84 TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION The job of an educational leader whether it be in a school, college, university or training organisation is to get things done through his employees or staff. In other words, the leader should be able to motivate his employees or staff. Why do we need motivated employees? The answer is survival. Motivated employees are needed in any educational institution. Motivated employees are more productive and more creative. To be effective, leaders need to understand what motivates employees within the context of the roles they perform. Of all the functions a leader performs, motivating employees is arguably the most complex. This is due, in part, to the fact that what motivates employees, changes constantly. For example, research suggests that as employeesÊ income increases, money becomes less of a motivator (Kovach, 1987). Also, as employees get older, interesting work becomes more of a motivator. But, motivating employees is easier said than done! Despite the abundance of research and theories on motivation, the subject of motivation is not clearly understood and in many instances poorly practised. It has been suggested that to understand motivation you need to understand the whole of human nature. Obviously, this would be problematic as human nature or human behaviour can be very simple and yet very complex too. Despite these difficulties, psychologists and management specialists have attempted to examine human behaviour and studied motivation in some detail. Surely, you know the old saying that you can take a horse to the pond of water but you cannot force it to drink, unless of course it is thirsty. Similarly with people, they will do what they want to do if they are motivated. For example, teachers in your school will teach extra classes on a Saturday if they are motivated to do so, either by themselves or through some external stimulus. 4.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION 85 MOTIVATION THEORIES You should not be surprised to discover that no single theoretical interpretation of motivation explains all aspects of employee or staff interest or disinterest. Different theoretical interpretations do shed light, though, on particular reasons why some employees in a given situation are more likely to work than others. There is an advantage of examining these theoretical interpretations because they can serve as the basis for developing methods and techniques for motivating employees or staff in your institution. Let us discuss some of these theories. 4.3.1 McClelland’s Motivation Theory David Clarence McClelland, who taught in many universities until his death in 1998, spent his time studying motivation. He pioneered research into motivation in the workplace and developed theoretical interpretations of the phenomenon. His ideas have since been widely adopted in many organisations and he is most noted for his motivation theory described in his 1988 book, Human Motivation. What motivates a person to do something? According to the model, a person is motivated to do something because of a desire or need for achievement, authority or affiliation or a combination of the three characteristics (see Figure 4.1). Figure 4.1: McClellandÊs motivation theory (1988) 4.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
86 TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION (a) Achievement Motivation Achievement motivation (represented by „n-ach‰) includes persons who are driven by the need or desire to achieve, attain realistic but challenging goals and advance in their job. Such persons need constant feedback on their achievement and progress to determine whether they have achieved or accomplished their goals. (b) Authority/Power Motivation Authority/power motivation (represented by „n-pow‰) includes persons who are driven by the need or desire to be influential, effective and to make an impact. They have a strong desire or need to lead so that ideas can be introduced and implemented. There is also a desire to increase their personal status and prestige in the group. (c) Affiliation Motivation Affiliation motivation (represented by „n-affil‰) includes persons who are driven by the need or desire for friendly relationships and are motivated towards interaction with other people. The affiliation driver produces motivation and the need to be liked and be popular in the group. McClelland further elaborates that in reality people possess and are driven by a combination or mix of these three types of motivation. These combination or mix in motivational needs affects a personÊs behaviour and working style. McClelland was most interested in achievement motivation and suggested other characteristics and attitudes of achievement-motivated people (Chapman, 1995): (a) Achievement is more important than material or financial rewards. (b) Achieving the aim or task gives greater personal satisfaction than receiving praise or recognition. (c) Financial reward is regarded as a measurement of success, not an end in itself. (d) Security is not a prime motivator, nor is status. (e) Feedback is essential, because it enables measurement of success, not for reasons of praise or recognition (the implication here is that feedback must be reliable, quantifiable and factual). (f) Achievement-motivated people constantly seek improvements and ways of doing things better. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION 87 4.3.2 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Victor VroomÊs expectancy theory (1964) examines motivation from the perspective of why people choose to follow a particular course of action. The employee believes that effort will lead to performance which will lead to rewards. Rewards may be either positive or negative. The more positive the reward, the more likely the employee will be highly motivated. Conversely, the more negative the reward, the less likely the employee will be motivated. The theory assumes that people consciously choose from among alternatives with the aim of maximising pleasure and minimising pain or negative consequences. Vroom was convinced that an employeeÊs performance is based on his personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. Have you wondered why some people are just not interested in going the extra mile and are content with doing the minimum? Perhaps the individual does not have the relevant knowledge and skills to do more. A leader with a strong n-affil may be less objective and this may affect decision making because of his need to belong and to be liked by subordinates. A leader with strong n-pow may produce a committed work force but there is the possibility that he may lack flexibility and people-centred skills. A strong n-ach leader may make a good leader but he may demand too much of employees believing that they are all equally achievementoriented and results driven, which of course most people are not. (a) Do you agree with the three characteristics of leaders mentioned? Give your reasons. (b) If you are a leader, which of the three mentioned characteristics best describes you? Discuss. (c) Do any of the three characteristics mentioned describe your leader? Elaborate on your answer. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 4.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
88 TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION The expectancy theory states that individuals have different sets of goals and can be motivated if they believe that there is a positive correlation between effort and reward. In other words, a person completes a certain task (effort) and is rewarded accordingly which may be a statement by his superior, „That was a job well done!‰ The reward satisfies an important need (to be recognised for oneÊs effort). When the need is satisfied, the individual realises that the effort was worthwhile. The expectancy theory is based on the following three beliefs or variables: (a) Valence Valence refers to the importance people have with regard to the outcomes or rewards. What do employees value? Is money important to you? Is recognition of your work important? (b) Expectancy Expectancy is the belief that effort leads to performance: If I work harder, the product will be better. Employees have different expectations and levels of confidence about what they are capable of doing. What resources or training do employees need? (c) Instrumentality Instrumentality is the belief that if a person performs as expected, he will get what they desire as promised: „Everything seems to be going on very well and I am sure to be rewarded‰. Leaders must ensure that promises of rewards are fulfilled and that employees are aware of that. Vroom proposed the following formula to predict motivation: Motivation = Valence Expectancy (Instrumentality) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION 89 This formula can be used to indicate and predict such things such as job satisfaction, oneÊs occupational choice, the likelihood of staying in a job and the effort one might expend at work. Refer to „What motivates a person to recycle paper?‰ to see the application of the formula in Figure 4.2. Figure 4.2: Formula to predict motivation 4.3.3 Locke and Latham’s Goal-setting Theory Many of us set goals to direct ourselves. However, it is most valuable if the goals are clear (not vague) and understandable so we know what to do and what not to do. The goals should also be challenging so as to stimulate interest and also the goals should be achievable, so that we will not fail as this will frustrate us. If others are setting goals, than we are much less likely to be motivated to work hard than if we are involved as we feel we have set or directed the goal ourselves. 1. Compare and contrast McCllelandÊs motivation theory and VroomÊs expectancy theory. 2. Give specific examples of the two theories explaining motivation in the workplace. SELF-CHECK 4.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
90 TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION Industrial and organisational psychologists, Edwin Locke and Gary Latham proposed the goal-setting theory which was based on over forty years of empirical research. A goal is the object or aim of an action. For example, let us take the objective of attaining a certain level of proficiency in French. The theory was more focused in explaining how goal setting affected performance. Goals affect performance through four mechanisms (see Figure 4.3): Figure 4.3: Locke and LathamÊs goal-setting theory (a) Goals serve as a directive function. For example, goals direct attention and effort toward relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities. (b) Goals have an energising function. What does this mean? Goals tend to increase the effort of the staff. High goals initiate a larger magnitude of effort than low goals. When a goal is set at a difficult level a person is required to put forth more effort to meet it. Satisfaction is experienced when a goal is met. (c) Goals affect persistence. Faced with a difficult task, it is possible to work faster and more intensely for a short period or to work more slowly and less intensely for a long period. Tight deadlines lead to more rapid work pace than loose deadlines. (d) Goals affect action indirectly by leading to the arousal, discovery and/or use of task-relevant knowledge and strategies. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION 91 Figure 4.4 discusses important issues regarding Locke and LathamÊs goal-setting theory. Figure 4.4: Important issues regarding Locke and LathamÊs goal-setting theory (a) Need for Feedback When a person is working on the task towards a goal, he needs feedback to determine if he is succeeding or whether there is need to change direction. Feedback has been found to be encouraging and motivating. This includes feedback from the person himself. Negative self-talk is just as demotivating as negative comments from other people. Do you agree? (b) Direction Locke and Latham also argue that the direction and accuracy of goals are important. The direction of a goal states where we are supposed to go. It forces a person to focus, narrow his thinking and select beliefs that will lead to the achievement of the goal. (c) Accuracy An accurate goal states the most exact possible conclusion or achievement of the goal. Accuracy is important because deviating from the goal may be costly. So, it is not surprising that people invest more effort in achieving accuracy goals. When we have an accurate goal, we do not stop at the „good enough‰ stage but continue to search for improvements. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
92 TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION (d) Clarity of Goals Clarity of a goal has some effect on performance. This is logical because if an employee does not understand the goal they are trying to achieve, their performance will suffer. Thus, the clearer a goal is, the more likely a personÊs performance will reach its full potential. (e) Application of Goal-setting Theory The goal-setting theory can be applied to almost any situation in which performance of an employee is evaluated to assess efficiency. However, performance is also correlated with other characteristics. Satisfaction in the personÊs job is a major component in worker performance. Locke and LathamÊs goal-setting theory may be used to predict job satisfaction. First, Locke and Latham state that the productivity of a worker is significantly increased by a high goal, thus establishing a base relationship for an application to job satisfaction. Goals are products to strive for and a means of judging satisfaction. When a person puts forth the effort to meet a goal, that person will not be satisfied until his goal is met (Locke & Latham, 2002). As may be implied, when a subject achieves a higher performance level than is required for a goal to be attained, satisfaction will be increased relative to the amount of performance. Likewise, the further a subject is from meeting the goal, the more dissatisfaction will be experienced. These relationships show that there is a relationship between goal difficulty and job satisfaction. It is this premise that the current study is based. 1. How does goal setting affect performance according to Locke and LathamÊs theory? 2. How do direction, accuracy and clarity of goals affect performance? 3. Explain the application of goal-setting theory in motivating employees. SELF-CHECK 4.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION 93 BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION AND MOTIVATION Many of our students in schools do not perform well not due to innate disabilities but more due to the lack of motivation and the presence of negative behaviour or habits. You, as a teacher, may have come across students who can communicate well with their peers and are street-wise, but do poorly in academic matters. They may have picked up some negative habits which have become a part of their personalities. These negative behaviours need to be changed or modified through the process of behaviour modification and motivation. 4.4.1 Behaviour Modification Behaviour modification is a process where you cause a person to change their unwanted behaviour into a desirable one. Through this process, an individual is able to be channelled into performing a desirable behaviour to achieve certain objectives. An example is a student who is influenced by peers who feel that to be macho and a leader, one must be able to win a fist fight in a brawl in the streets and as a reward for winning it, fear would be instilled among his peers and they would listen and obey whatever decision that the leader made. In todayÊs „dog-eat-dog‰ world, this culture of brute strength rules the day. Students who are involved in this culture would not excel in academic matters. Instead they would be trouble-makers and cause indiscipline in the school. The school authorities, especially the principal and the teachers would have to find means to modify these studentsÊ behaviours in order to establish a positive and effective school culture. (a) Pavlov is Classical Conditioning In the late 1890s, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov set up an experiment using a dog as the subject. Pavlov used the ringing of a bell to associate it with food. He discovered that after training, the dog would salivate involuntarily to the bellÊs sound, regardless of whether there was the presence of the food or not. The dog had become conditioned and this experiment is commonly known as classical conditioning. (b) Operant Conditioning This theory is based on the work of B. F. Skinner (1932) who took classical conditioning one step further. He thought that individuals are more active in the learning process than that theory allowed. Skinner identified between two types of behaviour, the respondent and the operant which is the extension of the classical concept of conditioning where behaviour is actually 4.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
94 TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION learnt. Classical Pavlovian conditioning is responsible for our motivation to respond to any situation, whereas operant conditioning is what we learn to do to satisfy these motivational states. In classical conditioning, it begins with stimulus which leads to a response (S ----- R), but in operant conditioning, it is response ă stimulus (R ---- S). (c) Social Modelling Albert BanduraÊs social modelling or social learning theory emphasises the importance of observation and imitating behaviours, attitudes and emotional reactions of others. He thinks that most learning is the result of imitating or copying others. This theory stresses upon the importance of external reinforcers, and also allows learning to happen independent of reinforcement. Bandura (1977) states: „Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do‰. Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling; from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.‰ This social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of interactions between cognitive, behavioural and environmental influences. The processes of observational learning as observed by Bandura are: (i) Attention ă the learner has to pay attention to the behaviours, attitudes and reactions. (ii) Retention ă the learner has to remember what he has observed. (iii) Motor reproduction ă the learner has reproduced what he has learnt. (iv) Motivation ă in order for the learner to retain the modelled behaviour there must be some motivation on his part to continue doing it. (d) Principals of Behaviour Change From the mentioned behaviour theories, we can summarise a number of propositions which are important for teachers who can influence students for behaviour changes. (i) Human behaviour is due to learning which is guided by the laws of learning. (ii) Since human behaviour is a product of learning, it is liable to unlearning and correction. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION 95 (iii) Human behaviour is also influenced by results or consequences. Therefore, if it is followed by rewards, it can be strengthened or weakened by negative consequences. (iv) Human behaviour is also controlled by internal and external factors such as significant role models and rewards such as prizes or praise. (v) Maladjustive behaviour can be changed by changing the environment. (vi) Human beings are born with a clean slate. (vii) Behaviour is learnt individually, by training, by conditioning or by watching others learn. (viii) Students who need help may show negative behaviour that they wish to eliminate, or show positive behaviour that they wish others to follow. 4.4.2 Stages of Management of Behavioural Change With an understanding of the propositions and theories on behaviour modifications, teachers can model positive changes that they want the students to follow. Teachers should strategise a plan for the management and assessment of behavioural change. The following steps would be helpful in the process of implementing the strategy: (a) Identification of the Problem StudentsÊ problems can be detected through observation, studentsÊ records and from the students themselves as well as research. 1. What is the difference between PavlovÊs classical conditioning and operant conditioning? 2. When would you use social modelling on your students? 3. Why do you think that before anyone can successfully implement any behaviour modification plan he has to have faith in the principles of behaviour change? SELF-CHECK 4.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
96 TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION (b) Setting Goals After establishing the problems, teachers have to set goals that the students have to achieve. If the students did not perform well in mathematics from the formative tests, then teachers would have to set goals such as all students should master 80 per cent of what they have learnt in the mathematics classes through the process of mastery learning. (c) Establishment of Baseline Data The collected data through observation, studentsÊ records, and from research will become the baseline data. It will be used for designing programmes for studentsÊ academic improvement. (d) Intervention Selection Once the causes of the problem are known, intervention programmes to remedy the problematic situation are designed and evaluated but only one of them has to be selected for implementation. (e) Evaluation After the programme of behaviour modification has been implemented, formative evaluation has to be carried out to gauge its effectiveness. If necessary, the intervention process might be modified to suit the requirement of achieving the goal. This process of behaviour modification is a continuous process of attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation as suggested by Bandura (1977). The first three stages of the process namely attention, retention and motor reproduction can only be sustained if there is a continuous reason for wanting to do it. It is motivation that sustains the interest of wanting to continue the process until the objectives have been achieved. The success of any behaviour modification programme depends on the length of time it is being followed willingly by the subjects until the new traits, habits and characteristics have become embedded in their personalities. Then you may have a group of rejuvenated students with positive attitudes, diligence and selfconfidence. As mentioned earlier, the motivation within is the determinant of the success. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION 97 (a) Motivation and StudentÊs Orientation Dweck (1986) and other researchers concluded that there are two basic types of students namely: (i) Learning-oriented Students Learning-oriented students are more interested in achieving good grades and, therefore, are motivated to learn, gain competence and skills. These students perceive that intelligence is changeable and believe that they will be smarter if they were to study harder. As a result of this positive perception towards themselves as well as towards life, they enjoy learning new things and are willing to take up difficult challenges even though they do not feel that they are very bright. (ii) Image-oriented Students Image-oriented students are more interested to look smart in order to avoid being looked at as dumb. This conscience helps these students build their self-esteem. These image-oriented students believe that intelligence is permanently fixed and doing well is assumed to be due to brains and not effort, and therefore there is no need for hard work. As the result of this belief, they do not put much effort to improve themselves. They become less motivated, less curious, less interested in new ideas and in learning. Their self-esteem and pride is based upon good impression management, not on careful evaluation or estimate of their ability. This impression leads to less curiosity and avoidance of testing their limits. Their self-confidence falls further and if they make any foolish statement, they begin to doubt their intelligence. The consequence for this orientation is grave even for the high achievers if they fall into this trap. Schools that are aware of this phenomenon among the students can attempt to remedy it by introducing programmes that build studentsÊ self-esteem by giving lots of positive reinforcement, positive expectations of the students to do well (self-fulfilling prophecy), but this attempt cannot be stretched too much. It might be harmful to the students and jeopardise the objective of the whole process. Rewarding success on easy assignments will not encourage students to tackle difficult tasks. They know that their „success‰ is not real and their limits are not tested. This feeling might be more harmful to their self-esteem. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
98 TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION (b) Attribution Theory and Achievement Heider (1958) was one of the first people to write about how an individual thinks about causality „what causes what, or what is attributed to what‰. Since 1960, many studies were done to understand why some people are highly motivated to achieve while others are not. According to attribution theory as proposed by Weiner (1980), a high achiever will: (i) Approach rather than avoid tasks related to success because he believes that success is due to high ability and effort which he is confident of. Failure is due to something else other than his lack of ability. (ii) Never surrender but instead become more persistent when work becomes more difficult, because failure is considered as the result of a lack of effort. (iii) Choose moderate challenges where the success rate is 50 per cent because the feedback on these attempts tells him how well he is doing. (iv) Works very hard because the results are believed to be the result of hard work and how much he tries. The unmotivated person, on the other hand, has the opposite attitude and the result of this attitude causes him to slide further into lower self-confidence, selfesteem and lower achievements. 4.4.3 Conclusion As teachers in the school, you may find many students who can be categorised into this group of students who are not motivated and have negative attitudes towards themselves. What would you do? This question can be answered if you have read the earlier paragraphs as well as other articles on the subject. As teachers you can apply many theories and principles of education; psychology, sociology, curriculum development, leadership, pedagogy and many others to design programmes for student improvement. The success of the programmes depend on the seriousness of implementation and the teachers who are behind them. Effective schools are the result of the principals and teachers belief that anything can be achieved if they believe in what they are doing. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION 99 This topic enables students to recognise and apply the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Various motivation theories were addressed: McClellandÊs motivation theory, VroomÊs expectancy theory, Locke and LathamÊs goal-setting theory. According to McClellandÊs motivation theory, a person is motivated to do something because of a desire or need for achievement, authority or affiliation or a combination of the three characteristics. 1. What are the differences between „learning-oriented students‰ and „image-oriented students‰? 2. What would you do to make „image-oriented students‰ more interested in learning? 3. What is the relationship between „attribution theory‰ and „achievement‰? SELF-CHECK 4.4 1. If you were the principal of a secondary school, how would you plan to modify studentsÊ negative behaviours? 2. How would you apply the theories of behaviour modification in the implementation of behaviour change programmes in your school? 3. As a school principal, how would you motivate your students to ensure that they would feel that their school is their second home? 4. Do you believe that the „attribution theory‰ is the determining factor for studentsÊ achievement? Explain. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 4.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
100 TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION VroomÊs expectancy theory is based on three beliefs or variables ă valance, expectancy and instrumentality. Locke and LathamÊs goal-setting theory was focused on how goals affect performance through four mechanisms ă directive function, energising function, persistence and action. Good leaders aim to motivate others by meeting their higher order needs. This topic addresses the application of needs-based theories of motivation. This topic also addresses the need to motivate and to modify behaviours. Behaviour modification Lock and LathamÊs goal setting theory McClellandÊs motivation theory Operant conditioning Pavlov classical conditioning Social modelling Stages of management of behavioural change VroomÊs expectancy theory Bandura, A. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/Key Theorists/Bandura.htm. Bandura, A. (n.d.). Social learning theory. Retrieved from http://tip.psychology. org/bandura.html. Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behaviour modification. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (2001) Educational administration: Theory, research, and practice (6th ed.). Singapore: McGraw-Hill International Edition. Motivation. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://mentalhelp.net/psyhelp/chap4/ chap41. htm. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION 101 McClelland, D. (1988). Human motivation. London, England: Cambridge University Press. Organizational behaviour modification. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.g abbai.com/Management/Psychology/Psychology_OBMod.html. Guez, W., & Allen, J. (Eds.). Regional Training Seminar on Guidance and Counselling Module 4. Behaviour modification. UNESCO, Uganda. Skinner, B. F. (1976). About behaviourism. New York, NY: Random House. Vroom, V. (1995). Work and motivation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION The school is not an island by itself. It is a part of a community and, due to that, it is a social organisation. A social organisation has its own characteristics and the most common aspect of these characteristics is bureaucracy. It rules the organisation in almost all aspect of activities. Understanding the bureaucratic process and characteristics of the organisation enables an individual to plan the activities to achieve certain goals and objectives without much hindrance. As a post-graduate student, you are expected not only to understand the concepts of Topic 5 The School as a Social Organisation LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Explain how a school is a social system; 2. Compare the school with other social systems; 3. Discuss the bureaucratic characteristics of our school system; 4. Criticise the Weberian bureaucratic model and its functions and dysfunctions; 5. Apply the concepts and the principles of the role theory, value theory, and the decision-making theory to real situations in schools; and 6. Discuss the issues faced by our school system in the process of developing effective schools. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 103 a social organisation but also to explain, evaluate and criticise all aspects of it. Besides that, you are also expected to know some social theories so that you can apply them in actual situations in the school system in the process of developing effective schools for the benefit of the students and the future of the nation. What makes the school a social organisation? It is an organisation because it is made up of a system of social interactions; an organised whole comprising of interesting personalities bound together in an organic relationship (Waller, 1932). These personalities determine the type of school system which may change with the change of personalities and the approaches towards policy implementation. THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM The school as a social system is made up of an interdependence of parts, a clearly defined population, a complex network of social relationships and its own unique culture. Hoy and Miskel (2001) summarised the assumption of the school as a social system from primary literature namely Getzels and Guba (1957); Getzels, Lipham, and Campbell (1968); Bidwell (1965) and Scott (1992; 1998). These assumptions are that social systems: (a) Are open systems; (b) Have people performing their different roles; (c) Consist of interdependent parts, characteristics and activities that contribute to and are received from the whole; (d) Are goal-oriented; (e) Are structural; (f) Are normative to prescribe appropriate behaviour; (g) Are sanction bearing where norms for behaviour are enforced with reward and punishment; (h) Are political; (i) Have distinctive cultures; (j) Are conceptual and relative; and (k) Include all formal organisations. 5.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
104 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION The 11 assumptions of a social system can reflect the school system which is familiar to many of us. If school improvement is to be implemented successfully, the school as a social system must be understood. The strengths and the weaknesses of the school must be analysed in order to plan the school improvement process. The success depends on how thorough the analysis was made, and, how close the problems identified are to the actual problems. When the actual problems are identified, the planning and the implementation of the solutions would bring about the desired results and wastage would be minimised. After the deliberations on the subject of the schools as social systems, let us delve in more detail into the theoretical aspects of the school as a social organisation. Weber (1947) discussed the concept of bureaucracy and our objective is to relate his theoretical concepts to our schools. Discuss the similarities and differences between a school and a business organisation from the social system perspective. Share your answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.1 Explain the following assumptions made in the context at „the school as a social system‰: (a) Social systems are conceptual and relative; (b) Social systems are normative to prescribe appropriate behaviour; and (c) Social systems are goal-oriented. SELF-CHECK 5.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 105 THE RISE OF WEBERIAN BUREAUCRACY AND STRUCTURES IN SCHOOLS After discussing schools as social organisations, let us go into more detail regarding the structures and administration of our schools. One of the earlier social scientists who studied about organisations was Weber (1947). He enumerated that all modern organisations, where schools are one of them, have their own categories. This Weberian model of bureaucracy is the basis of organisational structures. The structures enable these organisations to operate successfully with efficiency though these management tools could bring about some unintended results which will be discussed later. He mentioned that a bureaucracy has characteristics of its own which were classified into five categories as illustrated in Figure 5.1. Figure 5.1: Characteristics of a bureaucracy 5.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
106 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 5.2.1 Division of Labour The first one is „division of labour‰. The tasks of most organisations are too complex to be performed by a single individual, and because of that a division of labour has to be devised to divide the tasks and responsibilities for better efficiency. As the result of this shift, specialisations emerged. As an example, there is very little specialisation in the primary schools compared to the secondary schools where the teachers are specialised in the various subject matter areas which make them more efficient in their own chosen specialisation. 5.2.2 Impersonal Orientation Weber (1947) argued that in order to be efficient there must be the atmosphere of impersonal orientation, without hatred or passion which might also result in doing things without affection and enthusiasm. The bureaucratic worker has to use the scientific approach in making decisions; based on facts and not on feelings. This is expected to assure equality of treatment. 5.2.3 Hierarchy of Authority The hierarchy of authority in a bureaucracy is found in almost all organisations. If we observe the organisational chart, we can observe at the top of the pyramid in the chart there is only one box with the name of the chief executive officer; the head of the organisation, and as we go down, more and more members are found in each horizontal line of authority. These positions of superordinates and subordinates attempt to guarantee the disciplined compliance to directives from superiors in order to ensure that the successful implementation of various tasks and functions of an organisation become a reality. 5.2.4 Rules and Regulations Weber (1947) contends that every bureaucracy has a system of rules and regulations. They are to ensure uniformity and stability of employeesÊ actions. There will be less misunderstanding between employees and as a result, the objectives could be met with the least problems. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 107 5.2.5 Career Orientation Career in a bureaucratic organisation is based on technical and academic qualifications and, as a result, employees think of their work as a career. Weber (1947) stipulates that whenever there is a career orientation, there is a system of promotions based on seniority and achievement. To inculcate loyalty, individuals with special skills must be protected from arbitrary dismissal or denial of promotion, and bureaucracies institutionalise protection of employees through such actions where decisions are made dispassionately. THE BENEFITS OF BUREAUCRACY The following are the benefits of bureaucracy: (a) Ideally, bureaucracy maximises rational decision making and administrative efficiency. (b) Division of labour ensures that every member of the organisation is an expert in a certain area of specialisation. (c) This results in more efficiency since the expert would be able to give advice to his superordinates and others in matters that need expert and professional opinions before any decision could be made. (d) When there are experts in all sectors of the organisation, then it will become self-sufficient and will not need the services of other experts from outside the organisation. 5.3 Do you agree with the arguments and rationale of the bureaucratic characteristics? Give your reason for your agreement or disagreement. Share your answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.2 Name the five characteristics of a bureaucracy according to the Weberian model. SELF-CHECK 5.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
108 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION (e) In a modern organisation, rationality and scientific enquiry within a neutral environment would bring about sound decisions that will bring about precise results without wasting any scarce resources. (f) This process would be enhanced further by the hierarchy of authority, where subordinates would carry out the duties and responsibilities as planned by their superordinates. (g) This compliance would lessen the disagreement by the subordinates since the line of authority dictates that the subordinates would not question the decision made by their superiors. (h) Since there is the presence of hierarchy of authority where there are leaders as well as followers in an organisation which has developed long term goals through strategic planning, the employees naturally would have an orientation of making their jobs as a lifelong career. (i) This orientation would enhance the quality of the work force and compliance by the subordinates would be an easier task. CRITICISMS OF THE WEBERIAN BUREAUCRATIC MODEL The Weberian model has been criticised from many angles. A lot of talk about the benefits of the model had been put forward and many examples of more organised work force with motivated workers and greater achievement had been rationalised to convince sceptics. In most cases, their views were accepted but as in all things, there must also be the negative aspects that need to be exposed. This exposure would ensure that bureaucracy can be improved upon for the benefit of all. Since most people were more interested in the positive aspects of bureaucracy, they forgot the dysfunctional features of his formulation. The Weberian model did not touch on the role of the informal organisation which is actually as important as the formal one. The discussion of the informal organisation in a bureaucracy would describe the workings of the bureaucratic model in a more realistic deliberation which would benefit those who implement the model. 5.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 109 The lack of discussion on the informal aspect of the bureaucracy results in the neglect of the discussion on the potential internal contradictions of the model. The following discussions on the functions and dysfunctions of the Weberian bureaucratic model would allow the reader to have a better picture of the whole bureaucratic system of an organisation. FUNCTIONS AND DYSFUNCTIONS OF THE WEBERIAN BUREAUCRATIC MODEL There are the pros as well as cons to all things but it is up to the individual to maximise the pros and minimise the cons for their benefits to achieve targeted goals. By knowing well the weaknesses of any tool that are in hand, we can minimise them and utilise the maximised strengths so as to overcome the weaknesses. The same formula can be applied in the case of Weberian bureaucratic model. As we all know very well regarding the Weberian bureaucratic model, it is able to promote efficiency in goal attainment. (a) Take division of labour as an example. It provides expertise to the organisation but it causes boredom due to the repetitive actions of the same nature which ultimately leads to lower productivity. Many organisations try to reduce this phenomenon by providing more varied tasks and responsibilities. The employees are trained to multi-task and with the changing scene, though the division of labour is relevant, that relevancy has become blurred. (b) Impersonal orientation may improve rationality in the process of decision making, but impersonality is not a natural human trait. As a result, there is a lack of warmth which may cause low morale among the employees. Low morale may lead to low productivity and the failure to achieve the organisational goals. (c) Hierarchy of authority may promote compliance of subordinates but please be aware that it may cause disruption in effective and efficient communication. At every level of the hierarchy there is the potential of a blockage in the dissemination of information; upwards and downwards. Blau and Scott (1962) observed the tendency of only conveying the message that may make them look good or that may make their bosses happy. The effect of this tendency may bring negative consequences to the organisation such as the bosses do not know what is really happening in the organisation and as the result of that many problems that need to be attended to immediately were ignored, and the organisation can accumulate problems that may become dysfunctional which are difficult to resolve. 5.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
110 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION (d) Rules and regulations do provide stability, continuity and uniformity but simultaneously they may lead to rigidity and goal displacement. The employees, who might be so rigid in abiding by the rules and regulations, may make them as an end, and not as a means to achieve an end. This rigidity and formalism may make the organisation inflexible and, as a consequence, it may not be able to adapt to changes easily and it may interfere with goal achievement. (e) Career orientation is a healthy element in an organisation due to its motivational factor. The employees would be motivated to maximise their efforts to ensure that their effort would be recognised by their employers and be used as mileage for promotion, but at the same time it may cause organisational conflict among the employees. This conflict may be caused by jealousy among the employees because their different communication styles with their bosses may bring about different perceptions of their bosses. If the bosses do not use other evaluation instruments for staff appraisal besides using perceptions, then there is a tendency for biasness. The Weberian bureaucratic model as proposed by Weber (1947) has become the guideline for formal organisations around the world even though modifications have been made to minimise the negative effects of the proposed bureaucracy. We have heard that the bureaucratic process has been simplified where red tapes was minimised and the bureaucratic pyramid has been flattened where there is less hierarchy and more democracy but the principles of organisations still remain intact. The next stage of our discussion is deliberating on the „role theory‰. When we are deliberating about leadership and followership we are actually talking about the different roles played by individuals within the organisation. Let us read and think about the explanations and arguments put forward by some researchers regarding role theory, and try to relate them to our school system. 1. What are the benefits of bureaucracy? 2. What are the functions and the dyfunctions of the Weberian bureaucratic model? SELF-CHECK 5.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 111 ROLE THEORY Every individual has at least one role to play. A studentÊs role is to study while a teacherÊs role in the school is to teach his students in his class but at home he wears many different hats which symbolise roles such as that of a father, a husband, a son, a breadwinner, etc. Every individual cannot escape from playing roles which have different expectations. The focus of this topic is to deliberate on the roles played by school principals as leaders as well as a manager of an educational institution. How well he plays the different roles will determine the health of the institution he is heading. 5.6.1 Sources of the Role of the Principal In the Malaysian context, the sources of the role of a school principal lie in the Ministry of Education and its departments. They determine the roles that the principal should play. According to Foo (2003), the role played by the manager of the school is also influenced by the three reformation eras that occurred during the stages of the educational reformation epoch. These eras are: (a) Intensification Era (1980ă1987) It focused on centralised administration which is hierarchical in nature to ensure control by the central authorities as well as compliance by staff and students. This was a critical period of educational development in the country which needed centralised planning and implementation to ensure that the strategic plans in education would achieve their objectives. 5.6 „Besides the given functions and dyfunctions of the Weberian bureaucratic model, there are other factors that need to be considered especially with the fast changes that are occurring in the present era. Give your opinions‰ on this. Share your answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
112 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION (b) Restructuring Era (1988ă1995) It highlights the concept of centralisation, the empowerment of the professionals and the clientsÊ choices or preferences. This is the era where they found out that centralised control stifled creativity and the institution of the schools became rigid. This is not the type of education that they should foster if the nation is heading towards a fully developed nation. Therefore with more trained and qualified teachers, the centralised form of control became more relaxed where the local educational authorities such as the state education director, the district education officer and the principals have more control and say about the administration of their schools. (c) Reformation Era (The Present) This era stresses on standards, accountability and privatisation of education (Murphey & Adams, 1998). The third stage of the advancement of education requires the principals to raise the quality standards of their schools which can be reflected by the academic performance of the students in public examinations. This quality also reflects the quality in the principalÊs management and the administration of other matters, such as staff and student management. The willingness to be accountable alone can be a barometer for a more efficient administration. This is also the era where private institutions of higher learning have left a mark in the history of education in Malaysia. 5.6.2 The Principal’s Role The principalÊs role has been discussed and argued for almost a century, the whole of the 20th century. At one instant, the school administrators were urged to play the role of an executive bureaucrat while at some other time, they were asked to play the role of a humanistic facilitator, and at present they are demanded to function as a leader in the process of teaching and learning (Beck & Murphy, 1993). They were also exposed to training to prepare them for holding positions as principals but the training was ineffective due to the type of training which was more suitable for them to maintain the discipline among the students rather than transforming the school organisation (Hallinger & Bridges, 1997). Zaidatul Akmaliah and Foo (2003) cited a report by the school inspectorate of 2000 which stated that about 57 per cent of the schools were able to provide a positive atmosphere for the teaching and learning process at the average level, while the remainder was weak. Barker (1997) found that the ambiguity of the role that should be played by the principal was one of the causes for the difficulty in getting a suitable candidate to head the school. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 113 The role of the principal is closely related to the purpose of the setting up of the school. In the case of the setting up of the science residential secondary schools in every state in 1973, the purpose of the schools was to encourage Malay students from the rural areas to take up Science and Mathematics so that there would be enough candidates for the science-oriented professional courses such as medicine and engineering. The objective of those schools have been met due to their catalystic natures. Caldwell (1998) proposed that future schools should be able to fulfil the requirements of many besides formal education, such as for training and retraining of the workforce of the nation due to the fast pace of the technological changes which characterised our era. 5.6.3 A Model of Role Relationships Getzels (1958, 1967) defined roles in terms of role expectations which are the normative rights and duties that define what a person should or should not do under various circumstances while he is incumbent of a particular role within an organisation. Getzels delineated the following characteristics of roles: (a) They are complementary; (b) They are determined by the institution; (c) They are flexible having behaviours in a continuum ranging from „required‰ to „prohibited‰; and (d) The scope is varied in nature from specific to diffused roles. The effectiveness of the incumbent is measured by the extent of the person in fulfilling the rolesÊ demands. The effectiveness of a school principal can be measured through task approach and the decision-making approach (Lipham & Hoeh Jr, 1974). For the task approach, the role is described in terms of tasks to be performed. Although the role of the principal is relatively well-established, but up to the present, there is no universally agreed-on listing. The roles keep changing to cater for the needs of individual schools as well as individual countries. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
114 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION The decision-making approach in determining the roles a leader plays involves the authority given to a leader in making decisions. This authority provides a guide on the actual roles the leader has been empowered with. In order to really know the specified roles as expected by the incumbent or by his subordinates or others, a process of role analysis can be used. The process of role analysis can obtain expectations for a role incumbentÊs behaviour along a relevant continuum from „absolutely a must‰ to „absolutely must not‰. This analysis can provide information on the actual role of a principal and the preferred role of a principal. 5.6.4 Role Expectations There are at least three dimensions of role expectations of a principal, namely: (a) The principalÊs perceptions of the teachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role; (b) The principalÊs self-expectations for the principalÊs role; and (c) TeachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role. Figure 5.2: Role expectations and role perception relationships Source: Lipham & Hoeh (1974) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 115 Figure 5.2 explains the role expectations of a principal from three dimensions. From the analysis of the three dimensions we can have a more accurate picture of the roles played by a school principal. (a) Interceptive Distance The difference in perceptions between „principalÊs perceptions of teachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role‰ and „principalÊs self-expectations for the principalÊs role‰ is termed as „interceptive distance‰. It simply means that both perceptions come from within the principal himself. He may perceive that the teachers expect the principal to give guidance in their teaching methodology, pay more interest in what they are doing, and give a good appraisal of their performance at the end of the year, but the principalÊs expectation of his role as a principal might be a different one. For example, the principal does not believe in giving a good appraisal to all his staff and he believes that the teachers should be independent and there is no need for him to know what his teachers do. This interceptive distance may cause some disharmony in the organisation and it can be avoided if the interceptive distance is minimised through knowing what the actual roles of the principal and the teachers are. (b) Communicative Distance The difference in perceptions of expectations between the „principalÊs perceptions of teachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role‰ and the „teachers expectations for the principalÊs role‰ may create more serious misunderstanding between both parties. This problem is created because of the „communicative distance‰ between the parties concerned. Take the mentioned example where the „principalÊs perceptions of teachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role‰ is different from the „teachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role‰. The principal perceives that he is expected to give pedagogical guidance to the teachers and enters the classroom to do just that, but to his surprise the teacher does not enjoy it and does not like to be bothered in such matters because the teacher perceives that he is an expert in his academic discipline and knows better regarding the best method of teaching to be used. This difference is due to „communicative distance‰. The principalÊs role in that aspect is not accepted by the teachers and this problem could be ironed out if there is effective communication between both parties. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
116 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION (c) Existential Distance There is a problem of „existential distance‰ when the „principalÊs selfexpectations for the principalÊs role‰ is different from the „teachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role‰. Both parties should be made known on the roles of the principal through effective communication. A check list of the roles, responsibilities and duties of the principal should be made known to the teachers and vice-versa. This is a simple process of making sure the problem of miscommunication does not occur and if it does occur from to time, there should be a mechanism to resolve it before it develops into a hindrance to good governance in the education system. The importance of knowing oneÊs role in an organisation cannot be emphasised more. This knowledge enables an individual to know what is expected out of him and if every staff member knows his specific roles, there would be harmony within the organisation. Misunderstandings and conflicts can be avoided. When roles are blurred or conflicting roles have to be played by the same individual, then problems might arise. To avoid this phenomenon, individuals who have just joined an organisation need to be inducted into the system. The induction course or briefing helps to spell out the roles of each individual though they might share some of the roles especially in the present environment where multi-tasking is a norm in most organisations. In the educational institution, the principal, the teachers and the supporting staff have different roles to play. The teachers who have specialised in their own subject areas have their own roles to play to ensure that the objectives, mission and the vision of their school are achieved as planned. Explain the meaning of the following phrases: (a) Existential distance; (b) PrincipalÊs self-expectations for the principalÊs role; (c) TeachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role; and (d) PrincipalÊs perceptions of teachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role. SELF-CHECK 5.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 117 VALUE THEORY Every society has its own value system that become the guiding posts for all activities of the members of the value system. Though many societies share many similar values, their practice and implementation may differ from one another. An effective organisation reflects the process of the harmonisation of the values of the society within the organisation. An effective leader must understand both the cultural-institutional relationship and the cultural-individual relationship. Due to fast-changing scenarios in almost everything that affects our lives, we might lose perspective of the changing culture. To have a proper bearing so that we know where we are, we have to look back at our values, namely sacred, secular and operational values of our society. These values are manifested in the major mechanisms whereby these values receive expression in the form of legal, structural and operational guidelines of our institutions, including our schools. As a principal, one must be aware of his value system and its interface with the value systems of others. Understanding both viewpoints would help the principal to lead others within the organisation as well as outside it. 5.7.1 Value Analysis Malaysia is a multi-racial and multi-cultural nation which result in many value systems which could cause value conflicts at all levels of society. Broudy (1965) observed, „In one way or another value conflicts at all levels, metaphysical, societal, personal, within value domains and among them, sooner or later come to roost on the shoulders of the school, and because the highest responsibility rests with the administrator, he must inevitably divide his attention between coping with value conflicts on an institutional basis and acting out his own role as a value witness‰. As a leader of the school, how should he interpret the analysis of his own and othersÊ values? There are several approaches to the analysis of these values which are of several types, based on the opinions of several experts. (a) Battle (1954) and Goldman (1961) They represented values in 10 dimensions; religious, economic, political, aesthetic, altruistic, social, hedonistic, physical, ethical and theoretical. 5.7 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
118 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION (b) Harman (1970) He described and compared belief value positions in terms of US middleclass, new humanistic, behavioural science and American origin value system. Reich (1970) described changes in values in the US in terms of three types of consciousness, namely „The American Dream‰ „The Corporate State‰ and „The New Generation‰. Whatever terms they use to explain the value system of the American society, they discussed these based on the three levels of the value system as were described by Lipham and Hoeh (1974); the core or sacred values, the secular values and the operational values. The following Figure 5.3 summarises the three levels of the values explained in this subtopic. Figure 5.3: The dynamics of cultural values Source: Lipham & Hoeh (1974) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 119 Now, let us discuss these values one by one. (a) The Core or Sacred Values Every society has its core or sacred values which are based on religious or belief systems. These values are embedded in society and have become a part of peopleÊs conscious and subconscious minds. In some societies, the individuals adhere strictly to these values while other societies interpret them liberally and are more inclined towards secular values. Democracy is a core value for Malaysians, just like the citizens of other countries that subscribe to it, and it had become embedded in our society, which is manifested in the form of secular values. Lipham and Hoeh (1974) summarised that the sacred or core values serve as a source for the legal and political structure of our society and receive expression in the Constitution and charter provisions of the state governments, and local governments; law and ordinances; judicial decisions and interpretations by the courts; executive decisions in the form of orders, and administrative regulations. The sacred values serve as a filter for their manifestations in the forms mentioned which constitute the secular values. (b) The Secular Values The core or sacred values manifest themselves in the form of secular values once they become the structures of our society. These Level II values are subject to wide interpretation and different implementations. Getzels, Lipham and Campbell (1972) mentioned that the secular values have been and continue to be in transition as conditions in society change. Traditionally these values include a work-success ethic, a future-time orientation, independence or the autonomous self and moral commitment but these traditional values had given way to the secular values of sociability, present-time orientation, group conformity and moral relativism. These American values might be different from other secular values practised by other societies which are at different levels of social development, but at a different time when the other societies reach the same level those values might be shared by them too. (c) The Operational Values Though the core values might be similar, the different orientation of the society alters the secular values to suit their tastes, Also, when these secular values are subjected to greater differences in behavioural manifestations as one implements, there will be more varied values which are termed as operational values. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
120 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION As an illustration, let us take our sacred value of sharing and cooperating at Level I which is fully understood by all members of our society. When it reaches Level II we have the various legislative enactments and executive decisions that interpret those values differently. In the case of schools, we have different types of schools using different medium of instructions where the students are separated physically and cooperation between ethnic groups would be more difficult. Later at Level III at the operational values level, there is more variety and as in the case of Malaysia becoming more developed, the tendency of the operational values to become the opposite is ever present. As society becomes more affluent, individualism becomes more prominent and the core value of cooperating between members of society becomes less frequent, and slowly the shift of core values begin to occur and in time to come, a new set of the three levels of values might become entrenched. 5.7.2 The Relationship between School and Society As in the case of the US, schooling is a sacred value of the society. Lipham and Hoeh (1974) mentioned that there is an existence of certain dominant cultural themes that might be cited as basic principles of the American education, which are also applicable to Malaysia. The five principles are presented in Figure 5.4. Figure 5.4: Five basic principles of Malaysia education Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 121 (a) The Schools Belong to the People Since the right to have an education is guaranteed to all citizens of Malaysia, the school belongs to the people. In the 1960s, Malaysian schools were run by a Board under the Unified Teaching Scheme which actually represented the people but due to administrative difficulties because of the rapid development of the school system, it was centralised at the Ministry of Education. Once the educational development has reached the level of maturity where education becomes universal, most probably it will be back with the people who will determine the curriculum as well as the nature of the school system. (b) Education is a Function of the States In the case of the US, the schools are controlled by the states but in the case of Malaysia they are controlled by the Federal Government. The objective of federal control is to ensure that education is available to all sections of our society and the funding by the Federal Government ensures that all schools will have equal treatment. This sacred value changes when it becomes secular values because though in theory they have equal treatment, in practice, the urban schools are more advantageous because of the availability of other resources that may help the students to have better education than those in the rural areas. This secular value will become more diversified when it, in turn, becomes operational values due to many more different variables that exist in Malaysian society. (c) Education is of Federal Interest When education is thought of as a right for every individual and as a lifelong quest, the Federal Government is seen as playing a greater role than just providing education to the youths of the nation. Now lifelong education is an extension of the normal education where every citizen has the opportunity to pursue whatever education that they missed in the past. Lifelong education is also available to all irrespective whether they are citizens or foreigners. As the nation matures lifelong education will become an integral part of the psychology of the people. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
122 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION (d) Education is in Terms of the Individual „Education is for everyone‰, „Education is compulsory for every child‰, „Every individual should pursue education from the cradle to the grave‰. These phrases are only clichés because they are nice to say but problematic when implementing it. The nation might not be able to implement the policy of providing places for all citizens who want to have an education at the highest level due to financial constraints. Either the nation cannot afford it or a large portion of the people do not have the financial means to send their children for education. What is vital here is ensuring that every individual in society who wants to have an education but lacks the financial means to do it, must be given the opportunity to seek financial aid. To cite Malaysia as a case study, it is trying its very best in providing opportunities for all its citizens to pursue higher education because education at the primary and the secondary level is universal. To ensure that all citizens of Malaysia have an equal opportunity to higher education, the government established 17 public universities and many more are being planned and developed for future demands. Simultaneously, private institutions of higher learning, colleges and universities, have mushroomed to cater to the needs of the nation as well as those from neighbouring countries. Though Malaysian education may look bright, there are shortcomings that need to be addressed. Since 2003, meritocracy has been implemented to replace the quota system for higher education. The quota system was originally introduced to ensure that the disadvantaged groups such as the Bumiputras or the indigenous citizens from the rural areas would have an equal opportunity to tertiary education. With the introduction of meritocracy, every candidate for public higher institutions needs to compete for limited places at these universities. A few questions arise due this policy such as: (i) Can rural students from the disadvantaged groups compete with students from the developed urban areas for places at some of the prestigious faculties such as medicine and engineering? (ii) With meritocracy, are we subsidising the well-to-do families to send their children to study at prestigious public universities since the fees are much lower? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 123 (iii) Are we widening and deepening the gap between the well-to-do and the have-nots of the country? (iv) Are we depriving the poor from pursuing higher education to favour the rich? Discuss these questions from all angles, and find out other alternatives to address the problems posed by those questions and rationalise them. Such questions touch the basic rights of a citizen to pursue higher education since it is the fundamental value of the nation. At this juncture of educational development in Malaysia, this dilemma could bring about a more enlightened future with the system of meritocracy or by reverting to the older policy of the quota system which might also hinder a more just society that we want to create with a higher level of productivity. (e) Education is Equally Available to All Is education equally available to all Malaysians? The answer is in the affirmative, but if we were to analyse it more in-depth, we begin to feel uncomfortable. In general, we can safely say that education is equally available to all, but do all those who want to have an education which is available have it? A student who badly wants to be an engineer and has the qualifications to pursue the course is not necessarily offered a place at the public university of his choice because he has to compete with other candidates. Of course, he can pursue his ambition at another university, a private one, but he may not be able to afford it. Individually it might not affect the nation, but if the majority who were unable to pursue higher education in the public universities are of one ethnic group who were socioeconomically disadvantaged, then it becomes an issue and a destabilising force. If education is to be made equally available to all, then not only sufficient educational infrastructure needs to be built to cater for all needs, but also the funding of students who cannot afford it. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
124 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 5.7.3 Current Educational Trends Education development in Malaysia is dynamic as new policies and improvisations were introduced one after another to meet the societal and global challenges. The following events that are educational in nature reflect the current trends in education: (a) The establishment of the National Board of Accreditation or in Malay it is better known as LAN (Lembaga Akreditasi Negara). (b) The establishment of the Division of Private Education in the Ministry of Education (1996). (c) The proliferation of private institutions of higher learning (1996). (d) The introduction of smart schools (2000). (e) The introduction of Vision Schools (2000). (f) The introduction of English as a medium of instruction in the teaching of Science and Mathematics at all level of education (2003). (g) The introduction of meritocracy in education (2003). (h) Making Malaysia an educational hub of ASEAN (2003). (i) The establishment of the Ministry of Higher Education (2004). (j) The implementation of lifelong education by all public universities (2005). (k) The introduction of Open Entry (2006). (l) The introduction of „To Uphold Bahasa Malaysia and To Strengthen the English Language‰ policy (MBMMBI) (2011). (m) Launch of 1 Student 1 Sport initiative (2011). (n) The introduction of Primary School Standard Curriculum (KSSR) (2011). (o) The School Based Assessment (PBS) begins with Year One students (2011). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 125 (p) The launch of Trust Schools Malaysia (2012). (q) The directive on Protecting Instructional Time (MMI) in schools (2012). (r) The implementation of Transformation of Vocational Education (TVE) programme (2012). (s) The expansion of Preschool Education in public primary schools (2012). (t) The launch of Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013ă2025 (PPPM) (2013). (u) The introduction of Secondary School Standard Curriculum (KSSM) (2014). (v) The launch of Malaysia Education Blueprint (Higher Education) 2015ă2025 (2015). (w) The launch of the Higher Education Institution Entrepreneur Action Plan 2016ă2020 by the Higher Education Ministry (2016). (x) The launch of Computational Thinking and Computer Science integration in the schools formal curriculum which begins in 2017 (2016). These innovations and changes in the Malaysian educational policy reflect the current and future trends of education. Some of the changes were strategically planned while others were implemented in a hurry which could affect the future of our children. The proliferation of private institutions of higher learning which began as the result of the currency crisis, as well too much money flowing to other countries due to the presence of Malaysian students there, caused the change of government policy regarding private education. Colleges and universities were established to cater for the needs of these students and as the result of this policy change Malaysia has become an important centre for education. This is a positive move since many more Malaysians are able to pursue higher education with the establishment of these institutions. So the Malaysian dream of making Malaysia as an educational hub is nearly becoming a reality. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
126 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION The earnest intention of making Malaysia an education hub is reflected in the establishment of the Department of Private Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. To ensure that private education is of quality, the National Board of Accreditation was formed to inspect and check whether these institutions have met the standards that were set by the Ministry of Education. The introduction of lifelong education should provide opportunities for working adults to learn new skills and acquire new knowledge for the benefit of the organisations where these people work. The introduction of Vision Schools is a long-term process of integrating the different primary schools which were taught in different mediums of instruction, namely the national primary schools where Malay is the main medium of instruction, the national type primary school (Chinese) and national type primary school (Tamil) where the respective languages are the medium of instruction. The uniqueness of this concept is that all the three types of schools are housed within the same complex but having different headmasters. The students from the different schools study separately where they use the vernacular languages, but for the common subjects where the medium of instruction is common such as English, Mathematics and Science they can study in mixed classes of students from different schools. They are also encouraged to play together during games and sports activities. At present, this is futuristic because only a few schools were built based on the vision concept and parents are not very receptive at present, but in the future there is the potential that these schools would become showcases of integration not only for this country but for the world. 1. Explain the core values, secular values and the operational values. 2. What are the current educational trends? 3. What do you understand by the statement that „Education is available equally to all‰? SELF-CHECK 5.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 127 DECISION-MAKING THEORY The ability in making a decision is very important to leaders for this is the symbol of power. Decision making is a process of choosing an option and hoping to apply that option in the hope of achieving the perceived outcome after a problematic state has arisen. This process is influenced by information and values which influence the alternatives among which a choice is made. The process implies a set of behaviours that are continuous which are made up of stages of activities and operations. The process formulations are usually logical in nature where the first step serves as a basis for the next step. Since the limits of the problem define the decision to be made, the process may be entered at any stage. In other words, as more information is gathered, the decision to be made may be altered and the decision maker may enter the process at the most appropriate stage. Thus, Lipham and Hoeh (1974) stated that „In decision making, incremental judgements are made concerning whether to continue, terminate, or change the major or minor decisions made. Contrary to typical views, recycling may and often does occur at any time or many times in the decision process‰. Therefore, to come to the most appropriate decision in overcoming a problem is a skill that requires knowledge, skills, information, values which are both societal and individual, and the perception the decision maker holds. Figure 5.5 summarises the process of decision making. 5.8 1. Discuss the role of value orientation of society in determining the success or failure of an educational programme. 2. What are the obstacles faced in using the English Language as a medium of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics and Science in schools? 3. Discuss how Vision Schools could be implemented nation-wide successfully. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
128 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION Figure 5.5: Model of the decision making process Source: Lipham & Hoeh (1974) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 129 5.8.1 Problematic State and Awareness of the Situation When a problematic state arises it may catch the whole organisation off-guard and unaware. The whole organisation may be complacent until the leader realises that the problem has become a hindrance to the efficient management of the organisation and if it is not rectified promptly, it would destroy itself and become redundant and cease to operate. Awareness is the first stage of the decision-making process. This awareness ranges from an intuition to a specific evidence. Bernard (1966) was among the first person to observe that the nature of a problem is an important consideration in deciding whether one should or should not attempt to solve it. He indicated that there are three occasions when one should make decisions: (a) Authoritative communication from superiors; (b) Cases referred by subordinates; and (c) Cases originating on the initiative of the individual concerned. Griffiths (1960) gave the following typology of decisions to differentiate one from the other for easier analysis: (a) Intermediary decisions; (b) Appellate decisions; and (c) Creative decisions. Both intermediary and appellate decisions are a function of the organisational role structure and since they originate from outside the person of the decision maker, it is seldom a problem of not recognising the awareness of the problem. Creative decisions are created by the decision maker, not necessarily as the result of an actual problem occurring within the organisation. Creative decisions which originate within the decision maker may represent a change in goals, policies, procedures or relationships. Though the present situation does not need a change, the decision maker feels that a change would bring about better results in the output of the organisation which may bring it to the forefront of the industry. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
130 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION To be able to make creative decisions the decision maker has to have personality variables such as mental ability, interception, training and experience as a decision maker, and simultaneously holds situational variables such as power, resources and role relations with others within and outside the organisation (Lipham & Hoeh 1974). 5.8.2 Information The information that is of worth to the decision maker is the amount, form and flow of the information. Research should be able to reveal the amount of useful information which could be in various forms, such as face-to-face, telephone, or by e-mail. A problem may arise especially when the decision maker is not perceptive of the information that may affect the organisation negatively. Another factor that is considered as important is the flow of the information. Is the information readily available to the organisation especially the decision maker? The smooth flow of the information in an organisation enables the decision maker to decide what action to be taken as the need arises. 5.8.3 Value Orientation The value orientation of the decision maker may colour the decisions made. The decision maker may feel that there is no problematic state even though the others in the organisation feel there is a problem. The discrepancy between these two situations reflects the different value orientations of the different sides. The decision maker with the value orientation of McGregorÊs Theory Y is definitely different from another person who has the orientation of McGregorÊs Theory X. This situation would bring about confusion and to avoid this situation, the value orientation of the decision maker and the members of the organisation should not be an issue if a mechanism of check and balances is emplaced in the organisation. To illustrate this situation is the example of a school principal who refuses to make any decision on more strict discipline in the school because he feels that by doing so the objectives of education would be stifled and the students who enter society would be robots who are good at following orders but are unable to think for themselves. On the other hand, the teachers feel that the students cannot get the benefit of education due to indiscipline. This value discrepancy can be rectified by having common guidelines for the decision maker as well as other members of the organisation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 131 5.8.4 Perception Screen The perception screen is the combination of various factors such as the value orientation, intelligence, abilities and skills, creativity and need dispositions of the leader as well as the training and the experience of the decision maker. All these factors influence the decision maker in the other areas of the decision-making process. The decision taken by the decision maker might be of a better quality if his perception screen enables him to see all the challenges and threats that his organisation faces for he is able to prepare the alternative solution that is able to overcome all of them. 5.8.5 Selection of Alternative Decisions Once the problematic state and the generation of alternative decisions have been analysed and discussed, then the decision maker has to make a choice. Making a choice depends on some pertinent factors such as whether the decision could be implemented successfully, whether there is enough funding to implement it or whether it would bring about the change as expected. This conflicting situation is resolved through a thorough analysis using the criteria against which possible outcomes will be assessed such as the validity, reliability, objectivity, relevance, scope, credibility, efficiency and effectiveness (Lipham & Hoeh, 1974). 5.8.6 Decision Choice The selection of the decision to be implemented is termed as the decision choice. The involvement of judging the outcomes of each alternative will reduce the problem of confusion. The choice depends on the individualistic orientation of the decision maker but in a formal organisation the agreement on the choice is a collective responsibility based on organisational or collaborative decision. The later format would lay the burden of making the decision on all the members and this might make the individuals involved more willing to pursue success. Another important factor is the timing of the decision. The better timing of the decision enables the potential of the choice to be realised, but if there is mis-timing then the objectives might not be achieved as desired. Sometimes, a decision cannot be made due to insufficient information and seeking of new information becomes a required exercise which must be done fast. At other times, making a decision is delayed due to various reasons including perhaps they think that the problem would vanish by itself. We must also remember that not making a decision is also an alternative to making it. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
132 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 5.8.7 Implementing and Evaluating the Decision Once a decision has been made and a choice of an alternative action has been confirmed, the decision maker with the help of the staff members who will implement the action, will have to ensure that the action plans are carried out according to the plans. Continuous formative evaluation will be carried out and wherever necessary, revisions for improvement will be carried out. If the decision making is based on the collaborative process, usually every member of the implementing team will feel responsible for whatever actions taken by the group. This cooperation helps the team to achieve the objectives faster as planned. MODELS OF DECISION MAKING According to Hoy and Miskel (2001) there are four types of models in the decisionmaking process which are classified under the following: (a) Classical Model (i) This model requires the objectives to be set first before generating alternatives. The ends are determined first before the means to obtain them are sought. (ii) A good decision is determined by the achievement of the objectives. If it is the best mean to achieve the objectives, then the decision is a good one. (iii) The process involves in a comprehensive analysis where all alternatives and consequences are considered. (iv) This model relies heavily on theory. (b) Administrative Model (i) This model also requires the objectives to be set first before generating alternatives. (ii) Typically it is also a means-end analysis but occasionally as the result of analysis, the objectives can change. (iii) A good decision is judged by the way it achieves the end. If it is judged as a satisfactory means to achieve the end, then the decision is a good one. 5.9 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION 133 (iv) It engages itself in the search of reasonable problem solving alternatives until they are identified. (v) This model relies on both theory and experience. (c) Incremental Model (i) This model sets objectives and generates alternatives simultaneously. Analysis of means and ends is inappropriate because they are not separable. (ii) When decision makers can agree that an alternative plan is in the right direction when the existing decision is proven wrong, then the decision is considered to be good. (iii) Many alternatives are ignored and as the result it limits the search and analysis, and it focuses on alternatives that are similar in nature. (iv) This model reduces the need for theories. (d) Mixed Scanning Model (i) Before generating alternatives, broad policy guidelines are set. (ii) Decision making is based on broad objectives and tentative means to achieve them. (iii) A decision is considered good if it can be shown to result in a satisfactory decision which is consistent with the policy of the organisation. (iv) It limits the search and analysis for alternatives closely related to the problem, but it evaluates alternatives related to broad policy. (v) It uses the combination of theory, experience and comparisons. These models are useful as guidelines for a decision maker. With experience, a decision maker will be able to know what model to use to expedite the process of decision making. In the fast changing environment of the 21st century, decisions have to be made at a faster rate than before because delay may cause the decision to be obsolete by the time the implementation process begins. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)