and skills (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: HoughtonMifflin Company. Etzioni, A. (1988). The moral dimension toward a new theory of economics. New York, NY: Free Press. Gordon, R. (2011). Leadership and power. In A. Bryman, D. Collinson, K. Grint, B. Jackson, & M. Uhl-Bien (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of leadership. (pp. 195ă 202). London, England: Sage. Hallinger, P. (1982). Resource manual: The principal instructional management rating scale. Nashville, TN: Centre for the Advanced Study of Educational Leadership, Vanderbilt University. Halpin, A. W. (1966). Theory and research in administration. New York, NY: Macmillan. House, R. J., & Howell, J. M. (1992). Personality and charismatic leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 3(2), 81ă108. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
42 TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP House, R. J. (1977). A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership. In J. G. Hunt; & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Leadership: The cutting edge. (pp. 189ă207). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (2001). Educational administration: Theory, research, and practice (6th ed.). Singapore: McGraw-Hill International Edition. Hoy, W. K., & Hoy, W. K. (2003). Instructional leadership a learning-centred guide. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Jackson, B., & Parry, K. (2011). A Very Short, Fairly Interesting And Reasonably Cheap Book about Studying Leadership (2nd ed.). London, England: Sage. Kotter, J. (1998). What leaders really do. Harvard Business Review on Leadership, Harvard Business School Press. Kuhnert, K. W., & Lewis, P. (1987). Transactional and transformational leadership: a constructive/developmental analysis. Academy of Management Review, 12(4), 648ă57. Max Weber. (1947). The theory of social and economic organizations. T. Parsons (Ed.), A. M. Henderson and T. Parsons (Trans.). New York, NY: Free Press. McEwan, E. K. (2003). 10 Traits of highly effective principals ă From good to great performance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. Northouse, P. G. (2013). Leadership: Theory and practice (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rost, J. C. (1991). Leadership in the 21st century. New York, NY: Praeger. Schedlitzki, D., & Edwards, G. (2014). Studying leadership: Traditional & critical approaches. London, England: Sage. Schein, E. H. (1997). Organisational culture and leadership (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Sergiovanni, T. J. (1991). Moral leadership ă Getting to the heart of school improvement. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Shamir, B., & Howell, J. M. (1999). Organizational and contextual influences on the emergence and effectiveness of charismatic leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), 257ă83. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 43 Waterman, R. H., Jr. (1990). Adhocracy. New York, NY: Norton. W. Chan Kim, & Renee A. Manbourgne. (1992). Parables of leadership. Harvard Business Review, July-August, p. 123. Yukl, G. A. (1998). Leadership in organizations (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Yukl, G. A. (2002). Leadership in organizations (5th ed.). Englewood cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall International. Yukl, G. A. (2010). Leadership in organizations (7th ed.). Englewood cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall International. Zaleznik, A. (1977). Managers and leaders: Are they different? Harvard Business Review, 55(5), 67ă78. Zaslow, J. (1998, January 30ăFebruary 1). Joe Montana: Leadership, says the legendary quarterback of four super bowls, means being „willing to take the blame‰. USA Weekend, pp. 15. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Knowledge about effective leadership behaviours and attitudes is vital especially for leaders or would-be leaders so that they would know what personal qualities to develop within themselves as well as management approaches utilised to achieve the best possible cooperation from their subordinates, and in the end the total achievement of the organisational objectives. The general characteristics of effective leaders described in Topic 1 earlier would be incorporated within your approaches as leaders utilising one of the styles or a combination of a few which might work in some situations while in others, different approaches might be needed. Let us read and understand the following deliberations on some more theories that may provide us with more information on leadership behaviours and attitudes. Topic 2 Effective Leadership Behaviours and Attitudes LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Compare the leadership traits which were gathered by the earlier studies on leadership with the present findings on them; 2. Evaluate the relationship between leadership behaviours and achievement studies conducted worldwide; 3. Discuss the possible explanations on the effectiveness or the ineffectiveness of the leadership behaviours; and 4. Discuss the ethical concepts in school leadership. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 45 TRAIT THEORIES In the 1920s and 1930s, leadership research focused on trying to identify the traits that differentiated leaders from non-leaders. These early leadership theories were content theories, focusing on „what‰ an effective leader is, not on „how‰ to effectively lead. The trait approach to understanding leadership assumes that certain physical, social and personal characteristics are inherent in leaders. Sets of traits and characteristics were identified to assist in selecting the right people to become leaders. (a) Physical traits include being young to middle-aged, energetic, tall and handsome. (b) Social background traits include being educated at the „right‰ schools and being socially prominent or upwardly mobile. (c) Social characteristics include being charismatic, charming, tactful, popular, cooperative and diplomatic. (d) Personality traits include being self-confident, adaptable, assertive and emotionally stable. (e) Task-related characteristics include being driven to excel, accepting of responsibility, having initiative and being results-oriented. Trait theories identify traits to assist in selecting leaders since traits are related to leadership effectiveness in many situations. The trait approach to understanding leadership supports the use of tests and interviews in the selection of managers. The interviewer typically attempts to match the traits and characteristics of the applicant to the position. For example, most interviewers attempt to evaluate how well the applicant can work with people. Criticisms of the Traditional Trait Theory Trait theory has not been able to identify a set of traits that will consistently distinguish leaders from followers. Instead, trait theory posits key traits for successful leadership (drive, desire to lead, integrity, self-confidence, intelligence and job-relevant knowledge) yet does not make a judgment as to whether these traits are inherent in individuals or whether they can be developed through training and education. No two leaders are alike. Furthermore, no leader possesses all of the traits. Comparing leaders in different situations suggests that the traits of leaders depend on the situation. Thus, traits were de-emphasised to take into account situational conditions (contingency perspective). 2.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
46 TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES Though trait theories were developed during the earlier part of the 20th century, they are still useful to some extent in selection of personnel because they can give an indication of the suitability of the candidates for the organisation. The combination of these trait theories with other more recent leadership theories can give us a thorough knowledge of the important leadership theories that would be of great help to all leaders. BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES The behavioural theorists identified determinants of leadership so that people could be trained to be leaders. They developed training programmes to change managersÊ leadership behaviours and assumed that the best styles of leadership could be learned. 2.2.1 Theory X and Theory Y Mc Gregor (1960), described Theory X and Theory Y in his book, The Human Side of Enterprise. Theory X and Theory Y each represent different ways in which leaders view employees. Theory X managers believe that employees are motivated mainly by money, are lazy, uncooperative and have poor work habits while Theory Y managers believe that subordinates work hard, are cooperative and have positive attitudes. (a) Theory X Theory X is the traditional view of direction and control by managers. (i) The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can. (ii) Because of this human characteristic of dislike of work, most people must be controlled, directed and threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organisational objectives. (iii) The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition and wants security above all. 2.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 47 Theory X leads naturally to an emphasis on the tactics of control ă procedures and techniques for telling people what to do, for determining whether they are doing it and for administering rewards and punishment. Theory X explains the consequences of a particular managerial strategy. Because its assumptions are so unnecessarily limiting, it prevents managers from seeing the possibilities inherent in other managerial strategies. As long as the assumptions of Theory X influence managerial strategy, organisations will fail to discover, let alone utilise the potentialities of the average human being. (b) Theory Y Theory Y is the view that individual and organisational goals can be integrated. (i) The expenditures of physical and mental effort in work are as natural as play or rest. (ii) External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing out effort toward organisational objectives. (iii) Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. (iv) The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but also to seek responsibility. (v) The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in the solution of organisational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population. (vi) Under the condition of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilised. Theory YÊs purpose is to encourage integration, to create a situation in which an employee can achieve his goals best by directing his efforts toward the objectives of the organisation. It is a deliberate attempt to link improvement in managerial competence with the satisfaction of higher-level ego and selfactualisation needs. Theory Y leads to a preoccupation with the nature of relationships, with the creation of an environment which will encourage commitment to organisational objectives and which will provide opportunities for the maximum exercise of initiative, ingenuity and self-direction in achieving them. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
48 TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 2.2.2 Ohio State University The first major investigation into leadership behaviour, also called leadership styles, was conducted in 1945 by researchers in the Bureau of Business Research, Ohio State University. From their research, they identified two distinct dimensions of leadership; task behaviour and relationship behaviour. The task behaviours which were referred to as „initiating structures‰ focused on behaviours such as organising work, allocating responsibilities and scheduling work activities. The relationship behaviours called „consideration‰ included behaviours such as building mutual respect and trust between leaders and subordinates. Figure 2.1: The Ohio State Leadership Quadrants Source: Hersey & Blanchard (1982) The researchers concluded that the two dimensions were separate and distinct and therefore leadership behaviour was plotted on two separate axes (see Figure 2.1). These studies led to the development of the Leadership Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ), an assessment instrument for the identification of the leadership orientation of the leader. 2.2.3 University of Iowa Another approach to leader behaviour focused on identifying the best leadership styles. Work at the University of Iowa identified democratic (participation and delegation), autocratic (dictating and centralised) and laissez-faire styles (group freedom in decision making). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 49 2.2.4 Managerial Grid Blake and Mouton as cited in Hersey and Blanchard (1982), expanding on and refining the work of the researchers at the Ohio State University, developed the Leadership Grid, initially called the Managerial Grid. Utilising the same theoretical constructs of task accomplishments, and the development of personal relationships as used by the LBDQ, they called the two dimensions of leadership behaviour „concern for production‰ and „concern for people‰ (see Figure 2.2). Figure 2.2: The managerial grid leadership style Source: Hersey & Blanchard (1982) The Leadership Grid, although similar to the LBDQ that measured how leader actions were perceived by others, is an attitudinal model for „portraying types of leadership behaviour and their various potential combinations‰. Thus, it is a measure of the predisposition of the leader. The grid consists of two intersecting axes, the horizontal axis measuring concern for people and the vertical axis measuring concern for production. Each dimension was measured on a nine-point scale. Therefore, theoretically the ideal leader would be measured at 9-9 on the scale, that is, high consideration and high structure (team). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
50 TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES The grid identifies five leadership styles as stated in Table 2.1. Table 2.1: Five Leadership Styles Identified by the Leadership Grid Leadership Styles Explanation Country Club Emphasis on the needs of people and on relationships. Impoverished Exertion of minimum effort to get work done is appropriate to maintain organisational membership. Team Focus on interdependence and commitment to the organisationÊs purpose. Task Emphasis on efficiency with minimum human involvement. Middle Road Leader balances „the necessity to get out work while maintaining morale of the people at a satisfactory level‰. The leadership grid is based on the assumption that there is an effectiveness dimension that is not extreme at the lower end of the dimensions, but combines both concerns for production and concerns for people. Concurrent with and complementing the Ohio State studies were the studies conducted by the University Of Michigan Survey Research Centre. According to Moorhead and Griffin (1998), the focus of these studies were to identify the leadership characteristics that resulted in effective group performance. These studies identified two basic forms of leadership behaviours that mirrored those identified by the Ohio state studies. These were production or job-centred leader behaviour and employee-centred leader behaviour. Summarising the findings of the Michigan studies: (a) More effective leaders tend to have relationships with their subordinates that are supportive and enhance the followersÊ sense of self-esteem than do less effective ones. (b) More effective leaders use group rather than person-to-person methods of supervision and decision making than do less effective ones. (c) More effective leaders tend to set higher performance goals than do less effective ones. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 51 THE LEADERSHIP STYLE In this subtopic, we will discuss the leadership style in greater detail by looking into the situations style. 2.3.1 Situations Style Shifting the focus from classical leadership styles, traits and behaviours, researchers began concentrating on the effects of situational variables on leadership styles. Emerging from this new thinking are the contingency models and the Hersey and Blanchard (1982) situational leadership theory that focus on the relationship between the leadership style and the readiness of the subordinate. 2.3 1. „Leaders are born, not made‰. Do you agree? Discuss. 2. „Leaders with Theory Y orientation are more successful than leaders with Theory X orientation.‰ Discuss. 3. Some people contend that „laissez-faire‰ style of leadership in almost all situations is a disaster. Do you agree? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 2.1 1. Name the set of traits and characteristics that were identified as traits that can assist in selecting the right people to become leaders. 2. What are the assumptions of leaders regarding subordinates whose philosophies are based on Theory X and Theory Y? 3. What are the leadership styles of the „Managerial Grid Leadership Style‰? Explain. SELF-CHECK 2.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
52 TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES The contingency model of leadership behaviour, also known as the Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) theory is based on the instrument developed by Fiedler (1967) to measure leader effectiveness. It is the most well-known and empirically tested of the contextual or situational models. In this theory, leader effectiveness is viewed as a function of leader behaviour and contextual factors. As noted by Hoy and Miskel (1991), Fiedler was careful in underscoring the critical distinction between leadership style and leadership behaviour. As he explained, „important leadership behaviours of the same individual differ from situation to situation, while the need structure which motivates these behaviours may be seen as constant‰. Thus, the emphasis was on the leadership style which was reflected in the behaviour. In this contingency model, leader personality traits were either task motivated behaviour or relationship motivated. Fiedler (1967) identified three major contextual variables: (a) Leader Position Power The variable position power based on the extent to which leaders motivate or punish and is predicated on the degree of authority the leader has: that is the legitimate authority to hire or promote an employee. (b) Leader-member Relationship Leader-member relations refer to group atmosphere, attraction to leaders, the level of loyalty and the existence of friction within the group. (c) Task Structure Task structure refers to the clarity of the tasks, the clarity of roles for each group member and the clarity of the instruction for task completion. As alluded to previously, Fiedler developed the LPC as the instrument of measurement. The contextual variables were measured on a continuum ranging from most to least favourable. Leader-member relations were measured as good or bad, task structure as high or low, and position power as strong or weak. Fiedler and his colleagues maintained that leader effectiveness was contingent upon the interaction between the leaderÊs personality, or leadership style and the contextual variables. Therefore, when the relations were good, task structure high, and position power strong, the context was designated most favourable and leadership was most effective. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 53 The path-goal theory developed and refined by Martin Evans and House in the 1970s, also adopts the contingency conceptualisation of leadership. The theory proposes that subordinatesÊ performances, perceptions of work goals, personal goals and paths to goal attainment are influenced by leadership behaviours. The model identifies four leadership behaviours. These are directive- and achievement-oriented behaviours which represent the initiating structure dimension of the Ohio State LBDQ studies, and participative and supportive behaviours which find support in the consideration dimension. There has not been much empirical support for this model and consequently, its utility value is limited. The other contingency theory model that created an impact on leadership theory was Vroom and YettonÊs decision making model which was revised and expanded by Vroom and Jago in 1974 and again in 1984, and recreated by Vroom and Jago in 1988 to address issues of validity. The model while similar to the path-goal theory, in seeking to prescribe the most suitable leadership style to a given situation, focuses on the extent to which subordinates should be involved in the decisionmaking process. In this regard, it proposes that the degree to which subordinates be allowed to participate in decision making should depend on the characteristics of the situation. The goal of the model is to ensure quality decisions and acceptance of these decisions by the subordinates. An important contribution to leadership theory was the introduction of the reciprocity of the influence of organisation on the style of leadership. Hersey and Blanchard (1982) argued that leadership behaviour could affect the effectiveness of the organisation, and the changes in the organisation affect the next leadership intervention. In this approach, leadership is defined as „working with and through people to accomplish a particular organisational goal and suggests that leader behaviour should vary in response to the maturity or development level that the follower or followers exhibit on a specific task, function or objective that the leader is attempting to accomplish‰. Therefore, it is implied that the maturity level of the subordinate, defined in terms of job maturity and psychological maturity, influences leader behaviour. Subordinates are rated in competence and commitment on a continuum from high to low. A high-maturity subordinate had both high job maturity (that is, task relevant skills and knowledge) and psychological maturity (that is, self-confidence and self-esteem), while the low maturity subordinate lacked these attributes. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
54 TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES According to Hersey and Blanchard (1982) and Hersey, Zigarmi and Zigarmi (1987) depending on the level of maturity, the leader employed more directive or more supportive behaviour. As can be seen in Figure 2.3, the theory identifies the four leadership patterns or styles deemed appropriate for the four situations of maturity, suggesting that as the group becomes more experienced, more willing and able to take responsibility for the tasks, the style of leadership behaviours changes from an emphasis on directing to the delegation of responsibility. Figure 2.3: The four basic leadership styles Source: Hersey, Zigarmi & Zigarmi (1987) It is a dynamic model of leadership in which the role of the leader is to „provide the necessary leader behaviour while simultaneously helping the group mature and assume more of the leadership itself‰. 2.3.2 Conclusion The challenge remains in identifying the leadership styles and behaviours that maximise effectiveness-concern, for organisational tasks and efficiency-concern for relationships. Almost all theorists acknowledge that success of the organisation depends on both. This challenge is no different for the school as an organisation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 55 However, the challenge is even more acute because notwithstanding the various conceptualisations and the political interpretations of effectiveness, using the jargon of industry, the production methods of the school are individualised to the different operators (teachers). Additionally, and adding to the challenge, the final products are varied, individualised, often cannot be measured and even when beneficial to the individual, sometimes are not what is appreciated by the wider society. It is in this milieu that the principal as designated leader functions. Yet, his role is critical to the success of the school. Hoy and Miskel (1991), in citing Warren Bennis, encapsulated this sentiment when they argued that the principal is responsible for the effectiveness of the school, provides the anchor and guiding purpose especially in times of change and upheaval, and play a key role in alleviating the publicÊs concern about the schools. 1. Explain the three major contextual variables identified by Fiedler (1967) namely: (a) Leader position power; (b) Leader-member relationship; and (c) Task structure. 2. Discuss when you would use each of the four basic styles (supporting, coaching, delegating and directing) in a school situation. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 2.2 1. What is the „least preferred co-worker theory‰? 2. What is „the path-goal theory‰? Explain. 3. What is the „decision-making model theory‰? SELF-CHECK 2.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
56 TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES SELECTING THE BEST LEADERSHIP STYLE Selection of the best style in leadership is not an easy task because different situations and different subordinates need different styles. The other more important variable that must be taken into consideration is the leader personality and inclinations. If the leader is more comfortable with a style, it would be difficult for him to change into another personality style. The most that he can do is try to adapt himself to the needs of the situation. If the situation needs him to be a coach but he lacks the quality of a good coach then he needs to combine it with other approaches that he is comfortable with because not everybody has the ability to adopt all of them equally well. At present, the focus of leadership is achievement of the objectives which has been planned. The measure of success is usually in terms of studentsÊ achievement in schools. The following literature review provides us with some findings on the relationship between leadership styles and approaches and studentsÊ achievement which can be used as a basis of our reflections on what we have done as leaders in our own ways. 2.4.1 Principal Leadership Style and Achievement There is ample evidence to show that there is a direct relationship between school climate and student achievement in school, and similarly, there is consensus that the leadership style by the principal is the significant factor in shaping the learning environment to facilitate student learning. The leader who articulates clear goals, holding high expectations of students and teachers, and exercising strong educational leadership were instrumental in the schools achieving their goals. Principal leadership behaviours and school achievement at the secondary level noted the following: (a) At the secondary level, teacher and principal perceptions about how the principal governs the school are strongly related to the manner in which the principal is perceived to organise the schoolÊs programme and to the principalÊs role in building a productive school climate. (b) They concluded that the principal, through manipulating a series of leadership style variables at the school level, can have a positive influence on school achievement. 2.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 57 (c) Azumi and Madhere (1983) examined principal leadership style as a determinant of principal effectiveness. They found that principals who utilised a system which incorporated rich feedback and focused on socialisation as a way of achieving the organisational goals had greater teacher conformity and, as a result, higher student achievement than those who relied on programming and sanctions as methods of control. (d) Jackson, Logsdon and Taylor (1983) concluded from their research of lowincome public schools in the District of Columbia that city schools could be effective for low income African-American students. For this study, they looked at four schools that were instructionally effective for poor students and four schools of similar student population that were not effective. Unlike what they observed in the ineffective schools, the principals of the effective schools maintained firm and centralised control with a strong task and academic orientation. Their discipline codes were clear and strictly enforced. They monitored achievement, were supportive of teachers and students and rewarded achievement. Using EdmondsÊ (1979) analogy, these principals were „tyrannical‰ in their expectations and demands for „achievement regardless of student background‰. They insisted that all students be brought to a minimum level of mastery of the basic skills. (e) Andrews, Soder and Jacobson (1986) investigated the relationship between perceptions of the principal as instructional leader and the average gain in California Achievement Test Scores. They tested the hypothesis that children who attended schools administered by principals who were strong instructional leaders evidenced greater increases in NCE scores for total reading and total mathematics than children who attended schools led by those who were not strong instructional leaders. From their analysis, they found that there were significant differences in reading and mathematics between the schools in which the principals received the highest ratings and the other two groups of schools. Based on these results, they concluded that particularly for schools that catered to the historically low achieving groups of students, teachersÊ perceptions of the principal as a strong instructional leader were critical to student achievement in reading and mathematics. (f) Heck (1992), unlike most scholars in leadership behaviours, looked at the leadership performances of principals in high performing and low performing schools at both the elementary and secondary levels. His specific interest was the principalÊs instructional leadership interactions that would best serve as a predictor of school achievement level. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
58 TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES His conclusions suggested that while there existed contextual differences in principal leadership based on school level, these „were less important than the differences associated with the performance level of the school‰. The assumption derived from this finding was that principal instructional leadership behaviour was predictive of school outcomes. (g) As Heck (1993) explained, the principalsÊ actions influenced student outcomes mainly through „activities that coordinate, monitor and enable teachers to work more effectively with students‰. Heck had investigated the relationship among contextual variables, in-school processes that focused on principal and teacher interactions and student outcomes in secondary schools in Singapore. His results indicated that despite the effects of context variables such as school size, type of school and teacher experience on student outcomes, these variables „did not appear to influence the perceptions of the principalÊs strategic interactions with teachers in the areas of governing the school, building school culture/climate, and instructional organisation‰, areas that have direct impact on student achievement. This finding verified AndrewsÊ contention that, „teachersÊ perceptions of their work environment is so important, that the power of the principalÊs leadership so pervasive, that it has a measurable‰ though indirect „impact on student learning‰. (h) Cheng, (1994) using data from the large-scale research project „Education Quality in Hong Kong Primary Schools‰ investigated the principalÊs leadership as a critical factor for school performance. For this study, he integrated Bolman and DealÊs (1991) four leadership orientations in organisations: structural leadership, human resource leadership, political leadership and symbolic leadership, and SergiovanniÊs (1984) five component leadership model of the principal: technical leadership, human leadership, educational leadership, symbolic leadership and cultural leadership. From the mentioned earlier, Cheng (1994) proposed the following five dimensions of the principalÊs leadership: (i) Structural leadership: the extent to which the principal thinks clearly and logically, develops clear goals and policies and holds people accountable for results. (ii) Human leadership: the extent to which the principal is supportive and fosters participation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 59 (iii) Political leadership: the extent to which the principal is persuasive and effective in building alliances and support, and solving conflicts. (iv) Symbolic leadership: the extent to which the principal is inspirational and charismatic. (v) Educational leadership: the extent to which the principal encourages professional development and teaching improvement. Cheng (1994) measured principal leadership on the five dimensions. In addition to this, he measured teachersÊ individual performances, teachersÊ group level performances, organisational factors and student performances which comprised self-concept, attitudes to peers, attitudes to the school, attitudes to teachers, attitudes to learning, feeling of homework overload and intention to dropout. The results of the correlations between leadership and the school performance variables showed that there was a significant positive relationship between all dimensions of leadership and teacher morale, level of professionalism, disengagement and feeling of unnecessary overload. Also, all the dimensions of leadership were positively related to studentsÊ attitudes towards their school. What is significant about this study was the focus on student performance that was not based on test scores. (i) Citing the limitations of using test scores as a measure of student outcomes, Leithwood and Jantzi, (1999) also investigated the relationship between transformational leadership and student outcomes not based on test scores, but on student engagement with school. From Transformational School Leadership Effects: A replication by K. Leithwood and D. Jantzi, (1999), School Effectiveness and School Improvement, in their explanation for the selection of the outcome variables, they stated that the „extent of studentsÊ participation both inside and outside the school‰ and „the extent to which students identify with school and feel they belong‰ is a „reliable predictor of variation in such student outcomes as social studies, math and language achievement‰. They assessed the direct and indirect effects of transformational leadership on student engagement in school. The results of the analysis indicated that transformational leadership had a weak but statistically significant effect on student identification. Even though the direct effects of transformational leadership on classroom conditions were negative and weak, combined with school conditions, they explained 17 per cent of the variation in classroom conditions. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
60 TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 2.4.2 Conclusion From the mentioned review of the principal as leader, it is clear that he plays a critical, even if often fuzzy, role in overall school effectiveness. The principal, in many cases, did not seem to be really important in the academic process of the school due to the fact that they did not participate directly in all activities that contribute to the success of the school. But does it mean that the principal ship role is unimportant? The answer to this question is obvious because a ship without its captain will definitely not reach its destination. Unlike other organisations, there is no clear path to improved production and efficiency because the end products are people and whatever quality that they have might not be observable immediately. Besides that, other variables play their parts in moulding the end products which are very complex. The complexity and dynamism of the school, and the competing demands on the principal and the continually changing contexts of schooling often defy anyoneÊs best type of leadership. However, these same factors of complexity and changing situations make the leadership the critical stabilising factor in the school. 1. Cite the research studies that show the principal leadership styles is significantly correlated with school achievement. 2. What makes students from low-income families perform well academically? 3. Name the characteristics of the principals that are related to academic achievement. 4. According to Andrews, Soder and Jacobson (1986), the number of principals who are strong instructional leaders is significantly related to greater increase in examination scores. Explain. SELF-CHECK 2.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 61 THE ETHICAL PRACTICE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP In this subtopic, you will be exposed to the ethical practice of educational leadership. 2.5.1 Concept of Ethics in Leadership The word „ethics‰ is derived from a Greek word ethos, which means customs, conduct and character. Ethics is concerned with the kinds of values and morals a person or a society finds desirable and appropriate. Thus, ethics is concerned with the virtuousness of a person and their motives. A set of ethics will provide a system of principles that can guide leaders in choosing the right from wrong decisions and the good from bad decisions. 2.5 1. Describe the findings of Heck (1992) regarding leadership behaviours and school achievement. 2. Explain what you understand by the statement „⁄ that principals being Âone step removed from the direct instructional processÊ had an indirect effect on student outcomes‰. 3. In about 100 words write a summary of all the research studies on school leadership and school achievement. 4. Discuss how the principal plays the role of a structural leader, human leader, political leader, symbolic leader and educational leader. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 2.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
62 TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES Leadership is defined as a process in which the leader influences the others to reach a common goal. The influence dimension requires the leaders to make an impact on the lives of those being led. This means leaders carry the ethical burden and responsibility to be sensitive to how their leadership affects followersÊ lives. Ethics and leadership cannot be separated because ethics is embedded in everything we do, and it is a part of our humanity. Ethics in society enable the society to regulate activities of individuals and groups to avoid misunderstandings and conflicts. Rebose (2001) considers ethics as a part of natural law. According to him natural law „refers to the parameters that define the milieu of being, what follows from the essential nature of humanity‰. Ethics have to be learnt because it is not inborn, and our schools are the place where ethics are taught and practised so as to ensure future citizens are able to live harmoniously within civilised society. Schools, are by nature, ethical since they are directed to human improvement, yet schools are also organisations for interaction between human beings and as such they sometimes fall short of ethical standards. An ethical school is characterised by an ethical culture. This means that the ethical nature of the core business of schools, namely their devotion to the well-being of young people, remains at the forefront and that ethical concerns embedded in schoolsÊ everyday activities are explicit, accepted and openly acknowledged. The concept of ethics in leadership centres not only the moral character of the leader, but also on the ethical values inscribed in the leaderÊs personal portfolio of goals, perceptions, expressions and actions. An ethical leader, in the end, is not only able to maintain integrity within him but is adept at influencing others to act ethically as well. Furthermore, the more ethical a leader is, the more likely he is to exhibit superior job performance, exhibit a high level of concern for the students and set a positive example. Ethics is an essentially communicative action that progresses through an intricate methodology arbitrated through a deliberate dissemination of ethical values. Educational leadership is especially concerned with the integrity of the processes of ethical decision making and achievement that leaders and followers collectively put into practice. Schools have consistently been viewed throughout history as a moral institution designed to propagate and endorse issues of high morality and appropriate ethical decision making. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 63 Educational leaders are frequently forced to make decisions that place more value on some morals than on others. Because of this, and the limited power of the student voice in the overall conduct of educational leaders, the leaderÊs conduct must be consciously moral and ethical. Hence to truly maintain status as an ethical educational leader, the responsibility to promote ethical conduct must be rooted not so much in technical expertise, but in basic human understanding. Communities continually claim to want stronger school leaders with visions for change that do not rest comfortably amid the status quo. They want leaders who are not afraid of change and who understand that the ethical dilemmas of todayÊs youth are far more extreme than in the past. The educational leadersÊ personal ethical standards are therefore paramount in facilitating the creation of a thriving, well-adjusted and morally grounded new millennium generation. There are five principles that provide a foundation for the development of sound ethical leadership. The origin of these five principles can be traced back to the times of Aristotle and their importance has been discussed in various other disciplines ranging from biomedics to business and from counselling psychology to leadership in education. (a) Ethical Leaders are Respectful of Others Leaders treat others with respect and that means allowing subordinates to be themselves, valuing their individual differences and being tolerant of their beliefs, attitudes and values. (b) Ethical Leaders are Ready to Serve Others Leaders put the welfare of their subordinatesÊ foremost in their plans. Such leaders are altruistic and behind this service principle, ethical leaders believe in contributing to the greater good of others. In practice, ethical leaders are follower-centred, place othersÊ interest foremost in their work and act in ways that benefit others. (c) Ethical Leaders are Just Ethical leaders are concerned about being fair and just. As resources are scarce, conflicts often occur between subordinates about fair distribution of rewards. It is, therefore, important that leaders have a fair way of distributing rewards. Beauchamp and Bowie (1988) suggested that in the distribution of rewards, leaders must apply the rules that each person has an equal share or opportunity; reward according to individual need; according to that personÊs rights; according to individual effort; according to societal contribution and according to merit or performance. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
64 TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES (d) Ethical Leaders are Honest Leaders who are honest do more than tell the truth. They are open to others and represent reality as fully and a completely as possible. Being honest builds up trust and that is important for the progress of an organisation. Thus, it is important to reward honest behaviour within the organisation. (e) Ethical Leaders Build Community Good leaders influence their subordinates to achieve a common goal. An ethical leader is one who takes into account the purposes of everyone involved in the group and is attentive to the interest of the community. An ethical leader demonstrates an ethics of caring and does not ignore the needs of others. 2.5.2 Conclusion A very important aspect of leadership is ethical administrative behaviour that is usually correlated with effective management of schools. A principal with strong ethical norms is a person with principles who can be trusted by all to deliver results. An ethical principal will ensure that all his promises will be fulfilled. The school is considered by society as the moral institution where ethics and moral education is embedded in the curriculum, while teachers are supposed to be the bastion of high ethical and moral values where society will look up to educate its children in ethics and morality. The question that is always playing in our minds as teachers and members of our society is „Are the school ready to play its role in this matter effectively?‰ The answer to this question differs from one another because of the different views aired by various interested parties. What is more important is to ensure that our schools have principals who are well-trained in managing their schools and have strong moral and ethical values. 1. When you refer to „ethics in leadership‰ what are the important qualities that a leader should have? 2. Name the areas of management where high ethical standards are needed. SELF-CHECK 2.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 65 This topic discussed both early trait theories and the more modern trait and personality theories. Various leadership styles are discussed and it is concluded that there are two orientations in leadership ă either toward relationships or task completion. The topic also reviewed international research on educational leadership with its connection to student achievement and school performance. The ethical practice of educational leadership is given emphasis and the focus is on the central issues of ethics with those in the leadership role. The topic concluded with a section on how leaders behave ethically ă are respectful of others, are ready to server others, are just, are honest and build community. 1. What do you understand by natural law according to Rebose (2001)? 2. „Schools are by nature ethical since they are directed to human improvement, yet schools are also organisations for interaction between human beings and as such they sometimes fall short of ethical standards‰. Discuss this statement. 3. What are the ethical norms of the classical world view and the modern worldview? Discuss. 4. Discuss some of the ethical issues that school leaders must face daily in schools. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 2.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
66 TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES Behavioural theories Ethics in leadership Leadership style Managerial grid Situation style Trait theories Andrews, R., & Soder, R. (1987). Principal leadership and student achievement. Educational Leadership, 44(6), 9ă11. Andrews, R. L., Soder, R., & Jacob, D. (1986). Principal role, other school variables, and academic achievement, by ethnicity and SES. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, California, USA. Azumi, J. E., & Madhere, S. (1983). Professional, power and performance: The relationship between administration control, teacher conformity and student achievement. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada. Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York, NY: Free Press. Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass and StogdillÊs handbook of leadership: Theory, research and managerial applications (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Free Press. Beauchamp, T. L., & Bowie, N. E. (1988). Ethical theory and business (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Beck, L. G., & Murphy, J. (1994). Ethics in educational leadership programs: An expanding role. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 67 Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1994). Looking for leadership: Another search partyÊs report. Educational Administration Quaterly, 30(1), 77ă96. Bossert, S. (1988). School effects. In N. Boyan (Eds.), The Handbook of Research on Educational Administration. New York, NY: Longman. Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper Row. Cheng, T. C. (1994). PrincipalÊs leadership as a critical factor for school performance: Evidence from multi-level of primary schools. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 5(3), 299ă317. Edmonds, R., & Frederiksen, J. (1979). Search for effective school: The identification and analysis of city school that are instructionally effective for poor children. Cambridge, MA: Center for Urban Studies. Edwards, P. I. (1984). Perceived leadership behaviours and demographic characteristics of principals as they relate to student reading achievement. Florida Educational Research and Development Council Research Bulletin, 18(2), 1ă87. Fiedler, F. E. (1967). New approaches to effective leadership. New York, NY: John Wiley. Fiedler, F. E. (1997). Situational control and a dynamic theory of leadership. In K. Grint (Ed.), Leadership. Classical, contemporary and critical approaches (pp. 126ă148). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fullan, M. G. (1992). Successful school improvement: The implementation perspective and beyond. Buckingham, England: Open University Press. Gardner, H. (1995). Leading minds: An anatomy of leadership. New York, NY: Basic Books. Grint, K. (1997). Leadership: Classical, contemporary and critical approaches. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hallinger, P., & Murphy, J. (1985). Assessing the instructional behavior of principal. The Elementary School Journal, 86(2), 217ă247. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
68 TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES Heck, H. R. (1992). PrincipalÊs instructional leadership and school performance: Implication for policy development. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 14(1), 21ă34. Heck, R. H. (1993). School context, principal leadership and achievement: The case of secondary school Singapore. The Urban Review, 25(2), 151ă166. Heck, R., Larsen, T., & Marcoulides, G. (1990). Principal leadership and school achievement: The validation of a causal model. Educational Administration Quarterly, 26(2), 96ă145. Hersey, P. (1984). The situational leader. New York, NY: Warner. Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1982). Management of organization behavior: Utilizing human resources. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1977). The management of organizational behaviour. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hersey, P., Zigarmi, D., & Zigarmi, P. (1987). Leadership: Different folks. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Heifetz, R. A. (1994). Leadership without easy answers. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (1991). Educational administration: Theory research and practice. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Jackson, S. A., Logsdon, D. M., & Taylor, N. E. (1983). Instructional leadership behavior: Differentiating effective from ineffective low income urban schools. Urban Education, 18(1), 59ă70. Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1995). The leadership challenge. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Lichtenberg, J. (1996). What are codes of ethics for? In M. Coady & S. Bloch (Eds.), Codes of ethics and the professions (pp. 13ă27). Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press. Liethwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (1999). Transformational school leadership effects: A replication. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 10(4), 451ă479. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES 69 Leitner, D. (1994). Do principals affect student outcomes: An organizational perspective. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 5(3), 219ă238. Longstaff, S. (1994). What is ethics education and training? Annandale, VA: The Federation Press. Longstaff, S. (1994). Ethics for the public sector. Annandale, VA: The Federation Press. McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Morhead, G., & Griffin, R. W. (1998). Organizational behavior: Managing people and organizations (5th ed.). New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin. Rebose, R. W. (2001). The ethics of educational leadership, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merill Prentice Hall. Sadler, P. (1997). Leadership. London, England: Kogan. Sergiovanni, T. J. (1992). Moral leadership: Getting to the heart of school leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Sergiovanni, T. (1993). New source of leadership authority. In M. Sashkin and H. J. Walberg (Eds.). Educational leadership and social culture. Berkerly, CA: McCutchan Publishing Corp. Sergiovanni, T. (1984). Leadership and excellence in schooling. Educational Leadership, February, 41(5), 4ă13. Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership. A survey of theory and research, New York, NY: Free Press. Van Maurik, J. (2001). Writers on leadership. London, England: Penguin. Vroom, V. H., & Jago, A .G. (1980). An evaluation of two alternatives to the VroomYetton normative model. Academy of Management Journal, 23(2), 347ă355. Wright, P. (1996). Managerial leadership. London, England: Routledge. Yukl, G. (1994). Leadership in organizations (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Effective leaders are always open to many options on leadership styles and approaches to use when confronting problems and situations that need their attention and participation. Different situations need different treatments to bring about the intended results. A leader should be able to choose the right option, and to be able to do this, his knowledge and experience become important guidelines for him to proceed. Sometimes a successful leadership approach for a similar situation might not work in another setting or in a different time frame or era. The contingency theory is a leader-match theory (Fiedler & Chemers, 1974) where it tries to match leaders to appropriate situations. It is called contingency because the effectiveness of the leader depends on how well his leadership style fits the context. The theories on contingency and situational leadership in this topic were developed mostly in the 1960s but there are still some adherents to these theories who kept on developing and using them until the present era. They are still applicable even though other theories were formulated decades ago. Topic 3 Contingency and Situational Leadership LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Apply contingency and situational leadership theories in various situations where their applications are suitable; 2. Describe the effectiveness of the theories in various situations; 3. Explain the variables that can influence the effectiveness of the leadership approaches; and 4. Evaluate the merits and the demerits of each leadership style. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONTINGENCY AND SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP 71 FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY OF LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS Successful leaders must be able to identify clues in an environment and adapt their leader behaviour to meet the needs of their followers and of the particular situation. Even with good diagnostic skills, leaders may not be effective unless they can adapt their leadership style to meet the demands of their environment. Leadership Theory and Research: Perspectives and Directions (1993) was a tribute to Fred FiedlerÊs 40 year study of leadership and organisational effectiveness. The editors, Chemers and Roya Ayman, write of FiedlerÊs contribution: „The realisation that leadership effectiveness depends on the interaction of qualities of the leader with demands of the situation in which the leader functions, made the simplistic „one best way‰ approach of earlier eras obsolete‰. FiedlerÊs contingency theory suggests that there is no best way for managers to lead. Situations will create different leadership style requirements for a manager. The solution to a managerial situation depends on the factors that influence the situation. For example, in a highly routinised environment where repetitive tasks are the norm, a certain leadership style may result in the best performance. The same leadership style may not work in a very dynamic environment. Fiedler looked at three situations that could define the condition of a managerial task: (a) Leader-member Relations The leader-member relations front refers to the group atmosphere such as the level of confidence, loyalty and attraction followers feel for their leader. In a positive atmosphere where there is trust and there is good relationship between the leader and the subordinates, the leader-member relations are defined as good. If the atmosphere is unfriendly and there is friction between members of the group, the leader-member relations are defined as poor. (b) The Task Structure The task structure refers to how the requirements of a task are clearly spelled out. A completely structured task will give more control to the leader while vague and unclear tasks would reduce the leaderÊs control and influence. A task is considered structured when the requirements of the task are clearly stated, there are few and limited ways to accomplish the task and the completion of the task can be clearly demonstrated due to its routine nature. 3.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
72 TOPIC 3 CONTINGENCY AND SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP (c) Position Power Position power refers to the amount of authority a leader has to reward or punish followers. This usually refers to positional power and it is strong when the leader has the power to hire and fire or has the authority to reward through raise in pay or promotion. It is weak if the leader does not have the authority to do these things. These three situational factors determine the favourableness of various situations in an organisation. In the most favourable situations where the leader-member relations are good, tasks are defined with strong leaderposition power. On the other hand, in the least favourable situation where the leader-member relations are poor, the task is unstructured and not clearly defined with weak leader-position power. Moderately favourable situations fall in between these two extremes. Based on FiedlerÊs contingency theory, leaders who are task motivated will be effective in both, the very favourable when situations are going along smoothly and also the least favourable when situations are chaotic and out of control. Leaders who are relationship motivated are effective in moderately favourable situations, where there is some degree of certainty but where they are not completely under their control. Contingency theories have many applications in organisations. They can be used to explain why a person fails in one situation when he has succeeded in another situation. It can also enlighten the person, why he fails despite his conscientiousness, loyalty and excellent qualifications. 1. Compare situations where a task-oriented manager does well. 2. When do relationship-oriented managers do well? SELF-CHECK 3.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONTINGENCY AND SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP 73 THE PATH-GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS Path-goal theory is a situational leadership theory developed by House and Mitchell (1974). It focuses on how leaders motivate followers to accomplish goals and enhance performance and satisfaction. The leader in path-goal theory helps the followers set goals, then assists them in developing a path to achieving their goals. The goal of this theory is to enhance subordinatesÊ performance and leaderÊs satisfaction by focusing on subordinatesÊ motivation. Instead of recommending just the task or relationship actions for leaders, this theory recommends four behaviours that best meet the subordinateÊs needs and will therefore more likely produce effective leadership. One or another of the four behaviours is employed, depending on the followersÊ needs. Therefore, a leader needs to be skilful in all four behaviours: (a) Directive Leadership ă leader tends to give explicit expectations; initiating structure; „telling‰ style. (b) Supportive Leadership ă leader treats followers as equals; considerate in behaviour; with an approachable style. 3.2 1. Analyse the following phrase which is attributed to FiedlerÊs contribution: „The realisation that leadership effectiveness depends on the interaction of qualities of the leader with demands of the situation in which the leader functions, made the simplistic „one best way‰ approach of earlier eras obsolete‰. 2. As a principal you are posted to a problematic secondary school with disciplinary problems not only among the students but also with the teachers as well. What would you become, a task-oriented leader or a relationship-oriented leader? Discuss. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 3.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
74 TOPIC 3 CONTINGENCY AND SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP (c) Participative Leadership ă leader tends toward shared decision making; collaborative behaviour. (d) Achievement-oriented Leadership ă leader sets challenging goals; shows confidence that they are capable to meet them. Based on assumptions from the expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964), this model explains how the behaviour of the leader causes expectancies or motivations in the subordinate, creating effort and satisfaction. The rationale is that followers will perform better if they think they are capable, and if they perceive the work will get results and be worth the effort. (a) A leaderÊs behaviour is acceptable to subordinates or teachers when viewed as a source of satisfaction, motivational when satisfaction is contingent on performance, and the leader facilitates, coaches and rewards effective performance. (b) Path-goal theory identifies achievement-oriented, directive, participative and supportive leadership styles. (c) In achievement-oriented leadership, the leader sets challenging goals for teachers and students, expects them to perform at their highest level and shows confidence in their ability to meet this expectation. This style is appropriate when the teachers and students suffer from a lack of job challenge. (d) In directive leadership, the leader lets teachers know what is expected of them and tells them how to perform their tasks. This style is appropriate when the teachers or staff have an ambiguous job. (e) Participative leadership involves leaders consulting with teachers and asking for their suggestions before making a decision. This style is appropriate when the subordinates are using improper procedures or are making poor decisions. (f) In supportive leadership, the leader is friendly and approachable. He shows concern for the teacherÊs psychological well-being. This style is appropriate when the teachers or subordinates lack confidence. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONTINGENCY AND SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP 75 3.2.1 The Assumptions of Path-goal Theory The following are some of the assumptions of path-goal theory: (a) Path-goal theory assumes that leaders are flexible and that they can change their style, as situations require. (b) The theory proposes two contingency variables (environment and follower characteristics) that moderate the leader behaviour-outcome relationship. (c) Environment is outside the control of followers-task structure, authority system and work group. (d) Environmental factors determine the type of leader behaviour required if follower outcomes are to be maximised. (e) Follower characteristics are the locus of control, experience and perceived ability. (f) Personal characteristics of subordinates determine how the environment and leader are interpreted. (g) Effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers achieve their goals and make the journey easier by reducing roadblocks and pitfalls. (h) Research demonstrates that employee performance and satisfaction are positively influenced when the leader compensates for the shortcomings in either the employee or the work setting. 3.2.2 Choice of Leadership Behaviours In choosing which of the leadership behaviours to use, two variables influence the choice; the subordinateÊs characteristics and the characteristics of the task. The leader behaviour is contingent on these characteristics, making this a situational leadership theory. No one leadership behaviour works for motivating every person and the leader supplies what is missing to motivate the follower. After this initial assessment of the follower and the task, the leader then helps the follower define goals and then reaches them in the most efficient way. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
76 TOPIC 3 CONTINGENCY AND SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP Leaders may even adapt their styles with an individual during the completion of a task, if one part of the job needs a different motivation from another. Although it is a complex and sometimes confusing theory, it reminds leaders to continually think of their central purposes as a leader: to help define goals, to clarify paths to get there, to remove obstacles that may exist and to provide support and encouragement for achievement of goals. Some argue that this kind of leadership may be counterproductive over time in that it may promote dependency on the leader. 1. Explain VroomÊs expectancy theory. 2. Explain why the subordinatesÊ characteristics and the characteristics of the task do influence leadership behaviours. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 3.2 1. How is the path-goal theory of leadership implemented by a leader? 2. What are the four skills that a path-goal leader needs to master? SELF-CHECK 3.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONTINGENCY AND SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP 77 THE HERSEY-BLANCHARD SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP MODEL The Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership model is based on the amount of direction (task behaviour) and amount of socioemotional support (relationship behaviour). Effective leadership was dependent on a mix of factors. For example, Fiedler argued that effectiveness depended on two interacting factors; leadership style and the degree to which the situation gives the leader control and influence. Three things are important here: (a) The Relationship between the Leaders and Followers If leaders are liked and respected, they are more likely to have the support of others. (b) The Structure of the Task If the task is clearly spelled in the form of goals, methods and standards of performance, then, it is more likely that leaders will be able to exert influence. (c) Position Power If an organisation or group confers powers on the leader for the purpose of getting the job done, the influence of the leader will increase. Hersey and Blanchard (1977) identified four different leadership styles that could be adopted to deal with contrasting situations: (a) S1 Telling (High Task/Low Relationship Behaviour) This style or approach is characterised by giving a great deal of direction to subordinates and by giving a lot of attention to defining roles and goals. The style was recommended for dealing with new staff, or where the work was menial or repetitive, or where things had to be completed within a short time span. Subordinates are viewed as being unable and unwilling to „do a good job‰. 3.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
78 TOPIC 3 CONTINGENCY AND SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP (b) S2 Selling (High Task/High Relationship Behaviour) Here, while most of the direction is given by the leader, there is an attempt at encouraging people to „buy into‰ the task. Sometimes characterised as a „coaching‰ approach, it is to be used when people are willing and motivated but lack the required „maturity‰ or „ability‰. (c) S3 Participating (High Relationship/Low Task Behaviour) Here decision making is shared between leaders and followers ă the main role of the leader being to facilitate and communicate. It entails high support and low direction and is used when people are able, but are perhaps unwilling or insecure (they are of „moderate to high maturity‰). (d) S4 Delegating (Low Relationship/Low Task Behaviour) The leader still identifies the problem or issue, but the responsibility for carrying out the response is given to followers. It entails having a high degree of competence and maturity (people know what to do, and are motivated to do it). Figure 3.1: The Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership model Source: Hersey & Blanchard (1977) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONTINGENCY AND SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP 79 Aside from their very general nature, there are some issues with such models. First, there is a lot of evidence to suggest that cultural factors influence the way that people carry out, and respond to, different leadership styles. For example, some cultures are more individualistic, or value family as against bureaucratic models, or have very different expectations about how people address and talk with each other. All these have impact on the choice of style and approach. Second, as we saw earlier, there may be different patterns of leadership linked with men and women. Some have argued that women may have leadership styles that are more nurturing, caring and sensitive. They look more to relationships. Men are said to look to task. However, there is a lot of debate about this. We can find plenty of examples of nurturing men and task-oriented women. Any contrasts between the styles of men and women may be down to the situation. In management, for example, women are more likely to be in positions of authority in people-oriented sectors ă so this aspect of style is likely to be emphasised. Third, Hersey and Blanchard „focus mainly on the relationship between managers and immediate subordinates, and say little about issues of structure, politics or symbols‰. 1. Explain how the Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership model works. 2. Discuss the four leadership styles identified by Hersey and Blancard (1977). Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 3.3 When will delegating and telling styles be effective tools for success? SELF-CHECK 3.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
80 TOPIC 3 CONTINGENCY AND SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP This topic introduced and critically evaluated several contingency and situational leadership theories ă FiedlerÊs contingency theory, path-goal theory of leadership effectiveness and Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership theory. FiedlerÊs contingency theory of leadership effectiveness introduces the need to identify the environment and leaders adapting their behaviour to meet the needs of the followers. The path-goal theory of leadership effectiveness emphasises how leaders use motivation to accomplish goals. The Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership theory identifies four different leadership styles that could be adapted to deal with different situations ă S1 Telling, S2 Selling, S3 Participating and S4 Delegating. Contingency theory FiedlerÊs contingency theory Hersey-Blanchard leadership theory Path-goal theory Situational theory Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York, NY: Free Press. Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass and StogdillÊs handbook of leadership theory: Research and managerial applications (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Free Press. Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper Row. Fiedler, F. E., & Chemers, M. M. (1974). Leadership and effective management. Glenview, IL: Scott. Foresman. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONTINGENCY AND SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP 81 Grint, K. (1997). Leadership: Classical, contemporary and critical approaches. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1982). Management of organization behavior: Utilizing human resources. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. House, R. J., & Mitchell, R. R. (1974). Path-goal theory of leadership. Journal of Contemporary Business, 3(4), 81ă97. Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (1991). Educational administration: theory research and practice. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1995). The leadership challenge. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Northouse, P. G. (2001). Leadership: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Sadler, P. (1997) Leadership. London, England: Kogan. Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership. A survey of theory and research. New York, NY: Free Press. Van Maurik, J. (2001). Writers on leadership. London, England: Penguin. Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Why are you doing the Masters of Education? Perhaps with a MasterÊs degree you will be able to lecture in a college or improve your chances of a promotion or simply to learn more about education. Surely you have your own reasons and are interested enough to take courses towards getting a MasterÊs degree. Interest is an important motivator for a student. So is a desire to learn. Although interest and desire are important, they may not be enough. Think about this analogy. Topic 4 Leadership and Motivation LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Describe what motivation is; 2. Compare the content leadership and motivation theories proposed by Maslow, McClelland and Alderg; 3. Compare the process motivation theories proposed by Vroom and Locke; 4. Identify how the theories explain the leader motivating employees in an organisation; and 5. Discuss behaviour modification and motivation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION 83 In your garage is parked a powerful sleek sports car with enough fuel, a new set of tyres and equipped with the latest stereophonic system. The car has incredible potential and but until you sit in the driverÊs seat and start the ignition, the car does not function. Yes, the key is motivation. When it comes to motivation, knowing (that you have a powerful sport car) is not as important as doing (starting and driving it). Similarly, in studying for this course, you may have the intelligence, knowledge base, study skills and time management skills, but if you do not have motivation or desire to learn, you will not get far. WHAT IS MOTIVATION? Motivation is a difficult concept to analyse because many different factors influence the inclination to act. Many factors determine whether employees (for example, teachers) in your organisation (for example, schools) will be motivated or not motivated to work. Generally, motivation can be defined as an internal state or condition which gets your behaviour started and more importantly keeps it going. Motivation is important because it affects your arousal level (the intensity or enthusiasm with which you will pursue something), choice (which of the alternatives will you choose), performance level (the amount of effort you will put into your work), persistence (whether you will continue working despite resistance or just give up). Motivation affects your emotional state in determining whether you derive positive experiences and satisfaction such as when most of your students are able to solve the mathematical problems given, but when you face negative experiences when doing a particular task (for example, your tutor is unable to make you understand what he is teaching) you will become demotivated if the negative situation continues. 4.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)