234 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS With respect to removing stereotypical language, the following strategies might be useful: (a) Be aware of words, images and situations that suggest that all or most members of a racial group are the same. Example: „Why canÊt Kontoi ever be on time?‰ „HeÊs Orang Asli, isnÊt he?‰ (b) Avoid using qualifiers that reinforce racial and ethnic stereotypes. Example: „The articulate Orang Asli student‰ implies that Orang Asli students typically have low verbal skills. (c) Avoid racial identification except when it is essential to communication. Example: „Judy, an outgoing student‰ is preferable to „Judy, an outgoing Malaysian female student‰. (d) Be aware of possible negative implications of colour symbolism and usage that could offend people or reinforce bias. Example: Terms such as „black magic‰ or „black market‰ can be offensive. (e) Avoid language that has questionable racial or ethnic connotations. Example: Phrases such as „culturally deprived‰, „culturally disadvantaged‰ and „you people‰ have racist overtones. With respect to changing communicative behaviours which violate the cultural rules of others, the following strategies may be useful: (a) Be aware of rules for attentiveness during conversation. Example: The constant maintenance of eye contact while listening during a conversation. (b) Be aware of rules regarding the distance between speakers during conversation. Example: In some cultures, speakers stand close enough to touch often. In other cultures, distance is maintained to denote respect. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 235 (c) Be aware that objects, characters and symbols may reflect different beliefs or values for different groups. (d) Be aware that cultures may vary in what they consider humorous or taboo. Example: Ethnic humour is often perceived by many groups as evidence of racial prejudice. Discussion of group cultural rules and behaviours with outsiders is considered taboo within many cultures. (e) Be aware of different rules for taking turns during conversations. (f) Cultures may use different standards for loudness, speed of delivery, silence, attentiveness and time to respond to anotherÊs point. (g) Be aware of different cultural rules for entering into conversations in progress. One way to improve relationships across cultural lines, particularly in the upper grades, is to develop a unit on „Communicating with One Another‰. The purpose of such a unit would be to teach students how to communicate more effectively across cultural lines and how to address and negotiate differences. It is also useful for teachers to brainstorm with one another on how to remove communication barriers. In addition, a well-designed staff development programme can lead to better relations among staff and generate effective cross cultural communication activities for the classroom. It can also be useful for teachers to ask parents to identify sources of miscommunication and socially offensive behaviour or language. Parents may be asked to suggest ways that school personnel can improve communication with students, adults and the communities. While schools have a responsibility to teach students the behavioural codes of the society at large and to expect students to adhere to them, they have a similar responsibility to reduce culturally induced discipline problems and to avoid misinterpreting cultural differences as behavioural problems. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
236 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS RESOLVING CONFLICTS Conflict is a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a threat to their needs, interests or concerns. Within this simple definition there are several important understandings that emerge: (a) Disagreement Generally, we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict. But the true disagreement versus the perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another. In fact, conflict tends to be accompanied by significant levels of misunderstanding that exaggerate the perceived disagreement considerably. If we can understand the true areas of disagreement, this will help us solve the right problems and manage the true needs of the parties. (b) Parties Involved There are often disparities in our sense of who is involved in the conflict. Sometimes, people are surprised to learn they are a party to the conflict, while other times we are shocked to learn we are not included in the disagreement. On many occasions, people who are seen as part of the social system (for example, work teams, families, schools or institutions) are influenced to participate in the dispute, whether they would personally define the situation in that way or not. In the above example, people very readily „take sides‰ based upon current perceptions of the issues, past issues and relationships, roles within the organisation and other factors. The parties involved can become an elusive concept to define. 9.4 1. What is cross-cultural communication? 2. Identify and explain how to remove the cross-cultural communication barrier. 3. „Communicating with one another‰ is one way to improve relationships across cultural lines in Malaysia. How would you go about doing it? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 9.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 237 (c) Perceived Threat People respond to the perceived threat, rather than the true threat, facing them. Thus, while perception does not become reality per se, peopleÊs behaviours, feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they confront. If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies (solutions) that manage it (agreement), we are acting constructively to manage the conflict. (d) Needs, Interests or Concerns There is a tendency to narrowly define „the problem‰ as one of substance, task and near-term viability. However, workplace conflicts tend to be far more complex than that, for they involve ongoing relationships with complex, emotional components. Simply stated, there are always procedural needs and psychological needs to be addressed within the conflict, in addition to the substantive needs that are generally presented. Also, the durability of the interests and concerns of the parties transcends the immediate presenting situation. Any efforts to resolve conflicts effectively must take these points into account. Conflicts occur when people (or other parties) perceive that, as a consequence of a disagreement, there is a threat to their needs, interests or concerns. Although conflict is a normal part of organisation life, providing numerous opportunities for growth through improved understanding and insight, there is a tendency to view conflict as a negative experience caused by abnormally difficult circumstances. Disputants tend to perceive limited options and finite resources available in seeking solutions, rather than multiple possibilities that may exist „outside the box‰. A few points are worth reiterating before proceeding: (a) A conflict is more than a mere disagreement ă it is a situation in which people perceive a threat (physical, emotional, power, status, etc.) to their well-being. As such, it is a meaningful experience in peopleÊs lives, not to be shrugged off by a mere, „it will pass⁄‰ (b) Participants in conflicts tend to respond on the basis of their perceptions of the situation, rather than an objective review of it. As such, people filter their perceptions (and reactions) through their values, culture, beliefs, information, experience, gender and other variables. Conflict responses are both filled with ideas and feelings that can be very strong and powerful guides to our sense of possible solutions. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
238 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS (c) As in any problem, conflicts contain substantive, procedural and psychological dimensions to be negotiated. In order to best understand the threat perceived by those engaged in a conflict, we need to consider all of these dimensions. (d) Conflicts are normal experiences within the work environment. They are also, to a large degree, predictable and expectable situations that naturally arise as we go about managing complex and stressful projects in which we are significantly invested. As such, if we develop procedures for identifying conflicts likely to arise, as well as systems through which we can constructively manage conflicts, we may be able to discover new opportunities to transform conflict into a productive learning experience. 9.4.1 Conflict is Normal: Anticipating Conflicts Likely to Arise in the Workplace Normal, healthy organisations will experience their share of conflict and workplaces experiencing a certain amount of dysfunction will experience it in greater quantities. Anticipating conflicts is useful in either situation for transforming these situations into opportunities for growth and learning. Consider⁄ (a) Are there seasonal peaks in our workload that tend to occur annually? Chart the occurrence of such challenges, and consider whether they can be managed as a normal period of stress and transition. For example, a school had a large population of students who arrived after long bus rides without breakfast, who tended to arrive at school ready to fight. The school identified 10 minutes at the start of the day to give these students a healthy snack and worked with teachers to pull out students who were not yet ready for school before they became disruptive. After food and a little counselling, students entered their classrooms in a better frame of mind (and body) to participate. (b) Do we have channels for expressing normal problems and concerns in a predictable, reliable manner? Staff meetings should be used as tools for effective problem solving in a range of situations, including anticipated conflicts. If such channels are perceived by staff as closed, unsafe, and non-productive, they will be replaced by gossip, „end runs‰ and back-biting. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 239 (c) Are there certain factors in the environment that make problems worse, especially at times of conflict? Take stock of your processes for managing during stressful times. Look at how phones are routed, noise is managed, client lines are queued, distractions are managed, etc. Often, our response during times of stress is to meet less frequently, because „we have no time to meet‰. Also, we continue to do things the way we have been doing them, because „we have no time to create new procedures‰. This approach dooms us to repeat the same errors, rather than to learn from the opportunities. Examine your systems for managing problems, including dispute resolution systems and use times of "harmony" to identify process improvements that can be implemented in times of stress. 9.4.2 Conflict Style and Their Consequences Conflict is often best understood by examining the consequences of various behaviours at moments in time. These behaviours are usefully categorised according to conflict styles. Each style is a way to meet oneÊs needs in a dispute but may impact other people in different ways. (a) Competing is a style in which oneÊs own needs are advocated over the needs of others. It relies on an aggressive style of communication, low regard for future relationships and the exercise of coercive power. Those using a competitive style tend to seek control over a discussion, in both substance and ground rules. They fear that loss of such control will result in solutions that fail to meet their needs. Competing tends to result in responses that increase the level of threat. (b) Accommodating, also known as smoothing, is the opposite of competing. Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others, trying to be diplomatic. They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own, which may not ever be stated, as preserving the relationship is seen as most important. (c) Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict. „Perhaps if we donÊt bring it up, it will blow over‰, we say to ourselves. But, generally, all that happens is that feelings get pent up, views go unexpressed, and the conflict festers until it becomes too big to ignore. Like cancer that may well have been cured if treated early, the conflict grows and spreads until it kills the relationship. Because needs and concerns go unexpressed, people are often confused, wondering what went wrong in a relationship. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
240 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS (d) Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a series of trade-offs. While satisfactory, compromise is generally not satisfying. We each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and do not necessarily understand the other side very well. We often retain a lack of trust and avoid risk-taking involved in more collaborative behaviours. (e) Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common goal. Often called „win-win problem-solving‰, collaboration requires assertive communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either individual could have achieved alone. It offers the chance for consensus, the integration of needs and the potential to exceed the „budget of possibilities‰ that previously limited our views of the conflict. It brings new time, energy and ideas to resolve the dispute meaningfully. By understanding each style and its consequences, we may normalise the results of our behaviours in various situations. This is not to say, „Thou shalt collaborate‰ in a moralising way, but to indicate the expected consequences of each approach. If we use a competing style, we might force the others to accept „our‰ solution, but this acceptance may be accompanied by fear and resentment. If we accommodate, the relationship may proceed smoothly, but we may build up frustrations that our needs are going unmet. If we compromise, we may feel OK about the outcome, but still harbour resentments in the future. If we collaborate, we may not gain a better solution than a compromise might have yielded, but we are more likely to feel better about our chances for future understanding and goodwill. Also, if we avoid discussing the conflict at all, both parties may remain clueless about the real underlying issues and concerns, only to be dealing with them in the future. 9.4.3 How we Respond to Conflict: Thoughts, Feelings and Physical Responses In addition to the behavioural responses summarised by the various conflict styles, we have emotional, cognitive and physical responses to conflict. These are important windows into our experience during conflict, for they frequently tell us more about what is the true source of threat that we perceive; by understanding our thoughts, feelings and physical responses to conflict, we may get better insights into the best potential solutions to the situation (Webne Behrman, 1998). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 241 (a) Emotional Responses These are the feelings we experience in conflict, ranging from anger and fear to despair and confusion. Emotional responses are often misunderstood, as people tend to believe that others feel the same as they do. Thus, differing emotional responses are confusing and at times, threatening. (b) Cognitive Responses These are our ideas and thoughts about a conflict, often present as inner voices or internal observers in the midst of a situation. Through subvocalisation (that is, self-talk), we come to understand these cognitive responses. For example, we might think any of the following things in response to another person taking a parking spot just as we are ready to park: „That jerk! Who does he think he is! What a sense of entitlement!‰ or: „I wonder if he realises what he has done. He seems lost in his own thoughts. I hope he is okay‰. or: „What am I supposed to do? Now IÊm going to be late for my meeting⁄ Should I say something to him? What if he gets mad at me?‰ Such differing cognitive responses contribute to emotional and behavioural responses, where self-talk can either promote a positive or negative feedback loop in the situation. (c) Physical Responses These responses can play an important role in our ability to meet our needs in the conflict. They include heightened stress, bodily tension, increased perspiration, tunnel vision, shallow or accelerated breathing, nausea and rapid heartbeat. These responses are similar to those we experience in highanxiety situations, and they may be managed through stress management techniques. Establishing a calmer environment in which emotions can be managed is more likely if the physical response is addressed effectively. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
242 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 9.4.4 The Role of Perceptions in Conflict As noted in our basic definition of conflict, we define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a threat to their needs, interests or concerns. One key element of this definition is the idea that each party may have a different perception of any given situation. We can anticipate having such differences due to a number of factors that create „perceptual filters‰ that influence our responses to the situation: (a) Culture, Race and Ethnicity (Heitler, 1990) Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world, as well as the role of conflict in that experience. We may have learned to value substantive, procedural and psychological needs differently as a result, thus influencing our willingness to engage in various modes of negotiation and efforts to manage the conflict (b) Gender and Sexuality (Tannen, 2001) Men and women often perceive situations somewhat differently, based on both their experiences in the world (which relates to power and privilege, as do race and ethnicity) and socialisation patterns that reinforce the importance of relationships vs. task, substance vs. process, immediacy vs. long-term outcomes. As a result, men and women will often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired outcomes from the situation, as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist. (c) Knowledge (General and Situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand. This includes situation-specific knowledge (that is, „Do I understand what is going on here?‰) and general knowledge (that is, „Have I experienced this type of situation before?‰ or „Have I studied about similar situations before?‰). Such information can influence the personÊs willingness to engage in efforts to manage the conflict, either reinforcing confidence to deal with the dilemma or undermining oneÊs willingness to flexibly consider alternatives. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 243 (d) Impressions of the Messenger If the person sharing the message ă the messenger ă is perceived to be a threat (powerful, scary, unknown, etc.), this can influence our responses to the overall situation being experienced. For example, if a big scary-looking guy is approaching me rapidly, yelling „Get out of the way!‰ I may respond differently than if a diminutive, calm person would express the same message to me. As well, if I knew either one of them previously, I might respond differently based upon that prior sense of their credibility: I am more inclined to listen with respect to someone I view as credible as if the message comes from someone who lacks credibility and integrity in my mind. (e) Previous Experiences Some of us have had profound, significant life experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations. These experiences may have left us fearful, lacking trust and reluctant to take risks. On the other hand, previous experiences may have left us confident, willing to take chances and experience the unknown. Either way, we must acknowledge the role of previous experiences as elements of our perceptual filter in the current dilemma. These factors (along with others) conspire to form the perceptual filters through which we experience conflict. As a result, our reactions to the threat and dilemma posed by conflict should be anticipated to include varying understandings of the situation. This also means that we can anticipate that in many conflicts there will be significant misunderstanding of each otherÊs perceptions, needs and feelings. These challenges contribute to our emerging sense, during conflict, that the situation is overwhelming and unsolvable. As such, they become critical sources of potential understanding, insight and possibility. 9.4.5 Why do we Tend to Avoid Dealing with Conflict? Engaging in dialogue and negotiation around conflict is something we tend to approach with fear and hesitation, afraid that the conversation will go worse than the conflict has gone thus far. All too often, we talk ourselves out of potential dialogue (Webne Behrman, 1998): „Why should I talk to her? SheÊll bite my head off and not listen to anything I have to say!‰ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
244 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS OR „I should talk to him about this problem, but maybe it will go away on its own. There is no sense stirring up something that makes us both uncomfortable‰. OR „If I go to him, I am making myself vulnerable. No, thatÊs his responsibility ă he should come to me and ask me to talk!‰ Our responses, as noted earlier, tend to include behaviours, feelings, thoughts and physical responses. If any of these responses indicates stress factors that make us reluctant to talk things out, we are more inclined to follow the pathway of avoidance. In addition, if we have history with the individuals involved in this conflict (that is, we have tried to negotiate with them in the past, without success), it will „filter‰ our perceptions of this situation and make us reluctant to negotiate. In addition, consider that our society tends to reward alternative responses to conflict, rather than negotiation: People who aggressively pursue their needs, competing rather than collaborating, are often satisfied by others who prefer to accommodate. Managers and leaders are often rewarded for their aggressive, controlling approaches to problems, rather than taking a more compassionate approach to issues that may seem less decisive to the public or their staff (Bridges, 1991). In other circumstances, those who raise issues and concerns, even respectfully, are quickly perceived to be „problem‰ clients or staff members⁄ they tend to be avoided and minimised. In any of these approaches, negotiated solutions to conflicts are rarely modelled or held in high esteem. 1. What are some of the key sources of conflict in our workplace? 2. How do we solve conflicts as a short-term measure and as a long term strategy? 3. How does the Malaysian Government handle conflicts in its multiracial society? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 9.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 245 Keep in mind that negotiation requires profound courage on the part of all parties; it takes courage to honestly and clearly articulate your needs, and it takes courage to sit down and listen to your adversaries. It takes courage to look at your own role in the dispute, and it takes courage to approach others with a sense of empathy, openness and respect for their perspective. Collaborative approaches to conflict management require us to engage in the moment of dialogue in profound and meaningful ways, so it is understandable if we tend to avoid such situations until the balance of wisdom tips in favour of negotiation. Communication is a skill that leaders need to acquire as it enhances relationships and resolve conflicts. It is important for leaders to have good communication skills because it is through communication the leaders can inspire followers to be effective, motivated and achieve common goals. There are various ways to communicate, ranging from written words, spoken words, symbolic gestures and visual images to body language. A combination of one or two methods would increase its effectiveness. To improve relationships among the stakeholders, it is vital to know the attributes of supportive communication. Cross-cultural communication skills are important as it enables leaders to communicate with people of different cultures. Communication skills Cross-cultural communication Cultural differences Inspirational communication Resolving conflicts Supportive communication Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
246 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS Barnlund, D. C. (1968). Interpersonal communication: Survey and studies. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Bolton, R. (1979). People skills: How to assert yourself, listen to others & resolve conflicts. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. Boss, W. L. (1983). Team building and the problem of regression: The personal management interview as an intervention. Journal Applied Behavioral Science, 19(1), 67ă83. Bridges, W. (1991). Managing transitions: Making the most of change. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Publishing Company. Brownell J. (1990). Perceptions of effective listeners. Journal of Business Communication, 27(4), 401ă415. Crum, T. (1998). The magic of conflict. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. Cupach, W. R., & Spitzberg, B. H. (1994). The dark side of interpersonal communication. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Fisher, R., & Brown, S. (1998). Getting together: Building relationships as we negotiate. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Fisher, R., & Ury, W. (1991). Getting to yes: Negotiating agreement without giving in workbook. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Fisher, R., & Ertl D. (1995). Getting ready to negotiate: The getting to Yes workbook. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Glasser, W. (2000). Reality therapy in action. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Haas, J. W., & Arnold, C. L. (1995). An examination of the role of listening in judgments of communication of coworkers. Journal of Business Communication, 22, 123ă39. Heitler, S. M. (1990). From conflict to resolution. New York, NY: W.W. Norton and Co. Hyman, R. (1989). The psychology of deception. Annual Review Psychology, 40(1), 133ă154. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS 247 Knapp, M. L., & Vangelisti, A. L. (1996). Interpersonal communication and human relationships. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Kramer, R. (2000). Wisdom as a classical source of human strength: Conceptualization and empirical inquiry. Journal Social Clinical Psychology, 19(1), 83ă101. Latif, D. A., & Grillo, J. A. (2001). Satisfaction of junior faculty with academic role functions. American Journal Pharmacy Education, 65(2), 137ă143. Laborde, G. (1987). Influencing with integrity: Management skills for communication and negotiation. Palo Alto, CA.: Syntony Publishing. Maier, M. R. F., Solem, A. R., & Maier, A. A. (1973). Counseling, interviewing, and job contacts. In Maier MRF, Education. Psychology of Industrial Organizations. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Rosen, H. R., & Berger, L. (1992). The healthy company. New York, NY: PutnamÊs Sons. Rogers, C., & Farson, R. (1976). Active listening. Chicago, IL: Industrial Relations Center. Steil, L., Barker, L., & Watson, K. (1999). Effective listening: Key to your success. New York, NY: Addison-Wessley. Sternberg, R. J. (1990). Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Schnake, M. E., Dumler, M. P., Cochran, D. S., & Barnett, T. R. (1990). Effects of differences in superior and subordinate perceptions of superiorsÊ communication practices. Journal of Business Communication, 27(1), 37ă50. Singer, L. (1990). Settling disputes. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Tannen, D. (1994). Talking from 9 to 5: Women and men in the workplace. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster Audio. Tanner, D. (2001). You just donÊt understand: Women and men in conversation. New York, NY: Harper Collins Books. Ury, W. (1991). Getting Past No: Negotiating with difficult people. New York, NY: Bantam Books. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
248 TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS Ury, B., & Goldberg (1989). Getting disputes resolved. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass Publishing. Volkema, R. (1999). The negotiation tool kit. New York, NY: AMACOM, American Management Association. Webne Behrman, H. (1994). Guardian of the process: A handbook for group facilitators. Madison, WI: Collaborative Initiative. Webne Behrman, H. (1998). The practice of facilitation: Managing group process and solving problems. Westport, CT.: Quorum Books. Weeks, D. (1992). The eight essential steps to conflict resolution. New York, NY: Tarcher Books. Whetten, D. A., & Cameron, K. S. (2002). Developing management skills, 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Weimann, J. M. (1977). Explanation and test of a model of communication competence. Human Communication Review, 3, 145ă213. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION With a more enlightened society where the literacy rate is almost universal (about 99 per cent of the population), leadership of nations and organisations takes on a different form other than what is normal. The followers cannot be fooled into obeying the leader without questioning him. They must be satisfied with the decision of the leader, use rational, logic and reason as the guiding principle in all actions. As the result of this change, leadership takes a different shape. Participative leadership, empowerment of followers and collective decision making are the norm. The staff members are skilful in many areas of the discipline and multi-tasking has become the norm. „The Jack of all trades‰ has been accepted as the more acceptable characteristic among staff members rather than a specialist who is unwilling to do tasks other than their own specialisation. Topic 10 Shaping TomorrowÊs Leadership and Organisation LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Explain the change process; 2. Describe how to bring about change initiated by the leader and change as a collaborative process between all parties, leaders and subordinates; 3. Organise the school to have a strategic advantage to achieve the school objectives; 4. Manage knowledge effectively; and 5. Establish the school as a learning organisation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
250 TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION With this changing scenario, leaders of the future should be shaped to fulfil the requirements and specifications of the present era and the future. Leaders should be educated, trained and exposed to the changes that are happening in society and be adaptable to future changes. A rigid leader will either make way for an adaptable leader or has to shape himself to fit the requirements of the present and the future. Inflexible leaders have no place in our fast changing world. MODELS FOR WORKING AND ORGANISING A leader in any organisation needs to have successful models that they can emulate. The responsibility of a leader would be made lighter if he has knowledge about effective leadership which entails understanding the moral purpose of leadership, the nature of change and relationships, the need of building knowledge and working in a cyber environment. If a leader of the past era were to assume responsibility of leading in the present era, he needs to relearn everything for the present era and the future requires a different set of philosophy, attitude, knowledge and skills. 10.1.1 Understanding Change Understanding change is a key factor, as changes are more likely to occur in the present 21st century than the previous one. Fullan (2001) reminded us that „A culture of change consists of great rapidity and nonlinearity on the one hand and equally great potential for creative breakthroughs on the other. The paradox is that transformation would not be possible without accompanying messiness‰. Due to its rapidity and nonlinearity, change brings about chaos if it is not handled by experts in the area. This danger is also faced by school principals. In the Malaysian situation, the change of the medium of instruction for the teaching of Mathematics and Science into English brought about some chaotic situations due to the inability of these teachers to communicate in English effectively with the students. The problem was compounded by the insufficient number of teachers in those specialisations who can teach in English. Strong leaders (principals) are needed to bring such changes to success whilst good middle managers or the senior management team (SMT) are needed to carry out the implementation of change. However, critiques of management and managerialism have argued that, on the drive toward efficiency, the SMT can cause untenable assumptions about the changes that are targeted. 10.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION 251 Understanding change and the after effects of the process would be a good asset for leaders. The anticipation of the messiness of the effect of change would better prepare a leader to handle the problems that come with it. In the process of creating a change, the potential of creative breakthroughs is ever present. The paradigm shifts that come along with change will open up peopleÊs minds and new viewpoints that were not even dreamt of before the change process seems to be free flowing. As a leader in a school, the principal plays an important role to lead the teachers, students and the parents towards the path of change. Therefore, the principal needs to have knowledge about the change process and the right attitude towards the need for change. A change might not achieve its target if the people who are to be involved in the change process do not give their cooperation. They need to be convinced and the task of the leader becomes heavier and he needs other skills, such as communication skills, human relation skills and resilience. Some of these knowledge and skills have already been covered in previous topics while others will be discussed further in this final topic. 10.1.2 Process for Initiating Top-down Transformation Any change or transformation needs to be planned and it needs theoretical and conceptual knowledge as a basis for doing the right thing rather than groping in the dark. Kotter (1991) proposes an eight step process for initiating a change that comes from the top of the hierarchy. The leader initiates the change and success will only come if the following steps are recognised and followed. (a) Establishing a Sense of Urgency The leader must create a sense of urgency among the followers so that they would be in synchronisation with the leader. Once they are able to feel the urgency for the change they will participate in the change process. (b) Creating a Guiding Coalition When the followers can see the importance and the urgency of the change they will cooperate with each other, and together they will go through the process of the change. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
252 TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION (c) Developing a Vision and Strategy To get the commitment of every individual who will be affected by the change, the leader should develop a vision and a strategy to implement it. The vision and the strategy would ensure that the change would be following the course that has been planned. (d) Communicating the Change Vision The change vision needs to be communicated to those who are directly involved with the change process. This action would ensure that all members are always aware of the objectives of the vision and this awareness motivates them to work for the objectives. (e) Empowering Broad-based Action When the members are fully informed about the changes that need to be done, they will be willing to carry out the responsibilities voluntarily. They will learn the knowledge and skills needed for the implementation of the change. Once they are equipped, the leader can empower them with the responsibility of carrying out the change programs. Empowerment of subordinates will make it easier for the achievement of the objectives. (f) Generating Short-term Wins In order to maintain the interest and motivation of the followers, short-term objectives should be designed into the change process. These short-term objectives that can be achieved easily in the long process of change and act as the impetus for further actions. (g) Consolidating Gains and Producing More Change Once the planned objectives are achieved they need to be strengthened and, in the process, the gains would be permanent and this will generate further changes. In an education scenario, once the students have made reading a permanent habit, the teachers can introduce more challenging lessons that need further reading and research before they will achieve the objectives of the exercise. (h) Anchoring New Approaches in the Culture When the objectives of the planned change have materialised, a new culture has been established. The more enlightened culture will deteriorate if new approaches of doing things have not become embedded in society. The new society created through the change process needs to proceed further ahead through other changes that will occur. If the new society becomes relaxed in the new comfort zone, then they will be left behind for new changes have to be made in order to keep with the times and to maintain the same position or better in comparison with the others. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION 253 10.1.3 Process for Initiating Bottom-up Transformation We all know that if we were to bring about change and that change is only the wish of the superiors then the change might not be as effective as if it were to come from both the leader and the followers at the same time. Beer, Eisenstat, and Spector (1990) observed that the ideas of change should also be from the bottom-up. The way to bring about the energies of the people is observed as the following (as cited in Mintzberg et al., 1998, p. 338): (a) Mobilise commitment to change through joint diagnosis with people in the organisation of business problems. (b) Develop a shared vision of how to organise and manage for competitiveness. (c) Foster concerns for the new vision, competence to enact it, and cohesion to move it along. (d) Spend revitalisation to all departments without pushing it from the top. (e) Institutionalise revitalisation through formal policies, systems, and structure. (f) Monitor and adjust strategies in response to problems in the revitalisation process. When both the leaders and the subordinates cooperate with each other through the institutionalisation of the change process, then change that brings about innovation and invention with it will be a permanent feature of the society. A new culture has been established. ORGANISING FOR STRATEGIC ADVANTAGE Many nations of this world are capable of producing and providing the products and services that are needed by consumers world-wide but not all nations will be equally successful. The success of any venture depends upon many factors that can be classified as organising for strategic advantage. The factors that can influence either the success or the failure of any venture can be classified into the following realms. 10.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
254 TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION (a) Manpower planning should consider recruiting the right people for the right posts to ensure that the best suited person holds the post to best meet the planned objectives within the targeted period. Failing to do so endangers the mission and vision of the organisation. Nations that practice meritocracy in the real sense have an advantage to advance faster than others which practice nepotism. (b) Skilful and educated workforce is an advantage for the successful implementation of any development programme or change. The better educated workforce can easily be trained to master the skills needed in the development of the nation especially in high-tech industries. (c) Positive attitude and work ethics of the workforce. Workers who are willing to work hard and motivated towards their work will ensure that the products they produce will be of high-quality. (d) The existing demographic/geographical/policy advantage. Some nations are more advantaged than others in various areas such as having beautiful beaches, islands and highlands while others are land-locked. Some nations are multi-lingual that can become an advantage over nations which are monolingual. Nations that have an open door policy will attract more tourists than nations that are cold towards foreigners. (e) Strong and Strategic leadership. The leader should be strong in the sense that he gets the support of the majority of the people. This strong support helps in achieving the objectives of the development and change programs. The leader should also be a visionary who could see the future and planned for the people and country to be at an advantage in the areas that have been developed. All these characteristics could be established if the leaders and the society are willing to change. They could be developed when the leaders and the people in the society are willing to work towards achieving the planned objectives through innovations and new procedures. Regarding the selection of leaders of industries, the criteria should be based on their expertise rather than their close association with the political leaders or their ethnic background. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION 255 An educated workforce is closely related to the education system of the nation. A progressive curriculum and co-curriculum that prepare the students to be openminded, knowledgeable, creative and innovative with sound moral and ethics, is the factor that can be an advantage over others. The workforce with this background will easily adapt themselves to the changes that occur and be still in the forefront. WORKING AND ORGANISING IN A WIRED WORLD The computer and the Internet have revolutionised our working environment. They have shortened the time to complete our tasks that used to take a lot more time when they were not in existence about three decades ago. With computer facilities, there is no need for the services of the typists while the services of the dispatch clerks are becoming less important. New ways of doing things have cropped up and a different paradigm has replaced the older one. In the past, specialisation was the mode of management but with the advancement of the computer and the Internet, multi-tasking has become a required criterion for taking up a job and responsibility. 10.3 1. Discuss the demographic/geographical/policy advantages of Malaysia. 2. Strong and strategic leadership are two qualities that are lacking in some schools. What do you consider are the characteristics of a strong and strategic leader? 3. „Spend revitalisation to all departments‰ needs to be elaborated. What do you understand by that statement? 4. „Bottom-up‰ and „Top-down‰ techniques of implementing change might not be possible to be implemented simultaneously. Which one is more practical in implementing change in schools? Explain. 5. „Creative breakthroughs‰ may result in the change process. Explain how this phenomenon occurs. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 10.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
256 TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION 10.3.1 Multi-tasking „Jack of all trades and the master of none‰ is not the whole truth and not in favour anymore. The market place needs a person who is „Jack of all trades and the master of all‰. The leaders of our schools, namely the principals have to be a „Jack of all trades‰ because they have to know about managing their staff, know how to use the computer to write e-mails and send them through the wired technology to the respective addresses, to use Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel to write letters and to provide data to be sent to the education departments and the Ministry of Education. These basic skills are essential to be effective in our present environment. Without it, the principals would be helpless and they would not be of much use to fulfil their responsibilities. A principal in a private school or college needs to do other things as well, such as marketing his programmes and institution, training his staff on methodologies of teaching, studentsÊ discipline as well as ensuring that there is a healthy cash flow. 10.3.2 Information and Knowledge Management With the advancement of the Internet, information is at our fingertips; that is for those who know how to get it. The principal can be a tool for disseminating information to the teachers and students. The teachers can help the students to gain access to information and knowledge. If the Internet is utilised properly by the students with proper supervision by the teachers, then it becomes a limitless resource tool to teachers and students. The principal can think of creative ways and means to maximise the use of the Internet. The following are some of the ideas that can be adopted for the benefit of the students: (a) The principal can draw a schedule for the utilisation of the Internet by the students outside school hours as part of the co-curriculum activities including seeking information for their assignments. (b) The school can appoint senior students who are knowledgeable about the use of the Internet as mentors to other students. (c) Classes for learning to use the softwares provided by computer companies can be held for the students so that they can master the skills of using the computer. (d) Competitions can be held for the students such as designing web pages to create interest and awareness among the school population regarding the usefulness of the computer. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION 257 (e) The school can develop an informative web site for others to communicate with the school. (f) The school can develop relationships with other schools across the globe through their web sites. (g) Information and knowledge exchange between the schools across the globe will be beneficial to all parties. (h) The students can become „ambassadors‰ for Malaysia to foster goodwill among the students around the globe. These activities will enrich the students in knowledge, communication skills, intercultural and interpersonal relationships in a „global village‰ environment. It is a good beginning for the students to enter the real world. They would be wiser and more confident in whatever venture they would enter after they leave school. LEADING PEOPLE IN THE ORGANISATION OF THE FUTURE Predicting the future is like an astrologer predicting what will happen to you based on the movement of celestial bodies. It is a hazardous and risky business, due to unexpected events and surprises such as the break-up of the Soviet Union into many independent states in the 1980s, and the economic reforms of China to name a few. But as long as we have a desire to control our own destiny, we will try to envision our future. Some aspects of our lives can be shaped significantly by our aspirations, and by the nature of our schools. Morgan (1989) noted that no matter the type of organisation or the conception of leadership (e.g. Bass, 1981), the vision of what the organisation ought to be seems to be vital to success, especially during turbulent times. One of the executives of MorganÊs study noted the following: „The world is such a changeable place that you need to have a well articulated long-term sense of where you are going, which gives you the base, the confidence to take on whatever adaptability issues come along without losing sense of direction. YouÊve got to respond to the issues of the moment without losing that long-term sense‰. (Leithwood, Begley & Cousins, 1994, p. 31) 10.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
258 TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION Leaders should be able to visualise the future for these visions, provide precise guides to action and allow reasonable discrepancies in need of attention to be detected in the school so that actions can be taken to rectify these discrepancies. These visions should be widely shared so that they will become points for discussions and shared collective decisions. STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP According to the definition given by Rowe (2001) „Strategic leadership is the ability to inspire others to voluntarily make day-to-day decisions that enhance the companyÊs long-term viability while at the same time maintaining short-term financial stability‰. By this definition we understand that strategic leadership has the following qualities: (a) The ability to inspire others to voluntarily make day-to-day decisions to enhance the companyÊs long term viability. (b) The ability to make long term forecasts and strategies to ensure the survival as well as the healthy existence of the organisation. (c) The ability to translate the strategic plans into short-term activities that lead into financial ability and profit. When these qualities are transferred into school leadership, we are able to visualise the sort of a principal who develops a vision for the school to achieve and at the same time he becomes an inspiration to the teachers, students and parents to achieve the objective of the vision by ensuring the achievement of the objectives of the short-term development programmes. The most difficult part of this strategic leadership is the ability to continuously inspire oneÊs followers for a length of time because the interest of the followers may subside and this can cause the failure to achieve the vision. The only way to maintain the momentum is the leader not being the first person to lose interest in the quest for achieving the vision as targeted if not earlier. He has to devise means to inspire the followers such as laying out one mission after another to be accomplished. After every successful accomplishment they should celebrate to mark every success. It is a motivating factor that can sustain the inspiration to produce better results. In the school situation for example, studentsÊ academic improvements in Mathematics or English might be a booster to teachersÊ and studentsÊ morales. 10.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION 259 Rowe (2001) again differentiated strategic leadership with visionary and managerial leaderships. According to him visionary leadership is futureorientated and concerned with taking risks. Visionary leaders are not dependent on their organisations for a sense of self, and organisational control is maintained through a set of commonly held values. On the other hand, managerial leaders are most comfortable handling day-to-day events, and focus on the short-term goals rather than long-term goals. Although sometimes touted as a panacea for many organisations in a fast-changing environment, visionary leaders are not readily embraced and unless they have managerial leaders to support them, may not be appropriate for many organisations. Strategic leadership presumes that managerial and visionary leadership can coexist, and that strategic leadership is a synergistic combination of the two. A strategic leader has the ability of the visionary leader as well as the managerial leader. Therefore, the development of a strategic leadership is important for longterm school improvement. Our Malaysian schools need leaders who can strategise the vision of the schools and at the same time create keen interest among the teachers and students to achieve the short-term goals continuously before reaching the ultimate realisation of the vision. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AND THE LEARNING ORGANISATION According to Koulopoulos and Frappaolo (2000), in a knowledge-based economy of the present era, knowledge management is very critical for the survival of a nation because it is a critical element of any business strategy. Knowledge of the business strategy will allow the organisation to accelerate the rate at which it handles new market challenges and opportunities, and it does so by leveraging its most precious resource, collective know-how, talent and experience. Knowledge management tells us that we should take stock in our greatest, most precious organisational asset; intellectual capital. A learning organisation is considered as an important factor that will ensure the organisation to survive in turbulent times for it is able to continuously learn from the information available and to adapt and adopt new technologies to ensure the organisation is at the cutting edge of new knowledge and technology. 10.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
260 TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION 10.6.1 Effective Knowledge Management The 21st century is a technology-driven century. Our communication is technology-driven and the production industry is geared towards information production. Technology can play an important role in knowledge management. The computer system once again plays a vital role in knowledge management. A leader must realise that knowledge management is not a simple matter. It is not a technology, although technology should be positioned to facilitate it. It is not a business strategy, although one aligned with the tenets of knowledge management must exist. The smart leader must put all these in place and build a culture that promotes faith in collectively sharing and thinking. In a knowledge-based economy, knowledge management is the critical element of a business strategy that will allow the organisation to accelerate the rate at which it handles new market challenges and opportunities through the usage of their precious resources of collective know-how, talent and experience. The data collected from our own research, from intelligence gathering, from the Internet data, and the process of selected information gathering can provide useful information that can lead to strategies useful for the survival of organisations. The collected information and data have to be analysed by those who have the knowledge and talents both collectively and individually. Knowledge management is popular in corporations and academics but one day it will be integrated into the normal operations of business. Effective knowledge management in an organisation creates, explicates and communicates knowledge and applies it to create improved decision making and organisational behaviours that positively influence overall performance. Effective knowledge management is made up of a number of elements, which singly may not bring about the desired result but collectively, they can make the organisation more effective. King (2003) made some observations regarding the knowledge-related components of an effective knowledge organisation. The components are: (a) An individual learning component which focuses on developing human intellectual capital by enhancing the knowledge of individuals through formal class work, e-learning and mentoring. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION 261 (b) An organisational development component which utilised adaptive learning to create social capital through such devices as the use of teamwork, partnerships and strategic alliances with other organisations. (c) An intellectual property management component that deals with knowledge that has already been converted into explicit form such as patents, research reports and trademarks, with the objective of generating greater revenues through licensing, brand extensions and the creation of new products. (d) An innovation component which focuses on generative learning to create new products and processes through creative thinking and which manifests itself in forms such as „idea fairs‰, and small grants for exploring new ideas. (e) A knowledge management component which focuses on the explication of the tacit knowledge that exists in the minds of organisational participants and that knowledge which is embedded and in the process and relationships of the organisation. Once it has been made explicit, it can be stored and communicated throughout the organisation. (f) An information system infrastructure which enables the components to operate and to be integrated into an overall supporting structure for the effective knowledge organisation. An organisation that develops this capability will enhance its overall capacities that can be witnessed in its decision-making capabilities and the improvement of its overall performance. On the other hand, organisations that do not develop these capabilities will be unable to compete with those that have done so. When these components have become the culture of the organisation and as an integral part of it, then the post of knowledge management officer or manager would be redundant. All staff members would have to be knowledge executives for the survival of the organisation. 10.6.2 Learning Organisation Charles Darwin once said, „It is not the strongest of the species nor the most intelligent (which survive) but the ones most responsive to change‰. It is also true among organisations. Success in a very competitive environment is the result of being able to adapt to the changes. Therefore the ability to learn so that changes can be made is a critical factor to the survival and growth of organisations. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
262 TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION First of all we have to understand the concept of the learning organisation through some definitions: From the two definitions, we can observe that a learning organisation is an organisation where every member of the organisation has to continuously learn and relearn because to be relevant at all times one has to update oneÊs knowledge, skills and attitudes. It is a process of lifelong learning. This process of lifelong learning is also a cooperative process among members where adaptation and improvement is continuous. There is no such thing as „the best‰ product or service because a new idea and product will become obsolete in time, and new ideas and products is needed to replace them. 10.6.3 Knowledge Management and Learning Organisation in the School System The concept of a learning organisation and knowledge management needs to be implemented in our schools. Our future citizens need to be inculcated with the belief that changes occur continuously and we have to adapt and improve on what we already have in order to be up-to-date in everything we do so that we will not be left behind other nations. Knowledge must be managed wisely through creative, innovative and critical thinking processes so that new ideas of doing things can lead to new inventions and innovations. The culture of the learning organisation should be developed in all schools where students would seek knowledge wherever they are not only on the subject matter that are taught in schools but also knowledge that can make them wiser, more informed and knowledgeable about other matters which can lead to creativity and the creation of new knowledge. „A learning organisation is one in which people at all levels, individually and collectively, are continually increasing their capacity to produce results they really care about‰. Karash (2001) A learning organisation as human beings cooperating in a dynamic system that is in a state of continuous adaptation and improvement. Senge (1993) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION 263 This topic has investigated the link between strategic leadership and leading change. It is important that leaders must understand change and how it affects their schools. To handle change effectively, leaders have to understand the process of initiating top-down transformation and bottom-up transformation. Change inevitably needs strategic leadership and it is necessary for leaders to know the enactment of strategic leadership for change in their schools. In the 21st century with the advancement of technology and in a digital world, leaders need to understand how to lead in organisations where work ethics and organisational structures are different from the 20th century. Bottom-up transformation Change Digital world Knowledge management Learning organisation Strategic leadership Top-down transformation 1. Differentiate between a strategic leader and a visionary leader. 2. A society that can manage knowledge efficiently can economically defeat a nation which is rich in natural resources. Discuss. 3. How would you manage knowledge in your school effectively? 4. What are the obstacles facing your school in establishing a learning organisation? 5. How would you overcome those obstacles mentioned in Q4? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 10.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
264 TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION Bass, B. M. (1981). StogdillÊs handbook of leadership. New York, NY: Free Press. Beer, M., Eisenstat, R., & Spector, B. (1990). The critical path to corporate renewal. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Fullan, M. (2001). Leading in a culture of change. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Karash, R. (2001). Learning-org dialog on learning organizations. Retrieved from http://www.learning-org.com Kim, Young-Gul (Ed.). (2003). Knowledge management and organizations: Process, system and strategy. Bradford, England: Emerald Group Publishing Ltd. Kotter, J. (1996). Leading change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Koulopoulos, T. M., & Frappaolo, C. (2000). Smart things to know about knowledge management. Oxford, England: Capstone Publishing. Mintzberg, H., Ahlstrand, B., & Lampel, J. (1998). Strategy safari: A guided tour through the wilds of strategic management. New York, NY: Free Press. Morgan, G. (1989). Riding the waves of change. San Francisco, CA. Jossey-Bass. Rowe W. G. (2001). Creating Wealth in Organization: The Role of Strategic Leadership. IEEE Engineering Management Review, 29(4), 25ă37. Senge, P. (1993). The fifth discipline: the art and practices of the learning organisation. London, England: Century Business. Wilson, Phil (2000). The Learning Organization. Broadstairs, Kent, England: Scitech Educational. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
MODULE FEEDBACK MAKLUM BALAS MODUL If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to: 1. E-mail your comment or feedback to [email protected] OR 2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE. Thank you. Centre for Instructional Design and Technology (Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi ) Tel No.: 03-27732578 Fax No.: 03-26978702 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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