Social Psychology

Appendix Statistics in Psychology

Descriptive Statistics To answer this type of question, psychol- The frequency distribution is the range of
ogists rely on statistics. Although you o en scores we get and the frequency of each one
Frequency Distributions hear that numbers “speak for themselves,” when we measure a sample of people regarding
Measures of Central Tendency this is not really true. Numbers must be some trait.
Measures of Variability sorted, organized, and presented in a mean-
ingful fashion before they tell us much. Frequency distributions are often pre-
Inferential Statistics sented in graphic form so their patterns
Statistics are the tools researchers use to can be seen at a glance. We’ll discuss two of
Chance and Reliability analyze and summarize large amounts of data. these distributions, normal and skewed.
Tests of Statistical Significance
Analysis of Variance If the very word statistics brings to mind What is a normal distribution?
Chi-Square complex formulas you think you could For many traits in a large population, the
never master, you may be surprised to real- frequency distribution has a characteristic
Descriptive Statistics ize how much you already use statistics pattern. For instance, if you measured the
in your everyday life. When you hear that height of 500 students chosen at random
Do numbers speak for themselves? a ball player has a batting average of .250 from your school, you would find a few
Suppose you are curious about how many and you know this means he has gotten one very short people and a few very tall people,
people are capable of being hypnotized. hit in every four times at the plate, you are while the height of the majority of students
You read up on how to induce hypnosis and using statistics. When you understand that would be somewhere in the middle. Height,
put together a list of five things that people a rise in the median income means that peo- like weight, IQ, years of education, and
under hypnosis have been known to do, ple, on average, are earning more money, many other characteristics, has what is
such as feeling no pain when a finger is you are understanding statistics. When you known as a normal distribution. When
pricked, being unable to bend an arm when know that scoring in the 90th percentile graphed, a normal distribution produces a
told that the arm will remain stiff, and act- on a final exam means you did better than normal curve.
ing like a young child when told to regress nine out of ten of your classmates, you are
to infancy. showing a grasp of statistics—specifically, A normal curve is a graph of a frequency
descriptive statistics. distribution in which the curve tapers off equally
You next persuade 20 people to partici- on either side of a central high point.
pate in a little test. You attempt to hypno- Descriptive statistics are numbers used to
tize them and then ask them to do each of present a collection of data in a brief yet mean- This characteristic bell shape (Figure
the things on your list. Of your 20 subjects, ingful form. A.1) shows that most of the measurements
2 follow none of your suggestions, 4 follow fall near the center, with as many fall-
only one, 7 go along with two suggestions, One important part of descriptive statis- ing to one side as to the other. When you
4 go along with three, 2 go along with as tics is presenting distributions of measure- measure a trait that is distributed normally
many as four, and only 1 follows all five. ments and scores. throughout a population, your measure-
ments should produce an approximately
e next day, a friend asks you how your Frequency Distributions normal curve, provided that your sample is
study worked out. How would you make large enough.
generalizations about your findings? Individual differences show up in every-
thing that can be measured. ere are no What is a skewed distribution?
measurements—whether of height, heart Not all traits are distributed normally.
rate, memory capability, shyness, or politi-
cal opinion—that do not show individual Skewed distributions are distributions in
variation. which more data fall toward one side of the
scale than toward the other.
Figure A.1
A normal curve. When plotted on a graph, skewed dis-
tributions do not have a symmetrical
Number of Subjects shape. Instead, they have a “tail” on one
end, which shows that relatively fewer
Measurements frequencies occur on that side of the hori-
zontal scale. When the tail is on the right,
as in Figure A.2, we say the distribution is
skewed to the right, or has a positive skew
(there are fewer frequencies at the higher
end of the horizontal scale). When the tail
is on the left, as in Figure A.3, we say the
distribution is skewed to the le , or has a
negative skew (there are fewer frequencies
at the lower end of the horizontal scale).

610 A P P E N D I X

e data you collected about susceptibil- Figure A.2
ity to hypnosis present a skewed distribu- A curve skewed to the right (a positive skew).
tion. If you plotted them on a graph, with
score along the horizontal axis and number Number of Subjects
of people along the vertical one, the curve
would be skewed to the right. is would Measurements
show at a glance that more people in the Figure A.3
sample fell at the low end of your hyp- A curve skewed to the left (a negative skew).
notic susceptibility scale than fell at the
high end. Number of Subjects

In fact, your sample is fairly representa- Measurements
tive of the general population. About twice
as many people are poor hypnotic subjects skewed, these three measures of central
as are excellent ones. But note that to be tendency may be quite far apart. In such
assured of obtaining the true distribution in cases, all three of the measures may be
a large population, you would usually have needed to give a complete understanding of
to test quite a large representative sample. what is typical.

Measures of Central Tendency For instance, look at the graph in Fig-
ure A.4, which shows the distribution of
Suppose you want to summarize in a few income in an imaginary company. The
words the average height of people, the mean income of its 50 employees is $30,600
typical susceptibility to hypnosis, or the a year. But look at the distribution. The
most common performance on an IQ test. president of the company earns $140,000,
For this you would need another kind of three other executives earn $80,000, and
descriptive statistic, called a measure of another four earn $60,000 a year. ere are
central tendency. ere are three measures also six lower-level managers at $40,000,
of central tendency: the mean, the median, six salespeople at $30,000, and ten foremen
and the mode. Each is a slightly different at $25,000. The rest of the employees, the
way of describing what is “typical” within a 20 people who keep the company records
given distribution. and run the machines, earn only $12,000
each. Thus, the mean of $30,600 does not
The mean is the arithmetic average of all the really give an accurate indication of a typical
individual measurements in a distribution. income of an employee at this firm.

Suppose that ten students in a seminar A better measure of central tendency
took an exam. eir scores were 98, 96, 92, in this instance is probably the median, or
88, 88, 86, 82, 80, 78, and 72. You would $25,000. It tells us that half the people at the
find the mean by adding all the scores company earn no more than this amount.
and dividing the sum by the total number
of scores. In this case, the sum of all the
scores is 860; dividing this by 10 gives a
mean of 86.

The median is the score above and below
which half the scores in the distribution fall.

If you took our ten test results and
arranged them in order from highest to
lowest, the median would be the point right
in the middle, between the fi h and sixth
scores on the list. at would be 87.

The mode is the most frequent measurement
in a distribution.

In this group of scores, the mode, the
score that occurs most o en, is 88.

In the example just given, the mean,
median, and mode are very close together,
but this is not always true. In some distri-
butions, particularly those that are strongly

STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 611

Appendix Statistics in Psychology

25 Figure A.4 Also revealing is the mode, or most com-
Mode The distribution of income in an imagi- mon salary; it is only $12,000 a year. As you
nary company. Note that this is not a can see, the mean, median, and mode can
20 normal distribution and that the mean, provide us with very different figures.
15 median, and mode are not identical.
Distributions of this kind (and of many Measures of Variability
other kinds) occur in psychology, but
normal distributions are most common. If you get an A in a course and are told that
the grades ranged from A to F, you will feel
Frequency (number of employees) Median a greater sense of accomplishment than if
10 the grades ranged only from A to B. Why
this difference in how you perceive a grade?
Mean
5 e answer is that it is o en important to
take into account the extent to which scores
0 140 in a distribution are spread out. In other
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 words, it is o en informative to have a mea-
sure of variability.
Employees’ Annual Salary (thousands of dollars)
A measure of variability is an indication of
Figure A.5 how much scores vary from one another.
At left, a distribution with a great deal of variability. At right,
a distribution with little variability. On a graph, scores that vary greatly pro-
duce a wide, flat curve; scores that vary little
produce a curve that is narrow and steep.
Figure A.5 illustrates these two patterns.

One measure of variability is the range.
The range is the difference or interval between
the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Another measure is the standard
deviation.
The standard deviation shows how widely
all the scores in a distribution are scattered
above and below the mean.
If scores cluster closely around the
mean, the standard deviation will be small;
if scores are dispersed widely from the
mean, the standard deviation will be large.
us, the standard deviation is an indica-
tion of how representative the mean is. If
the standard deviation is small, we know
that the mean is representative of most
scores in the distribution. Conversely, if the
standard deviation is large, we know that
many scores are quite far from the mean.
Figure A.6 shows that the standard
deviation divides a normal curve into sev-
eral portions, each of which has a certain
percentage of the total distribution. As
you can see, 68.2% of all scores fall some-
where between the mean and one standard
deviation to either side of it. If you move
two standard deviations to either side of
the mean, you will take in 95.4% of all the
scores in the distribution. Finally, 99.8% of
all the scores will fall between the mean
and three standard deviations from it. Only
a scant 0.2% fall beyond three standard
deviations.

612 A P P E N D I X

How to Find the Standard Deviation did you perform? If you learn that the
mean is 60 and the standard deviation is
Finding the standard deviation of a dis- 8, you know that your score of 80 is very
tribution is not difficult, although it is good indeed. e overwhelming majority
tedious without the aid of a calculator. To of people—95.4%—scored no better than
compute the standard deviation, follow 76, or two standard deviations above the
these five steps: mean. Thus, relative to what most others
1. Determine the mean of all the mea- have done, an 80 is excellent. By the same
token, a 40 is not very good at all; 95.4%
surements in the distribution. of people scored 44 or higher on this test.
2. Subtract the mean from each mea-
us, if you received a 40 you are near the
surement and square the difference. bottom of the distribution and had better
(Squaring the difference eliminates start studying much harder.
the negative signs that result when
dealing with measurements that fall Inferential Statistics
below the mean.)
3. Add the squares together. Can scientists be 100% certain?
4. Divide the sum of the squares by the In the mid-1970s, many Americans were
number of measurements. puzzled to learn that a distinguished panel
5. Take the square root of the value you of scientists could not determine with abso-
obtained in step 4. is figure is the lute certainty whether the artificial sweet-
standard deviation. ener called cyclamate posed a risk of cancer.

Knowing the mean and the standard e scientists announced that, a er months
deviation of any normal distribution allows of research, costing millions of dollars, they
you to determine just how “average” any could be only 95% sure that cyclamate was
given score is. For instance, suppose you safe. Why this remaining margin of doubt?
take a difficult test consisting of 100 ques- Why can’t a team of highly skilled research-
tions and receive a score of 80. How well ers, backed by government funds, manage to
tell us absolutely if a substance is hazardous
to our health?

Figure A.6
A normal distribution showing the percentage of measurements that fall within one, two, or three standard deviations
from the mean.

34.1% 34.1%

13.6% 13.6%

0.1% 2.2% 2.2% 0.1%

–3 –2 –1 Mean +1 +2 +3
SD SD SD SD
SD SD

S T A T I S T I C S I N P S Y C H O L O G Y 613

Appendix Statistics in Psychology

Chance and Reliability cyclamate is safe to eat. Different tests of sta-
tistical significance are needed for different
No one can totally eliminate the influence kinds of data.
of chance on scientific findings. Even when
you randomly select groups of subjects, Tests of Statistical Significance
there is always the possibility that, just by
chance, those groups will differ slightly in Suppose you are an educational psycholo-
ways that affect your experiment. This is gist who has put together a special program
why scientists must rely on statistics to tell to raise the IQ levels of children with learn-
them the likelihood that a certain set of ing disabilities. You expose one group of
results could have happened purely by children with learning deficits to the spe-
chance. If this likelihood is small—5% or cial program and another group, with equal
less—the researchers are justified in reject- learning deficits, to the standard curricu-
ing the chance explanation and in conclud- lum. At the end of a year, you give all the
ing instead that their findings are probably subjects an IQ test. Those in the special
reliable. Reliable means that the investiga- program score an average of ten points
tors would probably obtain similar results higher than those in the standard curricu-
if they repeated their study over and over lum. Is this enough of a difference to reject
with different groups of subjects. the chance explanation and conclude that
the program was a success? e procedure
Determining the reliability of experi- most frequently used to answer questions
mental findings is a major way in which like this is a test of statistical significance
psychologists use inferential statistics. called the t test.

Inferential statistics are a set of procedures What is a t test?
for determining what conclusions can be legiti- The t test is an estimate of reliability that takes
mately inferred from a set of data. into account both the size of the mean difference
and the variability in distributions. e greater
ese procedures include what are called the mean difference and the less the vari-
tests of statistical significance. Tests of ability, the less the likelihood that the
statistical significance were used to deter- results happened purely by chance.
mine the 95% certainty of the finding that
Imagine that the results of your experi-
Number of Subjects (frequency) Control group: Experimental Figure A.7 ment looked like the ones in Figure A.7. e
Mean = 65 group: In this distribution of mean IQs of the two groups differ by ten
Mean = 75 IQ scores, the control points: 75 for the experimental subjects and
group has a mean of 65 for the controls. But look at the variabil-
65; the experimental ity in the two distributions: there is almost
group, a mean of 75. none. All the children in the experimental
When distributions group received a score within five points
in a study show this of 75; all the children in the control group
little variability and received a score within five points of 65. It
no overlap between seems that some genuine effect is at work
the two curves, they here. e IQ patterns in the two groups are
are not very likely to distinctly different and are not the kinds of
have happened purely differences usually caused by chance.
by chance.
Unfortunately, the results of most experi-
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 ments are not this clear-cut. Far more o en,
IQ Score the distributions look more like those in
Figure A.8. In this figure, you can see that
the mean difference in scores is still ten
points, but now there is a sizable amount of
variability in the two groups. In fact, some
of the experimental subjects are doing no
better than some of the controls, while some
of the controls are scoring higher than some
of those in the experimental program. Is a

614 A P P E N D I X

mean difference of ten points in this case Figure A.8
large enough to be considered reliable? This set of distributions is much more likely than the one in Figure A.7. The mean is still 65 for
When should you use a t test? the control group and 75 for the experimental group. But now the variability of the distributions
is substantially greater. There is also substantial overlap between the two curves. Is the mean
e t test also considers how many subjects difference in this case statistically significant? A t test can provide the answer.
are included in the study. You should not
put much faith in a comparison of educa- Number of Subjects (frequency) Control group: Experimental
tional programs that tries out each Mean = 65 group:
approach on only two or three children. Mean = 75
There is too great a likelihood that such
samples are not representative of the larger 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
population from which they are drawn. IQ Score
Let’s say that, in the hypothetical experi-
ment we have been describing, you includ- analysis of variance, or ANOVA for short.
ed 100 randomly selected children in each An analysis of variance is rather like a more
of the two groups. It is much less likely that complex t test. To learn more about the
samples of this size would be biased enough ANOVA technique, consult any introduc-
to distort the research’s findings. tory statistics text.

To learn the steps involved in actu-
ally performing the t test, please read the
accompanying box.
Analysis of Variance

Not all data lend themselves to a t test,
however. Often researchers want to com-
pare the mean scores of more than two
groups, or they want to make comparisons
among groups that are classified in more
than one way. (For instance, does age or sex
have an effect on how much children bene-
fit from our special education program?) In
such cases another test of statistical signifi-
cance is needed. This test is called an

How to Perform the t Test To calculate the t test just follow these
steps:
e t test is an estimate of how reliable 1. Determine the mean of the scores for each
the difference between two means is.
To determine the likelihood that the group and subtract one from the other.
outcome occurred by chance, you first 2. Go back to the box on standard deviation
need to know the size of the mean dif-
ference (mean 1 minus mean 2). In and work through that calculation for each
general, the larger the mean difference, of your distributions, stopping at step 4.
the less likely that it happened by This gives you the variance of each
chance alone. You also need to know distribution.
the variance within each group. 3. Add the two variances.
4. Add the total number of subjects minus 2
The variance is a measure of the vari- (in our example 200 – 2 = 198).
ability within the two distributions. 5. Divide the summed variances by the num-
ber obtained in step 4 and take the square
In general, the lower the variance, root.
the less likely that chance alone caused 6. Divide the mean difference between the
the results. Finally, you need to know two groups by the square root from step 5.
how many subjects are in the random
samples. In general, the larger the If the samples add up to more than 50 indi-
samples, the less the likelihood of a viduals, any value of t over 2 is statistically
purely chance explanation. reliable more than 95% of the time.

S T A T I S T I C S I N P S Y C H O L O G Y 615

Appendix Statistics in Psychology

Chi-Square

Sometimes the data psychologists collect How to Calculate Chi-Square
do not consist of sets of scores with means
or averages. Instead, the researchers have Chi-square (χ2) is an estimate of how
recorded who does what, or who falls into sure we can be that a distribution of
which of several categories. For instance, events or of people did not happen just
psychologists have found that chess players by chance. In our example, chi-square
are more apt to be introverts than they are calculates the expected number of
to be extroverts. Is this just a chance asso- people that a chance distribution
ciation? To answer such questions, statisti- would place in each of the categories
cians o en use the chi (ky) square, a test of represented by the four cells in the
statistical significance. table. This expected number is then
Suppose you are a psychologist and you compared with the actual observed
want to study the usefulness of fear tactics in number of people in each of these cat-
changing people’s behavior. You randomly egories, shown by cells (the data pre-
select 200 habitual smokers who are willing sented in Table A.2). If the difference
to participate in an experiment. You expose between the expected and observed
half to a 20-minute talk on the known health numbers is large enough, the distribu-
hazards of smoking, complete with graphic tion is not likely to have happened by
illustrations of diseased lungs and hearts. chance alone.
You expose the rest to a 20-minute talk on
the history of tobacco. After the talks, the Here are the steps in making the
members of each group are given the oppor- chi-square calculation:
tunity to sign up for a free “quit smoking” 1. Figure out how many people, by
clinic. Some people from each group sign chance alone, would be likely to fall
up for the clinic; some do not. e easiest into the upper-left cell. To do this,
way to present their choices is with a 2 × 2 multiply the first row total by the first
table, like the one set up in Table A.1. column total (100 × 100) and divide
Table A.2 shows how the distribution by the grand total (200). e expected
worked out in your study. Of the 100 sub- number is 50.
jects in your experimental group (the ones 2. Subtract the expected number (50)
exposed to the fear tactics), 60 signed up from the observed number in the
for the quit-smoking clinic and 40 did not. upper-le cell (60). e difference is 10
Of the 100 subjects in the control group, 40 (60 – 50 = 10). Square the difference to
signed up for the free clinic and 60 did not. Is eliminate negative signs (10 × 10 =
Table A.1: The Format of a 2 × 2 Table this difference in the distribution of 100) and divide the result by the
expected number: 100 ÷ 50 = 2.
Talk heard Signed up Didn’t Row Total choices statistically significant? e 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each of the
for clinic sign up chi-square can be used to estimate four cells. In this example, the expect-
ed values are the same for each cell,
Fear tactics 100 the reliability of this difference. but that won’t always be true.
The chi-square is a test of statisti- 4. Add the four values you get from
calculating the difference between the
No fear 100 cal significance that compares the actu- expected and observed number for
tactics al observed distribution of people (or each cell. is is the chi-square.

Column 200 events) among various categories with The reliability of the chi-square
totals (grand total) the distribution expected purely on the value must be looked up in a table.
In this example, the fear-tactic sub-
Table A.2: Study Results in Our Sample basis of chance. jects signed up for the clinic so much
more often than the control subjects
Signed up Didn’t If people had made their deci- did that this distribution could have
for clinic sign up Row Total s i o n s p u r e l y b y c h a n c e — f o r occurred by chance only two times in
Talk heard a hundred.

instance, by the toss of a coin—the
100 same number of people would be
Fear tactics 60 40

No fear expected to sign up for the clinic in
tactics 100 each of the two groups. e accom-
40 60 panying box gives a step-by-step
Column 100 100 200 description of how to do the chi-
totals (grand total) square calculation.

616 A P P E N D I X

Summary Test

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

1. The tools that researchers use to analyze and summarize large 5. Because the influence of chance on scientific findings cannot
amounts of data are called (a) . Numbers that are be completely avoided, procedures are necessary to determine
used to present a collection of data in a brief yet meaningful form what conclusions can be properly inferred from a set of data; these
are (b) statistics, which are often used to present procedures are called (a) statistics. If the likeli-
distributions of measurements and scores. The range of scores and hood that the results could have occurred purely by chance is
the frequency of each one are called the (c) ; this small, researchers can reject the chance explanation and conclude
is often presented in graphic form so the patterns can be seen at that their findings are probably (b) ; that is, they
a glance. would probably obtain similar results if they repeated the study
over and over with different groups.
2. When graphed, a normal distribution produces a curve that
tapers off equally on either side from a central high point; this is 6. Different kinds of data require different tests of statistical
called a (a) curve. This curve has the character- significance. An estimate of reliability that takes the size of the
istic shape of a (b) and shows that most of the mean difference and the variability in distributions into account
measurements fall near the center, with as many falling to one side is called the (a) ; it estimates how reliable the
as to the other. However, not all traits are distributed normally. If difference between two means is. In general, the greater the differ-
more data fall toward one side of the scale than toward the other, ence between (b) , the less likely that the results
it is called a (c) distribution. Such distributions happened by chance alone.
do not have symmetrical shapes when plotted; instead, they have a
“tail” on one end. When there are fewer frequencies at the higher 7. A measure of the variability within two distributions is called
the (a) . In general, the lower the variance, the
end of the horizontal scale (the tail is on the right), we say the less likely that chance alone caused the results. An analysis of vari-
distribution is skewed to the right or has a (d)
skew. When there are fewer frequencies at the lower end of the ance, or (b) test, is similar to, but more complex
than, the t test.
horizontal scale (the tail is on the left), we say the distribution is
skewed to the left or has a (e) skew.
8. How sure we can be that a distribution of events or of people
did not happen just by chance is measured by another test of
3. Ways of describing what is “typical” within a given distribu- statistical significance, called the .
tion are called measures of (a) . The arithmetic
average of all the individual measurements in a distribution is
the (b) . The score above and below which half
the scores in the distribution fall is the (c) . The
measurement that occurs most often in a distribution is the
(d) .

4. The extent to which scores in a distribution are spread out—in
other words, how much scores vary from one another—is the mea-
sure of (a) . The two most extreme scores at either
end of a distribution indicate the range. The measure of variability
that shows how widely all the scores in a distribution are scattered
above and below the mean is called the (b) .

Answers: 1. (a) statistics, (b) descriptive, (c) frequency distribution;
2. (a) normal, (b) bell, (c) skewed, (d) positive, (e) negative; 3. (a) central
tendency, (b) mean, (c) median, (d) mode; 4. (a) variability, (b) standard
deviation; 5. (a) inferential, (b) reliable; 6. (a) t test, (b) means;
7. (a) variance, (b) ANOVA; 8. chi-square

S U M M A R Y T E S T 617

Glossary

A stopping, the addict has a tendency to relapse and for a long period of time, is addicted to and has
begin using the drug again. an intense craving for alcohol, and, as a result, has
ability tests Achievement tests, which measure what adjustment disorder A condition in which a person problems in two or three major life areas (social,
we have learned; aptitude tests, which measure our is unable to cope with, or adjust to, a major life personal, and financial areas, for example).
potential for learning or acquiring a specific skill; change. The condition includes emotional and algorithms Rules that, if followed correctly, will even-
and intelligence tests, which measure our general behavioral symptoms. tually lead to the solution of a problem.
potential to solve problems, think abstractly, and adolescence A developmental period, lasting from all-or-none law The fact that, once a nerve impulse
profit from experience. about the ages of 12 to 18, that marks the end of starts in a small segment at the very beginning of
childhood and the beginning of adulthood; it is a the axon, it will continue at the same speed, seg-
absolute threshold The intensity level of a stimulus transitional period of considerable biological, cog- ment by segment, to the very end of the axon.
such that a person has a 50% chance of detecting it. nitive, social, and personality changes. alpha stage In sleep, a stage marked by feelings of
adrenal glands Structures in the endocrine system. being relaxed and drowsy, usually with the eyes
accommodation The process by which a person The adrenal cortex (outer part) secretes hormones closed. Alpha waves have low amplitude and high
changes old methods to deal with or adjust to new that regulate sugar and salt balances and help the frequency (8–12 cycles per second).
situations. body resist stress; they are also responsible for the altered state of consciousness An awareness that dif-
growth of pubic hair, a secondary sexual character- fers from normal consciousness; such awareness
achievement need The desire to set challenging goals istic. The adrenal medulla (inner part) secretes two may be produced by using any number of pro-
and to persist in pursuing those goals in the face of hormones that arouse the body to deal with stress cedures, such as meditation, psychoactive drugs,
obstacles, frustrations, and setbacks. and emergencies: epinephrine (adrenaline) and hypnosis, or sleep deprivation.
norepinephrine (noradrenaline). altered state theory of hypnosis The idea that hyp-
acquired immune deficiency syndrome See AIDS. affective neuroscience approach The study of the nosis is not a trancelike state but rather an altered
action potential A tiny electric current that is gener- underlying neural bases of mood and emotion by state of consciousness, during which a person
focusing on the brain’s neural circuits that evaluate experiences different sensations and feelings.
ated when positive sodium ions rush inside the stimuli and produce or contribute to experiencing No physiological measures have been found to
axon. The enormous increase of sodium ions and expressing different emotional states. indicate that a person is in a trance. For another
inside the axon causes the inside of the axon to afferent neurons Neurons that carry information view of hypnosis, see the sociocognitive theory of
reverse its charge: The inside becomes positive, from the senses to the spinal cord; also called sen- hypnosis.
while the outside becomes negative. sory neurons. altruism Helping or doing something, often at a cost
activation-synthesis theory of dreams The idea that afterimage A visual image that continues after the or risk, for reasons other than the expectation of a
dreaming represents the random and meaning- original stimulus is removed. material or social reward.
less activity of nerve cells in the brain. According age regression In hypnosis, the suggestion that sub- Alzheimer’s disease A disorder that usually begins
to this theory, the pons, an area in the brain, sends jects regress, or return, to an earlier time in their after people reach age 50 and is always fatal; it
millions of random nerve impulses to the cortex; lives—for example, to early childhood. results from widespread damage to the brain,
the cortex then tries to make sense of these signals aggression Any behavior directed toward another including the hippocampus, and produces dete-
by creating the feelings, imagined movements, per- that is intended to cause harm. rioration in personality, emotions, cognitive pro-
ceptions, changing scenes, and meaningless images aging process Changes caused by a combination cesses, and memory.
that we define as dreams. of certain genes and proteins that interfere with Ames room A viewing environment, designed by
actor-observer effect Our tendency, when we are organ functioning and by the natural production Albert Ames, that demonstrates how our percep-
behaving (or acting), to attribute our own behavior of toxic molecules (free radicals) that, in turn, tion of size may be distorted by manipulating our
to situational factors but, when we are observing, cause random damage to body organs and to DNA depth cues.
to attribute another person’s behavior to his or her (the building blocks of life). Such damage eventu- amnesia Memory loss that may occur after damage
personality traits or disposition. ally exceeds the body’s ability to repair itself and to the brain (temporary or permanent), following
acupuncture An ancient Chinese procedure for results in greater susceptibility to diseases and drug use, or after severe psychological stress.
the relief of pain, in which a trained practitioner death. amniocentesis A medical test performed between
inserts thin needles into various points on the agoraphobia An anxiety about being in places or weeks 14 and 20 of pregnancy. A long needle is
body’s surface, often far from the site of the pain, situations from which escape might be difficult or inserted through the mother’s abdominal muscles
and then manually twirls or electrically stimulates embarrassing if a panic attack or paniclike symp- into the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus. By
the needles. toms (sudden dizziness or onset of diarrhea) were withdrawing and analyzing fetal cells in the fluid,
adaptation A feature of a species that provides it with to occur. doctors can identify a number of genetic problems.
improved function, such as a behavior that helps AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) A amygdala A structure in the limbic system that is
an organism better escape a predator or a physi- life-threatening condition that, by the latest defini- located in the tip of the temporal lobe and is
cal characteristic that provides an organism with tion, is present when the individual is HIV posi- involved in forming, recognizing, and remember-
an advantage. Also, the decreasing response of the tive and has a level of T-cells (CD4 immune cells) ing emotional experiences and facial expressions.
sensory organs as they are exposed to a continuous of no more than 200 per cubic milliliter of blood anal stage Freud’s second psychosexual stage, lasting
level of stimulation. (one-fifth the level of a healthy person) or has from the ages of about 1½ to 3. In this stage, the
adaptation level theory The idea that we quickly developed one or more of 26 specified illnesses infant’s pleasure seeking is centered on the anus
become accustomed to receiving some good for- (including recurrent pneumonia and skin cancer). and its functions of elimination.
tune (money, job, car, degree). We take the good alarm stage In the general adaptation syndrome, our analogy A strategy for finding a similarity between a
fortune for granted within a short period of time initial reaction to stress, marked by activation of new situation and an old, familiar situation.
and, as a result, the initial impact of our good for- the fight-flight response, which causes physiologi- androgens Male sex hormones.
tune fades and contributes less to our long-term cal arousal. anencephaly The condition of being born with little
level of happiness. alcohol (ethyl alcohol) A psychoactive drug classified or no brain. If some brain or nervous tissue is
adaptive genes Genes for traits that help an organism as a depressant; it depresses activity of the central present, it is totally exposed and often damaged
survive and reproduce. nervous system. Alcohol causes friendliness and because the top of the skull is missing. Survival
adaptive theory A theory suggesting that sleep loss of inhibitions at low doses, impairs drinkers’ is usually limited to days; the longest has been
evolved as a survival mechanism, since it pre- social judgment and understanding at medium 2 months.
vented early humans and animals from wasting doses, and seriously impairs motor coordination, animal model An approach to studying some human
energy and exposing themselves to the dangers of cognitive abilities, decision making, and speech at problem, situation, or disease by observing, testing,
nocturnal predators. higher doses. Very high doses may result in coma and measuring animals’ behavioral, physiologi-
adaptive value The usefulness of certain abilities or and death. cal, or neurological changes under conditions that
traits that have evolved in animals or humans that alcoholism A problem involving addiction to alcohol. closely approximate it.
tend to increase their chances of survival, such as An alcoholic is a person who has drunk heavily
the ability to find food, acquire mates, and avoid
illness and injury.
addiction A behavioral pattern of drug abuse that
is marked by an overwhelming and compulsive
desire to obtain and use the drug. Even after

618 G L O S S A R Y

anorexia nervosa A serious eating disorder character- schoolwork) and six or more symptoms of hyper- axon membrane The axon wall, which contains
ized by refusing to eat and not maintaining weight activity (such as fidgeting or talking excessively). chemical gates that may be opened or closed to
at 85% of what is expected, having an intense fear These symptoms should have been present from control the inward and outward flow of electrically
of gaining weight or becoming fat, and missing at an early age, persisted for at least six months, and charged particles called ions.
least three consecutive menstrual cycles. Anorexics contributed to maladaptive development.
also have a disturbed body image: They see them- attitude Any belief or opinion that includes a posi- B
selves as fat even though they are very thin. tive or negative evaluation of some object, person,
or event and that predisposes us to act in a certain babbling The first stage in acquiring language, in
anterior pituitary The front part of the pituitary way toward that object, person, or event. which infants, at about 6 months of age, begin
gland, a key component of the endocrine system. It attributions Our explanations of the causes of events, to make one-syllable sounds such as “dee-dee-dee”
regulates growth through the secretion of growth other people’s behaviors, and our own behaviors. or “ba-ba-ba.” Many of these sounds are common
hormone and produces hormones that control the atypical neuroleptic drugs Neuroleptic drugs that across languages.
adrenal cortex, pancreas, thyroid, and gonads. somewhat lower levels of dopamine but, more
important, reduce levels of other neurotransmit- Bandura’s social cognitive theory A personality
anticipatory nausea Feelings of nausea that are elic- ters, especially serotonin. One group of these drugs theory that assumes that personality development,
ited by stimuli associated with nausea-inducing is the benzamides, such as clozapine. These drugs growth, and change are influenced by four distinc-
chemotherapy treatments. Patients experience nau- primarily reduce positive symptoms and may tively human cognitive processes: highly developed
sea in anticipation of their treatment. Researchers slightly improve negative symptoms. language ability, observational learning, purposeful
believe that anticipatory nausea occurs through auditory association area An area directly below the behavior, and self-analysis. Bandura emphasizes
classical conditioning. primary auditory cortex that receives and trans- the importance of learning through observation,
forms meaningless auditory sensations into per- imitation, and self-reward in the development of
antidepressant drugs Drugs used to combat depres- ceptions or meaningful sounds, such as melodies social skills, interactions, and behaviors. He con-
sion. They act by increasing levels of a specific or words. tends that we can learn new social skills without
group of neurotransmitters (monoamines, such as auditory canal A long tube in the ear that funnels performing any observable behaviors or receiv-
serotonin) that are believed to be involved in the sound waves down its length so that the waves ing any external rewards. See also social cognitive
regulation of emotions and moods. strike a thin, taut membrane—the eardrum, or theory.
tympanic membrane.
antipsychotic drugs See neuroleptic drugs. auditory nerve A band of fibers that carries impulses Barnum principle A technique used in horoscopes
antisocial personality disorder A pattern of disre- (electrical signals) from the cochlea to the brain, and elsewhere, in which a number of traits are
resulting in the perception of sounds. listed in such a general way that almost everyone
garding or violating the rights of others without authoritarian parents Parents who attempt to shape, who reads them thinks that these traits apply spe-
feeling guilt or remorse. It is found in 3% of the control, and evaluate the behaviors and attitudes of cifically to him or her. This technique was named
population, predominantly in males. their children in accordance with a set standard of after circus owner P. T. Barnum.
anxiety An unpleasant state that is associated with conduct, usually an absolute standard that comes
feelings of uneasiness, apprehension, and height- from religious or respected authorities. basal ganglia A group of structures in the center of
ened physiological arousal, such as increased heart authoritative parents Parents who attempt to direct the brain that are involved in regulating move-
rate and blood pressure. According to Freud, anxi- their children’s activities in a rational and intel- ments. To function properly, neurons in the basal
ety arises when there is an unconscious conflict ligent way. They are supporting, loving, and ganglia must have a sufficient supply of the neu-
between the id’s and superego’s desires regarding committed, encourage verbal give-and-take, and rotransmitter dopamine.
how to satisfy a need; the ego, caught in the mid- discuss their rules and policies with their children.
dle, reacts by creating a feeling of anxiety. More autism A condition marked by especially abnormal basic rules of grammar Rules for combining nouns,
modern theories of anxiety are based on condi- or impaired development in social interactions, verbs, and other parts of speech into meaningful
tioned emotional responses and observational spoken language, and sensory-motor systems. sentences.
learning. Autistics characteristically have few activities or
apparent motion An illusion that a stimulus or object interests and spend long periods of time repeat- basilar membrane A membrane within the cochlea
is moving in space when, in fact, it is stationary. ing the same ritualistic physical behaviors. Signs of that contains the auditory receptors, or hair cells.
This illusion is created by rapidly showing a series autism begin in a child’s first three years.
of stationary images, each of which has a slightly automatic encoding The transfer of information Beck’s cognitive theory of depression The idea
different position or posture than the one before. from short-term into long-term memory without that when we are depressed, automatic negative
approach A focus or perspective that may use a any effort and usually without any awareness. thoughts that we rarely notice occur continuously
particular research method or technique. Seven automatic processes Activities that require little throughout the day. These negative thoughts dis-
approaches to understanding behavior are the awareness, take minimal attention, and do not tort how we perceive and interpret the world and
biological, cognitive, behavioral, psychoanalytic, interfere with other ongoing activities. thus influence our behaviors and feelings, which in
humanistic, cross-cultural, and evolutionary. autonomic nervous system That portion of the turn contribute to our feelings of depression.
approach-approach conflict Having to choose peripheral nervous system that regulates heart
between two situations that both have pleasurable rate, breathing, blood pressure, digestion, hormone Beck’s cognitive therapy See cognitive therapy.
consequences. secretion, and other functions, as well as maintains behavior modification A treatment or therapy that
approach-avoidance conflict The conflict that arises the body in a state of optimal balance, or homeo-
in a single situation that has both pleasurable and stasis. It usually functions without conscious effort, changes or modifies problems or undesirable
disagreeable aspects. which means that only a few of its responses, such behaviors by using learning principles based on
arousal-cost-reward model of helping The idea that as breathing, can also be controlled voluntarily. Its operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and
we make decisions to help by calculating the costs two subdivisions are the sympathetic division and social cognitive learning.
and rewards of helping. the parasympathetic division. behavior therapy A form of psychotherapy in which
assimilation The process by which a child uses old availability heuristic A rule of thumb by which we disruptive behaviors are changed and human func-
methods or experiences to deal with new situa- rely on information that is more prominent or eas- tioning is improved on the basis of principles of
tions and then incorporates the new information ily recalled and overlook other information that is classical and operant conditioning. It focuses on
into his or her existing knowledge. available but less prominent or notable. changing particular behaviors rather than on the
atmospheric perspective In three-dimensional avoidance-avoidance conflict Having to choose underlying mental events or possible unconscious
vision, a monocular depth cue that comes into play between two situations that both have disagreeable factors. Sometimes called behavior modification or
in the presence of dust, smog, or water vapor. Hazy consequences. cognitive-behavioral therapy.
objects are interpreted as being farther away. axon A single threadlike structure within the neuron. behavioral approach A psychological viewpoint
attachment A close fundamental emotional bond that It extends from, and carries signals away from, that analyzes how organisms learn new behaviors
develops between the infant and his or her parent the cell body to neighboring neurons, organs, or or modify existing ones, depending on whether
or caregiver. muscles. events in their environments reward or punish
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) A these behaviors. Historically, as founded by John
condition diagnosed on the basis of the occurrence B. Watson, the behavioral approach emphasized
of certain behavioral problems, rather than medi- the objective, scientific analysis of observable
cal tests. A child must have six or more symptoms behaviors.
of inattention (such as making careless mistakes in behavioral genetics The study of how inherited or
genetic factors influence and interact with psy-
chological factors to shape our personality, intel-
ligence, emotions, and motivation and also how we
behave, adapt, and adjust to our environment.

G L O S S A R Y 619

benzodiazepines Minor tranquilizers (Librium, brightness constancy Our tendency to perceive following rules, and carrying out plans. Surpris-
Valium, Xanax, Dalmane, Halcion) that reduce brightness as remaining the same in changing ing new evidence suggests that the cerebellum is
anxiety and stress. They are frequently prescribed illumination. also involved in learning to perform timed motor
for the short-term (3 or 4 weeks) treatment of responses, such as those required in playing games
insomnia. Side effects associated with high doses Broca’s aphasia An inability to speak in fluent sen- or sports.
or prolonged use include daytime drowsiness, loss tences while retaining the ability to understand challenge appraisal Our conclusion that we have the
of memory, tolerance, and dependency. written or spoken words. It is caused by damage potential for gain or personal growth in a particu-
to Broca’s area. lar situation but that we also need to mobilize our
Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale The world’s first physical energy and psychological resources to
standardized intelligence test, containing items Broca’s area An area usually located in the left frontal meet the challenging situation.
arranged in order of increasing difficulty. The lobe that is necessary for combining sounds into chi-square A test of statistical significance that com-
items measured vocabulary, memory, common words and arranging words into meaningful sen- pares the actual observed distribution of people
knowledge, and other cognitive abilities. tences. See Broca’s aphasia. (or events) among various categories with the dis-
tribution expected purely on the basis of chance.
binocular depth cues In three-dimensional vision, bulimia nervosa An eating disorder characterized by child abuse and neglect Inadequate care or acts by
depth cues that depend on the movement of both a minimum of two binge-eating episodes per week the parent(s) (physical or emotional abuse) that
eyes (bi means “two”; ocular means “eye”). for at least three months; fear of not being able to put a child in danger, cause physical harm or
stop eating; regularly engaging in vomiting, use injury, or involve sexual molestation.
biofeedback A training procedure through which a of laxatives, or rigorous dieting and fasting; and Chomsky’s theory of language The idea that all lan-
person is made aware of his or her physiological excessive concern about body shape and weight. guages share a common universal grammar and
responses, such as muscle activity, heart rate, blood that children inherit a mental program to learn
pressure, or temperature, and then tries to increase burnout Feelings of doing poorly at one’s job, physi- this universal grammar. This theory includes the
or decrease these physiological responses. cally wearing out, and becoming emotionally concepts of deep structure and surface structure
exhausted due to intense involvement with people and of transformational rules to convert from one
biological approach A psychological viewpoint that who demand too much of one’s time and energy to the other.
examines how our genes, hormones, and nervous and provide too little reward or satisfaction. chromosome A hairlike structure that contains
systems interact with our environments to influ- tightly coiled strands of deoxyribonucleic acid
ence learning, personality, memory, motivation, bystander effect The phenomenon in which an indi- (DNA). Each cell of the human body (except for
emotions, coping techniques, and other traits vidual feels inhibited from taking some action the sperm and egg) contains 46 chromosomes,
and abilities. because of the presence of others. arranged in 23 pairs.
chunking Combining separate items of information
biological clock The body’s internal timing device C into a larger unit, or chunk, and then remember-
that is genetically set to regulate various physiolog- ing chunks of information rather than individual
ical responses for certain periods of time. caffeine A mild stimulant that produces dilation of items; a technique of memory enhancement.
blood vessels, increased secretion of stomach acid, circadian rhythm A biological clock that is geneti-
biological factors Innate tendencies or predisposi- and moderate physiological arousal. Psychologi- cally programmed to regulate physiological
tions that may either facilitate or inhibit certain cal effects include a feeling of alertness, decreased responses within a time period of 24 or 25 hours
kinds of learning. fatigue and drowsiness, and improved reaction (about a day); one example is the sleep-wake cycle.
times. Caffeine, which is present in coffee, tea, clairvoyance The ability to perceive events or objects
biological factors underlying depression Genetic, chocolate, and other foods, can be addictive, espe- that are out of sight.
neurological, chemical, and physiological compo- cially in higher doses. classical conditioning A kind of learning in which a
nents that may predispose or put someone at risk neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a
for developing a mood disorder. case study An in-depth analysis of the thoughts, feel- response that was originally produced by a differ-
ings, beliefs, experiences, behaviors, or problems ent stimulus.
biological hunger factors Physiological changes in of an individual. This research method offers little client-centered therapy An approach developed by
blood chemistry and signals from digestive organs opportunity to control or manipulate situations Carl Rogers that assumes that each person has
that provide feedback to the brain, which, in turn, or variables. an actualizing tendency—that is, a tendency to
triggers us to eat or stop eating. develop his or her own potential; the therapist’s
catatonic schizophrenia A subcategory of schizo- task is to show compassion and positive regard in
biological needs Physiological requirements that are phrenia characterized by periods of wild excite- helping the client reach his or her potential. Also
critical to our survival and physical well-being. ment and periods of rigid, prolonged immobility; called person-centered therapy.
sometimes the person assumes the same frozen clinical and counseling psychology The assessment
biological sex factors The actions of sex hormones, posture for hours on end. and treatment of people who have psychological
which are involved in secondary sexual character- problems, such as grief, anxiety, or stress.
istics (facial hair, breasts), sexual motivation (more catharsis A psychological process through which clinical assessment A systematic evaluation of an
so in animals than in humans), and the develop- anger or aggressive energy is released by express- individual’s various psychological, biological, and
ment of ova and sperm. ing or letting out powerful negative emotions. social factors, as well as the identification of past
Freud’s view that catharsis can be helpful in reduc- and present problems, stressors, and other cogni-
BioPsychoSocial model The representation of ing aggression is not supported by most research. tive and behavioral symptoms.
adolescent development as a process that occurs clinical diagnosis A process of determining how
simultaneously on many levels and includes sexual, cell body For neurons, a relatively large, egg-shaped closely an individual’s specific symptoms match
cognitive, social, and personality changes that structure that provides fuel, manufactures chemi- those that define a particular mental disorder.
interact and influence each other. cals, and maintains the entire neuron in working clinical interview In assessment, a method of gather-
order; also called the soma. ing information about relevant aspects of a per-
biosocial theory A theory that emphasizes social and son’s past as well as current behaviors, attitudes,
cultural forces; it says that differences in sexual central cues Hunger cues associated with the activ- emotions, and details of present difficulties or
activities and values for selecting mates devel- ity of chemicals and neurotransmitters in different problems. Some clinical interviews are unstruc-
oped from traditional cultural divisions of labor: areas of the brain. tured, which means that they have no set ques-
Women were primarily childbearers and home- tions; others are structured, which means that
makers, while men were primarily providers and central nervous system Neurons located in the brain they follow a standard format of asking the same
protectors. and spinal cord. From the bottom of the brain questions.
emerges the spinal cord, which is made up of clinical psychologist An individual who has a PhD,
bipolar I disorder A mood disorder characterized by neurons and bundles of axons and dendrites that has specialized in the clinical subarea, and has
fluctuations between episodes of depression and carry information back and forth between the spent an additional year in a supervised therapy
mania. A manic episode goes on for at least a week, brain and the body. Neurons in the central ner-
during which a person is unusually euphoric, vous system normally have almost no capacity to
cheerful, and high and has at least three of the fol- regrow or regenerate if damaged or diseased.
lowing symptoms: has great self-esteem, has little
need of sleep, speaks rapidly and frequently, has central route for persuasion Presenting information
racing thoughts, is easily distracted, and pursues with strong arguments, analyses, facts, and logic.
pleasurable activities. Formerly called manic-
depressive illness. cephalocaudal principle The rule that parts of the
body closer to the infant’s head develop before
bisexual orientation A pattern of sexual arousal by parts closer to the feet.
persons of either sex.
cerebellum A region of the hindbrain that is involved
borderline personality disorder A pattern of insta- in coordinating movements but not in initiat-
bility in personal relationships, self-image, and ing voluntary movements. It is also involved in
emotions as well as impulsive behavior. cognitive functions, such as short-term memory,

620 G L O S S A R Y

setting to gain experience in diagnosing and treat- may proceed through observation or imitation; companionate love A condition associated with
ing a wide range of abnormal behaviors. To train and may not involve any external rewards or trusting and tender feelings for someone whose
as a clinical psychologist usually requires 4–6 years require the person to perform any observable life is closely bound up with one’s own.
of work after obtaining a college degree. behaviors.
closure rule A perceptual rule stating that, in organiz- cognitive map A mental representation of the layout compliance A kind of conformity in which we give in
ing stimuli, we tend to fill in any missing parts of a of an environment and its features. to social pressure in our public responses but do
figure and see the figure as complete. cognitive miser model The idea that, in making attri- not change our private beliefs.
cocaine A stimulant produced from the leaves of butions, people feel they must conserve time and
the coca plant. Its physiological and behavioral effort by taking cognitive shortcuts. concept A way to group objects, events, or character-
effects are very similar to those of amphetamine: cognitive neuroscience An approach to studying istics on the basis of some common property they
It produces increased heart rate and blood pres- cognitive processes that involves taking pictures all share.
sure, enhanced mood, alertness, increased activ- of the structures and functions of the living brain
ity, decreased appetite, and diminished fatigue. At during the performance of a wide variety of men- conception The process in which one of the millions
higher doses, it can produce anxiety, emotional tal or cognitive processes, such as thinking, plan- of sperm penetrates the ovum’s outside membrane;
instability, and suspiciousness. ning, naming, and recognizing objects. also called fertilization. After penetration, the out-
cochlea A coiled, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear cognitive perspective The theory that an organism side membrane changes and becomes impenetra-
that contains the receptors for hearing. Its func- learns a predictable relationship between two stim- ble to the millions of remaining sperm.
tion is transduction—transforming vibrations into uli such that the occurrence of one stimulus (neu-
nerve impulses that are sent to the brain for pro- tral stimulus) predicts the occurrence of another concrete operations stage The third of Piaget’s cog-
cessing into auditory information. (unconditioned stimulus). In other words, classical nitive stages, lasting from about the ages of 7 to 11
cochlear implant A miniature electronic device that conditioning occurs because the organism learns years. During this stage, children can perform a
is surgically implanted into the cochlea to restore what to expect. Formerly called information theory. number of logical mental operations on concrete
hearing in those with neural deafness. It converts cognitive psychology The study of how we process, objects that are physically present.
sound waves into electrical signals, which are fed store, retrieve, and use information and how cog-
into the auditory nerve and hence reach the brain nitive processes influence what we attend to, per- conditional positive regard Positive regard that
for processing. ceive, learn, remember, believe, feel, and do. depends on our behaving in certain ways—for
cognitive appraisal theory The idea that our inter- cognitive social psychology A subarea of social psy- example, living up to or meeting others’ standards.
pretation or appraisal of a situation is often the chology that focuses on how cognitive processes,
primary cause of emotions. such as perceiving, retrieving, and interpreting conditioned emotional response The feeling of some
cognitive approach See cognitive psychology. information about social interactions and events, positive or negative emotion, such as happiness,
cognitive-behavioral therapy A treatment for affect emotions and behaviors and how emotions fear, or anxiety, when experiencing a stimulus
phobias and other mental disorders based on a and behaviors affect cognitions. that previously accompanied a pleasant or painful
combination of two methods: changing negative, cognitive therapy An approach to therapy that event. This is an example of classical conditioning.
unhealthy, or distorted thoughts and beliefs by focuses on the role of thoughts in our emotions
substituting positive, healthy, and realistic ones; and actions. The widely used version developed conditioned response (CR) A response elicited
and changing limiting or disruptive behaviors by Aaron Beck assumes that we have automatic by the conditioned stimulus; it is similar to the
by learning and practicing new skills to improve negative thoughts that we typically say to ourselves unconditioned response but not identical in mag-
functioning. Sometimes called behavior therapy. without much notice. By continuously repeating nitude or amount.
cognitive development How a person perceives, these automatic negative thoughts, we color and
thinks, and gains an understanding of his or her distort how we perceive and interpret the world conditioned stimulus (CS) A formerly neutral stimu-
world through the interaction and influence of and influence how we behave and feel. The goal of lus that has acquired the ability to elicit a response
genetic and learned factors. the therapy is to change these automatic negative previously elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
cognitive developmental theory The idea that, as thoughts.
they develop mental skills and interact with their collective unconscious According to Jung, ancient conduct disorder A repetitive and persistent pat-
environments, children learn one set of rules for memory traces and symbols that are passed on by tern of aggressive behavior that has been going on
male behavior and another set of rules for female birth and are shared by all people in all cultures. for at least a year and that violates the established
behavior. color blindness Inability to distinguish between two social rules or the rights of others. Problems may
cognitive dissonance A state of unpleasant psycho- or more shades in the color spectrum. There are include threatening to harm people, abusing or
logical tension that motivates us to reduce our several kinds of color blindness. See monochro- killing animals, destroying property, being deceit-
cognitive inconsistencies by making our beliefs mats and dichromats. ful, or stealing.
more consistent with one another. color constancy Our tendency to perceive colors as
cognitive-emotional-behavioral and environmental remaining stable despite differences in lighting. conduction deafness Deafness caused by wax in the
factors The factors that contribute to the devel- commitment In Sternberg’s triangular theory of auditory canal, injury to the tympanic membrane,
opment of mental disorders, including deficits love, the component of love associated with mak- or malfunction of the ossicles.
in cognitive processes, such as having unusual ing a pledge to nourish the feelings of love and to
thoughts and beliefs; deficits in processing emo- actively maintain the relationship. cones Photoreceptors that contain three chemicals
tional stimuli, such as under- or overreacting to common factors A basic set of procedures and expe- called opsins, which are activated in bright light
emotional situations; behavioral problems, such as riences shared by different therapies that account and allow us to see color. Unlike rods, cones are
lacking social skills; and environmental challenges, for those therapies’ comparable effectiveness wired individually to neighboring cells; this one-
such as dealing with stressful situations. despite their different fundamental principles and on-one system of relaying information allows us
cognitive factors According to social cognitive the- techniques. Common factors include the growth to see fine details.
ory, factors that include our beliefs, expectations, of a supportive and trusting relationship between
values, intentions, and social roles—all of which therapist and client and the accompanying devel- conflict The feeling we experience when we must
help to shape our personalities. opment of an accepting atmosphere in which the decide between two or more incompatible choices.
cognitive factors in motivation The influence of client feels willing to admit problems and is moti-
individuals’ evaluations or perceptions of a situa- vated to work on changing. conformity Any behavior you perform because of
tion on their willingness to work. communication The ability to use sounds, smells, or group pressure, even though that pressure might
cognitive interview A technique for questioning eye- gestures to exchange information. not involve direct requests.
witnesses and others by having them imagine and community mental health centers Government-
reconstruct the details of an event, report everything sponsored centers that offer low-cost or free conscious thoughts Wishes, desires, or thoughts that
they remember without holding anything back, and mental health care to members of the surround- we are aware of, or can recall, at any given moment.
narrate the event from different viewpoints. ing community, especially the underprivileged.
cognitive learning A kind of learning that involves The services may include psychotherapy, support consciousness An individual’s different levels of
mental processes, such as attention and memory; groups, or telephone crisis counseling. awareness of his or her thoughts and feelings. Cre-
ating images in the mind, following thought pro-
cesses, and having unique emotional experiences
are all part of consciousness.

consensus In making attributions, determining
whether other people engage in the same behavior
in the same situation.

conservation The idea that even though the shape
of some object of substance is changed, the total
amount remains the same.

consistency In making attributions, determining
whether an individual engages in a certain behav-
ior every time he or she is in a particular situation.

contiguity theory The view that classical condition-
ing occurs because two stimuli (the neutral stimu-
lus and the unconditioned stimulus) are paired

G L O S S A R Y 621

close together in time (are contiguous). Eventually, training included work in a counseling setting. daydreaming An activity that requires a low level
as a result of this contiguous pairing, the neutral Counseling psychologists generally have a less of awareness, often occurs during automatic pro-
stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, which extensive research background than clinical psy- cesses, and involves fantasizing or dreaming while
elicits the conditioned response. chologists and work in real-world settings, such awake.
continuity rule A perceptual rule stating that, in as schools, industry, and private practice. Whereas
organizing stimuli, we tend to favor smooth or clinical psychologists treat mental disorders, coun- debriefing A procedure administered to subjects after
continuous paths when interpreting a series of seling psychologists deal largely with problems of an experiment to minimize any potential nega-
points or lines. living. To train as a counseling psychologist gen- tive effects. It includes explaining the purpose and
continuous reinforcement The simplest reinforcement erally takes 4–6 years after obtaining a bachelor’s method of the experiment, asking the subjects
schedule, in which every occurrence of the operant degree. their feelings about having been in the experiment,
response results in delivery of the reinforcer. counterattitudinal behavior Taking a public position and helping the subjects deal with possible doubts
continuum of consciousness The wide range of that runs counter to your private attitude. or guilt that arises from their behaviors in the
human experiences, from being acutely aware and covariation model A model developed by Harold experiments.
alert to being totally unaware and unresponsive. Kelley that may be used in deciding between inter-
control group In an experiment, subjects who nal and external attributions. The model says that, decibel A unit to measure loudness. The human range
undergo all the same procedures as the experi- in determining attributions, we should look for for hearing is from 0 decibels, which is absolutely
mental subjects do, except that the control subjects factors that are present when the behavior occurs no sound, to 140 decibels, which can produce pain
do not receive the treatment. and factors that are absent when the behavior does and permanent hearing loss.
Control Question Technique A lie-detection pro- not occur.
cedure in which the examiner asks two kinds of creative individual Someone who regularly solves decision-stage model of helping The idea that we
questions: neutral questions that elicit little emo- problems, fashions products, or defines new ques- go through five stages in deciding to help: (1) we
tional response and critical questions that are tions that make an impact on his or her society. notice the situation; (2) we interpret it as one in
designed to elicit greater emotional responses. The creative thinking A combination of flexibility in which help is needed; (3) we assume personal
person answers only “Yes” or “No” to the questions thinking and reorganization of understanding to responsibility; (4) we choose a form of assistance;
and, if guilty, is expected to show a greater emo- produce innovative ideas and new solutions. and (5) we carry out that assistance.
tional response to the critical questions than to the critical language period A period of time from
neutral questions. infancy to adolescence when language is easiest declarative memory Memories of facts or events,
controlled processes Activities that require full to learn; in the period after adolescence through such as scenes, stories, words, conversations, faces,
awareness, alertness, and concentration to reach adulthood, language is more difficult to learn. or daily events. We are aware of these kinds of
some goal. Because of the strongly focused atten- critical period In imprinting, a relatively brief time memories and can retrieve them.
tion they require, controlled processes often inter- during which learning is most likely to occur. Also
fere with other ongoing activities. called the sensitive period. deep structure According to Chomsky, a sentence’s
conventional level Kohlberg’s intermediate level of cross-cultural approach A psychological viewpoint underlying meaning that is not spoken but is pres-
moral reasoning. It consists of two stages: At stage that studies the influence of cultural and ethnic ent in the mind of the listener.
3, moral decisions are guided most by conform- similarities and differences on psychological and
ing to the standards of others we value; at stage 4, social functioning. defense mechanisms Freudian processes that operate
moral reasoning is determined most by conform- cross-sectional method A research design in which at unconscious levels to help the ego reduce anxi-
ing to the laws of society. several groups of different-aged individuals are ety through self-deception.
convergence In three-dimensional vision, a binocu- studied at the same time.
lar cue for depth perception based on signals sent crowd A large group of persons, most of whom are deficiency needs Physiological needs (food and
from the muscles that turn the eyes. To focus on unacquainted. sleep) and psychological needs (safety, belonging-
near or approaching objects, these muscles turn cultural bias In testing, the situation in which the ness, and esteem) that we try to fulfill if they are
the eyes inward, toward the nose. The brain uses wording of the questions and the experiences on not met.
the signals sent by these muscles to determine the which they are based are more familiar to mem-
distance of the object. bers of some social groups than to others. deindividuation The increased tendency for subjects
convergent thinking Beginning with a problem and cultural-familial retardation Mental retardation that to behave irrationally or perform antisocial behav-
coming up with a single correct solution. results from greatly impoverished environments, iors when there is less chance of being personally
conversion disorder A type of somatoform disor- with no evidence of genetic or brain damage. identified.
der characterized by unexplained and significant cultural influences Pervasive pressures that encour-
physical symptoms—headaches, nausea, dizziness, age members of a particular society or ethnic deinstitutionalization The release of mental patients
loss of sensation, paralysis—that suggest a real group to conform to shared behaviors, values, from mental hospitals and their return to the com-
neurological or medical problem but for which no and beliefs. munity to develop more independent and fulfill-
physical or organic cause can be identified. Anxi- culture-specific disorder A pattern of mental illness ing lives.
ety or emotional distress is apparently converted to or abnormal behavior that is unique to an ethnic
symptoms that disrupt physical functioning. or cultural population and does not match the delay of gratification Voluntarily postponing an
cornea The rounded, transparent covering over the Western classifications of mental disorders. immediate reward to persist in completing a task
front of the eye. As the light waves pass through cumulative record A continuous written record that for the promise of a future reward.
the cornea, its curved surface bends, or focuses, shows an organism’s responses and reinforcements.
the waves into a narrower beam. curare A drug that enters the bloodstream, reaches dendrites Branchlike extensions that arise from the
correlation An association or relationship between the muscles, and blocks receptors on the muscles. cell body; they receive signals from other neurons,
the occurrence of two or more events. As a result, acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter muscles, or sense organs and pass them to the cell
correlation coefficient A number that indicates the that normally activates muscles, is blocked, and the body.
strength of a relationship between two or more muscles are paralyzed.
events. The closer the number is to –1.00 or +1.00, cybertherapy Therapy delivered over the Internet. denial Refusal to recognize some anxiety-provoking
the greater is the strength of the relationship. event or piece of information.
cortex A thin layer of cells that essentially covers the D
entire surface of the forebrain. The cortex consists dependency A change in the nervous system such
of the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal DARE (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) A drug that a person addicted to a drug now needs to take
lobes, whose control centers allow us to carry out awareness program taught in the classroom by it to prevent the occurrence of painful symptoms.
hundreds of cognitive, emotional, sensory, and trained, uniformed police officers. It is based on the
motor functions. idea of using social influence and role-playing to dependent personality disorder A pattern of being
counseling psychologist An individual who has discourage adolescents from starting drug use and submissive and clingy because of an excessive
a PhD in psychology or education and whose to encourage them to refuse drugs in the future. need to be taken care of. It is found in 2% of the
population.

dependent variable In an experiment, one or more of
the subjects’ behaviors that are used to measure the
potential effects of the treatment or independent
variable.

depth perception In visual perception, the ability of
the eye and brain to add a third dimension, depth,
to visual perceptions, even though the images pro-
jected on our retina have only two dimensions,
height and width.

descriptive statistics Numbers used to present a col-
lection of data in a brief yet meaningful form.

designer drugs Manufactured or synthetic drugs
designed to resemble already existing illegal

622 G L O S S A R Y

psychoactive drugs and to produce or mimic their stressful or traumatic events. The importance of depressed, a person experiences at least two of
psychoactive effects. the information forgotten or the duration of the the following symptoms: poor appetite, insomnia,
developmental norms The average ages at which memory lapse is too great to be explained by nor- fatigue, low self-esteem, poor concentration, and
children perform various skills or exhibit particu- mal forgetfulness. feelings of hopelessness.
lar abilities or behaviors. dissociative disorder A disorder characterized by a
developmental psychologists Psychologists who disruption, split, or breakdown in a person’s nor- E
study a person’s biological, emotional, cognitive, mally integrated and functioning consciousness,
personal, and social development across the life memory, sense of identity, or perception. eardrum See tympanic membrane.
span, from infancy through late adulthood. dissociative fugue A disturbance in which an indi- echoic memory A form of sensory memory that
developmental psychology The study of moral, vidual suddenly and unexpectedly travels away
social, emotional, and cognitive development from home or place of work and is unable to recall holds auditory information for 1–2 seconds.
throughout a person’s entire life. his or her past. The person may not remember his eclectic approach An approach to therapy in which
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disor- or her identity or may be confused about his or her
ders-IV-Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) The 2000 new, assumed identity. the psychotherapist combines techniques and
edition of the American Psychiatric Association’s dissociative identity disorder The presence in a single ideas from many different schools of thought.
uniform diagnostic system for assessing specific individual of two or more distinct identities or ecstasy See MDMA.
symptoms and matching them to almost 300 dif- personality states, each with its own pattern of per- ECT See electroconvulsive therapy.
ferent mental disorders. The DSM-IV-TR has five ceiving, thinking about, and relating to the world. EEG Electroencephalography—a procedure that
major dimensions, or axes. Different personality states may take control of the involves placing electrodes at various points across
dialectical behavior therapy A type of cognitive- individual’s thoughts and behaviors at different a person’s scalp. The electrodes detect brain wave
behavioral therapy that helps patients identify times. Formerly called multiple personality disorder. activity throughout the brain’s surface.
thoughts, beliefs, and assumptions that make their distinctiveness In making attributions, determining efferent neurons Neurons that carry information
lives challenging and teaches them different ways how differently the person behaves in one situa- away from the spinal cord to produce responses in
to think and react. tion in comparison with other situations. various muscles and organs throughout the body.
diathesis stress theory of schizophrenia The idea divergent thinking Beginning with a problem and Also called motor neurons.
that some people have a genetic predisposition (a coming up with many different solutions. effortful encoding The transfer of information from
diathesis) that interacts with life stressors to result dominant gene A type of polymorphic gene that short-term into long-term memory either by
in the onset and development of schizophrenia. determines the development of a specific trait even working hard to repeat or rehearse the informa-
dichromats People who have trouble distinguish- if it is paired with a recessive gene. tion or by making associations between new and
ing red from green because their eyes have just dopamine theory The idea that, in schizophrenia, old information.
two kinds of cones. This is an inherited condition, the dopamine neurotransmitter system is some- ego Freud’s second division of the mind, which devel-
found most often in males, that results in seeing how overactive and gives rise to a wide range of ops from the id during infancy; its goal is to find
mostly shades of green, but it differs in severity. symptoms. safe and socially acceptable ways of satisfying the
diffusion of responsibility theory The idea that, double-blind procedure An experimental design id’s desires and to negotiate between the id’s wants
in the presence of others, individuals feel less in which neither the researchers nor the subjects and the superego’s prohibitions.
personal responsibility and are less likely to take know which group is receiving which treatment. egocentric thinking Seeing and thinking of the world
action in a situation where help is required. This design makes it possible to separate the only from your own viewpoint and having diffi-
direction of a sound The brain determines the direc- effects of medical treatment from the participants’ culty appreciating someone else’s viewpoint.
tion of a sound by calculating the slight difference beliefs or expectations about the treatment. elaborative rehearsal Making meaningful associa-
in time that it takes sound waves to reach the two double standard for sexual behavior A set of beliefs, tions between information to be learned and infor-
ears, which are about 6 inches apart. values, and expectations that subtly encourages mation already learned. An effective strategy for
discrimination In classical conditioning, the ten- sexual activity in men but discourages the same encoding information into long-term memory.
dency for some stimuli but not others to elicit a behavior in women. Electra complex See Oedipus complex.
conditioned response. In operant conditioning, Down syndrome A genetic disorder that results from electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) A treatment for
the tendency for a response to be emitted in the an extra 21st chromosome and causes abnormal depression in which electrodes are placed on the
presence of a stimulus that is reinforced but not in physical traits (a fold of skin at the corner of each skull and a mild electric current is administered.
the presence of unreinforced stimuli. In social psy- eye, a wide tongue, heart defects) and abnormal As it passes through the brain, the current causes a
chology, specific unfair behaviors exhibited toward brain development, resulting in degrees of mental seizure. Usual treatment consists of 10 to 12 ECT
members of a group. retardation. sessions, at the rate of about three per week.
discriminative stimulus In conditioning, a cue that dream interpretation A Freudian technique of dream embryonic stage The second stage of the prenatal
behavior will be enforced. analysis, based on the assumption that dreams period, spanning the 2–8 weeks that follow con-
disgust A universal facial expression—closing the contain underlying, hidden meanings and symbols ception; during this stage, cells divide and begin
eyes, narrowing the nostrils, curling the lips down- that provide clues to unconscious thoughts and to differentiate into bone, muscle, and body organs.
ward, and sometimes sticking out the tongue—that desires. Freud distinguished between a dream’s EMDR See Eye Movement Desensitization and
indicates the rejection of something unpleasant or manifest content—the plot of the dream at the sur- Reprocessing.
offensive. face level—and its latent content—the hidden or emotion A response consisting of four components:
disorganized schizophrenia A subcategory of schizo- disguised meaning of the plot’s events. interpreting or appraising a stimulus (event, object,
phrenia marked by bizarre ideas, often about one’s dreaming A unique state of consciousness in which or thought) in terms of one’s well-being; having
body (bones melting), confused speech, childish we are asleep but we experience a variety of a subjective feeling, such as happiness or sadness;
behavior (giggling for no apparent reason, mak- images, often in color. People blind from birth experiencing physiological responses, such as
ing faces at people), great emotional swings (fits of have only auditory or tactile dreams, while sighted changes in heart rate or breathing; and possibly
laughing or crying), and often extreme neglect of people have dreams with astonishing visual, audi- showing overt behaviors, such as smiling or crying.
personal appearance and hygiene. tory, and tactile images. emotion-focused coping Making some effort to deal
displacement Transferring feelings from their true DSM-IV-TR See Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of with the emotional distress caused by a harm/loss
source to another source that is safer and more Mental Disorders-IV-Text Revision. or threat appraisal. These efforts include seeking
socially acceptable. dyslexia An unexpected difficulty learning to read support and sympathy, avoiding or denying the
display rules Specific cultural norms that regulate despite intelligence, motivation, and education. situation, and redirecting our attention.
when, where, and how much emotion we should or Causes of dyslexia include genetic factors (defects emotional development The process in which
should not express in different situations. in neural circuitry) and environmental factors genetic factors, brain changes, cognitive factors,
dispositional attributions See internal attributions. (disadvantaged schooling). coping abilities, and cultural factors influence and
dissociative amnesia A dissociative disorder charac- dysthymic disorder A mood disorder character- interact in the development of emotional behav-
terized by the inability to recall important personal ized by feeling chronically but not continu- iors, expressions, thoughts, and feelings.
information or events and usually associated with ously depressed for a period of two years. While emotional intelligence The ability to perceive and
express emotion, understand and reason with emo-
tion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others.

G L O S S A R Y 623

encoding Placing or storing information—such as experimental group In an experiment, the subjects and lose weight and greatly enlarge as we store fat
images, events, or sounds (music, noise, speech)— who receive the treatment. and gain weight.
in memory by making mental representations. fear of failure A tendency to avoid failure by choos-
experimental psychology The study of sensation, ing easy, nonchallenging tasks where failure is
end bulbs Bulblike swellings at the extreme ends of perception, learning, human performance, motiva- unlikely or difficult.
axons’ branches that store chemicals called neu- tion, and emotion in carefully controlled labora- female hypothalamus Because of neural program-
rotransmitters, which are used to communicate tory conditions, with both animal and human ming in the womb, the hypothalamus, a structure
with neighboring cells. subjects. in the brain that controls the endocrine system,
functions differently in the male and female. The
endocrine system Numerous glands, located exposure therapy A treatment for anxiety in which female hypothalamus triggers a cyclical release of
throughout the body, that secrete various chemi- the person is gradually exposed to the real anxiety- estrogens from the ovaries. The increased estrogen
cals called hormones, which affect organs, muscles, producing situations or objects that he or she is level is responsible for female secondary sexual
and other glands in the body. attempting to avoid; exposure treatment is contin- characteristics, such as pubic hair, breast develop-
ued until the anxiety decreases. ment, and widening of the hips. The cyclic release
endorphins Chemicals produced by the brain and of hormones (estrogen and progesterone) also
secreted in response to injury or severe physical or extensions of waking life theory of dreams The regulates the menstrual cycle.
psychological stress. Their powerful pain-reducing theory that our dreams reflect the same thoughts, female secondary sexual characteristics Sexual
properties are similar to those of morphine. fears, concerns, problems, and emotions that we characteristics whose development in the female
have when awake. is triggered by the increased secretion of estrogen
environmental factors Our social, political, and cul- during puberty; they include the growth of pubic
tural influences as well as our particular learning external attributions Explanations of behavior based hair, development of breasts, and widening of hips.
experiences. on the external circumstances or situations. Also fertilization See conception.
called situational attributions. fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) A condition caused by
environmental language factors Interactions that heavy drinking by the mother during pregnancy. It
children have with parents, peers, teachers, and external ear An oval-shaped structure that protrudes results in a combination of physical changes, such
others whose feedback rewards and encourages from the side of the head. Its function is to pick as short stature, flattened nose, and short eye open-
language development; these interactions also pro- up sound waves and send them along the auditory ings, and psychological defects, such as degrees of
vide opportunities for children to observe, imitate, canal. mental retardation and hyperactivity.
and practice language skills. fetal stage The third stage in prenatal development,
extinction In classical conditioning, the reduction in beginning two months after conception and last-
episodic memory A type of declarative memory, con- a response when the conditioned stimulus is no ing until birth.
sisting of knowledge about one’s personal experi- longer followed by the unconditioned stimulus. As fight-flight response A state of increased physi-
ences (episodes) or activities, such as naming or a result, the conditioned stimulus tends to no lon- ological arousal that (1) directs great resources
describing favorite restaurants, movies, songs, hab- ger elicit the conditioned response. In operant con- of energy to the muscles and brain; (2) can be
its, or hobbies. ditioning, the reduction in the operant response triggered by either physical stimuli that threaten
when it is no longer followed by the reinforcer. our survival or psychological situations that are
ESP See extrasensory perception. novel, threatening, or challenging; and (3) involves
estrogen One of the major female hormones. At extrasensory perception (ESP) A group of psychic numerous physiological responses that arouse
experiences that involve perceiving or sending and prepare the body for action—fight or flight.
puberty, estrogen levels increase eightfold and information (images) outside normal sensory Caused by the activation of the sympathetic ner-
stimulate the development of both primary and processes or channels. ESP includes four general vous system, it helps us to cope with, and survive,
secondary sexual characteristics. abilities: telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, and threatening situations.
ethologists Behavioral biologists who observe and psychokinesis. figure-ground rule A perceptual rule stating that, in
study animal behavior in the animal’s natural envi- organizing stimuli, we tend to automatically distin-
ronment or under relatively naturalistic conditions. extrinsic motivation Engaging in certain activities or guish between a figure and a ground: The figure,
evening persons People who prefer to get up late, go behaviors that either reduce our biological needs with more detail, stands out against the back-
to bed late, and engage in afternoon or evening or help us obtain incentives or external rewards. ground, which has less detail.
activities. See morning persons. five-factor model An approach to personality in
event schemas Social schemas containing behaviors Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing which all traits are organized into five catego-
that we associate with familiar activities, events, or (EMDR) A new technique in which the client ries—openness, conscientiousness, extraversion,
procedures. Also called scripts. focuses on a traumatic memory while visually agreeableness, and neuroticism—that are used to
evolution See theory of evolution. following the back-and-forth movement of a describe differences in personality.
evolutionary approach A psychological viewpoint therapist’s hand or pen. The process usually con- fixation A Freudian process through which an indi-
that focuses on how evolutionary ideas, such as tinues for several 90-minute sessions, after which vidual may be locked into any one of the three
adaptation and natural selection, explain human the traumatic memories are greatly reduced or psychosexual stages—oral, anal, or phallic—
behaviors and mental processes. eliminated. because his or her wishes were either overgratified
evolutionary theory of emotions The theory that or undergratified in that stage.
says one function of emotions is to help a person eyewitness testimony Recollection or recognition of fixed action pattern An innate biological force that
evaluate objects, people, and situations in terms of a suspect observed during a possibly disruptive predisposes an organism to behave in a fixed way
how good or bad they are for the individual’s well- emotional situation that may have interfered with in the presence of a specific environmental condi-
being and survival. accurate remembering. tion. Previously called instinct.
evolutionary theory of gender differences The idea fixed-interval schedule In conditioning, a schedule
in sociobiology, which emphasizes genetic and F in which a reinforcer occurs following a subject’s
biological forces, that current behavioral and cog- first response after a fixed interval of time.
nitive differences between men and women can be facial expressions Social signals that accompany fixed-ratio schedule In conditioning, a schedule in
traced back to different survival problems faced by emotions and express the state of our personal which a reinforcer occurs only after a fixed num-
early women and men and the different behaviors feelings; they provide social signals that elicit a ber of responses by the subject.
they adapted to survive. variety of responses from those around us. flashbulb memories Vivid recollections, usually in
exemplar model The idea that a person forms a great deal, of dramatic or emotionally charged
concept of an object, event, animal, or person by facial feedback theory The idea that sensations or incidents, which are encoded effortlessly and may
defining or making a mental list of the essential feedback from the movement of facial muscles and last for long periods of time.
characteristics of that particular thing. skin are interpreted by your brain as emotional flavor What we experience when we combine the
exhaustion stage The third stage in the general adap- feelings. sensations of taste and smell.
tation syndrome. In reaction to long-term, contin- fMRI See functional magnetic resonance imaging.
uous stress, there is actual breakdown in internal factor analysis A complicated statistical method that
organs or weakening of the infection-fighting finds relationships among different or diverse
immune system. items and allows them to be grouped together.
experiment A method for identifying cause-and-
effect relationships by following a set of rules and farsightedness A visual acuity problem that may
guidelines that minimize the possibility of error, result when the eyeball is too short, so that objects
bias, and chance occurrences. See also laboratory are focused at a point slightly behind the retina.
experiment. The result is that distant objects are clear, but near
objects are blurry.
624 G L O S S A R Y
FAS See fetal alcohol syndrome.
fat cells Cells that store body fat. The number of fat

cells in the body is primarily determined by hered-
ity. They do not normally multiply except when
we become obese. Fat cells shrink as we give up fat

food-entrainable circadian clock A sort of timing frontal lobe An area in the front part of the brain that gene A specific segment on the strand of DNA (the
device that regulates eating patterns in people and includes a huge area of cortex. The frontal lobe is chromosome) that contains instructions for making
animals and might be responsible for late-night involved in many functions: performing voluntary proteins, the chemical building blocks from which
eating in people. motor movements, interpreting and performing all the parts of the brain and body are constructed.
emotional behaviors, behaving normally in social
foot-in-the-door technique A method of persuasion situations, maintaining a healthy personality, pay- general adaptation syndrome (GAS) According to
that relies on the increased probability of compli- ing attention to things in the environment, making Selye, a series of three stages—alarm, resistance,
ance to a second request if a person complies with decisions, and carrying out plans. and exhaustion—that correspond to the three dif-
a small first request. ferent reactions of the body to stressful situations
frontal lobotomy A surgical procedure in which and that gradually increase the chances of devel-
forebrain The largest part of the brain, consist- about one-third of the front part of the frontal oping psychosomatic symptoms.
ing of left and right hemispheres connected by lobe is separated from the rest of the brain.
a wide band of fibers, the corpus callosum. The generalization In classical conditioning, the tendency
hemispheres are responsible for a vast array of frustration The feeling that results when our attempts for a stimulus that is similar to the original condi-
responses, including learning and memory, speak- to reach some goal are blocked. tioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar
ing and language, emotional responses, experienc- to the conditioned response. Usually, the more
ing sensations, initiating voluntary movements, frustration-aggression hypothesis The idea that, similar the new stimulus is to the original condi-
planning, and making decisions. when our goals are blocked, we become frustrated tioned stimulus, the larger will be the conditioned
and respond with anger and aggression. See also response. In operant conditioning, the situation
forgetting Inability to retrieve, recall, or recognize modified frustration-aggression hypothesis. in which an animal or a person emits the same
information that was stored or is still stored in response to similar stimuli.
long-term memory. functional fixedness A mental set characterized by
the inability to see an object as having a function generalized anxiety disorder A psychological dis-
forgetting curve A graph measuring the amount of different from its usual one. order primarily characterized by excessive and/or
previously learned information that subjects can unrealistic worry or feelings of general apprehen-
recall or recognize across time. functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) A sion about events or activities. These anxious feel-
brain scan that measures the activity of specific ings occur on a majority of days for a period of at
formal operations stage Piaget’s fourth cognitive neurons that are functioning during cognitive least six months.
stage, lasting from about 12 years of age through tasks such as thinking, listening, or reading.
adulthood. During this stage, adolescents and genetic factors in mental disorders Unlearned or
adults develop the ability to think about abstract functionalism An early school of psychological inherited tendencies that influence how a person
or hypothetical concepts, to consider an issue from thought that emphasized the function rather than thinks, behaves, and feels.
another person’s viewpoint, and to solve cognitive the structure of consciousness and was interested in
problems in a logical manner. how our minds adapt to our changing environment. genetic hunger factors Inherited instructions found
in our genes that influence our hunger; these
fragile X syndrome A defect in the X chromosome fundamental attribution error Our tendency, when instructions may determine our number of fat cells
that can result in physical changes such as a rela- we look for causes of a person’s behavior, to focus or our metabolic rate of burning off the body’s
tively large head with protruding ears and mild to on the person’s disposition or personality traits fuel, for example, and push us toward being nor-
profound mental retardation. and overlook how the situation influenced the mal, overweight, or underweight.
person’s behavior.
fraternal twins Twins who develop from separate genetic marker An identifiable gene or number of
eggs and share 50% of their genes. G genes or a specific segment of a chromosome that
is directly linked to some behavioral, physiological,
free association A Freudian technique in which cli- galvanic skin response Changes in sweating of the or neurological trait or disease.
ents are encouraged to talk about any thoughts or fingers (or palms) that accompany emotional
images that enter their heads; the assumption is experiences and are independent of perspiration genetic mutation An accidental error in genetic
that this kind of free-flowing, uncensored talking under normal temperatures. instructions that leads to a change in an organism.
will provide clues to unconscious material.
Ganzfeld procedure A controlled method for elimi- genetic sex factors Inherited instructions for the
frequency distribution The range of scores we get nating trickery, error, and bias while testing tele- development of sexual organs, the secretion of sex
and the frequency of each one, when we measure a pathic communication between two people. hormones, and the wiring of the neural circuits
sample of people (or objects) regarding some trait. that control sexual reflexes.
Gardner’s multiple-intelligence theory The idea
frequency theory In pitch perception, the idea that, that, instead of one kind of general intelligence, genetic testing A procedure that involves taking a
for low-frequency sound waves (1,000 cycles or there are at least seven different kinds: verbal intel- sample from someone’s blood, hair, skin, or other
less), the rate at which nerve impulses reach the ligence, musical intelligence, logical-mathematical body parts and then examining the person’s genes
brain determines how low a sound is. A rate of intelligence, spatial intelligence, body movement to look for signs that the person may be at risk for
50 impulses per second is interpreted as a lower intelligence, intelligence to understand oneself, and specific diseases or disorders.
sound than a rate of 200 impulses per second. intelligence to understand others.
genital cutting The practice of cutting away the
Freudian slips Mistakes or slips of the tongue that GAS See general adaptation syndrome. female’s external genitalia, usually including her
we make in everyday speech; such mistakes are gate control theory The idea that nonpainful nerve clitoris and surrounding skin (labia minora).
thought to reflect unconscious thoughts or wishes. The remaining edges are sewn together, which
impulses compete with pain impulses as they enter leaves only a small opening for urination and
Freud’s psychodynamic theory of personality A per- the spinal cord, creating a neural gate through menstruation.
sonality theory that emphasizes the importance of which only the nonpainful impulses pass; the pain
early childhood experiences, repressed thoughts impulses do not reach the brain. Thus, we can genital stage Freud’s fifth, and final, psychosexual
that we cannot voluntarily access, and the conflicts reduce feelings of pain by rubbing an injured area stage, lasting from puberty through adulthood.
between conscious and unconscious forces that or becoming absorbed in other activities. In this stage, the individual has renewed sexual
influence our thoughts and behaviors. See also gender identity The individual’s subjective expe- desires that he or she seeks to fulfill through rela-
psychoanalytic approach. rience and feelings of being either a male or a tionships with other people.
female; formerly called sexual identity.
Freud’s theory of dreams A theory that says we have gender identity disorder Commonly referred to as germinal stage The first stage of prenatal development,
a “censor” that protects us from realizing threaten- transsexualism, an individual’s strong desire or lasting two weeks from the moment of conception.
ing and unconscious desires or wishes, especially feeling of wanting to be the opposite sex, discom-
those involving sex or aggression, by transforming fort with being one’s assigned sex, and the wish to Gestalt approach An older theoretical approach that
them into harmless symbols that appear in our live as a member of the other sex. emphasized the idea that perception is more than
dreams and do not disturb our sleep or conscious gender roles Traditional or stereotypical behaviors, the sum of its parts. In contrast to the structural-
thoughts. attitudes, and personality traits that parents, peers, ists, the Gestalt psychologists believed that percep-
and society designate as masculine or feminine. tions are formed by the brain on the basis of a set
Freud’s theory of the unconscious The idea that, Gender roles affect how we think and behave; for- of rules that specify how individual elements may
when faced with very threatening—especially merly called sex roles. be organized to form a meaningful pattern—that
sexual or aggressive—wishes or desires, we auto- gender schemas Sets of information and rules orga- is, a perception.
matically defend our self-esteem by placing these nized around how either a male or a female should
psychologically dangerous thoughts into a mental think and behave. gifted A term applied to an individual (usually a
place, the unconscious, that is sealed off from vol- child) who has above-average intelligence as well
untary recall. as some superior talent or skill. A moderately

G L O S S A R Y 625

gifted child is usually defined by an IQ score to potentially dangerous both physically and I
between 130 and 150; a profoundly gifted child psychologically.
has an IQ score of 180 or above. helping See prosocial behavior. iconic memory A form of sensory memory that holds
glial cells Cells in the nervous system that have at heritability A statistical measure that estimates the visual information for about a quarter of a second
least three functions: They provide scaffolding amount or proportion of some ability, characteris- or longer. (The word icon means “image.”)
to guide the growth of developing neurons and tic, or trait that can be attributed to genetic factors.
support mature neurons; they wrap themselves heterosexual orientation A pattern of sexual arousal id Freud’s first division of the mind, which contains
around neurons and form a kind of insulation to by persons of the opposite sex. two biological drives—sex and aggression—that
prevent interference from other electrical signals; heuristics Rules of thumb that reduce the number of are the source of all psychic or mental energy. The
and they release chemicals that influence a neu- operations or allow us to take shortcuts in solving id’s goal is to pursue pleasure and satisfy the bio-
ron’s growth and function. problems. logical drives.
gonads Glands—the ovaries in females and the testes hierarchy of needs See Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
in males—that produce hormones to regulate sex- high need for achievement A tendency to persist ideal self According to Rogers, the self that is based
ual development, ovulation or sperm production, longer at tasks; show better performance on tasks, on our hopes and wishes and reflects how we
and the growth of sex organs. They are part of the activities, or exams; set challenging but realistic would like to see ourselves; its complement is the
endocrine system. goals; compete with others to win; and be attracted real self.
grammar A set of rules for combining words into to careers that require initiative.
phrases and sentences to express an infinite num- hindbrain An area at the base of the brain that is ideal weight See optimal weight.
ber of thoughts that can be understood by others. involved in sleeping, waking, coordinating body identical twins Twins who develop from a single egg
group A collection of two or more people who inter- movements, and regulating vital reflexes (heart
act and share some common attribute or purpose. rate, blood pressure, and respiration). and thus have almost exactly the same genes.
A group also influences how its members think hippocampus A curved structure within the tem- identity How we describe ourselves, including our
and behave. poral lobe that is involved in transforming many
group cohesion Group togetherness, which is deter- kinds of fleeting memories into permanent stor- values, goals, traits, interests, and motivations.
mined by how much group members perceive that age. It forms part of the limbic system. illusion Perception of an image so distorted that, in
they share common attributes. histrionic personality disorder A disorder character-
group norms Formal or informal rules about how ized by excessive emotionality and attention seek- reality, it cannot and does not exist. An illusion
group members should behave. ing. It is found in 2% of the population. is created when space, size, and depth cues are
group polarization The phenomenon in which group HIV positive Having HIV antibodies, which implies manipulated so that our brains can no longer cor-
discussion reinforces the majority’s point of view infection by the human immunodeficiency virus rectly interpret them.
and shifts that view to a more extreme position. (HIV). imaginary audience Adolescents’ belief that everyone
groupthink Poor group decision making that occurs holistic view The idea, emphasized in humanistic is watching all of their actions.
when group discussions emphasize cohesion and theories, that a person’s personality is more than imagined perception In hypnosis, the subject’s will-
agreement rather than critical thinking and the the sum of its individual parts; instead, the indi- ingness, at the hypnotist’s suggestion, to respond to
best possible outcome. vidual parts form a unique and total entity that nonexistent stimuli and imaginary perceptions. It
growth needs According to Maslow, higher-level functions as a unit. can also include bizarre behaviors, such as imitat-
needs that are not essential to existence, such as homeostasis The tendency of the sympathetic and ing Elvis Presley in public.
the desire for truth, goodness, beauty, and justice. parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic ner- immune system The body’s defense and surveillance
vous system to work together to maintain the network of cells and chemicals that fight off bacte-
H body’s level of arousal in balance for optimum ria, viruses, and other foreign or toxic substances.
functioning. implicit or nondeclarative memory Mental and
hair cells The auditory receptors. These miniature homosexual orientation A pattern of sexual arousal emotional processes that we are unaware of but
hair-shaped cells rise from the basilar membrane by persons of the same sex. that bias and influence our conscious feelings,
in the cochlea. humanistic approach A psychological viewpoint thoughts, and behaviors. See procedural memory.
emphasizing that each individual has great free- impossible figure A perceptual experience in which a
hallucinations Sensory experiences without any dom in directing his or her future, considerable drawing seems to defy basic geometric laws.
stimulation from the environment. Common capacity for achieving personal growth, intrinsic imprinting Inherited tendencies or responses that
symptoms of schizophrenia, hallucinations may worth, and enormous potential for self-fulfillment. newborn animals display when they encounter
be auditory, such as hearing voices, or may include humanistic theories See humanistic approach. certain stimuli in their environment.
distorted perceptions, such as feeling that parts of hypnosis A situation or set of procedures in which incentives Environmental factors, such as external
one’s body are too small or too large. a researcher, clinician, or hypnotist suggests to stimuli, reinforcers, or rewards, that motivate our
another person that he or she will experience vari- behavior.
hallucinogens Psychoactive drugs that can produce ous changes in sensation, perception, cognition, or independent variable In an experiment, a treatment
hallucinations—strange perceptual, sensory, and control over motor behaviors. or something else that the researcher controls or
cognitive experiences that the person sees or hears hypnotic analgesia Reduction in pain reported by manipulates.
but knows are not occurring in reality. Such unreal clients after undergoing hypnosis and receiving industrial/organizational psychology The study
experiences are called hallucinations. suggestions that reduced anxiety and promoted of people and their relationships with their work
relaxation. environments.
happiness A mental state that includes three com- hypnotic induction Various methods of inducing inferential statistics A set of procedures for deter-
ponents: feeling positive emotions, being satis- hypnosis, such as asking subjects to close their eyes mining what conclusions can be legitimately
fied with one’s life, and not experiencing negative and go to sleep, having them fix their attention on inferred from a set of data.
emotions. an object (for example, a watch), and instructing informational influence theory The theory that we
them to go into deep relaxation. use the reactions of others to judge the seriousness
hardiness A combination of three personality traits— hypothalamus A structure of the limbic system that of the situation.
control, commitment, and challenge—that protect is located near the bottom middle of the brain and inhibited/fearful children Kagan’s term for children
or buffer us from the potentially harmful effects regulates many motivational and emotional behav- who show reluctance, anxiety, or fear (measured by
of stressful situations and reduce our chances of iors. It controls much of the endocrine system by motor activity, fretting, or crying) when approach-
developing psychosomatic illness. regulating the pituitary gland. ing a strange child, exploring novel objects, playing
hypothesis An educated guess about some phenom- with a peer, or talking to an unfamiliar adult. In
harm/loss appraisal Our conclusion that we have enon, stated in precise, concrete language so as to addition, inhibited children show increased physi-
already sustained some damage or injury in a par- rule out any confusion or error in the meaning of ological arousal to novel or strange situations.
ticular situation. its terms. inhibited female orgasm A persistent delay or
absence of orgasm after becoming aroused and
hassles Small, irritating, frustrating events that we excited.
face daily and that we usually appraise as stressful innate language factors Genetically programmed
experiences. physiological and neurological features of the
brain and vocal apparatus that facilitate our mak-
hazing Part of a group’s initiation ritual during which ing speech sounds and learning language skills.
individuals are subjected to a variety of behav-
iors that range from humiliating and unpleasant

626 G L O S S A R Y

insanity According to the legal definition, not know- intrinsic motivation Engaging in certain activities while behaviors followed by negative consequences
ing the difference between right and wrong. or behaviors because they are personally reward- are weakened.
ing or because we are fulfilling our beliefs or learning A relatively permanent change in behavior
insecure attachment An emotional bond character- expectations. (both unobservable mental events and observable
istic of infants who avoid, or show ambivalence responses) associated with specific stimuli and/or
toward, their parents. introspection A method of exploring conscious men- responses that change as a result of experience.
tal processes adopted by the structuralists; subjects learning−performance distinction The idea that
insight A mental process marked by the sudden and were asked to look inward and report their sensa- learning may occur but may not always be mea-
unexpected solution to a problem; a phenomenon tions and perceptions. sured by, or immediately evident in, performance.
often called the “ah-ha!” experience. lens A transparent, oval structure in the eye whose
intrusive thoughts Thoughts that we repeatedly curved surface functions to bend and focus light
insight therapy An approach in which the therapist experience, that are usually unwanted or disrup- waves into an even narrower beam. The lens is
and client talk about the client’s symptoms and tive, and that are very difficult to stop or eliminate. attached to muscles that adjust the curve of the
problems, with the goal of identifying the cause of lens, which, in turn, adjusts the focusing.
the problem. Once the client has an insight into ions Electrically charged chemical particles, which levels-of-processing theory The theory that memory
the cause of the problem, possible solutions can be obey the rule that opposite charges attract and like depends on how well information is encoded in
discussed with the therapist. charges repel. the mind. Information is encoded at a shallow level
if we simply pay attention to its basic features but
insomnia Difficulties in going to sleep or in stay- IQ See intelligence quotient. is encoded at a deep level if we form new associa-
ing asleep through the night. Associated daytime iris A circular muscle that surrounds the pupil and tions with existing information. According to the
complaints include fatigue, impairment of concen- theory, poor memory corresponds to information
tration, memory difficulty, and lack of well-being. controls the amount of light that enters the eye. encoded at a shallow level, and good memory to
About 33% of adult Americans report some type In dim light, the iris relaxes, allowing more light information encoded at deep levels.
of insomnia. to enter—the pupil dilates; in bright light, the iris lie detector tests See polygraph tests.
constricts, allowing less light to enter—the pupil light and shadow A monocular depth cue; brightly
instincts According to McDougall (1908), innate constricts. The iris muscle contains the pigment lit objects appear closer, while objects in shadows
tendencies or biological forces that determine that gives the eye its characteristic color. appear farther away.
behavior; now used as a synonym for fixed action light therapy The use of bright, artificial light to reset
pattern. J circadian rhythms and so combat the insomnia
and drowsiness that plague shift workers and jet-
intelligence quotient (IQ) A measure of intelligence James-Lange theory The idea that our brains inter- lag sufferers; it is also used to help people with
computed by dividing a child’s mental age, as mea- pret specific physiological changes as feelings or sleeping disorders in which the body fails to stay
sured in an intelligence test, by the child’s chrono- emotions and that there is a different physiological in time with the external environment.
logical age and multiplying the result by 100. pattern underlying each emotion. limbic system A group of about half a dozen inter-
connected structures in the core of the forebrain
interactive model of sexual orientation The theory jet lag A condition in which travelers’ internal circa- that are involved in many motivational behaviors,
that genetic and biological factors, such as genetic dian rhythm is out of step, or synchrony, with the such as obtaining food, drink, and sex; organiz-
instructions and prenatal hormones, interact with external clock time at their new location. They ing emotional behaviors such as fear, anger, and
psychological factors, such as the individual’s atti- experience fatigue, disorientation, lack of concen- aggression; and storing memories. It is sometimes
tudes, personality traits, and behaviors, to influ- tration, and reduced cognitive skills. It takes about referred to as our primitive, or animal, brain
ence the development of sexual orientation. one day to reset the circadian clock for each hour because the same structures are found in the
of time change. brains of animals that are evolutionarily very old.
interference The forgetting process in which the linear perspective In three-dimensional vision, a
recall of some particular memory is blocked or just noticeable difference (JND) The smallest monocular depth cue associated with the conver-
prevented by new information that overwrites or increase or decrease in the intensity of a stimulus gence of parallel lines in the far distance.
interferes with it. See also proactive interference that a person can manage to detect. linguistic relativity See theory of linguistic relativity.
and retroactive interference. liver The body organ that monitors nutrients, especially
L the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood.When the
internal attributions Explanations of behavior on level of glucose falls, the liver signals hunger; when
the basis of the internal characteristics (or disposi- labeling A process of identifying differences among the level of glucose rises, the liver signals fullness.
tions) of the person performing the behavior. Also individuals and placing them into specific catego- lobes The four areas into which the brain’s cortex is
called dispositional attributions. ries, which may have either positive or negative divided.
associations. locus of control Our beliefs concerning how much
interneuron A relatively short neuron whose pri- control we have over situations or rewards. For
mary task is to make connections between other laboratory experiment A technique to gather infor- each of us, these beliefs lie somewhere on a con-
neurons. mation by studying behavior in a controlled envi- tinuum between internal and external locus of
ronment that permits the careful manipulation of control. We have an internal locus of control if we
interposition In three-dimensional vision, a monoc- some treatment and the measurement of the treat- believe that we have control over situations and
ular depth cue that comes into play when objects ment’s effects on behavior. rewards and an external locus of control if we
overlap. The overlapping object appears closer, and believe that we do not have control over situations
the object that is overlapped appears to be farther laboratory setting An environment in which indi- and rewards and that events outside ourselves
away. viduals may be studied under systematic and (fate) determine what happens.
controlled conditions, thus eliminating many real- long-term memory The process that can store almost
interval timing clock A sort of timing device, located world influences. unlimited amounts of information over long peri-
in the basal ganglia of the brain, that gauges the ods of time.
passage of seconds, minutes, or hours and helps language A form of communication in which we learn long-term potentiation (LTP) The increased sensi-
creatures know when to start or stop doing some and use complex rules to form and manipulate sym- tivity of a neuron to stimulation after it has been
activity. bols (words or gestures) that are used to generate an repeatedly stimulated. Neuroscientists believe that
endless number of meaningful sentences. the LTP process may be the basis for learning and
intervention program A program for disadvantaged memory in animals and humans.
children that creates an environment offering language stages Four different periods in a child’s longitudinal method A research design in which the
increased opportunities for intellectual, social, and acquisition of language and grammar: babbling, same group of individuals is studied repeatedly at
personality-emotional development while ensur- single words, two-word combinations, and sen- many different points in time.
ing good physical health. tences. In each subsequent stage, a child displays
new and more complex language skills.
interview A technique for obtaining information by
asking questions, ranging from open-ended to latency stage The fourth of Freud’s psychosexual
highly structured, about a subject’s behaviors and stages, lasting from the age of about 6 years to
attitudes, usually in a one-on-one situation. puberty. In this stage, the child represses sexual
thoughts and engages in nonsexual activities, such
intestines The body organ that responds to the as developing social and intellectual skills.
presence of food, especially fats, by secreting a
hormone called CCK (cholecystokinin), which lateral hypothalamus A group of brain cells that reg-
inhibits eating. ulates hunger by creating feelings of being hungry.

intimacy In Sternberg’s triangular theory of love, the law of effect The principle that behaviors followed by
component of love associated with feeling close positive (pleasurable) consequences are strength-
and connected to someone; it develops through ened (and thus will likely occur in the future),
sharing and communicating.

G L O S S A R Y 627

loudness Our subjective experience of a sound’s inten- mass hysteria A condition experienced by a group meta-analysis A powerful statistical procedure that
sity, which is determined by the height (amplitude) of people who, through suggestion, observation, compares the results of dozens or hundreds of
of the sound wave. The brain calculates loudness or other psychological processes, develop similar studies to determine the effectiveness of some
from the rate of nerve impulses that arrive in the fears, delusions, abnormal behaviors, and, in some variable or treatment examined in those studies
auditory nerve. cases, physical symptoms. (for example, a type of therapy).

LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide) A very potent maturation The succession of developmental changes metabolic rate The efficiency with which the body
hallucinogen. Very small doses can produce expe- that are genetically or biologically programmed breaks food down into energy and the speed with
riences such as visual hallucinations, perceptual rather than acquired through learning or life which the body burns off that fuel. An inherited
distortions, increased sensory awareness, and experiences. trait, it can be raised by exercise or smoking.
emotional responses that may last 8–10 hours.
MDMA Also called ecstasy, this drug resembles both methamphetamine (D-methamphetamine) A stim-
LTP See long-term potentiation. mescaline (a hallucinogen) and amphetamine (a ulant similar to amphetamine in both its chemical
stimulant). It heightens sensations, gives a euphoric makeup and its physical and psychological effects.
M rush, raises body temperature, and creates feelings It causes marked increases in blood pressure and
of warmth and empathy. heart rate and feelings of enhanced mood, alert-
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) A technique for ness, and energy. Methamphetamine, whose street
studying the structure of the living brain. Non- mean The arithmetic average of all the individual names are meth, speed, crank, crystal, and ice, pro-
harmful radio frequencies are passed through the measurements in a distribution. duces an almost instantaneous high when smoked
brain, and a computer measures their interaction and is highly addictive.
with brain cells and transforms this interaction measure of variability An indication of how much
into an incredibly detailed image of the brain scores in a distribution vary from one another. method of loci A mnemonic device, or encoding
(or body). technique, that improves encoding by creating
median The score above and below which half the visual associations between memorized places and
maintenance rehearsal The practice of intentionally scores in the distribution fall. new items to be memorized.
repeating or rehearsing information (rather than
forming any new associations) so that it remains medical therapy Any approach that uses psychoac- midbrain The part of the brain that contains the
longer in short-term memory. tive drugs, such as tranquilizers and neuroleptics, reward/pleasure center, which is stimulated by
to treat mental disorders by changing biological food, sex, money, music, attractive faces, and some
major depressive disorder A mood disorder marked factors, such as the levels of neurotransmitters in drugs (cocaine); contains areas for visual and audi-
by at least two weeks of continually being in a bad the brain. tory reflexes, such as automatically turning your
mood, having no interest in anything, and getting head toward a noise; and holds the reticular for-
no pleasure from activities. In addition, a person medulla An area in the hindbrain, located at the top mation, which arouses the forebrain so that it is
must have at least four of the following symptoms: of the spinal cord, that includes a group of cells ready to process information from the senses.
problems with eating, sleeping, thinking, con- that control vital reflexes, such as respiration, heart
centrating, or making decisions; lacking energy; rate, and blood pressure. middle ear A bony cavity that is sealed at each end by
thinking about suicide; and feeling worthless or a membrane. The two membranes are connected
guilty. Also called unipolar depression. melatonin A hormone secreted by the pineal gland, by three small bones, collectively called ossicles.
an oval group of cells in the center of the human Because of their shapes, these bones are referred to
major life events Potentially disturbing, troubling, or brain. Melatonin secretion, controlled by the supra- as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. The ossicles act
disruptive situations, both positive and negative, chiasmatic nucleus, increases with darkness and like levers that greatly amplify vibrations from the
that we appraise as having a significant impact on decreases with light; thus, it plays a role in the regu- eardrum and transmit them to the oval window
our lives. lation of circadian rhythms and in promoting sleep. and inner ear.

maladaptive behavior approach In defining abnor- memory The ability to retain information over time mind-body connection The ability of our thoughts,
mality, the idea that a behavior is psychologically through the processes of encoding, storing, and beliefs, and emotions to produce physiological
damaging or abnormal if it interferes with the retrieving. Memories are not copies but represen- changes that may be either beneficial or detrimen-
individual’s ability to function in one’s personal life tations of the world that vary in accuracy and are tal to our health and well-being.
or in society. subject to error and bias.
mind-body question The debate about how complex
maladaptive genes Genes for traits that prevent menarche The first menstrual period; it is a signal mental activities, such as feeling, thinking, learning,
survival and reproduction. They are not selected that ovulation may have occurred and that the imagining, and dreaming, can be generated by the
in the process of evolution and consequently are girl may have the potential to conceive and bear brain’s physical membranes, fluids, and chemicals.
eliminated in a species. a child.
mind-body therapy An approach to healing based on
male hypothalamus Because of neural programming Meniere’s disease Sudden attacks of dizziness, nau- the finding that thoughts and emotions can change
in the womb, the hypothalamus, a structure in the sea, vomiting, and head-splitting buzzing sounds physiological and immune responses. It attempts
brain that controls the endocrine system, functions that result from a malfunction of the semicircular to increase physical and mental well-being by
differently in the male and female. The male hypo- canals in the vestibular system. means of mental strategies, such as relaxation,
thalamus triggers a continuous release of andro- meditation, and biofeedback, as well as social
gens, such as testosterone, from the testes. The menopause A gradual stoppage in the secretion of the support groups.
increased androgen level is responsible for male major female hormone (estrogen). This process,
secondary sexual characteristics, such as facial and which occurs in women at about age 50 (range Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-RF
pubic hair, muscle growth, and lowered voice. 35–60), results in the cessation of ovulation and (MMPI-2) A true-false self-report questionnaire
the menstrual cycle. that consists of 567 statements describing a wide
male secondary sexual characteristics Sexual char- range of normal and abnormal behaviors. The
acteristics whose development in the male is trig- mental age The estimation of a child’s intellectual purpose of MMPI-2 is to help distinguish normal
gered by the increased secretion of testosterone progress, which is calculated by comparing the from abnormal groups.
during puberty; they include the growth of pubic child’s score on an intelligence test with the scores
hair, muscle development, and a change (deepen- of average children of the same age. mnemonic methods Effective ways to improve
ing) of the voice. encoding and create better retrieval cues by form-
mental disorder A prolonged or recurring problem ing vivid associations or images that facilitate
marijuana A psychoactive drug whose primary active that seriously interferes with an individual’s abil- recall and decrease forgetting.
ingredient is THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), which ity to live a satisfying personal life and function
is found in the leaves of the cannabis plant. Low adequately in society. mode The most frequent measurement in a
doses produce mild euphoria; moderate doses distribution.
produce perceptual and time distortions; and high mental retardation Substantial limitation in present
doses may produce hallucinations, delusions, and functioning, characterized by significantly subav- modified frustration-aggression hypothesis The
distortions of body image. erage intellectual functioning along with related idea that although frustration may lead to aggres-
limitations in two of ten areas, including commu- sion, a number of situational and cognitive factors
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs An ascending order, or nication, self-care, home living, social skills, and may override the aggressive response.
hierarchy, in which biological needs are placed at safety.
the bottom and social needs at the top. As needs at monochromats Individuals who have total color
lower levels are met, we advance to the next higher mescaline The active ingredient in the peyote cactus. blindness; their world looks like a black-and-white
level. This hierarchy indicates that we satisfy our At high doses, mescaline produces physiological movie. This kind of color blindness is rare and
biological needs before we satisfy our social needs. arousal and very clear, colorful, and vivid visual results from individuals having only rods or only
hallucinations. It primarily increases the activity one kind of functioning cone instead of three.
628 G L O S S A R Y of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dop-
amine. Mescaline does not impair the intellect or
cloud consciousness.

monocular depth cues In three-dimensional vision, observing individuals’ behaviors without attempt- communication between neurons during the per-
depth cues produced by signals from a single eye. ing to change or control the situation. formance of mental or physical activities.
They are most commonly determined by the way nature-nurture question The debate concerning the neutral stimulus A stimulus that causes a sensory
objects are arranged in the environment. relative contribution of genetic factors (nature) response, such as being seen, heard, or smelled, but
and environmental factors (nurture) to a person’s does not produce the reflex being tested.
mood disorder A prolonged and disturbed emotional intelligence as well as to his or her biological, emo- nicotine A stimulant; it first produces arousal but
state that affects almost all of a person’s thoughts tional, cognitive, personal, and social development. then produces calming. Present in cigarettes,
and behaviors. nearsightedness A visual acuity problem that may nicotine increases both heart rate and blood pres-
result when the eyeball is too long, so that objects sure. It improves attention and concentration, may
moral therapy The belief that mental patients could are focused at a point slightly in front of the retina. improve short-term memory, but may interfere
be helped to function better by receiving humane The result is that near objects are clear, but distant with complex processing. Regular use of nicotine
treatment in a relaxed and decent environment. objects appear blurry. causes addiction, and stopping leads to withdrawal
This approach was fundamental to the reform negative punishment Removal of a reinforcing symptoms.
movement of the early 1800s. stimulus (for example, taking away a child’s allow- night terrors Sleep disruptions in children that
ance) after a response. This removal decreases the occur during stage 3 or stage 4 (delta) sleep. They
morning persons People who prefer to get up early, chances that the response will recur. usually start with a piercing scream, after which
go to bed early, and engage in morning activities. negative reinforcement The occurrence of an oper- the child wakes suddenly in a fearful state, with
See evening persons. ant response that either stops or removes an aver- rapid breathing and increased heart rate. The next
sive stimulus. Removal of the aversive stimulus morning, the child has no memory of the frighten-
morphemes The smallest meaningful combination of increases the likelihood that the response will ing experience.
sounds in a language. occur again. nightmares Dreams that contain frightening and
negative symptoms of schizophrenia Symptoms anxiety-producing images. They usually involve
morphology A system that we use to group pho- that reflect a decrease in or loss of normal func- great danger—being attacked, injured, or pursued.
nemes—consonants and vowels—into meaningful tions: decreased range and intensity of emo- Upon awakening, the dreamer can usually describe
combinations of sounds and words. tions, decreased ability to express thoughts, and the nightmare in considerable detail. Nightmares
decreased initiative to engage in goal-directed occur during REM sleep.
motion parallax In three-dimensional vision, a mon- behaviors. nodes Memory files that contain related information
ocular depth cue based on the speed of moving neglect syndrome The failure of a patient to see organized around a specific topic or category.
objects: Objects that appear to be moving at high objects or parts of the body on the side opposite non-REM sleep Stages 1–4 of sleep, in which rapid
speed are interpreted as closer to us than those the brain damage when the damage is to an asso- eye movement does not occur; it makes up about
moving more slowly. ciation area, usually in occipital and parietal lobes, 80% of sleep time.
and usually in the right hemisphere. nonbenzodiazepines Drugs, such as Ambien and
motion sickness Feelings of nausea and dizziness nerve impulse A series of separate action potentials Sonata, that are popular sleeping pills because they
experienced in a moving vehicle when informa- that take place, segment by segment, as they move act rapidly, are of short duration, and have few
tion from the vestibular system (that your head down the length of an axon. cognitive side effects.
is bouncing around) conflicts with information nerves Stringlike bundles of axons and dendrites that noncompliance In children, refusal to follow direc-
reported by your eyes (that objects in the distance are held together by connective tissue. Nerves in tions, carry out a request, or obey a command
look fairly steady). the peripheral nervous system have the ability to given by a parent or caregiver. Noncompliance is
regrow, regenerate, or reattach if severed or dam- one of the most common complaints of parents in
motivation Various physiological and psychological aged. They carry information from the senses, general and the most frequent problem of parents
factors that cause us to act in a specific way at a skin, muscles, and the body’s organs to and from who bring their children to clinics for treatment of
particular time. the spinal cord. behavioral problems.
network hierarchy In the network theory of memory, nondeclarative memory See procedural memory.
motor cortex A narrow strip of cortex that is located the arrangement of nodes or categories so that nonintellectual factors Factors such as attitude, expe-
on the back edge of the frontal lobe and extends concrete ideas are at the bottom of the hierarchy rience, and emotional functions that may help or
down its side. It is involved in the initiation of all and are connected to more abstract ideas located hinder an individual’s performance on intelligence
voluntary movements. The right motor cortex above them. The most abstract ideas are at the top tests.
controls muscles on the left side of the body, and of the hierarchy. normal aging A gradual and natural slowing of our
vice versa. network theory The theory that we store related physical and psychological processes from middle
ideas in separate memory categories, or files, called through late adulthood.
motor development The stages of motor skills that nodes. As we make associations between informa- normal curve A graph of a frequency distribution in
all infants pass through as they acquire the mus- tion, we create links among thousands of nodes, which the curve tapers off equally on either side of
cular control necessary for making coordinated which make up a gigantic interconnected network a central high point—in other words, a graph of a
movements. for storing and retrieving information. normal distribution.
neural assemblies Groups of interconnected neurons normal distribution A bell-shaped frequency distri-
motor neurons See efferent neurons. whose activation allows information or stimuli to bution curve. The scores are arranged symmetri-
MRI See magnetic resonance imaging. be recognized and held briefly and temporarily in cally so that the vast majority fall in the middle
multiple-intelligence theory See Gardner’s multiple- short-term memory. range, with fewer scores near the two extreme ends
neural deafness Deafness caused by damage to the of the curve.
intelligence theory. auditory receptors (hair cells), which prevents the
multiple sclerosis A disease that attacks the myelin triggering of impulses, or by damage to the audi- O
tory nerve, which prevents impulses from reaching
sheaths that wrap around and insulate cells in the the brain. See also cochlear implant. obedience Behavior performed in response to an
central nervous system. Because of this damage, neuroleptic drugs Drugs that change the levels of order given by someone in a position of authority.
messages between the brain and other parts of neurotransmitters in the brain. They are used to
the body are disrupted, often causing problems in treat serious mental disorders, such as schizophre- obesity A body weight 30% or more above the ideal
motor coordination, strength, and sensation. nia. Also called antipsychotic drugs. value.
myelin sheath A tubelike structure of fatty material neurons Cells that have specialized extensions for the
that wraps around and insulates an axon, prevent- reception and transmission of electrical signals. object permanence The understanding that objects
ing interference from electrical signals generated neuroses According to Freud, maladaptive thoughts or events continue to exist even if they can no
in adjacent axons. and actions that arise from some unconscious longer be heard, touched, or seen.
thought or conflict and indicate feelings of anxiety.
N neurotransmitters About a dozen different chemi- objective personality tests Tests consisting of spe-
cals that are made by neurons and then used for cific written statements that require individuals
narcolepsy A relatively rare, chronic disorder marked to indicate—for example, by checking “true” or
by excessive sleepiness, usually in the form of sleep “false”—whether the statements do or do not apply
attacks or short periods of sleep throughout the to them; also called self-report questionnaires.
day. The sleep attacks are accompanied by brief
periods of REM sleep and loss of muscle control G L O S S A R Y 629
(cataplexy), which may be triggered by big emo-
tional changes.

natural selection The process by which organisms
that are better adapted to their environment tend
to survive and produce more offspring, whereas
those less adapted tend to be eliminated.

naturalistic setting A relatively normal environ-
ment in which researchers gather information by

observational learning See social cognitive learning. outer ear Three structures important to the hearing passion In Sternberg’s triangular theory of love, the
obsessive-compulsive disorder An anxiety disorder process: the external ear, auditory canal, and tym- component of love associated with feeling physi-
panic membrane (eardrum). cally aroused and attracted to someone.
consisting of obsessions, which are persistent,
recurring, irrational thoughts, impulses, or images overgeneralization A common error during language passionate love A condition that is associated with
that a person is unable to control and that inter- acquisition, in which children apply a grammatical continuously thinking about the loved one and is
fere with normal functioning; and compulsions, rule to cases where it should not be used. accompanied by warm sexual feelings and power-
which are irresistible impulses to perform over ful emotional reactions.
and over some senseless behavior or ritual (hand overweight A body weight 20% over the ideal value.
washing, checking things, counting, putting things ovulation The release of an ovum, or egg cell, from a pathological aging Acceleration of the aging process,
in order). which may be caused by genetic defects, physi-
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder A per- woman’s ovaries. ological problems, or diseases.
sonality disorder characterized by an intense
interest in being orderly, achieving perfection, and P peg method A mnemonic device, or encoding tech-
having control. It is found in 4% of the population. nique, that creates associations between number-
occipital lobe A region at the very back of the brain pain Sensations caused by various stimuli that acti- word rhymes and items to be memorized.
that is involved in processing visual information, vate the pain receptors, free nerve endings. Nerve
which includes seeing colors and perceiving and impulses from these pain receptors travel to the perception The experience of a meaningful pattern
recognizing objects, animals, and people. somatosensory and limbic areas of the brain, or image that the brain assembles from thousands
Oedipus complex According to Freud, a process in where they are transformed into pain sensations. of individual meaningless sensations; a perception
which a child competes with the parent of the Pain is essential for survival: It warns us to avoid is normally changed, biased, colored, or distorted
same sex for the affections and pleasures of the or escape dangerous situations or stimuli and by a person’s unique set of experiences.
parent of the opposite sex; called the Electra com- makes us take time to recover from injury.
plex in girls. perceptual constancy Our tendency to perceive sizes,
olfaction The sense of smell. Its stimuli are various pancreas An organ that regulates the level of sugar in colors, brightness, and shapes as remaining the
chemicals that are carried by the air. the bloodstream by secreting insulin. It forms part same even though their physical characteristics are
olfactory cells The receptors for smell, located in the of the endocrine system. constantly changing.
uppermost part of the nasal passages. As volatile
molecules dissolve in the mucus covering the cells, panic attack A period of intense fear or discomfort perceptual sets Learned expectations that are based
they stimulate the receptors, which send nerve in which four or more of the following symptoms on our personal, social, or cultural experiences.
impulses to the brain. are present: pounding heart, sweating, trembling, These expectations automatically add information,
operant conditioning A kind of learning in which shortness of breath, feelings of choking, chest pain, meaning, or feelings to our perceptions and thus
the consequences—reward or punishment—that nausea, feeling dizzy, and fear of losing control or change or bias our perceptions.
follow some behavior increase or decrease the like- dying.
lihood of that behavior’s occurrence in the future. perceptual speed The rate at which we can identify a
Also called instrumental conditioning. panic disorder A mental disorder characterized pri- particular sensory stimulus; this rate slows down
operant response A response that can be modified by marily by recurrent and unexpected panic attacks, noticeably after age 60.
its consequences. Operant responses offer a way plus continued worry about having another
of dividing ongoing behavior into meaningful and attack; such worry interferes with psychological peripheral cues Hunger cues associated with changes
measurable units. functioning. in blood chemistry or signals from digestive
opiates Drugs derived from the opium poppy, includ- organs.
ing opium and morphine, which is chemically paranoid personality disorder A pattern of distrust
altered to make heroin. All opiates have three and suspiciousness and perceiving others as hav- peripheral nervous system All the nerves that extend
primary effects: analgesia (pain reduction); opiate ing evil motives. It is found in 0.5–2.5% of the from the spinal cord and carry messages to and
euphoria, which is often described as a pleasurable population. from various muscles, glands, and sense organs
state between waking and sleeping; and constipa- located throughout the body. It has two divisions:
tion. Continued use of opiates results in tolerance, paranoid schizophrenia A subcategory of schizo- the somatic nervous system and the autonomic
physical addiction, and an intense craving for phrenia characterized by auditory hallucinations nervous system.
the drug. or delusions, such as thoughts of being persecuted
opponent-process theory A theory of color vision by others or delusions of grandeur. peripheral route for persuasion Approaches to per-
suggesting that ganglion cells in the retina and suasion that emphasize emotional appeal, focus on
cells in the thalamus respond to two pairs of col- paraphilias Repetitive or preferred sexual fanta- personal traits, and generate positive feelings.
ors: red-green and blue-yellow. When these cells sies involving nonhuman objects, such as sexual
are excited, they respond to one color of the pair; attractions to particular articles of clothing (shoes, peripheral theories of emotions Theories that attri-
when inhibited, they respond to the complemen- underwear); commonly called sexual deviations. bute our subjective feelings primarily to our body’s
tary color. physiological changes.
optimal weight The body weight resulting from an parasympathetic division The subdivision of the
almost perfect balance between how much food autonomic nervous system that decreases physi- permissive parents Parents who are less controlling
an organism eats and how much it needs to meet ological arousal and helps return the body to a and behave with a nonpunishing and accepting
its body’s energy needs; also called ideal weight. calmer, more relaxed state. It also stimulates diges- attitude toward their children’s impulses, desires,
optimism A relatively stable personality trait that tion during eating. and actions. They consult with their children
leads one to believe and expect that good things about policy decisions, make few demands, and
will happen. It is one of the personality factors parentese A way of speaking to young children in tend to use reason rather than direct power.
associated with lower stress levels and fewer which the adult speaks in a voice that is slower and
chances of developing psychosomatic symptoms. higher than normal, emphasizes and stretches out person perception The process by which we form
See pessimism. each word, uses very simple sentences, and repeats impressions of, and make judgments about, the
oral stage Freud’s first psychosexual stage, which lasts words and phrases. Formerly known as motherese. traits and characteristics of others.
for the first 18 months of life, in which the infant’s
pleasure seeking is centered on the mouth. parietal lobe An area of the cortex located directly person schemas Social schemas including our judg-
organic factors Medical conditions or drug or medi- behind the frontal lobe. Its functions include ments about the traits that we and others possess.
cation problems that lead to sexual difficulties. processing sensory information from body parts,
organic retardation Mental retardation that results which includes touching, locating positions of person-situation interaction The interaction
from genetic problems or brain damage. limbs, and feeling temperature and pain; and car- between a person’s traits and the effects of being in
ossicles See middle ear. rying out several cognitive functions, such as a particular situation, which, according to Mischel,
attending to and perceiving objects. determines the person’s behavior.

Parkinson’s disease A condition caused by the personal fable Adolescents’ belief that they are invul-
destruction of neurons that produce the neu- nerable, unique, and special.
rotransmitter dopamine. Symptoms include trem-
ors and shakes in the limbs, a slowing of voluntary personal factors According to social cognitive theory,
movements, and feelings of depression. As the dis- factors that include our emotional makeup and
ease progresses, patients develop a peculiar shuf- our biological and genetic influences and that help
fling walk and may suddenly freeze in space for to shape our personalities.
minutes or hours at a time.
personal identity See identity.
partial reinforcement A schedule of reinforcement personality A combination of long-lasting and
in which the response is reinforced only some of
the time. distinctive behaviors, thoughts, motives, and
emotions that typify how we react and adapt to
other people and situations. See also theory of
personality.
personality development See social development.

630 G L O S S A R Y

personality disorder Any psychological disorder pituitary gland A key component of the endocrine postconventional level Kohlberg’s highest level of
characterized by inflexible, long-standing, mal- system, which hangs directly below the hypothala- moral reasoning, at which moral decisions are
adaptive traits that cause significantly impaired mus, to which it is connected by a narrow stalk. made after carefully thinking about all the alterna-
functioning or great distress in one’s personal and Its anterior section regulates growth and controls tives and striking a balance between human rights
social life. much of the endocrine system, while its posterior and the laws of society.
section regulates water and salt balance.
personality tests Tests used to measure a person’s posterior pituitary The rear part of the pituitary
observable traits and behaviors and unobserv- place theory The theory that the brain perceives the gland, a key component of the endocrine system.
able characteristics. In addition, some are used to pitch of a sound by receiving information about It regulates water and salt balance.
identify personality problems and psychological where on the basilar membrane a given sound
disorders, as well as to predict how a person might vibrates the most; it applies to medium and higher posthypnotic amnesia Inability to remember what
behave in the future. Objective personality tests pitches. happened during hypnosis, prompted by a specific
(self-report questionnaires), such as the MMPI, suggestion from the hypnotist.
consist of specific statements or questions to which placebo An intervention—taking a pill, receiving
the person responds with specific answers; projec- an injection, or undergoing an operation—that posthypnotic suggestion A suggestion given to the
tive tests, such as the Rorschach inkblot test, have resembles medical therapy but that, in fact, has no subject during hypnosis about performing a par-
no set answers but consist of ambiguous stimuli medical effects. ticular behavior, in response to a predetermined
that a person interprets or makes up stories about. cue, when the subject comes out of hypnosis.
placebo effect A change in the patient’s illness that is
pessimism A relatively stable personality trait that attributable to an imagined treatment rather than posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) A disabling
leads one to believe and expect that bad things to a medical treatment. condition that results from direct personal experi-
will happen. It is one of the personality factors ence of an event that involves actual or threatened
associated with increased stress levels and chances placenta An organ that connects the blood supply of death or serious injury or from witnessing such an
of developing psychosomatic symptoms. See the mother to that of the fetus. The placenta acts event or hearing that such an event has happened
optimism. like a filter, allowing oxygen and nutrients to pass to a family member or close friend.
through while keeping out certain toxic or harmful
PET See positron emission tomography. substances. precognition The ability to foretell events.
phallic stage Freud’s third psychosexual stage, lasting preconventional level Kohlberg’s lowest level of
pleasure principle The satisfaction of drives and
from the ages of about 3 to 6 years, in which the avoidance of pain, without concern for moral moral reasoning. It consists of two stages: At stage
infant’s pleasure seeking is centered on the genitals. restrictions or society’s regulations. According to 1, moral decisions are based primarily on fear of
phantom limb The experience of sensations and feel- Freud, this is the id’s operating principle. punishment or the need to be obedient; at stage
ings coming from a limb that has been amputated. 2, moral reasoning is guided most by satisfaction
The sensations and feelings are extremely vivid, as polygraph tests Tests based on the theory that, if a of one’s self-interest, which may involve making
if the amputated limb were still present. person tells a lie, he or she will feel some emotion, bargains.
phenomenological perspective The idea that our such as guilt or fear. Feeling guilty or fearful will prejudice An unfair, biased, or intolerant attitude
perspective of the world, whether or not it is accu- usually be accompanied by involuntary physi- toward another group of people.
rate, becomes our reality. This idea is stressed in ological responses, which are difficult to suppress premature ejaculation Persistent or recurrent
humanistic theories. or control and can be measured with a machine absence of voluntary control over ejaculation,
phenothiazines The first group of drugs to reduce called a polygraph. in that the male ejaculates with minimal sexual
schizophrenic symptoms, such as delusions and stimulation before, upon, or shortly after penetra-
hallucinations. Discovered in the early 1950s, the polymorphic gene A gene that has more than one tion and before he wishes to; also called rapid
phenothiazines operate by blocking or reducing version—for example, dominant and recessive. ejaculation.
the effects of the neurotransmitter dopamine. prenatal period The period from conception to birth,
phi movement The illusion that stationary lights are pons A bridge that connects the spinal cord with which lasts about 266 days (about nine months). It
moving. The illusion of movement—today called the brain and parts of the brain with one another. is divided into three phases: germinal, embryonic,
apparent motion—is created by flashing closely Cells in the pons manufacture chemicals involved and fetal. During the prenatal period, a single cell
positioned stationary lights at regular intervals. in sleep. will divide and grow to form 200 billion cells.
phobia An anxiety disorder characterized by an preoperational stage The second of Piaget’s cognitive
intense and irrational fear that is out of all propor- positive psychology The scientific study of optimal stages, lasting from the ages of about 2 to 7 years.
tion to the danger elicited by the object or situa- human functioning, focusing on the strengths and During this stage, children learn to use symbols
tion. In comparison, fear is a realistic response to a virtues that enable individuals and communities (such as words or mental images) to think about
threatening situation. to thrive. It aims to better understand the positive, things that are not present and to help solve simple
phonemes The basic sounds of consonants and adaptive, and fulfilling aspects of human life. problems.
vowels. preparedness The innate or biological tendency of
phonology Rules specifying how we make the mean- positive punishment The presentation of an aversive animals and humans to recognize, attend to, and
ingful sounds used by a particular language. stimulus (for example, spanking) after a response. store certain cues over others, as well as to associ-
photographic memory The ability to form sharp, The aversive stimulus decreases the chances that ate some combinations of conditioned and uncon-
detailed visual images after examining a picture the response will recur. ditioned stimuli more easily than others. Also
or page for a short period of time and to recall the called prepared learning.
entire image at a later date. positive regard Love, sympathy, warmth, acceptance, primacy effect Better recall, or improvement in
Piaget’s cognitive stages Four different stages—the and respect, which we crave from family, friends, retention, of information presented at the begin-
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and people important to us. ning of a task.
and formal operations stages—each of which is primacy-recency effect Better recall of information
more advanced than the preceding stage because it positive reinforcement The presentation of a stimu- presented at the beginning and end of a task.
involves new reasoning and thinking abilities. lus that increases the probability of a behavior’s primary appraisal Our initial, subjective evaluation
pica A behavioral disorder in which individuals eat recurrence. of a situation, in which we balance the demands of
inedible objects or unhealthy substances. Pica a potentially stressful situation against our ability
can lead to serious physical problems, including positive reinforcer A stimulus that increases the like- to meet them.
lead poisoning, intestinal blockage, and parasites, lihood that a response will occur again. primary auditory cortex An area at the top edge of
and is most often seen in individuals with mental the temporal lobe that transforms nerve impulses
retardation. positive symptoms of schizophrenia Symptoms that (electrical signals) into basic auditory sensations,
pitch Our subjective experience of how low or high a reflect a distortion of normal functions. Distorted such as meaningless sounds and tones of varying
sound is. The brain calculates pitch from the speed thinking results in delusions; distorted perceptions pitch and loudness. Next, it sends impulses (sensa-
(frequency) of the sound waves. The frequency of result in hallucinations; and distorted language tions) to the auditory association areas.
sound waves is measured in cycles, which refers to results in disorganized speech. primary reinforcer A stimulus, such as food, water,
how many sound waves occur in 1 second. or sex, that is innately satisfying and requires no
positron emission tomography (PET) A technique learning on the part of the subject to become
to measure the function of the living brain. A pleasurable.
slightly radioactive solution is injected into the
blood, and the amount of radiation absorbed
by the brain cells is measured. Very active brain
cells—neurons—absorb more radioactive solu-
tion than less active ones. A computer transforms
the different levels of absorption into colors that
indicate the activity of neurons. The colors red and
yellow indicate maximum activity of neurons; blue
and green indicate minimal activity.

G L O S S A R Y 631

primary visual cortex A small area, located at the distortions in the perception of time and space; cognitive abilities or factors that are thought to be
back of each occipital lobe, that receives electrical and high doses produce distortions in perceptions involved in intellectual performance.
signals from receptors in the eyes and transforms and body image and sometimes hallucinations. psychometrics A subarea of psychology concerned
these signals into meaningless, basic visual sensa- psychiatrist A medical doctor (M.D.) who has taken with the development of tests to assess an indi-
tions, such as lights, lines, shadows, colors, and a psychiatric residency, which involves additional vidual’s abilities, skills, intelligence, personality
textures. training in pharmacology, neurology, psychopa- traits, and abnormal behaviors in a wide range of
thology, and therapeutic techniques. In diagnos- settings—school, the workplace, or a clinic.
principle of bidirectionality The idea that a child’s ing the possible causes of abnormal behaviors, psychoneuroimmunology The study of the rela-
behaviors influence how his or her parents psychiatrists focus on biological factors; they tend tionship among the central nervous system, the
respond and, in turn, the parents’ behaviors influ- to view mental disorders as diseases and to treat endocrine system, and psychosocial factors such as
ence how the child responds. them with drugs. Psychiatrists who receive addi- cognitive reactions to stressful events, the individ-
tional training in psychoanalytic institutes are ual’s personality traits, and social influences.
proactive interference A forgetting process in which called psychoanalysts. psychosexual stages According to Freud, five devel-
information that we learned earlier blocks or dis- psychoactive drugs Chemicals that affect the nervous opmental periods—the oral, anal, phallic, latency,
rupts the retrieval of related information that was system and, as a result, may alter consciousness and and genital stages—each marked by potential con-
learned later. awareness, influence sensations and perceptions, flict between parent and child. The conflicts arise
and modify moods and cognitive processes. Some as the child seeks pleasure from different bodily
problem-focused coping Solving a problem by seek- are legal (coffee, alcohol, and tobacco), and some are areas associated with sexual feelings (erogenous
ing information, changing our own behavior, or illegal (marijuana, heroin, cocaine, and LSD). zones). Freud emphasized that the child’s first five
taking whatever action is necessary. psychoanalysis A form of psychotherapy based on years were most important in social and personal-
the idea that each of us has an unconscious part ity development.
problem solving Searching for some rule, plan, or that contains ideas, memories, desires, or thoughts psychosocial factors Underlying personality traits,
strategy in order to reach a certain goal that is cur- that have been hidden or repressed because they amount of social support, and ability to deal with
rently out of reach. are psychologically dangerous or threatening to stressful life events—these factors are believed to
our self-concept. To protect our self-concept, we combine and interact with predisposing biologi-
procedural memory Memories of performing motor automatically build a mental barrier that we can- cal factors to either increase or decrease a person’s
or perceptual tasks (playing sports), carrying out not voluntarily remove. But the presence of these vulnerability to the development and maintenance
habitual behaviors (brushing teeth), and respond- thoughts and desires gives rise to unconscious of a mood disorder.
ing to stimuli because of classical conditioning conflicts, which, in turn, can result in psychologi- psychosocial hunger factors Learned associations
(fearing spiders). We cannot retrieve these memo- cal and physical symptoms and mental disorders. between food and other stimuli, such as snacking
ries, and we are not conscious of them. psychoanalyst See psychiatrist. while watching television; sociocultural influences,
psychoanalytic approach A psychological viewpoint such as pressures to be thin; and various personal-
processing speed The rate at which we encode that stresses the influence of unconscious fears, ity problems, such as depression, dislike of body
information into long-term memory or recall or desires, and motivations on thoughts and behav- image, or low self-esteem.
retrieve information from long-term memory; this iors and also the impact of childhood experiences psychosocial stages According to Erikson, eight
rate slows down after age 60. on the development of later personality traits developmental periods during which an indi-
and psychological problems. As applied to men- vidual’s primary goal is to satisfy desires associated
procrastination The tendency to always put off com- tal disorders, this approach traces their origin to with social needs: The eight periods are associated,
pleting a task to the point of feeling anxious or unconscious conflicts or problems with unresolved respectively, with issues of trust, autonomy, initia-
uncomfortable about one’s delay. conflicts at one or more of Freud’s psychosexual tive, industry, identity, intimacy, generativity, and
stages. Treatment of mental disorders, in this ego integrity.
prodigy A child who shows unusual talent, ability, or approach, centers on the therapist’s helping the psychosomatic symptoms Real, physical, and often
genius at a very early age and does not have mental patient to identify and resolve his or her uncon- painful symptoms, such as headaches, muscle
retardation. A small percentage of autistic children, scious conflicts. pain, and stomach problems, that are caused by
who have some degree of mental retardation, may psychobiology The scientific study of the physical psychological factors, such as worry, tension,
also show unusual artistic or mathematical abili- and chemical changes that occur during stress, and anxiety.
ties; they are called savants. learning, and emotions, as well as how our genetic psychotherapy Approaches to treating psychological
makeup and nervous system interact with our problems that share three characteristics: verbal
progressive relaxation An exercise in which the environments and influence our behaviors. interaction between therapist and client(s); the
major muscle groups of the body are tensed and psychodynamic theory of personality See Freud’s development of a supportive relationship during
relaxed repeatedly until the individual can relax psychodynamic theory of personality. which a client can bring up and discuss traumatic
any group of muscles at will. psychokinesis The ability to exert mind over mat- or bothersome experiences that may have led to
ter—for example, by moving objects without current problems; and analysis of the client’s expe-
projection Unconsciously transferring unacceptable touching them. riences and/or suggested ways for the client to deal
traits to others. psychological assessment The use of various tools— with or overcome his or her problems.
including psychological tests and interviews—to puberty A developmental period, corresponding
projective tests Tests in which the subject is pre- measure characteristics, traits, or abilities in order to the ages of 9 to 17 years, when the individual
sented with some type of ambiguous stimulus— to understand behavior and predict future perfor- experiences significant biological changes and, as
such as a meaningless object or ambiguous mance or behavior. a result, develops secondary sexual characteristics
photo—and then asked to make up a story about psychological factors Performance anxiety, sexual and reaches sexual maturity.
the stimulus. The assumption is that the person trauma, guilt, or failure to communicate, all of punishment A consequence that occurs after behav-
will project conscious or unconscious feelings, which may lead to sexual problems. ior and decreases the likelihood that that behavior
needs, and motives in his or her responses. psychological sex factors Factors involved in the will recur.
development of a gender identity, gender role, pupil The round opening at the front of the eye that
prosocial behavior Any behavior that benefits oth- and sexual orientation, as well as in difficulties in allows light waves to pass through into the eye’s
ers or has positive social consequences. Also called sexual performance or enjoyment. interior.
helping. psychologist An individual who has completed four
to five years of postgraduate education and has Q
prototype theory The idea that we form a concept by obtained a PhD in psychology; in some states, an
first constructing a prototype of an object—that is, individual with a master’s degree. quantum personality change A sudden and radical
a mental image based on its average characteris- psychology The systematic, scientific study of behav- or dramatic shift in personality, beliefs, or values.
tics. Once we have formed a set of prototypes, we iors and mental processes.
identify new objects by matching them against our psychometric approach An approach to the assess- questionnaire A method for obtaining information
prototypes. ment of intelligence that measures or quantifies by asking subjects to read a list of written ques-
tions and to check off, or rate their preference for,
proximity rule A perceptual rule stating that, in orga- specific answers.
nizing stimuli, objects that are physically close to
one another will be grouped together.

proximodistal principle The rule that parts closer to
the center of the infant’s body develop before parts
that are farther away.

psi The processing of information or transfer of
energy by methods that have no known physical
or biological mechanisms and that seem to stretch
the laws of physics.

psilocybin A hallucinogen, the active ingredient in
magic mushrooms. Low doses produce pleas-
ant and relaxed feelings; medium doses produce

632 G L O S S A R Y

R muscles, however, are paralyzed. Dreams usually rods Photoreceptors containing the chemical rhodop-
occur during REM sleep. sin, which is activated by small amounts of light.
random selection A research design such that each REM rebound The tendency of individuals to spend Because rods are extremely light sensitive, they
subject in a sample population has an equal chance proportionately longer in the REM stage of sleep allow us to see in dim light but to see only black,
of being selected to participate in the experiment. after they have been deprived of REM sleep on white, and shades of gray.
previous nights.
range The different or interval between the highest repair theory A theory of sleep suggesting that activi- role schemas Social schemas based on the jobs peo-
and lowest values in a distribution. ties during the day deplete key factors in the brain ple perform or the social positions they hold.
or body that are replenished or repaired by sleep.
rape myths Misinformed false beliefs about women repression According to Freud, a mental process Rorschach inkblot test A projective test used to
that are frequently held by rapists as well as by that automatically hides emotionally threatening assess personality in which a person is shown a
other men. or anxiety-producing information in the uncon- series of ten inkblots and then asked to describe
scious. Repressed information cannot be retrieved what he or she sees in each.
rationalization Inventing acceptable excuses for voluntarily, but something may cause it to be
behaviors that make us feel anxious. released and to reenter the person’s consciousness rules of organization Rules identified by Gestalt
at a later time. psychologists that specify how our brains combine
reaction formation Turning unacceptable wishes into resiliency Various personal, family, or environmental and organize individual pieces or elements into a
acceptable behaviors. factors that compensate for increased life stresses meaningful whole—that is, a perception.
so that expected problems do not develop.
reaction range The extent to which traits, abilities, or resistance In psychotherapy, especially psychoanaly- S
IQ scores may increase or decrease as a result of sis, the client’s reluctance to work through or deal
interaction with environmental factors. with feelings or to recognize unconscious conflicts SAD See seasonal affective disorder.
and repressed thoughts. savants Autistic individuals who show some incred-
reaction time The rate at which we respond (see, resistance stage The second stage in the general adap-
hear, move) to some stimulus; this rate slows down tation syndrome. In reaction to continued stress, ible memory, music, or drawing talent. They repre-
noticeably after age 60. most physiological responses return to normal lev- sent about 10% of the total number of autistics.
els, but the body uses up great stores of energy. schedule of reinforcement In conditioning, a pro-
reactive attachment disorder A psychiatric illness resting state A condition in which the axon, like a gram or rule that determines how and when a
characterized by serious problems in emotional battery, has a charge, or potential, because the axon response will be followed by a reinforcer.
attachments to others, beginning before age 5. membrane separates positive ions on the outside schemas Mental categories that, like computer files,
Symptoms include resisting comfort and affection from negative ions on the inside. contain knowledge about people, events, and con-
by parents, being superficially engaging and overly reticular formation A column of brain cells that cepts. Because schemas influence which stimuli
friendly with strangers, having poor peer relation- arouses and alerts the forebrain and prepares it to we attend to, how we interpret stimuli, and how
ships, and engaging in destructive behaviors. receive information from all the senses. It plays we respond to stimuli, they can bias and distort
an important role in keeping the forebrain alert our thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors. See also
real motion Our perception of any stimulus or object and producing a state of wakefulness. Animals or event schemas, gender schemas, person schemas,
that actually moves in space; the opposite of appar- humans whose reticular formation is seriously role schemas, and self schemas.
ent motion. damaged lapse into permanent unconsciousness schizophrenia A serious mental disturbance that
or coma. lasts at least six months and includes at least two
real self According to Rogers, the self that is based on retina A thin film, located at the very back of the eye- of the following symptoms: delusions, hallucina-
our actual experiences and represents how we really ball, that contains cells, called photoreceptors, that tions, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized
see ourselves; its complement is the ideal self. are extremely sensitive to light. The retina consists behavior, and decreased emotional expression.
of three layers, the third and deepest of which con- These symptoms interfere with personal or
reality principle A policy of satisfying a wish or tains two kinds of photoreceptors, rods and cones, social functioning. See also Type I and Type II
desire only if a socially acceptable outlet is avail- that perform transduction; that is, they change schizophrenia.
able. According to Freud, this is the ego’s operating light waves into nerve impulses. schizotypical personality disorder A disorder
principle. retinal disparity A binocular depth cue that depends characterized by acute discomfort in close rela-
on the distance between the two eyes. Because of tionships, distortions in thinking, and eccentric
recall Retrieval of previously learned information their different positions, the two eyes receive slightly behavior. It is found in 3–5% of the population.
without the aid of or with very few external cues. different images. The difference between these scientific method A general approach to gather-
images is the retinal disparity. The brain interprets ing information and answering questions so that
recency effect Better recall, or improvement in reten- large retinal disparity to mean a close object and errors and biases are minimized.
tion, of information presented at the end of a task. small retinal disparity to mean a distant object. scripts See event schemas.
retrieval cues Mental reminders that we create by seasonal affective disorder (SAD) A pattern of
recessive gene A type of polymorphic gene that forming vivid mental images of information or depressive symptoms that cycle with the seasons,
determines the development of a specific trait only associating new information with information that typically beginning in fall or winter. The depres-
when it is inherited from both parents. we already know. Forgetting can result from not sion is accompanied by feelings of lethargy, exces-
taking the time to create effective retrieval cues. sive sleepiness, overeating, weight gain, and craving
recognition The identification of previously learned retrieving The process of getting or recalling infor- for carbohydrates.
information with the help of external cues. mation that has been placed into short-term or secondary appraisal Deciding what we can do to
long-term storage. deal with a potentially stressful situation. We can
reflex An unlearned, involuntary reaction to some stim- retroactive interference A forgetting process in choose some combination of problem-focused
ulus. The neural connections of the network under- which information that we learned later blocks or coping, which means doing something about the
lying a reflex are prewired by genetic instructions. disrupts the retrieval of related information that problem, and emotion-focused coping, which
we learned earlier. means dealing with our emotions.
reinforcement A consequence that occurs after reuptake The process by which some neurotransmit- secondary reinforcer Any stimulus that has acquired
behavior and increases the likelihood that that ters, such as dopamine, are removed from the syn- its reinforcing power through experience; second-
behavior will recur. apse by being transported back into the end bulbs. ary reinforcers are learned, for example, by being
reward/pleasure center The part of the brain that paired with primary reinforcers or other second-
relative size In three-dimensional vision, a mon- includes the nucleus accumbens and ventral teg- ary reinforcers.
ocular depth cue that results when we expect two mental area and involves several neurotransmit- secure attachment An emotional bond characteristic
objects to be the same size and they are not. In that ters, especially dopamine. Combined with other of infants who use their parent as a safe home base
case, the larger of the objects will appear closer, brain areas, it forms a neural circuit that produces from which they can wander off and explore their
and the smaller will appear to be farther away. rewarding and pleasurable feelings. environments.
self How we see or describe ourselves; also called
reliability The extent to which a test is consistent: A self-concept. The self is made up of many self-
person’s score on a test at one point in time should perceptions, abilities, personality characteristics,
be similar to the score obtained by the same per- and behaviors that are organized so as to be con-
son on a similar test at a later point in time. sistent with one another.

REM behavior disorder A disorder, usually found in G L O S S A R Y 633
older people, in which the voluntary muscles are
not paralyzed during REM sleep; sleepers can and
do act out their dreams.

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep The stage of sleep
in which our eyes move rapidly back and forth
behind closed eyelids. This stage makes up 20% of
our sleep time; in a normal night, we experience
five or six periods of REM sleep, each one last-
ing 15–45 minutes. REM brain waves, which have
a high frequency and a low amplitude, look very
similar to the beta waves that are recorded when
we are wide awake and alert; the body’s voluntary

self-actualization Our inherent tendency to Sentences range from three to eight words in sleep A condition in which we pass through five dif-
reach our true potentials. The concept of self- length and indicate a growing knowledge of the ferent stages, each with its own level of conscious-
actualization, developed by Maslow, is central to rules of grammar. ness, awareness, responsiveness, and physiological
humanistic theories. separation anxiety An infant’s distress—as indicated arousal. In the deepest stage of sleep, we enter a
by loud protests, crying, and agitation—whenever state that borders on unconsciousness.
self-actualization theory See self theory. his or her parents temporarily leave.
self-actualizing tendency An inborn tendency for us set point A certain level of body fat (adipose tis- sleep apnea A condition characterized by a cycle in
sue) that our body strives to maintain constant which a sleeper stops breathing for intervals of
to develop all of our capacities in ways that best throughout our lives; the set point is an inherited 10 seconds or longer, wakes up briefly, resumes
maintain and benefit our lives. characteristic. breathing, and returns to sleep. This cycle can
self-concept See self. sex chromosome The sperm or the egg. Each con- leave apnea sufferers exhausted during the day but
self-efficacy Our personal beliefs regarding how tains only 23 chromosomes, on which are the oblivious to the cause of their tiredness. It is more
capable we are of exercising control over events genes bearing the instructions that determine the common among habitual snorers.
in our lives, such as completing specific tasks and sex of the child.
behaviors. sex (gender) differences in the brain Structural or sleepwalking Walking or carrying out behaviors
self-esteem How much an individual likes himself or functional differences in cognitive, behavioral, while still asleep. Sleepwalkers generally are
herself; it includes feelings of self-worth, attractive- or brain processes that arise from being male or clumsy and have poor coordination but can avoid
ness, and social competence. female. objects; they can engage in very limited conversa-
self-fulfilling prophecy A situation in which a sex hormones Chemicals, secreted by glands, that cir- tions. Sleepwalking behaviors can include dressing,
person has a strong belief or makes a statement culate in the bloodstream and influence the brain, eating, performing bathroom functions, and even
(prophecy) about a future behavior and then acts, other body organs, and behaviors. The major male driving a car. Sleepwalking usually occurs during
usually unknowingly, to fulfill or carry out that sex hormones secreted by the testes are androgens, stage 3 or stage 4 (delta) sleep.
behavior. such as testosterone; the major female sex hor-
self-handicapping A tendency to adopt tactics that mones secreted by the ovaries are estrogens. social cognitive learning A form of learning that
are likely to fail and then to use those tactics as sexual dysfunctions Problems of sexual arousal or results from watching, imitating, and modeling
excuses for failures in performance, activities, or orgasm that interfere with adequate functioning and does not require the observer to perform any
achieving goals. during sexual behavior. observable behavior or receive any observable
self-identity See identity. sexual orientation A person’s pattern of primary reward. Formerly called observational learning.
self-perception theory The idea, developed by Daryl sexual arousal: by members of his or her own sex,
Bem, that we first observe or perceive our own the opposite sex, or both sexes; also called sexual social cognitive theory The theory that grew out of
behavior and then, as a result, change our attitudes. preference. the research of a number of psychologists—Rotter,
self-report questionnaires See objective personality shape constancy Our tendency to see an object as Bandura, and Mischel—that says that personality
tests. remaining the same shape when viewed at differ- development is primarily shaped by three forces:
self schemas Social schemas containing personal ent angles—that is, despite considerable change in environmental conditions, cognitive-personal fac-
information about ourselves. They can influence the shape of its image on the retina. tors, and behavior, which all interact to influence
how we behave as well as what we perceive and shaping In operant conditioning, a procedure in how we evaluate, interpret, organize, and apply
remember. which an experimenter successively reinforces information. See also Bandura’s social cognitive
self-serving bias Attributing our successes to our dis- behaviors that lead up to or approximate the theory.
positions or personality traits and our failures to desired behavior.
the situations. short-term dynamic psychotherapy A shortened social comparison theory The idea that we are
self theory Rogers’s humanistic theory, based on two version of psychoanalysis. It emphasizes a limited driven to compare ourselves to others who are
major assumptions: that personality development time for treatment (20–30 sessions) and focuses similar to us, so that we can measure the correct-
is guided by each person’s unique self-actualization on limited goals, such as solving a relatively well- ness of our attitudes and beliefs. According to Fest-
tendency; and that each of us has a personal need defined problem. Therapists take an active and inger, this drive motivates us to join groups.
for positive regard. directive role by identifying and discussing the
semantic memory A type of declarative memory client’s problems, resolving issues of transference, social development How a person develops a sense
consisting of factual knowledge about the world, interpreting the patient’s behaviors, and offering of self or self-identity, develops relationships with
concepts, word definitions, and language rules. an opportunity for the patient to foster changes others, and develops the skills useful in social
semantics A set of rules that specify the meanings of in behavior and thinking that will result in more interactions.
words or phrases when they appear in various sen- active coping and an improved self-image.
tences or contexts. short-term memory A process that can hold a lim- social facilitation An increase in performance in the
semicircular canals Structures of the vestibular sys- ited amount of information—an average of seven presence of a crowd.
tem in the inner ear that resemble bony arches and items—for a short time (2–30 seconds), which can
are set at different angles. Each canal is filled with be lengthened if you rehearse the information. social inhibition A decrease in performance in the
fluid that moves in response to the movement of Sometimes called working memory. presence of a crowd.
the head and aids in sensing the position of the shyness The tendency to feel tense, worried, or awk-
head and maintaining balance. ward in social situations. social needs Needs that are acquired through learn-
sensation Our first awareness of some outside stimu- similarity rule A perceptual rule stating that, in orga- ing and experience.
lus; relatively meaningless bits of information that nizing stimuli, we group together elements that
result when the brain processes electrical signals appear similar. social neuroscience An emerging area of research
that come from the sense organs. simplicity rule A perceptual rule stating that stimuli that examines social behavior by combining bio-
sensitive period See critical period. are organized in the simplest way possible. logical and social approaches. It focuses on under-
sensorimotor stage The first of Piaget’s cognitive single-word stage The second stage in acquiring lan- standing how social behavior influences the brain,
stages, lasting from birth to about age 2 years. Dur- guage, which begins when the child is about 1 year and vice versa.
ing this stage, infants interact with and learn about old. Infants say single words that usually refer to
their environments by relating their sensory expe- what they can see, hear, or feel. social norms approach Relating to abnormality, the
riences (such as hearing and seeing) to their motor situational attributions See external attributions. idea that a behavior is considered abnormal if it
actions (mouthing and grasping). size constancy Our tendency to perceive objects as deviates greatly from accepted social standards,
sensory memory An initial memory process that remaining the same size even when their images on values, or norms.
receives and holds environmental information in the retina are continuously growing or shrinking.
its raw form for a brief period of time, from an skewed distributions Distributions in which more social phobias Irrational, marked, and continuous
instant to several seconds. data fall toward one side of the scale than toward fear of performing in social situations. The indi-
sensory neurons See afferent neurons. the other. viduals fear that they will humiliate or embarrass
sentence stage The fourth stage in acquiring lan- themselves.
guage, which begins at about 4 years of age.
social psychology A broad field whose goals are to
634 G L O S S A R Y understand and explain how our thoughts, feel-
ings, perceptions, and behaviors are influenced
by interactions with others. It includes the study
of stereotypes, prejudices, attitudes, conformity,
group behaviors, and aggression.

social role theory The theory that emphasizes the
importance of social and cultural influences on
gender roles and states that gender differences
between males and females arise from different
divisions of labor.

social support A stress-reducing factor that includes corpus callosum, a wide band of nerve fibers that frequently portray the members of less powerful,
three components: having a group or network of connects the right and left hemispheres. less controlling groups more negatively than mem-
family or friends who provide strong social attach- spontaneous recovery In classical conditioning, the bers of more powerful, more controlling groups.
ments; being able to exchange helpful resources temporary occurrence of the conditioned response Sternberg’s triangular theory of love The idea that
among family or friends; and feeling, or making to the presence of the conditioned. love has three components: passion, intimacy, and
appraisals, that we have supportive relationships stage 1 In sleep, a stage lasting 1–7 minutes in which commitment. Passion is feeling physically aroused
or behaviors. the individual gradually loses responsiveness to and attracted to someone; intimacy is feeling close
stimuli and experiences drifting thoughts and and connected to someone, through sharing and
socially oriented group A group in which members images. This stage marks the transition from wake- communicating; and commitment is pledging to
are primarily concerned about fostering and main- fulness to sleep and is characterized by the pres- nourish the feelings of love and actively maintain
taining social relationships among the members of ence of theta waves, which are lower in amplitude the relationship.
the group. and frequency (3–7 cycles per second) than alpha Sternberg’s triarchic theory The idea that intel-
waves. ligence can be divided into three ways of gather-
sociobiology theory See evolutionary theory. stage 2 In sleep, the stage that marks the beginning of ing and processing information (triarchic means
sociocognitive theory of hypnosis The idea that the what we know as sleep; subjects awakened in stage “three”): using analytical or logical thinking skills
2 report having been asleep. EEG tracings show that are measured by traditional intelligence tests;
impressive effects of hypnosis are due to social high-frequency bursts of brain activity called sleep using problem-solving skills that require creative
influences and pressures as well as the subject’s spindles. thinking, the ability to deal with novel situations,
personal abilities. For another view, see altered stages 3 and 4 About 30–45 minutes after drifting off and the ability to learn from experience; and
state theory of hypnosis. to sleep, we pass rapidly through stage 3 and enter using practical thinking skills that help a person
sodium pump A chemical transport process that stage 4 sleep, a stage characterized by delta waves, adjust to, and cope with, his or her sociocultural
picks up any sodium ions that enter the axon’s which have very high amplitude and very low fre- environment.
chemical gates and returns them back outside. In quency (less than 4 cycles per second). Stage 4 is stimulants Drugs, such as cocaine, amphetamines,
this way, the sodium pump is responsible for keep- often considered the deepest stage of sleep because caffeine, and nicotine, that increase activity in the
ing the axon charged by returning and keeping it is the most difficult from which to be awakened. nervous system and result in heightened alertness,
sodium ions outside the axon membrane. During stage 4, heart rate, respiration, temperature, arousal, and euphoria and decreased appetite and
somatic nervous system A network of nerves that are and blood flow to the brain are reduced, and there fatigue.
connected either to sensory receptors or to mus- is a marked secretion of growth hormone, which stimulus substitution The theory that, in classi-
cles that you can move voluntarily, such as muscles controls many aspects of metabolism, physical cal conditioning, a neural bond or association is
in your limbs, back, neck, and chest. Nerves in growth, and brain development. This stage is also formed between the neutral stimulus and uncon-
the somatic nervous system usually contain two called slow-wave or delta sleep. ditioned stimulus. After repeated trials, the neutral
kinds of fibers: afferent, or sensory, fibers that stages of sleep Distinctive changes in the electrical stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, which,
carry information from sensory receptors in the activity of the brain and accompanying physiologi- in turn, substitutes for the unconditioned stimu-
skin, muscles, and other organs to the spinal cord cal responses of the body that occur as we pass lus. Thereafter, the conditioned stimulus elicits
and brain; and efferent, or motor, fibers that carry through different stages of sleep. See also stage 1, a response similar to that of the unconditioned
information from the brain and spinal cord to the stage 2, stages 3 and 4. stimulus.
muscles. standard deviation A statistic indicating how widely stomach The body organ that monitors the amount
somatization disorder A somatoform disorder that all the scores in a distribution are scattered above and kinds of nutrients our body needs to restore
begins before age 30, lasts several years, and is and below the mean. our depleted stores of fuel. In addition, after we
characterized by multiple symptoms—including standardized test A technique to obtain information eat a meal, the stomach’s walls are distended and
pain, gastrointestinal, sexual, and neurological by administering a psychological test that has been their stretch receptors signal fullness or time to
symptoms—that have no physical causes but are standardized, which means that the test has been stop eating.
triggered by psychological problems or distress. given to hundreds of people and shown to reliably storing The process of placing encoded information
somatoform disorder A pattern of recurring, mul- measure thought patterns, personality traits, emo- into relatively permanent mental storage for later
tiple, and significant bodily (somatic) complaints tions, or behaviors. recall.
that extend over several years. The physical symp- state-dependent learning The idea that we recall stress The anxious or threatening feeling that comes
toms (pain, vomiting, paralysis, blindness) are not information more easily when we are in the same when we interpret or appraise a situation as being
under voluntary control, have no known physical physiological or emotional state or setting as when more than our psychological resources can ade-
causes, and are believed to be caused by psycho- we originally encoded the information. quately handle.
logical factors. statistical frequency approach In definitions of stress management program A program to reduce
somatosensory cortex A narrow strip of the cortex abnormality, the idea that a behavior may be anxiety, fear, and stressful experiences by using
that is located at the front edge of the parietal lobe considered abnormal if it occurs rarely or infre- a variety of strategies to change three different
and extends down its side. It processes sensory quently in relation to the behaviors of the general aspects of our lives: thoughts (appraisals), behav-
information about touch, location of limbs, pain, population. iors, and physiological responses.
and temperature. The right somatosensory cortex statistical procedures In experiments, procedures structuralism An early school of psychological
receives information from the left side of the body, to determine whether differences observed in thought that emphasized the study of the basic
and vice versa. dependent variables (behaviors) are due to inde- elements—primarily sensations and perceptions—
sound waves The stimuli for hearing, or audition. pendent variables (treatment) or to error or chance that make up conscious mental experiences.
Similar to ripples on a pond, sound waves travel occurrence. Structuralists argued that we can understand how
through space with varying heights and speeds. statistics Tools researchers use to analyze and sum- perceptions are formed by breaking them down
Height, or amplitude, is the distance from the marize large amounts of data. into smaller and smaller elements. Then we can
bottom to the top of a sound wave; speed, or fre- stem cells Cells formed in the embryo that have the analyze how these basic elements are recombined
quency, is the number of sound waves that occur amazing capacity to change into any of the 220 to form a perception. They believed that a percep-
within 1 second. cells that make up a human body, including skin, tion is simply the sum of its parts.
source misattribution A memory error that results heart, liver, bones, and neurons. structured interviews A research technique in which
when a person has difficulty deciding which of stereotaxic procedure A method used for introduc- each individual is asked the same set of relatively
two or more sources a memory came from: Was ing material at a precise location within the brain. narrow and focused questions, so that the same
the source something the person saw or imagined, The patient’s head is fixed in a holder, and a small information is obtained from everyone.
or was it a suggestion? hole is drilled through the skull. The holder has a subgoals In problem solving, a strategy by which the
Spearman’s g See two-factor theory. syringe that can be precisely guided to a predeter- overall problem is broken into separate parts that,
specific phobias Unreasonable, marked, and persis- mined location in the brain. when completed in order, will result in a solution.
tent fears triggered by anticipation of, or exposure stereotypes Widely held beliefs that people have sublimation A type of displacement in which threat-
to, a specific object or situation (flying, heights, certain traits because they belong to a particu- ening or forbidden desire, usually sexual, is redi-
spiders, seeing blood); formerly called simple lar group. Stereotypes are often inaccurate and rected into socially acceptable forms.
phobias.
split-brain operation A procedure for moderat- G L O S S A R Y 635
ing severe, uncontrollable seizures by cutting the

subliminal messages Brief auditory or visual mes- taste A chemical sense that makes use of various repeatedly simulating events that are threatening
sages that are presented below the absolute thresh- chemicals or stimuli. in our waking lives so that our brain can practice
old, so that their chance of perception is less than how it perceives threats and we can rehearse our
50%. taste-aversion learning The association of a particu- responses to these events.
lar sensory cue (smell, taste, sound, or sight) with threshold A point above which a stimulus is per-
subliminal stimulus A stimulus whose intensity is an unpleasant response, such as nausea or vomit- ceived and below which it is not perceived. See also
such that a person has a less than 50% chance of ing, resulting in future avoidance of that particular absolute threshold.
detecting it. sensory cue. thyroid A gland located in the neck that regulates
metabolism through the secretion of hormones. It
substance abuse A maladaptive pattern of frequent taste buds Onion-shaped structures on the tongue forms part of the endocrine system.
and continued usage of a substance—a drug or that contain the receptors for taste. time-out In training children, a form of negative
medicine—that results in significant problems, punishment in which reinforcing stimuli are
such as failing to meet major obligations and hav- TAT See Thematic Apperception Test. removed after an undesirable response. This
ing multiple legal, social, family, health, work, or telegraphic speech A distinctive speech pattern removal decreases the chances that the response
interpersonal difficulties. These problems must will recur. In time-out, the child is told to sit qui-
occur repeatedly during a single 12-month period observed during language acquisition in which etly in the corner of a room or put in some other
to be classified as substance abuse. the child omits articles, prepositions, and parts of situation where there is no chance to obtain rein-
verbs. forcers or engage in pleasurable behaviors.
superego Freud’s third division of the mind, which telepathy The ability to transfer thoughts to another tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon The situation in
develops from the ego during early childhood; its person or to read the thoughts of others. which, despite making a great effort, we are tem-
goal is to apply the moral values and standards of temperament An individual’s distinctive pattern of porarily unable to recall information that we abso-
one’s parents or caregivers and society in satisfying attention, arousal, and reactivity to new or novel lutely know is in our memory.
one’s wishes. situations. This pattern appears early, is relatively TKS See taijin kyofusho.
stable and long-lasting, and is influenced in large TMS See transcranial magnetic stimulation.
superstitious behavior In operant conditioning, any part by genetic factors. tolerance The reaction of the body and brain to regu-
behavior that increases in frequency because its temporal lobe A segment of the brain located directly lar drug use, whereby the person has to take larger
occurrence is accidentally paired with the delivery below the parietal lobe that is involved in hearing, doses of the drug to achieve the same behavioral
of a reinforcer. speaking coherently, and understanding verbal and effect.
written material. touch The skin senses, which include temperature,
suprachiasmatic nucleus A sophisticated biological teratogen Any agent that can harm a developing fetus pressure, and pain. Touch sensors change mechan-
clock, located in the hypothalamus, that regulates (causing deformities or brain damage). It might be ical pressure or changes in temperature into nerve
a number of circadian rhythms, including the a disease (such as genital herpes), a drug (such as impulses that are sent to the brain for processing.
sleep-wake cycle. Suprachiasmatic cells are highly alcohol), or another environmental agent (such as trait A relatively stable and enduring tendency to
responsive to changes in light. chemicals). behave in a particular way.
test anxiety A combination of physiological, emo- trait theory An approach for analyzing the structure
surface structure According to Chomsky, the actual tional, and cognitive components that are caused of personality by measuring, identifying, and clas-
wording of a sentence, as it is spoken. by the stress of taking exams and that may interfere sifying similarities and differences in personality
with a student’s ability to think, reason, and plan. characteristics or traits.
survey A way to obtain information by asking many testimonial A statement in support of a particular transcendental meditation (TM) A meditation exer-
individuals—person to person, by telephone, or viewpoint based on personal experience. cise in which individuals assume a comfortable
by mail—to answer a fixed set of questions about testosterone The major male hormone, which stimu- position, close their eyes, and repeat and concen-
particular subjects. lates the growth of genital organs and the develop- trate on a sound to clear their head of all thoughts
ment of secondary sexual characteristics. (worrisome and otherwise).
sympathetic division The subdivision of the auto- texture gradient In three-dimensional vision, a mon- transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) A nonin-
nomic nervous system that is triggered by threat- ocular depth cue: Areas with sharp, detailed tex- vasive diagnostic technique that activates neurons
ening or challenging physical or psychological ture are interpreted as being closer, and those with by sending pulses of magnetic energy into the
stimuli, increasing the body’s physiological arousal less sharpness and detail as more distant. brain.
and preparing the body for action. thalamus A structure of the limbic system that is transduction The process by which a sense organ
located in the middle of the forebrain and is changes, or transforms, physical energy into elec-
synapse An infinitely small space (20–30 billionths involved in receiving sensory information, doing trical signals that become neural impulses, which
of a meter) between an end bulb and its adjacent some initial processing, and then relaying the sen- may be sent to the brain for processing.
body organ, muscle, or cell body; it is a space over sory information to appropriate areas of the cor- transference In psychotherapy, the process by which
which chemical messages are transmitted. tex, including the somatosensory cortex, primary a client expresses strong emotions toward the
auditory cortex, and primary visual cortex. therapist because the therapist substitutes for
syntax See grammar. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) A personality someone important in the client’s life, such as the
systematic desensitization A technique of behavior test in which subjects are asked to look at pictures client’s mother or father. Freud first developed this
of people in ambiguous situations and to make up concept.
therapy, based on classical conditioning, in which stories about what the characters are thinking and transformational rules According to Chomsky, pro-
a person is gradually and progressively exposed to feeling and what the outcome will be. cedures by which we convert our ideas from sur-
fearful or anxiety-evoking stimuli while practic- theory of evolution Darwin’s theory that different face structures into deep structures and from deep
ing deep relaxation. Systematic desensitization is a species arose from a common ancestor and that structures back into surface structures.
form of counterconditioning because it replaces, or those species survived that were best adapted to transmitter A chemical messenger that transmits
counters, fear and anxiety with relaxation. meet the demands of their environments. information between nerves and body organs, such
theory of linguistic relativity Whorf ’s theory that the as muscles and heart. See also neurotransmitters.
T differences among languages result in differences transsexualism See gender identity disorder.
in the ways people think and perceive the world. triangular theory of love See Sternberg’s triangular
t test An estimate of reliability that takes into account theory of personality An organized attempt to theory of love.
both the size of the mean difference and the vari- describe and explain how personalities develop triarchic theory See Sternberg’s triarchic theory.
ability in distributions. and why personalities differ. trichromatic theory The idea that there are three
thinking Mental processes by which we form con- different kinds of cones in the retina, and each
taijin kyofusho (TKS) A mental disorder found cepts, solve problems, and engage in creative activ- cone contains one of three different light-sensi-
only in Asian cultures, particularly Japan. This ities. Sometimes referred to as reasoning. tive chemicals, called opsins. Each opsin is most
social phobia is characterized by a morbid fear of threat appraisal Our conclusion that harm or loss responsive to wavelengths that correspond to
offending others through awkward social or physi- has not yet taken place in a particular situation but
cal behavior, such as making eye-to-eye contact, we anticipate it in the near future.
blushing, giving off an offensive odor, having an threat simulation theory of dreams The idea
unpleasant or tense facial expression, or having that dreaming serves a biological function by
trembling hands.

tardive dyskinesia A condition characterized by the
appearance of slow, involuntary, and uncontrol-
lable rhythmic movements and rapid twitching of
the mouth and lips, as well as unusual movements
of the limbs. This condition is a side effect of the
continued use of typical neuroleptics.

task-oriented group A group in which members have
specific duties to complete.

636 G L O S S A R Y

each of the three primary colors—blue, green, and valued human beings even though we may behave visual agnosia A condition caused by damage to the
red—from which all other colors can be mixed. in ways that disappoint them because they differ visual association area. An individual with visual
two-factor theory A theory of intelligence proposed from their standards and values or the way they agnosia is unable to recognize some object, person,
by Spearman, according to which a general mental think. or color and yet is able to see and even describe
ability factor, g, represents a person’s ability to per- unconditioned response (UCR) An unlearned, parts of some visual stimulus.
form complex mental work, such as abstract rea- innate, involuntary physiological reflex that is elic-
soning and problem solving, while many specific ited by the unconditioned stimulus. visual association area An area of the brain, located
factors, s, represent a person’s specific mental abili- unconditioned stimulus (UCS) A stimulus that trig- next to the primary visual cortex, that transforms
ties, such as mathematical, mechanical, and verbal gers or elicits some physiological response, such as basic sensations, such as lights, lines, colors, and
skills. Thus, g is constant across tests, while s may salivation or eye blink. textures, into complete, meaningful visual percep-
vary across tests. unconscious forces Wishes, desires, or thoughts that, tions, such as persons, objects, or animals.
two-word combinations The third stage in acquiring because of their disturbing or threatening content,
language, which begins at about 2 years of age. The we automatically repress and cannot voluntarily visual cliff A glass tabletop with a checkerboard pat-
infant says strings of two words that express vari- access. tern over part of its surface; the remaining surface
ous actions (“Me play,”“See boy”) or relationships unconscious motivation A Freudian concept that consists of clear glass with a checkerboard pattern
(“Hit ball,”“Milk gone”). refers to the influence of repressed thoughts, several feet below, creating the illusion of a clifflike
tympanic membrane The thin, taut membrane, com- desires, or impulses on our conscious thoughts drop to the floor.
monly called the eardrum, that is the boundary and behaviors.
between the outer ear and middle ear. When struck unconsciousness Total loss of awareness and respon- VPN See ventrolateral preoptic nucleus.
by sound waves, it vibrates and passes the vibra- siveness to the environment. It may be due to vulnerability Psychological or environmental difficul-
tions to the ossicles. disease, trauma, a blow to the head, or general
Type A behavior A combination of personality traits medical anesthesia. ties that make children more at risk for developing
that may be a risk factor for coronary heart disease. underachievers Individuals who score relatively high later personality, behavioral, or social problems.
According to the original (1970s) definition, these on tests of ability or intelligence but perform more
traits included an overly competitive and aggressive poorly than their scores would predict. W
drive to achieve, a hostile attitude when frustrated, universal emotional expressions A number of spe-
a habitual sense of time urgency, a rapid and explo- cific inherited facial patterns or expressions that Weber’s law A psychophysics law stating that the
sive pattern of speaking, and workaholic tendencies; signal specific feelings or emotional states, such as increase in intensity of a stimulus needed to pro-
in contrast, type B behavior was easygoing, calm, a smile signaling a happy state. duce a just noticeable difference grows in propor-
relaxed, and patient. In the 1980s, the list of traits uplifts Small, pleasurable, happy, and satisfying expe- tion to the intensity of the initial stimulus.
was reduced to being depressed, aggressively com- riences that we have in our daily lives.
petitive, easily frustrated, anxious, and angry. In the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and
1990s, the list was reduced again, to frequent feel- V Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
ings of anger and hostility, which may or may not (WISC) Intelligence tests that are divided into
be publicly expressed. Currently, researchers con- validity The extent to which a test measures what it is various subtests. The verbal section contains a sub-
clude that individuals who either always show their supposed to measure. test of general information, a vocabulary subtest,
anger and hostility or always suppress it have large and so forth. The performance section contains a
increases in physiological arousal, which can have variable-interval schedule A conditioning schedule subtest that involves arranging pictures in a mean-
damaging effects on one’s heart and health. such that the time between the response and the ingful order, one that requires assembling objects,
Type B behavior Behavior characterized as being subsequent reinforcer is variable. and one that involves using codes. The verbal and
easygoing, calm, relaxed, and patient. performance scores are combined to give a single
Type D behavior Behavior characterized by chronic variable-ratio schedule A conditioning schedule in IQ score.
distress in terms of two emotional states: negative which the subject must make a different number
affectivity (worry, irritability, gloom) and social of responses for the delivery of each reinforcer. weight-regulating genes Genes that play a role in
inhibition (shyness, being reserved, lack of self- influencing appetite, body metabolism, and secre-
assurance). variance A measure of the variability within two tion of hormones (such as leptin) that regulate fat
Type I schizophrenia A type of schizophrenia distributions. stores.
characterized by positive symptoms, such as hal-
lucinations and delusions, which are distortions ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VPN) A group of Wernicke’s aphasia Difficulty in understanding spo-
of normal functions. Individuals diagnosed with cells in the hypothalamus that acts like a master ken or written words and in putting words into
Type I schizophrenia have no intellectual impair- switch for sleep. Turned on, the VPN secretes a meaningful sentences, as a result of injury to Wer-
ment, good reaction to medication, and thus a neurotransmitter (GABA) that turns off areas that nicke’s area in the brain.
good chance of recovery. keep the brain awake; turned off, the VPN causes
Type II schizophrenia A type of schizophrenia char- certain brain areas to become active and we Wernicke’s area An area usually located in the left
acterized by negative symptoms, such as dulled wake up. temporal lobe that plays a role in understanding
emotions and little inclination to speak, which speech and speaking in coherent sentences. See
are a loss of normal functions. Individuals diag- ventromedial hypothalamus A group of brain cells Wernicke’s aphasia.
nosed with Type II schizophrenia have intellectual that regulates hunger by creating feelings of satiety,
impairment, poor reaction to medication, and thus or fullness. withdrawal symptoms Painful physical and psycho-
a poor chance of recovery. logical symptoms that occur when a drug-depen-
typical neuroleptic drugs Neuroleptics that pri- vertigo Feelings of dizziness and nausea resulting dent person stops using a drug.
marily reduce the levels of the neurotransmitter from malfunction of the semicircular canals in the
dopamine. Two of the more common are phe- vestibular system. word An arbitrary pairing between a sound or sym-
nothiazines (for example, Thorazine) and butro- bol and a meaning.
phenones (for example, haloperidol). These drugs vestibular system Three semicircular canals in the
primarily reduce positive symptoms but have little inner ear that sense the position of the head, keep working memory See short-term memory.
or no effects on negative symptoms. the head upright, and maintain balance. Fluid
in the semicircular canals moves in response to Y
U movements of the head, and sensors (hair cells) in
the canals respond to the movement of the fluid. Yerkes-Dodson law The principle that performance
unconditional positive regard The warmth, accep- on a task is an interaction between the level of
tance, and love that others show us because we are virtual reality A perceptual experience—of being physiological arousal and the difficulty of the task.
inside an object, moving through an environ- For difficult tasks, low arousal results in better per-
ment, or carrying out some action—that is, in fact, formance; for most tasks, moderate arousal helps
entirely simulated by a computer. performance; and for easy tasks, high arousal may
facilitate performance.
visible spectrum The one particular segment of elec-
tromagnetic energy that we can see because these yoga A meditation exercise that involves a system
waves are the right length to stimulate receptors of breathing techniques, physical exercises, and
in the eye. postures.

Z

zygote The cell that results when an egg is fertilized.
It contains 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs.

G L O S S A R Y 637

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