Social Psychology

B. Cognitive & Emotional Changes

Definition

Why is When most adults and especially current parents For example, at the beginning of this module we told
of teenagers hear the word adolescence, they o en you that, during adolescence, Branndi (left photo) would
Branndi’s head get a pained look as they remember a time undergo major changes in reasoning and thinking. For
spinning? full of problems. Until the early example, here are some of her thoughts about the condition
1990s, researchers believed that of the world:
adolescence was primarily a time of storm and stress, of “I don’t believe in the Pledge of Allegiance. I don’t say
intense feelings, huge mood swings, and irritating paren- it, because they’re telling a lie—‘liberty and justice for
tal conflicts. However, current research paints a different all.’ . . . My first step into politics will be mayor. I write
picture of adolescence. Yes, storm and stress and intense lots of letters to Tom Bradley [former mayor of Los
mood swings and parental conflicts are likely to occur Angeles] about things like animal rights. But he just sent
during adolescence, but they come and go, and not all me, you know, one of those typed things. I don’t think
adolescents have a terrible time (Arnett, 2000a). Research it’s right . . . I’m very outspoken. I worry about things—
also finds that along with the storm and stress, adoles- sex, rape, and stuff like that . . . I believe in God. I believe
cence is a time for tremendous growth in emotional, God lets awful things happen to teach us a lesson . . .”
social, and cognitive development as teenagers go from (Los Angeles Times, December 22, 1991, p. E-13).
childhood to adulthood (Lerner & Galambos, 1998). ere’s no question that 12-year-old Branndi is full of
“I believe God
lets awful things
We have already discussed the dramatic physical happen to teach us abstract thinking, is very outspoken, and holds absolute
changes and sexual feelings that occur during puberty and opinions on a variety of concrete and abstract issues.
the problems adolescents have in deciding what to do with a lesson.” Her views illustrate one of the most significant changes

their newly developed sexual maturity. Along with sexual maturity, ado- in cognitive development during adolescence, which is the
lescents develop new ways of thinking and reasoning, which represents a ability to think about abstract issues, such as the meaning
major change in cognitive development. of liberty, justice, and God. is kind of abstract thinking
Cognitive development refers to how a person perceives, thinks, and gains indicates that Branndi is entering Piaget’s fourth cognitive
an understanding of his or her world through the interaction and influence of stage, called formal operations, which marks the beginning
genetic and learned factors. of thinking and reasoning like an adult.

Piaget’s Cognitive Stages: Continued

What’s As you may remember from Module 17, Piaget’s Having the ability to think about and discuss abstract
new about theory of cognitive development is that we all go concepts means that adolescents can critically consider their Photo Credits: top, Los Angeles Times, Photo by Tammy Lechner; bottom, © arabianEye/Photolibrary
a teenager’s through four distinct cognitive stages (le figure). beliefs, attitudes, values, and goals as well as discuss a wide
thinking? As we go through each cognitive stage, we acquire range of topics important to their becom-
a new and distinct kind of reasoning and thinking ing adults. For instance, when adoles-
that is different from and more advanced than the cents were asked about their major
concerns, tops on their lists were
reasoning abilities we possessed at our pre- getting married, having friends,
vious stage. We discussed Piaget’s four getting a good job, and doing well
cognitive stages in Module 17, but we’ll in school. Each of these concerns
review stage 4, the formal operations stage, involves the ability to discuss
because it begins in adolescence.

Stage 4: Formal Operations abstract concepts, which is a cog-
e fact that 12-year-old Branndi is using nitive skill that they are learning
at the formal operations stage.
abstract concepts, such as liberty, justice, One of the interesting ques-
animal rights, and God, is good evidence tions about adolescents is why
that she is entering the formal operations some seem so slow to develop
stage. thinking and reasoning skills that “My major concerns
prepare them to deal with typical are doing well in school
The formal operations stage, the last of problems and stressful situations
and having friends.”
Piaget’s four cognitive stages, extends from

about age 12 through adulthood. During that occur during adolescence. For example, many adoles-

this stage, adolescents and adults cents report that they were not prepared to have sex but it
develop the abilities to think about just happened, or they fight continually with their parents,
abstract or hypothetical concepts, to or they do stupid things like drink and then drive. Research-
consider an issue from another’s view-

point, and to solve cognitive problems ers have only recently discovered that the answer involves

in a logical way. the developing adolescent’s brain.

410 M O D U L E 1 8 A D O L E S C E N C E & A D U L T H O O D

Brain Development: Reason and Emotion PowerStudy 4.5™

A difficult problem for parents is dealing with seemingly irresponsible or impulsive bad behaviors or decisions of their Module 4
teenagers. Parents believe their teens should know better, and until recently, researchers thought that teens should B. Studying the Living Brain
know better because they believed that teenage brains were fully developed by puberty. However, new findings indi- D. Control Centers: Four Lobes
cate that teenage brains are still developing, especially areas involved in clear thinking and reasoning (Crews, 2006). E. Limbic System: Old Brain

1 Prefrontal cortex: executive functions 2 Limbic system: emotional behaviors
Every company has an executive officer Teenagers are known to act impulsively, such
who is responsible for making decisions, as getting a tongue pierced on a dare, and
day-to-day planning, organizing, and think- experience wide mood swings. As one par-
ing about the future. Similarly, our brains ent said, “It’s hot and cold, nasty and nice.
have an executive area, called the prefrontal One minute loving me, one minute hating
cortex, which is involved in similar func- me.” What parents don’t realize is a teen-
tions and is located near the front of the ager’s prefrontal cortex, which acts like
brain (p. 75) (right figure). an executive officer, is not fully devel-
Researchers used brain scans (p. 70) to oped, so an adolescent has less control
take pictures of the neural development of over his or her emotional and impulsive
teenage brains. Unlike previous beliefs that behaviors. This explains why teens are so
an adolescent’s prefrontal cortex was fully easily upset when parents can’t understand
developed, researchers found the adolescent’s why (Shute, 2009).
prefrontal cortex was still developing and Moody, emotional, and impulsive behaviors.

thus did not yet have the ability to think, rea- As shown in the le figure, in the center of the
son, decide, or plan like an adult (Luna, 2006; brain is a circle of structures that make up our
Shute, 2009). emotional brain, called the limbic system (p. 80). e
Vulnerability. Beginning at about age 11 and continuing into limbic system is involved in a wide range of emotional behav-
young adulthood, the brain undergoes major “rewiring” and reorga- iors, such being ecstatic over getting a date, feeling depressed
nization and is especially vulnerable to traumatic adolescent experi- when failing a test, and getting angry
ences, such as being physically or sexually abused or bullied, feeling when insulted. Research found that
depressed, and abusing drugs. Research suggests that alcohol causes sex hormones (testosterone in males
more injury to teenage brains than it does to adult and estrogen in females), which are
brains. ese kinds of traumatic experiences can secreted in abundance during puberty,
interfere with the adolescent’s brain developing a increase the growth of limbic system
healthy and reasonable executive center (Crews, structures (amygdala, hippocampus).
2006; Shute, 2009). Researchers believe the increased size
Risk-taking behavior. e finding that and function of the limbic system
executive functions in the adolescent’s brain account for a teenager’s irritability and
“As executive officer, are not yet fully developed helps explain increase in talking aggressively with
I’m responsible for many of the adolescent’s seemingly irrespon- others, such as their parents (Whittle “I was dared to get my
thinking, planning, and sible behaviors. For example, adolescents lip and nose pierced.”
have about twice the rate of adults in trans-
making decisions.” et al., 2008).
Conclusion. Researchers are finding that the adolescent’s
mitting venereal diseases because only 50% think to use condoms, brain has an underdeveloped prefrontal cortex, or executive
and they have 20 times the rate of automobile accidents as adults officer, but a well-developed limbic system, or emotional center
because adolescents don’t worry about drinking, driving, and speed- (L. Steinberg, 2004). This combination of a
ing (C. E. Irwin et al., 2002). e previous explanation for why adoles- weak executive officer and a strong emo-
cents engaged in risk-taking behavior was they felt invulnerable and tional center results in many of the unthink-
had no fear of injury. Researchers now explain adolescents’ tendency ing and irritating behaviors of adolescents,
to take risks is due to the executive manager of their behaviors, their such as taking risks, switching moods,
Photo Credits: all, © PhotoDisc, Inc. prefrontal cortex, being underdeveloped, which means they don’t and acting impulsively. As one researcher
have the neural bases to analyze risks and make intelligent decisions summarized, “Good judgment is learned
(Luna, 2006). One researcher described the teenage brain very well but you can’t learn it if you don’t have the
by saying it “is like a car with a good accelerator but a weak brake” necessary hardware (neural development)”
(L. Steinberg, 2007). We’ll discuss how this brain research applies to (Yurgelun-Todd, 1999, p. 48).
teen driving in the Critical inking section (p. 430). An adolescent’s lack of a strong execu-
Another reason adolescents have a tendency to engage in risk- “One minute I’m tive officer (prefrontal cortex) will also
taking behaviors involves a different part of their brain that’s involved laughing and the affect moral judgment, which is our next
in emotional behaviors. next I’m crying.” topic.

B . C O G N I T I V E & E M O T I O N A L C H A N G E S 411

B. Cognitive & Emotional Changes

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning

Would you Suppose your best friend is dying of cancer. Did you decide that it would be all right to steal the
steal to save You hear of a chemist who has just discov- drug to save the life of your dying friend? If you
ered a new wonder drug that could save her did, how did you justify your moral decision?
a friend? life. The chemist is selling the drug for Lawrence Kohlberg (1984) and associates pre-
sented similar dilemmas to individuals who
$5,000, many times more than it cost him were asked to explain their moral decisions. On
to make. You try to borrow the full amount but can get only $2,500. the basis of such studies, Kohlberg explained
You ask the chemist to sell you the drug for $2,500 and he refuses. the development of moral reasoning in terms of
Later that night, you break into the chemist’s laboratory and steal
the drug. Should you have done that? three levels.

Three Levels of Moral Reasoning Evaluating Kohlberg’s Theory
Stages. Kohlberg hypothesized that everyone goes through the five
Level 1 Self-Interest stages in sequence, with no skipping of stages. Researchers reviewed 45
The preconventional level, which represents Kohlberg’s lowest level Kohlberg-type studies conducted in 27 cultures and concluded that, as
of moral reasoning, has two stages. At stage 1, moral decisions are Kohlberg assumed, we go through the stages in order but not everyone
reaches the higher stages (Damon, 1999; Helwig, 1997).
based primarily on fear of punishment or the need to be obedient; at
Thinking versus behaving. Kohlberg’s stages present different kinds of
stage 2, moral reasoning is guided most by satisfying one’s self- moral thinking that may or may not predict how someone behaves. us,
Kohlberg focused on the development of moral thinking, not on the devel-
interest, which may involve making bargains.
For example, individuals at stage 1 might say that you opment of moral behavior in real-life situations (Damon, 1999).
Carol Gilligan (1982) criticized Kolhberg’s stages by saying
should not steal the drug because you’ll be caught and go to
jail. Individuals at stage 2 might say that you that, in making moral decisions, women use more of a care ori-
can steal the drug and save your best friend, entation, which is based on caring, having concern for others,
but in return you’ll have to give up some and avoiding hurt, while men use more of a justice orientation,
freedom by going to jail. Most children are at based on law, equality, and individual rights. However, research
shows both men and women use a mixture of care and justice
tLheeveplre2coSnovceinatlioAnpaplrloevvaell. orientations, depending on the situation (Jaffee & Hyde, 2000).

The conventional level, which represents an inter- Brain or neural factors. Kohlberg constructed his theory
mediate level of moral reasoning, also has two stages. before researchers were able to study the structures and functions
of the living brain (pp. 70–71). We have explained that the teenage
At stage 3, moral decisions are guided most by conform- brain has an underdeveloped prefrontal cortex, which results in an
underdeveloped executive area and limits a teenager’s ability to think,
ing to the standards of others we value; at stage 4, moral reason, and make intelligent decisions needed for moral reasoning
(Luna, 2006). Also supporting the role of the prefrontal cortex in moral
reasoning is determined most by conforming to laws of society. reasoning are findings that individuals who had their prefrontal cortex
damaged in infancy had difficulty learning the normal social and moral
Individuals at stage 3 might say that you should steal the rules in childhood and adolescence (A. Damasio, 1999). More recently,
drug since that is what your family would expect you to do. researchers identified different brain areas involved in moral decisions:
Individuals at stage 4 might say that you should not steal the Making impersonal moral decisions, such as keeping the money found
drug because of what would happen to society if everybody took in a stranger’s wallet, involved areas associated with retrieving informa-
wLehvaetlth3eyAnbesetdraecdt. Many adolescents and adults are at this level. tion (p. 242); in comparison, making personal moral decisions, such
Ideas as keeping the money found in a fellow worker’s wallet, involved areas
associated with emotions. us, when we make moral decisions, espe-
The postconventional level, which represents the highest level of cially those involving personal concerns (abortion, death penalty), we
use not only reasoning and logic but also our gut feelings or emotions
moral reasoning, has one stage. At stage 5, moral decisions are made (J. D. Greene et al., 2004). Making moral decisions appears to involve
some kind of unconscious process (Hauser, 2007). We may not be aware
after carefully thinking about all the alternatives and striking a bal- that our gut feelings are directing our moral decisions.
ance between human rights and laws of society. Researchers are now studying other aspects of moral judgment and
development, such as prosocial behavior (helping others), moral emo-
Individuals at stage 5 might say that one should steal the tions (remorse, guilt), and empathy (Killen & Smetana, 2006).
drug because life is more important than money. (Stage 6, which Moral reasoning and cognitive development are also influenced by
appeared in earlier versions of Kohlberg’s theory, has been omit- the kinds of rules that parents use, which is our next topic.
ted in later versions because too few people had reached it.)
Some, but not all, adults reach the postconventional level.

Kohlberg’s theory has two distinct features. First, he classifies
moral reasoning into three distinct levels—preconventional,
conventional, and postconventional. Second, he suggests that
everyone progresses through the levels in order, from lowest
to highest. However, not everyone reaches the higher stages of
moral development.

Next, we’ll evaluate Kohlberg’s theory and its present
status.

412 M O D U L E 1 8 A D O L E S C E N C E & A D U L T H O O D

Parenting Styles and Effects

Were your During adolescence, teenagers experience someone asked how your parents raised you, would you answer
several major changes in cognitive and that they were strict, supportive, easy, or hard? It turns out that
parents easy emotional development. ese changes are parents’ rules, standards, and codes of conduct influence how a
or strict? influenced by both biological factors, such teenager develops a sense of independence and achievement
(Baumrind, 1991). We’ll discuss how parental rules can affect the
as brain development, and environmental cognitive and emotional development of teenagers.
factors, such as the influence of peers and parents. For instance, if

Personal Experiences Different Styles of Parenting Effects of Parenting Styles

When teenagers were asked how they responded We’ll focus on three of Baumrind’s par- Each of the three parenting styles has dif-
to their parents’ rules, here’s what Ida and Chris enting styles: authoritarian parents, ferent costs and benefits. Authoritarian
replied (photos below). authoritative parents, and permissive parents, who are very demanding, benefit
Ida, age 17. “I live in a strict Italian home. parents. by preventing adolescent behavioral
Sometimes my parents are really, really great, Authoritarian parents attempt to shape, problems but at some cost to adolescents,

but their rules for me are absolutely ridiculous. control, and evaluate the behavior and atti- who tend to be more conforming and
So I get around them. My friends will tell you tudes of their children in accordance with a have lower self-esteem. Authoritative par-
I’m a good kid. I don’t drink. I don’t do drugs. set standard of conduct, usually an absolute ents, who state their values clearly, benefit
I don’t smoke. But my parents think that, if I’ve standard that comes from religious or by having loving and supportive parent–
Photo Credits: left, © David Michael Kennedy; right, © PhotoDisc, Inc. gone out on a Friday night and I respected authorities. teenager interactions, which further ben-
Figure/Text Credit: Ida and Christopher excerpt from Parade Magazine, July 14, 1991, pp. 6–7. Reprinted with permission from Parade. Copyright © 1991.
ask to go out Saturday, too, I’m For these parents, obedience is a efit their teenagers, who tend to be more
asking for the world . . . So I lie virtue, and they punish and use harsh friendly, cooperative, and achievement-
a lot . . . A lot of people know discipline to keep the adolescent in line oriented (Hickman et al.,
I do this, but nobody yells at with their rules. This parenting style 2000; Vazsonyi et al.,
me for it, because I’m a good seems to describe Ida’s parents. Boys 2003). Permissive
kid, and my parents’ rules from authoritarian families are found parents benefit by
are so ridiculous.” to be relatively hostile, while girls having to make
Chris, age 18. “My are found to be relatively dependent fewer demands
parents never make their and submissive. This description and enforcing
punishments stick. Like, I’ll fits Ida, who admits to problems fewer rules but at
get my Jeep taken away for with being independent. some cost to ado-
a week, and I’ll get it back Authoritative parents attempt to lescents, who may Which is better,
be less socially as- being too easy or
within six hours. Why? direct their children’s activities in a sertive and less
too strict?
Because my parents hate to rational and intelligent way. They are

see their kids unhappy, Ida says, Chris says, supportive, loving, and committed, achievement-oriented than adolescents
and I know it, so I play “I had to get “I acted encourage verbal give-and-take, and with authoritative parents (Baumrind,
around my unhappy so
right into it. ey’ll pun- parents’ my parents discuss their rules and policies with 1991, 1993). Thus, different parenting
ish me by not letting strict rules.” gave in.” their children. styles can have significantly different ef-
me go out, so I’ll walk fects on the cognitive, social, and person-
Authoritative parents value
around the house, slam the door occasionally, being expressive and independent but ality development of adolescents.
this, that . . . and after awhile this just plays are also demanding. The children of Even though parenting styles influ-
on them, and they feel bad, and they let me such parents tend to be competent. In ence adolescent development, new
out” (Parade magazine, July 14, 1991, pp. 6–7. addition, girls are achievement-oriented research finds that siblings may have
Reprinted with permission from Parade. Copy- and boys are friendly and cooperative. the strongest influence on who we
right © 1991). Permissive parents are less controlling become in the long term. is isn’t too

A er reading these two descriptions, you can and behave with a nonpunishing and accept- surprising, as we spend every day of
see that Ida’s parents are the opposite of Chris’s. ing attitude toward their children’s impulses, our childhood with our siblings and
How do such different styles of parenting affect desires, and actions; they consult with their they remain in our lives long a er our
adolescents’ development? To answer this ques- children about policy decisions, make few parents leave us. rough all of the sib-
tion, psychologist Diana Baumrind (1991, 1993) demands, and tend to use reason rather than ling conflict, we learn how to negotiate,
carried out a series of longitudinal studies on direct power. compromise, and maintain lasting rela-
parent–child and parent–adolescent interac- is parenting style seems to describe tionships, which can help us to have suc-
tions. She has identified a number of parenting Chris’s parents. Girls with such parents cessful adult relationships, such as those
styles that are associated with different kinds of are less socially assertive, and both boys with our spouse/partner and colleagues
adolescent development. and girls are less achievement-oriented. (Kluger, 2006b).

B . C O G N I T I V E & E M O T I O N A L C H A N G E S 413

B. Cognitive & Emotional Changes

Adolescence: Big Picture

What are In the United States, there are about and emotional change. Although adolescence
the major 30 million youths (ages 10 to 17) who is a time of some storm and stress, it is also a
changes? are currently going through adoles-
cence, a period of considerable physi- time for tremendous personal growth. We’ll
cal, neurological (brain), cognitive, There are 30 million of us. review some of the major changes that occur
during adolescence.

1 Girls during Puberty 4 Piaget’s Stages Continued Photo Credits: top, © Lawrence Manning/Corbis; (#1, #2) © David Michael Kennedy; (#3) © Ted Horowitz/Alamy

Puberty sets off a surge in physical growth, According to Piaget’s theory, children pass through
which is marked by an increase in height that four different cognitive stages—(1) sensorimotor,
starts on average at 9.6 years. Puberty trig- (2) preoperational, (3) concrete operations, and
gers a physiological process that results in a (4) formal operations—in that order but at indi-
girl’s reaching female sexual maturity, which vidual rates. With each stage, the child adds a new
involves primarily the onset of menarche, or and qualitatively different kind of thinking or rea-
the first menstrual period, at an average age of 12.5 years. e soning skill that helps the child make better sense
onset of menarche is triggered by the hypothalamus, which of the world. Adolescents are entering Piaget’s fourth stage, called the
releases a hormone called kisspeptin that helps to stimulate formal operations stage, which begins at about age 12 and extends
the pituitary gland to produce hormones (Kotulak, 2006). through adulthood. During this stage, adolescents develop the abilities
to think about abstract or hypothetical concepts, to consider an issue
ese hormones stimulate the ovaries to produce female hor- from another’s viewpoint, and to solve cognitive problems in a logical
mones including estrogen, which stimulates the development way. ese cognitive abilities are very useful during adulthood.
of both primary and secondary sexual characteristics, such as
development of pubic hair and breasts. 5 Brain Development: Reason & Emotion

2 Boys during Puberty Researchers are finding that the adolescent’s brain
has an underdeveloped prefrontal cortex or execu-
Puberty triggers an increase in physical growth, tive officer but a well-developed limbic system or
especially height, generally at 13 or 14 years of emotional center (L. Steinberg, 2004). is com-
age. Puberty starts a physiological process that bination of a weak executive officer and a strong
results in a boy’s reaching male sexual emotional center results in many of the unthink-
maturity, which includes growth of the ing, irresponsible, and irritating behaviors of ado-
genital organs—testes and penis—and lescents. For example, the lack of a strong executive
production of sperm at 12–14 years of age. officer (prefrontal cortex) explains why adolescents engage in risky
behaviors, switch moods suddenly, and act impulsively. As one
e increase in genital growth and the production of sperm researcher summarized, “Good judgment is learned but you can’t learn
are triggered by the hypothalamus, which stimulates the male it if you don’t have the necessary hardware (neural development)”
pituitary gland. The pituitary in turn triggers the testes to (Yurgelun-Todd, 1999, p. 48).
increase production of testosterone, which is the major male
hormone and stimulates the growth of genital organs and the 6 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning
development of secondary sexual characteristics, such as
growth of pubic and facial hair, development of muscles, and a Kohlberg hypothesized that everyone goes through
change (deepening) in voice. three levels of moral reasoning. Level 1, the precon-
ventional level, involves stage 1 (fear of punishment)
3 Sexual Maturity and stage 2 (self-interest). Level 2, the conventional
level, involves stage 3 (conforming to the standards
In the early 1990s, nearly 60% of high-school of others) and stage 4 (conforming to the standards of
students reported engaging in sexual inter- society). Level 3, the postconventional level, has only
course, but by 2005, the percentage had stage 5 (balancing human rights and society’s laws).
dropped 10%, to fewer than half of
respondents (CDC, 2008). In the ere is support for Kohlberg’s assumption that individuals progress
1990s, teenage boys reported earlier through the stages in order and that not everyone reaches the higher
and more sexual activity than teenage stages (Damon, 1999). Since Kohlberg’s time, researchers have found
girls, but by the early 2000s, gender several brain or neural factors (prefrontal cortex, emotional areas) that
differences no longer existed (CDC, play a role in making moral decisions.
2004; B. E. Wells & Twenge, 2005). Between the late 1980s
and early 2000s, the number of teenagers who reported NOT We’ll discuss some of the cognitive changes that make people realize
having sexual intercourse rose about 10% (CDC, 2004). that they’re not kids anymore.

414 M O D U L E 1 8 A D O L E S C E N C E & A D U L T H O O D

Beyond Adolescence PowerStudy 4.5™

In your 20s and In your 40s and In your 60s, Module 4
30s, cognitive 50s, memory 70s, and 80s, B. Studying the Living Brain
abilities are there’s slowing
problems in cognitive As teenagers enter their 20s, they face a number of major changes, such as
usually at usually begin deciding about going to college, leaving home for perhaps the first time,
their peak. and continue. processes. choosing a career or major, entering the job market, and searching for a seri-
ous relationship (Arnett, 2000b). e 20s are a time when executive abilities
(thinking, planning, deciding, remembering) are sharp, partly because the
brain’s prefrontal cortex is now more fully developed. Cognitive or executive
abilities usually remain sharp through the 30s. But beginning in the 40s and
continuing through the 50s and 60s, there is a gradual decline in some cogni-
tive abilities, especially in the ability to remember things. We’ll discuss some
changes in cognitive abilities as we age.

Changes in Cognitive Speed Resiliency
Research indicates that as we age, our
From about ages 20 to 40, cognitive skills remain relatively stable. However, brains become more flexible and
between 40 and 80, there is a general slowing of some cognitive processes. adaptable. Though brain cells may
Beginning in the late 50s, there is a slowing of three cognitive processes: lose processing speed, their connec-
tions to other brain cells multiply and
1 There is a slowing in processing speed, which is the rate at which we encode they form more meaningful neural
information into long-term memory or recall or retrieve information from long-term connections as a result of more life
experience (Anthes, 2009; McAuliffe,
memory. 2008). Also, the brain’s le and right
hemispheres become better integrated
2 There is a slowing in perceptual speed, which is the rate at which we can iden- during middle age. This means that
tify a particular sensory stimulus. brains of older adults can compensate
Why is my for age-related cognitive declines by
golf game 3 There is a slowing in reaction time, which is the rate at which we respond (see, expanding their neural network to
slowing down? include both brain hemispheres
hear, move) to some stimulus. (G. Cohen, 2006). For instance, by
is slowing in processing, perceiving, and reacting partly explains why using brain scans, researchers found
older people react more slowly when driving a car or playing golf and are that older adults who used both brain
slower to make decisions or understand and follow instructions. For example, partly because of the hemispheres during a memory task
slowdown in these processes, there is a professional golf tour for seniors only (over age 50); they can performed better than older adults
no longer keep up with younger golfers. who used only one brain hemisphere
Besides a slowing in cognitive speed, older adults experience a problem in remembering things. (Cabeza et al., 2002). As brains be-
come more flexible and adaptable,
Changes in Memory they also manage emotions better.

Beginning in the 40s and continuing into old age, most people complain about not remember- Emotions
ing things. Researchers concluded older adults have no trouble remembering the big picture Older adults have a “positivity bias,”
(name of a movie) but do forget many of the small details (who played the starring role). In com- which means that they pay less atten-
parison, young adults easily remember the big picture plus all the details tion to negative information and
(Schacter, 2001). So as people move into their 50s, 60s, and 70s, their complaints Am I more to positive information. Re-
are true: ey forget details (names, places, groceries) that may be bothersome losing my search found that the part of the
but are usually unimportant. memory? brain responsible for strong negative
emotions (amygdala) becomes less
Memory differences. Young adults in their 20s excel at encoding (storing) active with age. This focus on the
and recalling vast amounts of detail but are not as good at making sense of what positive explains why older adults
all the details mean. In comparison, mature adults in their 50s excel at making have better mental health than
sense of information but forget many details. younger adults, who mostly focus on
Brain changes. Decreases in memory skills result from the slowing down negative emotions (Cabeza, 2006,
of memory abilities, reasoning processes, and focusing of attention. Brain scans 2008; Carstensen, 2006).
Photo Credits: all, © PhotoDisc, Inc. show these kinds of problems, which occur throughout normal aging, result
from the normal loss of brain cells in the prefrontal cortex (Milham et al., 2002). Next, we turn to changes in per-
Memory-enhancing products. Americans spend billions on memory-enhancing products, sonality and social development.
such as ginkgo biloba, which researchers found did NOT improve memory in healthy adults
(Solomon et al., 2002). Experts advise the best way to combat age-related memory difficulties is
to exercise physically (keep heart healthy) and mentally (engage in cognitive activities like read-
ing, doing crosswords) (G. Cohen, 2006). By consistently engaging in these activities, you may
be able to improve your memory 30–40% (B. Gordon, 2007).
Next, we’ll learn how the brain changes for the better as we age.

B . C O G N I T I V E & E M O T I O N A L C H A N G E S 415

C. Personality & Social Changes

Definition

We have discussed many of For example, the teenager in the le photo shows her inde-
the major changes that occur pendence and what she believes is her real identity by having
Who am I? during adolescence. One more a very noticeable hairstyle and piercings.

change is that adolescents Personal identity or self-identity refers to how we describe our-
develop a sense of who they are, which involves per- selves and includes our values, goals, traits, perceptions, interests,
sonality and social development.
Personality and social development refer to how a and motivations.
Personal identity grows and changes as adolescents acquire
person develops a sense of self or self-identity, develops Like it or not, this
is the real me! many new values, goals, beliefs, and interests (Bandura, 1999).
relationships with others, and develops the skills useful in A major influence on the kind of identity teenagers develop is
how they feel about themselves, which is called self-esteem.
social interactions.

Development of Self-Esteem Development and importance of self-esteem. e
roughout this module, we have discussed 12-year-
What old Branndi, who, like other teenagers, has many development of self-esteem in adolescents involves many
influences beliefs and goals, such as being proud to be Black and factors, such as physical attractiveness, acceptance by

self-esteem? female, having high hopes for her future, and wanting peers, parental support, media influences, and academic Photo Credits: top, © PhotoDisc, Inc.; center, Los Angeles Times, Photo by Tammy Lechner; center, Los Angeles Times, Photo by Tammy Lechner; bottom,
to be a role model. How Branndi ability (J. M. Connor et al., 2004). In girls, self-esteem is © David Michael Kennedy
perceives herself, which is called self-esteem, has a signifi- I’m proud to especially dependent on body image and perception of
cant influence on her developing personality. be Black and parental support (Polce-Lynch et al., 2001). In boys, self-

female.

Self-esteem is how much we like ourselves and how much esteem is especially dependent on looking cool in public,

we value our self-worth, importance, attractiveness, and social which means not letting stress or anxiety make them

competence. look bad (J. Block & Robins, 1993).
For example, in adolescents, self-esteem is influenced by Self-esteem has been linked to important positive and
negative outcomes. For example, having high self-esteem
a number of factors, including how physically attractive and is associated with positive outcomes, such as being
how socially competent they appear to their peers (DuBois cheerful and happy, having healthy social relationships,
et al., 2000). As teenagers develop sexually mature bodies, and promoting personal adjustment, while having low
they wonder how physically attractive they are; as teenagers begin dating, they self-esteem is associated with negative outcomes, such
wonder how socially skilled they are. Researchers measure changes in ado- as depression, anxiety, antisocial behavior, and poor
lescents’ self-esteem by using longitudinal studies that begin in adolescence personal adjustment (S. L. Murray, 2005; Trzesniewski
and continue through adulthood, such as measuring self-esteem at ages 14, et al., 2006).
18, and 23. We’ll discuss three different patterns of self-esteem development Today’s adolescents are a special group of people, or at
in adolescents (M. A. Zimmerman et al., 1997). least they seem to think so. In general, today’s teens think

High Self-Esteem—develop and maintain high levels. A large percentage quite highly of themselves and believe they will achieve
of adolescents (about 60%) develop and maintain a strong sense of self- extraordinary success in their personal and work lives.
esteem through junior high school. These individuals do well in school, One reason for this shi is that today’s parents praise and
develop rewarding friendships, participate in social activities, and are possibly overpraise their children more than in previous
described as cheerful, assertive, emotionally warm, and unwilling to give up generations (Twenge & Campbell, 2008). Some researchers
if frustrated. argue that this heightened self-esteem may lead to depres-

Low Self-Esteem—develop and maintain low levels. A small percentage of sion because of inevitable disappointment, while others
adolescents (15%) develop and maintain a chronically low sense of self- believe it will protect teens against
esteem that continues through junior high school. ese adolescents usually feeling the blues (Elias, 2008b). There’s nothing
have continuing personal and social problems (shy, lonely, depressed) that wrong with us!
have been present for some time and contribute to this low self-esteem. Self-esteem is important
because it influences many
Reversals—reverse levels. A moderate percentage of adolescents (about 25%) aspects of one’s personal-
show dramatic reversals in self-esteem, either from high to low or from low to ity (Roberts et al., 2002).
high. For example, some boys change from being stern, unemotional, and We’ll discuss all as-
lacking social skills into being open and expressive. Researchers think that pects and theories of
reversals in self-esteem may result from changes in peer groups, personal personality in Mod-
attractiveness, or parental relationships. ules 19 and 20.

Next, we’ll describe some influences on the development of self-esteem, as One theory of how self-esteem and personal identity
well as the importance of self-esteem. develop is found in Erikson’s psychosocial stages.

416 M O D U L E 1 8 A D O L E S C E N C E & A D U L T H O O D

Adulthood: Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

At the beginning of this module, we described we can find intimacy in caring relationships. On the negative
What will I have how Charlie went from a Hollywood child- side, without intimacy we will have a painful feeling of isola-
to deal with? hood and extraordinary early career success tion, and our relationships will be impersonal.
to a middle-aged adult. Along the way, he
dealt with dating, getting married, having children, 7Stage Generativity versus Stagnation
Adulthood has getting divorced, going through drug rehabilitation,
had ups and and experiencing ups and downs in his career. How Period. Middle adulthood (40–65)
Potential conflict. Middle adulthood is a time for helping the
downs. younger generation develop worthwhile lives. On the positive
side, we can achieve generativity through raising our own
these life events might affect Charlie’s social and per- children. If we do not have children of our own, we can achieve
sonality development was something Erik Erikson generativity through close relationships with children of
(1982) tried to explain. friends or relatives. Generativity can also be achieved through
As you may remember from Module 17, Erikson mentoring at work and helping others. On the negative side, a
divided life into eight psychosocial stages, each of lack of involvement leads to a feeling of stagnation, of having
which contained a unique psychosocial conflict, done nothing for the younger generation.
such as intimacy versus isolation. If Charlie suc-
cessfully solved each psychosocial conflict, he 8Stage Integrity versus Despair
would develop a healthy personality; if unsuccess-
ful in solving these conflicts, he might develop an Period. Late adulthood (65 and older)
Photo Credits: top, © FilmMagic/Getty Images; bottom left, © Bob Grant/Fotos International/Getty Images; bottom right, © Mike Clarke/AFP/Getty Images unhealthy personality and future psychological problems. In Module 17, Potential conflict. Late adulthood is a time for reflecting on
we discussed Erikson’s stages related to childhood; now, we’ll discuss and reviewing how we met previous challenges and lived our
the stages related to adolescence and adulthood. lives. On the positive side, if we can look back and feel content
about how we lived and what we accomplished, we will have a
5Stage Identity versus Role Confusion feeling of satisfaction or integrity. On the negative side, if we
Period. Adolescence (12–20) reflect and see a series of crises, problems, and bad experiences,
Potential conflict. Adolescents need to leave behind the carefree, irre- we will have a feeling of regret and despair.
sponsible, and impulsive behaviors of childhood and develop the more
purposeful, planned, and responsible behaviors of adulthood. If adoles- Conclusions. Erikson believed that achieving a personally
cents successfully resolve this problem, they will develop a healthy and satisfying identity was the very heart and soul of an adolescent’s
confident sense of identity. If they are unsuccessful in resolving the development. As adolescents developed into adults and reached
problem, they will experience role confusion, which results in having middle adulthood (stage 7), Erikson described a shift from
low self-esteem and becoming unstable or socially withdrawn. concerns about identity to concerns about being productive,
creative, and nurturing (R. Coles, 2000).
6Stage Intimacy versus Isolation
Period. Young adulthood (20–40) Researchers have found evidence that we do go through a
Potential conflict. Young adulthood is a time for finding intimacy by sequence of psychosocial stages and that how we handle conflicts
developing loving and meaningful relationships. On the positive side, at earlier stages affects our personality and social development at
later stages (Van Manen & Whitbourne, 1997).

Personality Change
When Mick Jagger, lead singer of the Roll- to developing related traits in middle adulthood (middle 40s). For
How much ing Stones, was in his early 20s (below), example, individuals with a high level of identity in their early

will I change? he boasted, “I’d rather be dead than sing 20s showed more independence, warmth, and compassion later
‘Satisfaction’ when I’m 45.” Now at age 66, on in their mid-40s (Vandewater et al., 1997). From these kinds
Jagger (right) has changed his tune; he and the Stones of longitudinal studies researchers draw three
recently went on a world tour and sang “Satisfaction” conclusions: First, from the end of adolescence
dozens of times (L. Ali, 2005; E. Gardner, 2006). As through middle adulthood, there are less dra-
Jagger found out, some of the things that we say and matic but still continuing changes in personal-
do at 20 may seem stupid at 60. e differences in ity traits, such as becoming more trusting and
Jagger at 20 and 60 raise an interesting question: intimate. Second, possessing certain personal-
How much do our personalities change and how ity traits in early adulthood is the foundation
much do they remain the same? Now in his 60s, for developing related traits later on (Roberts et
In his 20s, he
said he’d rather Jagger is still
Researchers answer such questions with longitu- be dead than touring and al., 2002). ird, adults appear to pass through
dinal studies, which measure personality develop- singing at 45. psychosocial stages and face conflicts in per-
ment across time in the same group of individuals. singing. sonality development similar to those pro-

One study found that from adolescence to middle adulthood, indi- posed by Erikson (Van Manen & Whitbourne, 1997). We’ll discuss
viduals became more trusting and intimate and developed a better personality more fully in Modules 19 and 20.
sense of control and identity. Researchers also found that pos- One of the major social and personality changes that women
sessing certain personality traits as a young adult (early 20s) led and men go through involves gender roles.

C . P E R S O N A L I T Y & S O C I A L C H A N G E S 417

D. Gender Roles, Love & Relationships

Definition: Gender Roles

As boys and girls grow to become men and considered weak and nervous. In the 1970s, when women applied
Why couldn’t women, they acquire a set of behavioral and to become firefighters, a local paper warned against the city’s “futile
women be cognitive rules called gender roles. exercise in trying to fit women into jobs which common sense tells

firefighters? Gender roles are traditional or stereotypical us are best filled by men.” Only a er 20 years of political and legal

behaviors, attitudes, values, battles were gender roles changed and women allowed to

and personality traits that society says are how males become firefighters (S. Kershaw, 2006).

and females should think and behave. During the past years, there have been some changes

You can become aware of gender roles by in gender roles in the United States. Women can enter
noticing how differently males and females dress, careers traditionally reserved for men, such as doctors,
behave, think, and express emotions. Gender police officers, astronauts, and soldiers. And men can
roles played a major part in whether firefighters enter careers traditionally reserved for women, such as
could be women. Firefighters had always been nurses, single parents, and grade-school teachers. We’ll
men because they were considered strong and Women fought for 20 years to discuss some issues surrounding current gender roles
cool in the face of danger, while women were become firefighters. and their functions.

Current Gender Roles: U.S. and Worldwide Gender Roles: Development and Function Photo Credits: top, © image100/SuperStock; bottom left and right, © PhotoDisc, Inc.
Each of us acquired a male or female gender role with little conscious effort or aware- The question of why gender roles develop in
ness, and we o en don’t notice the effect of gender roles on the development of our every culture has two different but related
personality and social behaviors (Prentice & Carranza, 2002). answers.

U.S. gender roles. e influence of gender roles on personality became clear when Evolutionary psychology theory. One
researchers asked college students to describe the traits of a typical male and female. answer from evolutionary psychology theory
Students generally agreed the female gender role included being caring, insecure, emphasizes genetic and biological forces
emotional, social, and shy. In comparison, students said the male gender role included and says that current gender differences are
being arrogant, aggressive, ambitious, not emotional, and dominant (Helgeson, 1994). a continuation of the behaviors that evolved
from early men and women who adapted
e influence of gender roles in the work setting is also undeniably evi- these different behaviors to survive the prob-
dent. For instance, although an increasing number of women are graduat- lems of their time (Buss, 1999; Kenrick et
ing from top business schools, women fill less than 2% of chief executive al., 2004). According to evolutionary theory,
men increased their chances for
jobs at Fortune 500 companies (Creswell, 2006). Researchers do not reproduction by being dominant,
expect gender equality in high-rank positions to occur any time controlling, and aggressive. In
soon, and there continues to be a wage gap between the sexes, comparison, women increased
with men earning more than women for the same kind of their chances of raising children
work (Judge & Livingston, 2008; Kinsman, 2006). by being concerned, sensitive,
Worldwide gender roles. Not only U.S. college stu- and nurturing.
dents but also students from around the world agreed
that the male gender role included being ambitious, Social role theory. A
dominant, and independent, while the female gender different but related an-
role included being submissive, affectionate, and emotional (J. E. swer comes from social
Williams & Best, 1990). As such, the differences in gender roles role theory, which
are clearly defined because society (family, peers, bosses, and col- emphasizes so-
leagues) encourages and rewards behaviors and thoughts that cial and cultural
match expected gender roles and discriminates against those that influences and
don’t fit in (Eckes & Trautner, 2000). states that gen-
Changes. In the United States, traditional gender roles are der differences between
males and females arise
becoming less popular. In fact, 60% of men and women report they disagree with the from different divisions of
idea that men should earn money and women should take care of children (Jayson, labor (Eagly et al., 2004).
2009b). Some shi s in gender roles are occurring as early as childhood. For instance,
girls are facing increased pressure to not only retain their traditional nurturing behav- These two theories do
iors but also excel academically and athletically as much as males (Hinshaw, 2009). not disagree but rather
emphasize either biological
e gender role for males is seeing a big change during adulthood. As more and more or psychological factors.
women pursue careers, today’s men are welcoming their role as fathers more than
ever. Men’s role as active, involved parents is becoming more of the norm than a rarity Next, you’ll see that gender roles affect our
(L. T. Cullen & Grossman, 2007; Jayson, 2009c). expectations about relationships.

Why do gender roles develop worldwide, and what are their functions?

418 M O D U L E 1 8 A D O L E S C E N C E & A D U L T H O O D

Kinds of Love

Which kind As we acquire a male or female gen- For example, when people fall madly in love, it’s usually
der role, we also develop expecta- passionate love. When mature couples talk about enjoy-
of love are tions about who we would like for ing each other’s company, it’s usually companionate love,

you in? an intimate relationship (G. Fletcher, which may or may not involve sexual behaviors. Thus,

2002; G. Fletcher & Simpson, 2000). love is more complex than many think. One of the better
Once we find someone to experience an intimate relation- known theories of love is Robert Sternberg’s (1999) trian-
ship with, we may experience different kinds of love. gular theory of love.
If we consider Charlie Sheen’s history of intimate The triangular theory of love has three components: pas-

relationships, we see that as time went by, his expec- Charlie’s experienced sion, intimacy, and commitment. Passion is feeling physically
tations for intimate relationships changed. He likely different kinds of love. aroused and attracted to someone. Intimacy is feeling close
experienced various kinds of love, chose partners for and connected to someone; it develops through sharing and

different reasons, and learned some ways to achieve and maintain communicating. Commitment is making a pledge to nourish the feelings of
a successful intimate relationship. Charlie’s experiences bring up love and to actively maintain the relationship.
three issues: kinds of love, choosing a partner, and the characteris- What makes you feel in love is the component of passion, which
tics of a long-term commitment. rises quickly and strongly influences and biases your judgment.
Earlier researchers had thought love too mysterious for sci- What makes you want to share and offer emotional and material
entific study, but current researchers have begun to classify support is the component of intimacy. What makes you want
love into various components. As a starting point, research- to form a serious relationship, such as getting married, and
ers distinguish between passionate and companionate love to promise support through difficult times is the compo-
(Rapson & Hatfield, 2005). nent of commitment. Sternberg believes that the kind of
Passionate love involves continuously thinking about the love most of us strive for is complete or consummate

loved one and is accompanied by warm sexual feelings and love, which is a balanced combination of all three

powerful emotional reactions. components—passion, intimacy, and commitment.

Companionate love involves having trusting and Sternberg (1999) uses his triangular theory to

tender feelings for someone whose life is closely Three components of love answer some of the most commonly asked ques-
bound up with one’s own. tions about love.

Is there love at first sight? Why do some people get Can there be love Why doesn’t romantic
Love at first sight occurs when we married so quickly? without sex? love last?
are overwhelmed by passion, without Sternberg calls this Hollywood Sternberg calls love without sex Romantic love, which is a
any intimacy or commitment. Stern- love, which is a combination of companionate love, which is a combination of intimacy and
berg calls this infatuated love, which passion and commitment but with- combination of intimacy and passion, usually doesn’t last
can arise in an instant, involves a out any intimacy. In Hollywood commitment without any sexual because there is no commit-
great deal of physiological arousal, love, two people make a commit- passion. An example of compan- ment. As soon as the pas-
and lasts varying lengths of time. ment based on their passion for ionate love is a married couple sion dies and the intimacy
Because there is no intimacy or com- each other. Unless they develop who are committed to each other fades, the individuals no lon-
mitment, infatuated love is destined intimacy over time, the relation- and share their lives but whose ger feel in love and go their
to fade away. ship is likely to fail. physical attraction has waned. separate ways.

Brain in Love

Researchers took brain scans of college coeds who had been with for reason and judgment. In comparison, a more committed love
their “one true love” for between 2 and 17 months and topped the activates additional emotional brain areas, which contributes to
charts on the passionate love scale (constantly think about their forming a longer-lasting relationship (Carey, 2002; C. Miller, 2008).
partners, can’t sleep, feel euphoric). e coeds were shown photos of Is it possible for long-married couples to feel the same passion
Photo Credit: top, © FilmMagic/Getty Images their loved ones interspersed with familiar but emotionally neutral and romance as new love? Common wisdom may say no, but results
faces. Only in response to seeing their loved ones did from brain scans say yes! Researchers found similar
their brain’s reward/pleasure center (p. 330) show brain activity in people who report being in intense
increased activity, similar to the activity seen with love a er decades of marriage and in people who only
cocaine-produced euphoria (Helmuth, 2003a). In com- recently fell in love. By using brain scans, researchers
parison, brain scans of partners who had been in longer also found that people in long-lasting marriages don’t
relationships (average 2 years) indicated activity in addi- experience the obsession and anxiety of new love and
tional emotional areas (insula, anterior cingulate) instead show more calmness and attachment (Acevedo,
(Fisher, 2003). Researchers concluded that infatuated 2008a, 2008b).
love primarily activates the brain’s reward/pleasure cen- Researchers can see A er choosing a partner and falling in love, the next
ter and turns down activity in brain areas responsible love in brain scans.
step is to develop a long-term relationship.

D . G E N D E R R O L E S , L O V E & R E L A T I O N S H I P S 419

D. Gender Roles, Love & Relationships

Choosing a Partner

The fact that about 90% of adults in the and women) is shown at le (Buss, 1994). Results showed men and
What am I United States marry means most of us will women form ideal-partner schemas with two major differences:
looking for? eventually select a partner for a long-term Men rank physical attractiveness as more important, and women
relationship. However, the fact that 40–60% rank earning capacity higher (Buss, 1995, 2003).
of new marriages and an even higher percentage of One reason we date different people is to find
second marriages end in divorce means selecting the IDEAL PARTNER the ideal partner who best matches the traits on our

right partner can be a difficult and somewhat 1. kind/understanding ideal-partner schema list. However, when
mysterious process (K. S. Peterson, 2001). we become passionately attracted to a per-Satisfaction
2. exciting Husbands
Researchers suggest that one way we 3. intelligent son, our brain’s reward/pleasure center
choose a partner for a long-term relation- 4. physically attractive is activated and we lose the ability to Photo Credits: top left, right and bottom, © PhotoDisc, Inc.; bottom left, © Juice Images/Corbis
ship is by finding someone who matches rationally decide whether a person Figure/Text Credits: Graph based on data from “Marital Happiness Cross the Family Life Cycle: A Longitudinal Analysis,” by M. H. Benin and I. B. Robinson, cited in Time, August 25, 1997,
(men rank higher) really has the traits on our list. In this p. 24; List adapted from “Preferences in Human Mate Selection,” by D. M. Buss and M. Barnes, 1986, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 3–15. American Psychological Association.
our ideal-partner schema (G. Fletcher & 5. healthy
Simpson, 2000). passionate state, we see our person
6. easygoing through euphoric, rose-colored lenses
A schema is an organized mental or cog- 7. creative
that make disagreeable traits temporally
nitive list that includes characteristics, facts, 8. wants children disappear. However, such traits will

values, or beliefs about people, events, or 9. earning potential reappear when the euphoric state fades,
as it always does (Fisher, 2002).
Looking objects. (women rank higher) Looking
for partner An ideal-partner schema is a mental for partner
with good list of the most desirable characteristics we are seek- After Mr. or Ms. Right is chosen, the couple is who is
earning ing. An ideal-partner schema in order of preference ready to make a commitment, such as living together physically
potential for unmarried college students (averaged for men or getting married. attractive

Cohabiting In the United States, the Marriage Perhaps due to the rising number of people choosing to cohabit with
number of unmarried,
Why do heterosexual couples liv- Why do their intimate partner, the average age when men and women get
couples marriages married is increasing (26 for women and 28 for men) (USCB, 2008b).

cohabit? ing together, or cohabiting, last? For those who choose to marry, many find long-term happiness and
increased from 1 million many others find themselves getting a divorce.
in 1960 to 13.6 million in 2008 (Jayson, 2005; To find out why some marriages succeed but about 40–60% fail, researcher John
USCB, 2009b). Fewer unmarried people who Gottman analyzed videotapes of couples’ social interactions and physiological responses
cohabit are in homosexual relationships. over 14 years. Using these data, Gottman’s predictions of which couples would stay
The long-standing reason given for why together and which would divorce were 91% accurate (Gottman, 2003).
people chose to cohabit was to “test” the rela- Critical factors. As Gottman analyzed couples’ social interactions, he found that cou-
tionship. However, this turns out not to be ples who later divorced had four major problems: One or both partners spent too much
a major reason at all. Instead, most couples time criticizing the other; one or both partners became too defensive when one of their
report simply wanting to spend more time faults was criticized; one or both partners showed contempt for the other; and one or both
together as their primary reason to cohabit. partners engaged in stonewalling or being unwilling to talk
Also, high housing costs and tight budgets about some problem (Gottman, 2000). The continual stress
make living with a dating partner desirable. arising from these problems resulted in couples becoming
Additionally, many homosexual couples more unhappy through the years (Gottman, 2003).
cohabit due to laws in their states that do not Happy relationships. Couples in successful
permit them to marry or marriages find a way to deal with the four major Satisfaction with Marriage

have civil unions (Jayson, problems—criticism, defensiveness, contempt, and (scale of 1 to 7)
2009d; Smock, 2005). stonewalling. Successful couples learn to confront 6.4
and deal with stonewalling by settling disagree-
What happens ments in an open, straightforward way; try to be 6.3 Wives
less defensive about negative feedback; criticize
within the first two their partners less and try to be more supportive; 6.2
and agree to overlook small problems they are
years of living to- unlikely to change (Gottman, 1999). 6.1

gether really mat- Every couple knows there are ups and downs in 6.0
marital happiness (right graph) (Benin & Robinson,
ters, as most couples 1997). Falling in love is grand, but achieving long- 5.9
term success takes a lots of work (Gottman, 2003).
will either break up 5.8

or marry by then. 5.7

5.6 Before School- Grown-

More people are kids Pre- age Teen up Nest
choosing to cohabit. school empty

420 M O D U L E 1 8 A D O L E S C E N C E & A D U L T H O O D

Concept Review

1. Puberty is accompanied by a number of biological and 8. The development of independence and achievement
physical changes, which are triggered by male or female during adolescence is shaped by a number of different
(a) . These chemicals result in the devel- parenting styles—in particular, (a) ,
opment of male and female secondary (b) (b) , and (c) —each
characteristics and, for females, their first menstrual cycle, which of which has different costs and benefits to parents
is called (c) . and adolescents.
Am I
2. The idea that adolescent development consists of a 9. In late adulthood, individuals experience a losing my
number of cognitive, sexual, social, and personality decline in three cognitive processes: an increase in memory?
changes that occur simultaneously is called the
the time required to respond to some sensory stim-
model. ulus, which is called the (a) ;a
decrease in the rate at which we identify some sensory
3. Piaget hypothesized that cognitive develop- stimulus as different from other stimuli, which is called
ment is made up of four distinct stages of reason-
ing, each of which is qualitatively different from the (b) ; and a decrease in the rate at
which we encode information into long-term memory or
and more advanced than the previous one. retrieve it, which is called the (c) speed.
According to Piaget, from adolescence through
adulthood, we are at the stage, 10. According to Erik Erikson, across our lifetimes we proceed
which involves the ability to think about hypothetical concepts, through eight (a) , each of which
consider an issue from another’s viewpoint, and solve abstract presents a particular kind of personality or social
problems in a logical manner. problem. For adolescents, stage 5 is most relevant
and involves (b) versus role con-
4. New findings indicate that teenagers do fusion. Finding one’s identity has many aspects; the
not yet have a fully developed part of their
brains called the (a) , aspect that involves how much we like ourselves
and our feelings of worth, attractiveness, and social
which has (b) functions, competence is called (c) . Erikson believed that
such as thinking, planning, and making
decisions. the most important part of personality development for an adoles-
cent was to achieve a satisfying sense of (d) , while
5. One reason adolescents engage in more risky behaviors is that adults are more concerned about being (e) .
they have an underdeveloped (a) but a fully
functioning emotional center, called the (b) 11. Males and females think, act, and behave in different ways,
and these are called , which are enforced by
Photo Credits: (#8, #9) © PhotoDisc, Inc.; (#10) © FilmMagic/Getty Images; (#11) © PhotoDisc, Inc. 6. The idea that moral reasoning can be expectations of parents and peers and by society
classified into three distinct levels and that rewarding traditional roles and punishing roles
everyone goes through these levels in order that are different.
is a theory of moral development proposed
by (a) . The level of moral 12. One way we select a partner is by form-
ing a mental list of characteristics and then
reasoning based primarily on punishment is looking for someone who matches our mental
called (b) ; the one based
on conforming to laws and society is called (c) ; list, which is called a .

and the one based on balancing rights and laws is called 13. The theory of love that has three components—passion,
(d) . Most research supports Kohlberg’s idea intimacy, and commitment—is called the .
that people do go through (e) of moral develop-
ment but not everyone reaches the higher stages. 14. Infatuated love primarily activates the brain’s reward/pleasure
center and causes feelings of (a) . In comparison,
7. Making impersonal moral decisions, such as keeping the a more committed love activates additional emotional brain areas,
money found in a stranger’s wallet, involves areas of the brain which help in forming a longer-lasting (b) .
associated with retrieving (a) . In comparison,
making personal moral decisions, such as keeping the money 15. Couples are more likely to have successful long-term
relationships if they learn to deal with in a
found in a fellow worker’s wallet, involves areas of the brain straightforward way.
associated with (b) .

Answers: 1. (a) hormones, (b) sexual, (c) menarche; 2. BioPsychoSocial; 3. formal operations; 4. (a) prefrontal cortex, (b) executive; 5. (a) prefrontal
cortex, (b) limbic system; 6. (a) Kohlberg, (b) preconventional, (c) conventional, (d) postconventional, (e) stages; 7. (a) information, (b) emotions;
8. (a) authoritarian, (b) authoritative, (c) permissive; 9. (a) reaction time, (b) perceptual speed, (c) processing; 10. (a) psychosocial stages, (b) identity,
(c) self-esteem, (d) identity, (e) productive, creative, nurturing; 11. gender roles; 12. schema; 13. triangular theory; 14. (a) euphoria, (b) relationship;
15. conflicts

C O N C E P T R E V I E W 421

E. Research Focus: Happy Marriages

What’s a Love Lab? PowerStudy 4.5™

Imagine being a researcher who wants to controlled. Now, along comes psycholo- Module 4
What’s the key predict one of the most complex human gist and researcher John Gottman, who E. Limbic System: Old Brain
to a successful behaviors: Which couples will succeed
relationship? and which will fail in long-term relation- claims that not only can he explain the “something” but he can
also predict with 91% accuracy which marriages will succeed
ships? The fact that 40–60% of or fail (Gottman et al., 2006). Since very few human
marriages fail indicates that something is leading to behaviors can be predicted with 91% accuracy, his
success or failure. How would you design a “love claim is absolutely amazing.
lab,” or a research program to figure out what In the past, researchers used primarily self-reports
that “something” is? or questionnaires to study the success or failure of
long-term relationships. However, self-reports and
Every research program aims for the same questionnaires are not totally reliable, since marriage
four goals, which are to describe, explain, pre- partners could knowingly (out of embarrassment) or
dict, and control behavior. e first two goals— unknowingly (out of defensiveness) bias their answers.
describe and explain—are relatively easy. However, Gottman’s breakthrough in studying and predicting the
the last two goals—predict and control—are very success or failure of long-term relationships was to develop a
difficult because many human behaviors are so complex better research method that goes by the zany name of “Love Lab.”
that they cannot be completely explained, much less predicted or

Method Results and Conclusions

In the Love Lab, one partner sits facing the other (photos below). For 15 A er retesting the same 79 couples for 14 years, Gottman
minutes they discuss a topic that is a known sore point while their facial and (1999) reported that he could predict, based on previous
physiological responses are recorded. observations in the Love Lab, which of the marriages
Facial responses. e advantage of recording each of the partners’ non- would succeed or fail. Here are some of the findings that
verbal facial responses is that facial responses reflect a wide range of emo- allowed him to predict with such accuracy.
tional expressions (surprise, interest, anger, disgust, contempt) that one or Unsuccessful relationships. We have already discussed
both partners may be unaware of or try to deny. Nonverbal behaviors are the four major problems that couples experience early on
very important ways of communicating in and that, if not dealt with successfully, predict
real life. For example, it’s not uncommon for failure in long-term relationships. These four
one partner to notice the other partner’s facial problems are giving too many criticisms, becom-
expression and ask, “What’s bothering you?” ing too defensive, showing contempt of a partner,
By recording nonverbal facial cues, which are and stonewalling or refusing to settle disagree-
difficult to hide or fake by normal (untrained) ments in an open, straightforward discussion.
individuals, Gottman can reliably determine Successful relationships. ere are several
whether certain kinds of social interactions things that predict successful relationships. First,
cause problems for the partners. happy marriages had husbands who were good at
Physiological responses. Gottman also not immediately rejecting their wives’ advice but
wants to know how long the emotional feel- either accepted it or found something reasonable
ings last. He measures the duration of emo- In the Love Lab, a video camera (circled) in it. In contrast, unhappy marriages had hus-
tional feelings by recording physiological records facial expressions, and white bands bands who were autocratic, failed to listen, and
responses (heart and breathing rate, sweat- of wires (visible on her fingers and his wrist) dismissed their wives’ advice.
ing). These responses reflect the start and
record various physiological responses. Second, happy marriages had wives who were

duration of increased physiological or emotional arousal, which one or both careful to express their complaints and advice in gentle,
partners may be unaware of or try to deny. For example, if one or both part- soothing ways, which were easier for their husbands to
ners experience frequent and long-lasting bad feelings, it o en signals that accept. In contrast, unhappy marriages had wives who Photo Credit: © Andrew Brusso/Corbis Outline
the marriage is in trouble (Gottman, 1999). phrased their complaints and advice in angry, fighting
Longitudinal method. So far, you can see that Gottman’s Love Lab solved words that, in turn, triggered equally angry replies from
the problem of how to reliably measure a couple’s emotional responses and their husbands.
feelings. But how would he know if these measures predicted a marriage’s Advice. Gottman’s advice is for couples to behave like
success or failure? To answer this question, Gottman used the longitudinal good friends, which means their relationship should be
research method, which means he retested the same couples regularly dur- based on respect, affection, and empathy, and for couples
ing 14 years. By retesting the same couples over time, he could determine to manage conflicts in gentle, positive ways (Gottman et
whether a couple’s social interactions and emotional responses recorded al., 2006).
during early sessions could be used to predict with 91% accuracy whether Although in the United States most people marry for
this particular marriage would succeed or fail. love, that’s not true in other cultures.

422 M O D U L E 1 8 A D O L E S C E N C E & A D U L T H O O D

F. Cultural Diversity: Preferences for Partners

Measuring Cultural Influences

Can 9,000 Imagine being born and raised in a researchers surveyed more than 9,000 young adults (men and
country different from your own, women), all in their 20s, who lived in 37 different countries
people agree? such as Nigeria, Germany, China, (Buss, 1994; Buss et al., 1990). Subjects were given a list
Iran, Brazil, Japan, France, or of 32 traits and asked to rank the traits from most to
India. Now imagine being asked to list, in order, those least desirable in a potential partner. e results indi-
Photo Credit: © Roger Wood/Corbis. Figure/Text Credits: (list center) Adapted from “Mate Preferences in 37 Cultures,” by D. M. Buss, 1994. In W. J. Lonner & R. Malpass (Eds.), Psychology and traits that you consider most desirable in a potential cate that 9,000 individuals from many different cul-
Culture. Allyn and Bacon; (list bottom) Adapted from “International Preferences in Selecting Mates,” by D. M. Buss, M. Abbott, A. Angleitner, A. Asherian, A. Biaggio, A. Blanoco-Villasenor, A. Bruchon- partner. How much would your culture influence the What if you were tures seemed to agree reasonably well in ranking
Scwietzer, H. Y. Ch’U, J. Czapinski, B. Deraad, B. Ekehammar, N. E. Lohamy, M. Fioravanti, J. Georgas, P. Gjerde, R. Guttmann, E. Hazan, S. Iwawaki, H. Jankiramaiah, F. Khosroshani, D. Kreitler, L. order of desirable traits? To answer this question, born in Egypt? traits.
Lachenicht, M. Lee, K. Kiik, B. Little, S. Mika, M. Moadel-Shahid, G. Moane, M. Montero, A. C. Mundy-Castle, T. Niit, E. Nsenduluka, R. Pienkowski, A. M. Pirttila-Backman, J. P. De Leon, J. Rousseau,
M. A. Runco, M. P. Safir, C. Samuels, R. Sanitioso, R. Serpell, N. Smid, C. Spencer, M. Tadinac, E. N. Tordorova, Z. K. Troland, L. Van Den Brande, G. Van Heck, L. Van Langenhove & K. S. Yang, 1990, Desirable Traits
Journal of Cross-Cultural Personality, 21, 5–47, and additional data from “Mate Preferences in 37 Cultures,” by D. M. Buss. In W. J. Lonner & R. Malpass (Eds.), Psychology and Culture. Allyn & Bacon.
What is considered desirable in a potential partner? e list on How much is virginity valued around the world? In two-thirds
the near right shows the most desirable traits for potential partners of all the cultures measured, men desired virginity or chastity (the
averaged across cultures. Men and women have similar lists of lack of previous sexual intercourse) in marriage partners more
desirable traits, as indicated by than women did; there were no
a high correlation of +0.87 Average ranking of Differences in cultures where women valued vir-
between lists. The numerous desirable traits desirable traits ginity in a prospective partner

similarities between men’s and 1 Kind and understanding 8 Good looks (ranked higher more than men did (Buss, 1994).
women’s lists indicate similar 2 Intelligent For example, in China, virginity is
cultural influences. by men) indispensable in a partner; marry-
ing a nonvirgin is simply out of
The list on the far right 3 Exciting personality 9 Good financial prospect the question (Buss, 1994). People
shows that there were also
(ranked higher by women)

some interesting differences 4 Healthy 10 Virginity (ranked higher in India, Taiwan, and Iran also
between men and women. Men 5 Emotionally stable and mature placed great value on virginity,
almost always ranked physical by men) while people in the Netherlands,

appearance in a partner higher, 6 Dependable character Sweden, and Norway placed little value on virginity in a prospec-
while women almost always tive partner. ese differences in the value placed on the virginity
ranked earning potential in a of women indicate how cultural influences can raise or lower the
partner higher. 7 Pleasing disposition desirability of certain traits in potential marriage partners.

Reasons for Marrying How Citizens in Different Nations How do men decide? Across cul-
Ranked the Importance of Love tures, men generally decide to marry
How much is love valued? As the younger women who are physically
figure on the right shows, cultures in in Choosing a Spouse attractive. In those societies where
different countries place different men purchase their wives, younger
values on marrying for love. In the United States: Love ranked FIRST, that women command a higher bride
United States and other Western is, love was the most important factor price. Also, across cultures, the most
countries, marrying for love is highly in choosing a spouse. common reason that men use to dis-
valued, but it is valued less in some solve marriages is infertility, or the
Middle East, Asian, and African Iran: Love ranked THIRD, while ranked inability to have children (Buss,
nations. higher were education, ambition, 1994).
chastity.
How do women decide? Some From surveys of desirable traits
anthropologists have argued that Nigeria: Love ranked FOURTH, while in marriage partners, researchers
women, who invest more time in car- ranked higher were good health, found many similarities across cul-
ing for offspring, would adopt more refinement, neatness, desire. tures, but they found considerable
discriminating standards for poten- differences among cultures in rea-
tial mates than would men, who China: Love ranked SIXTH, while sons for getting married.
invest less time in rearing children. ranked higher were health, chastity,
homemaker. We have primarily discussed
us, women would be more careful development in adolescents and
in deciding whom to marry. This Zulu: Love ranked SEVENTH, while ranked young to middle-aged adults. Next,
proved true: In nearly every culture, higher were mature, emotionally stable, we’ll examine the physical changes
women expressed more stringent dependable. that come with aging.
standards across a wide range of
characteristics (Buss, 1994).

F. C U L T U R A L D I V E R S I T Y : P R E F E R E N C E F O R P A R T N E R S 423

G. Physical Changes: Aging PowerStudy 4.5™

Module 4

Kinds of Aging B. Neurons: Structures &
Function

Why do As you look at the photo on the Percentage of U.S. Population Over 65 the United States over 65 is expected to almost
we grow right, the difference you see be- double by the year 2040 (le graph). Within
tween grandmother and grand- 10 years, for the first time in human history,
old? daughter is an example of normal there will be more people over the age of 65 in

aging, which is very different the world than children under age 5 (USCB,
from pathological aging. 2008a). Life expectancy in the United States
Normal aging is a gradual and natural slowing of our was 45 years in 1945 but is now a record 78

physical and psychological processes from middle through years (WHO, 2009). In the 1920s, only 2,300

late adulthood. 1995 12.6% people in the United States were over 100, but
Pathological aging may be caused by genetic defects, 2010 13.4% currently more than 96,000 are over that age
and the number is estimated to be 600,000 by
physiological problems, or diseases, such as Alzheimer’s

(p. 47), all of which accelerate the aging process. 2040 20.7% 2050 (K. Wright, 2003; USCB, 2009a)!
One goal of the study of aging, which is called We’ll examine two related questions about
Source: U.S. Census Bureau
gerontology, is to separate the causes of normal aging: Why do our bodies age? How do our
aging from those of pathological aging. e percentage of people in bodies and behaviors change with age? Photo Credits: top, © David J. Sams/Stock, Boston; bottom, © Werner Bokelberg. Photo altered by Doug Stern, Copyright © 1997 U.S. News & World Report, L.P.
Reproduced with permission.
Aging and Physiological Changes Physiological Changes: Early Adulthood
The finding that most athletes peak in their 20s indicates that this is a period
So far, the oldest people on record have lived from 113 to 122 of maximum physical ability and capacity. In our early to middle 20s, our
years. How long you will live and how fast your body will age immune system, senses, physiological responses, and mental skills are at their
depend about 50% on heredity (genes) and 50% on other fac- peak efficiency.
tors, such as diet, exercise, lifestyle, and diseases (K. Wright,
2003). In the past decades, the steady increases in life expec- Middle Adulthood
tancy came primarily from improved public health and new In our 30s and 40s, we usually gain weight, primarily
cures for diseases. But advances in controlling diseases are because we are less active. By the late 40s, there is a
slowing and researchers believe that even with major improve- slight decrease in a number of physiological responses,
ments in geriatric care, the average life expectancy will not go including heart rate, lung capacity, muscle strength,
beyond 85 years (Olshansky, 2003). Instead, researchers and eyesight.
believe that large increases in life expectancy must now come
from slowing the aging process itself (R. Miller, 2003). Late Adulthood
In our 50s and 60s, we may experience a gradual
The aging process is caused by a combination of certain genes decline in height because of loss of bone, a further
and proteins that interfere with organ functioning and the natural decrease in output of lungs and kidneys, an increase in
production of toxic molecules (free radicals), which in turn cause skin wrinkles, and a deterioration in joints. Sensory
random damage to body organs and DNA (the building blocks of life). organs become less sensitive, resulting in less acute
Such damage eventually exceeds the body’s ability to repair itself vision, hearing, and taste. The heart, which is a muscle,
and results in greater susceptibility to diseases and death (Olshansky becomes less effective at pumping blood, which may
et al., 2002). result in as much as a 35% decrease in blood flow
through the coronary arteries. A general decrease
Researchers recently found that stress—like that caused occurs in both the number and diameter of muscle
by job loss or divorce—results in the aging of DNA, and they fibers, which may explain some of the slowing in motor
are studying the effects meditation and psychotherapy may functions that usually accompanies old age.
have on slowing the aging of DNA (Epel & Blackburn, 2004).
Animal studies have identified dozens of genes that extended Very Late Adulthood
the life span by 200% to 600% (Arantes-Oliveria et al., 2003; In our 70s and 80s, we undergo further decreases in
Sinclair & Guarente, 2006). Also, human studies have identi- muscle strength, bone density, speed of nerve conduc-
fied a half-dozen genetic factors in the very old (average age tion, and output of lungs, heart, and kidneys. More than
98) that seemed to have slowed the aging process (K. Wright, 10% have Parkinson’s or Alzheimer’s disease.
2003). Although such practices as having a good diet, exercis-
ing, reducing stress, and taking vitamins or antioxidants may As many of the body’s physical responses slow
improve quality of life and help one live into the 100s, none of down with aging, there are corresponding decreases in
these things alone has been shown to slow the aging process related behaviors. Earlier in this module we discussed
and allow humans to live to 130 or beyond (Olshansky, 2003). decreases in memory with aging (p. 415), and now we’ll
discuss decreases in sexual behavior.
As our bodies age, they experience many physiological
changes.

424 M O D U L E 1 8 A D O L E S C E N C E & A D U L T H O O D

Sexual Changes with Aging

How does Surveys of sexual behavior, which usually stereotype that they no longer have any interest in sexual
sample people between ages 17 and 59, gen- activity or that it is inappropriate for them to engage in
sex change erally report that single men have sex. However, a survey of men and women over age 70
found that about 57% of men and 52% of women were
with aging? more sex partners, experience orgasm sexually active (Beckman et al., 2008). is survey indi-
more frequently, and masturbate cates that adults can enjoy sexual activity well into their later
more frequently than single women and that about one-third years, especially if they know how sexual responses change and
of married couples have sex two or three times a week learn ways to deal with these changes. We’ll discuss some of
(Crooks & Baur, 2002). People in late adulthood (60–80) are the normal changes in sexual responses that accompany aging.
often not included in these surveys because of the common

Sexual Changes in Women Sexual Changes in Men

e most significant effect on women’s sexual behavior in later adulthood is menopause. As men reach late adulthood (60s, 70s, and
Menopause occurs in women at about age 50 (range 35–60) and involves a gradual stoppage 80s), they may experience some physiological
in secretion of the major female hormone (estrogen), which in turn results in cessation of both changes that decrease sexual responsiveness.

ovulation and the menstrual cycle. Sexual Responding
During and immediately a er menopause, 15% of women experi- Because many of the body’s physiological
responses slow down, older men may require
ence physical symptoms severe enough to require medical help; 65% more time and stimulation to have an erec-
experience mild symptoms that do not require medical help; and 20% tion and to reach orgasm. Upon ejaculation,
have few if any physical symptoms (Hooyman & Niyak, 1999). there may be a reduction in the force and
amount of fluid. However, healthy men usu-
Physical Symptoms ally have no difficulty in becoming sexually
aroused or reaching orgasm. Some men worry
Most women experience hot flashes, some sleep disturbance, and dry- that their decreased ability to have an erection
Menopause is ness of the vagina, which result from a decrease and eventual stop- or reach orgasm means an end to their sexu-
not the end of page in the secretion of the female hormone estrogen. A lack of ality (Masters & Johnson, 1981). Currently,
sexual behavior. estrogen results in thinning of the vaginal wall and reduction of lubri- there are a few drugs (such as Viagra—p. 356)
approved for the treatment of impotency,
cation during arousal. However, there is little or no change in the ability to become sexu- which is the inability to have an erection.
ally aroused or to reach orgasm. Potential problems with lack of lubrication or painful
intercourse may be treated with hormone replacement therapy, which has benefits and ese drugs help about 70% of men who have
risks (L. Nathan & Judd, 2007; S. D. Reed & Sutton, 2006), or the use of vaginal creams. impotency problems (Berenson, 2005).
Because researchers find no correlation between decreased levels of hormones and sexual
activity, women’s continued sexual activity a er menopause is affected primarily by psy-
chological rather than physiological factors (Crooks & Baur, 2002; J. Potter, 2006).

Psychological Symptoms Psychological Problems
Researchers followed 400 healthy women through menopause and observed many psy-
chological changes. ey found that women did report psychological symptoms, such as Although older men are gen-
depression, anxiety, and anger. However, these symptoms were related to other stressful erally more sexually active
issues (e.g., growing older in a society that glorifies being young), rather than to the than older women, their
physical symptoms of menopause. In addition, women’s expectations influenced their decreased sexual abilities
psychological outlook during menopause. Women with positive expectations about what can make them uncom-
they hope to accomplish have few psychological symptoms, compared to women who fortable and threaten their
expect their lives to be over and thus feel depressed during menopause (Dennerstein et self-esteem. However, hav-
al., 1997; Neugarten, 1994). ing longer periods of
Some things may stimulation, improving
Sexual Activities take longer, but intimate communica-
Some older women think sexual activity is appropriate only for young people. Others tion, and using more
expect sexual activity to be just like it was during their young adulthood, and they may that’s OK.
have difficulty accepting the inevitable changes that occur as they age. Some aging couples
report sexual relationships become more satisfying over time, but others say sexual activity imaginative sexual activity can usually com-
Photo Credits: both, © PhotoDisc, Inc. becomes boring and predictable. Overall, half of women age 50 and older are at least as pensate for men’s decreased self-confidence
satisfied with their sex life as during their younger years (J. Potter, 2006). But many women (Bartlik & Goldstein, 2001). Health experts
do experience sexual difficulties and o en find it difficult to discuss with others. One way counsel that as we grow older, we should
to help these women is to have their doctors ask them about their sexual functioning; cur- learn new skills, such as being more under-
rently, more than 90% of doctors are reported to not bring up the topic (WSHF, 2008). standing and sensitive to our partner’s needs,
which will help maintain sexual enjoyment
It is interesting that women in cultures where menopause results in increased social (Crooks & Baur, 2008).
status look forward to menopause and have fewer symptoms than women in the United Next, we’ll discuss a serious problem that
States (Richters, 1997). is shared by both adolescents and seniors, a
high rate of suicide.

G . P H Y S I C A L C H A N G E S : A G I N G 425

H. Application: Suicide

Teenage/Young Adult Suicide

Suicide is a major, preventable leading We’ll first discuss issues related to teenage/young adult sui-
What is a major, cause of death. In the United States alone, cide and then look at suicide in the elderly. We’ll begin with four
preventable a person dies by suicide every 17 minutes real-life teenage examples that illustrate how complex the issues
and causes are. In a span of five weeks, four teenage boys—one a
cause of death? and someone attempts suicide every straight-A student, one the class clown, one deeply religious per-
minute (CDC, 2006d; Ezzell, 2003). e son, and one very troubled boy—committed suicide in the small
suicide rate across all ages is 10.9 per 100,000. Among teens and southern town of Sheridan, Arkansas (adapted from People, May
young adults, the suicide rate is 10.4 per 100,000. People over 65 21, 1990, pp. 56–59). Here are their sad and tragic stories.
have a higher rate of suicide (14.2 per 100,000) (NIMH, 2009b).

1 March 28, 1990: Raymond, 17 Years Old 3 April 30, 1990: Thomas, 19 Years Old
According to the police chief, Ray had threatened to omas was a straight-A student who liked to read, listen to oldies, and
kill himself in the past, but the threats were consid- hunt and fish. He did not drink, smoke, or swear. He lived too far out of
ered teenage histrionics. He had a drinking problem, town to have many buddies. His father had died when he was 9. Two years
had been arrested for drunken driving, and had been earlier, his grandfather, who had terminal cancer, committed suicide with a
sent to a rehabilitation center for several weeks. Before pistol to his head. Tommy had shot himself in the a ernoon, and that very
Ray shot himself, however, his life seemed to be night Thomas did the same. In his suicide note he said, “Where shall I
improving, and he had made plans to go to college. A begin? I really don’t know. It’s hard to say what’s going on anymore. A long
suicide note to his girlfriend said, “Don’t blame your- time now I have felt like I am on the edge and slipping fast. I guess I’ve
self. It’s nobody’s fault.” finally slipped over the edge.”

2 April 30, 1990: Tommy, 16 Years Old 4 May 2, 1990: Jerry, 17 Years Old
His teenage peers considered Tommy a clown, Suicides, ages 15–24 Jerry’s suicide was the last of the four

but his best friend, Rhonda, didn’t believe that. 10 and the most troubling. He was popular,
She thought Tommy’s clever wit and clowning gregarious, good-looking, and so deeply
were a mask for his insecurity. On April 29, Number per 100,000 religious that he was nicknamed
Tommy called Rhonda, which he did regularly, Photo Credits: © PhotoDisc, Inc.“preacher boy.” e night a er Tommy’s
6

and told her that he was going to kill himself. suicide he told his mother, “I can’t under-
Certain he would not carry out his threat, she stand how anyone would commit sui-
made him promise to come to school the next 2 cide—that was the coward’s way.” That

day. Tommy came to school, and in one of his 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 same night he called his girlfriend and
classes he got up and stated that he had two said, “I love you. I’ll talk to you tomor-
things to say. He said that he loved Rhonda, Source: Centers for Disease Control & Prevention row.” e next day he stayed home from

although they had never dated. “ e other thing,” he school, and around noon he shot himself in the head. e family insists
said, “is this.” He pulled out a pistol and shot himself. that Jerry’s death was accidental.

Problems Related to Suicide
Notice that in the above examples, family and friends could not believe that two of the four adolescents would ever
Why do teens even think of committing suicide. at’s because one was a straight-A student and the other was very popular and
take their deeply religious. In the other two cases, one adolescent had said he was thinking about suicide and one had made a

own lives? previous attempt. us, if and when adolescents talk about committing suicide, parents and friends need to take
such talk seriously. In other cases, the problems, symptoms, or events leading up to or triggering suicide may be
difficult to recognize. However, clinicians find that the following problems may lead to or trigger suicide attempts.

Problems: Problems and symptoms. e most common psy- Precipitators. In most cases, there are precipitators of
helplessness, chological problems include depression, feelings of suicide, which may be certain events, feelings, or situations.
depression, helplessness, and drug-related problems, such as Ray- For example, common precipitators include problems with
mond’s alcohol problem. Usually these problems have relationships, bouts of depression, drinking problems, and
drugs persisted for some time (Haliburn, 2000). e most relatively ordinary stressors, such as difficulties with dating,
common behavioral symptoms include decline in parents, or school. A high percentage of victims had either
school performance; social isolation and withdrawal; expressed the wish to die or threatened suicide, as was true
intense difficulties with parents, siblings, and peers; for both Raymond and Tommy (Mayo Clinic, 2006b).
and antisocial behavior (Mayo Clinic, 2006b). For
example, omas’s suicide note says, “A long time now One reason parents and friends are shocked by a teenager’s
I have felt like I am on the edge and slipping fast.” or young adult’s suicide is that the problems or precipitators
may be hard to spot.

426 M O D U L E 1 8 A D O L E S C E N C E & A D U L T H O O D

Preventing Suicide

How can suicide We’ve learned that suicide is a major leading cause of death among youth and adults. It is also a preventable
be prevented? public health problem. erapists have proposed a three-step program to help identify risk factors and ultimately
prevent suicide.

Identify Risk Factors Psychiatric Evaluation and Psychosocial Intervention

“I’m depressed and e first step is to identify the risk fac- A er parents, peers, or teachers identify one or more risk factors,
heartbroken, and my tors, which include mood disorders, the next step is a thorough medical and psychological evaluation of
parents are divorcing.” drug abuse, previous suicide attempt, the individual as well as interviews with the individual’s family
suicide of a friend, and major life stres- members—with each family member being assured of confidential-
sors, such as family turmoil or parental ity (Weller et al., 2001). Based on such information, a treatment plan
separation. A youth with one or more of is developed. In the short term, (1) a contract is negotiated so that
these risk factors is considered to be in the person will not harm him- or herself, (2) lethal means are
great danger of committing suicide removed from the home (guns and drugs), and (3) support and a
(Mayo Clinic, 2006b). Researchers are 24-hour contact are provided. In the long term, the individual’s per-
now finding that the brains of suicide sonal problems are addressed, which may include help with improv-
victims differ from other brains in sev- ing his or her self-image and developing better interpersonal skills
eral ways (such as lack of specific chemi- and functioning. Because most suicidal teenagers/young adults also
cal receptors in decision-making areas have serious psychological problems (depression, loneliness, anxi-
of the brain), which indicates that some type of biological imbal- ety), psychotherapy and psychiatric medication are usually needed
ance is a risk factor for suicide (Wenner, 2009). Identifying risk (Fristad & Shaver, 2001).
factors may involve reports from peers and family members, pro-
grams on suicide prevention in schools, 24-hour hotlines, and Although teenagers/young adults have a relatively high rate of
medical tests. suicide, the highest rate is found in a group of people you might
never expect: the retired, 65-and-over group.

Suicide in the Elderly Assisted suicide. Recent polls indicated that although only
Suicide rates in the elderly increase with age, 12% of those surveyed said suicide was morally acceptable (Sharp,
Why are from 14 per 100,000 for individuals aged 65–74 2003), 46% said a doctor should be allowed to help a person “com-
rates so high? to as high as 48 per 100,000 for those 85 and

older (NIMH, 2009). Several risk mit suicide” provided that person has a painful and incurable dis-
factors contribute to this high rate of suicide. ease (C. L. Grossman & Nichols, 2006). In the late 1990s, Oregon
Risk factors. e common risk factors for suicide voters twice approved an assisted suicide law, which allows a
among the elderly include serious health problems, mentally competent patient to request a lethal dose of drugs
stressful life events, loneliness, and especially depres- if at least two doctors determine that the person has less than
Photo Credits: top, © Juice Images/Corbis; center, © Life in View/Photo Researchers, Inc. sion, which is present in about 90–95% of those who six months to live. By 2005, 326 people had obtained lethal
commit suicide (Cavanagh et al., 2003). ere is also a prescriptions and, of these, 208 people (about equal num-
growing trend of murder-suicide, in which one mem- bers of men and women), most suffering from cancer, took
ber of an elderly couple kills the other and then takes their own lives as allowed by Oregon’s law (C. L. Grossman
his or her own life. Murder-suicides in the elderly “I have six months & Nichols, 2006). Assisted suicide is currently legal in the
account for about 2,500 deaths a year (Sharp, 2003). to live and I’m in Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland (CBS News, 2004b).
constant pain.”

Opponents of Doctor-Assisted Suicide Proponents of Doctor-Assisted Suicide
Opponents include religious groups that Proponents explain that each of us has the moral right to end our life if we decide
believe taking one’s life should never be sanc- that life has become unbearable for health reasons (CBS News, 2004b). e New
tioned, others who think doctors should not be England Journal of Medicine published an article by a group of doctors who pro-
involved in helping people take their own lives, posed a policy of legalized physician-assisted death with safeguards to protect
and those who fear caretakers may coerce vul- patients, preserve the integrity of physicians, and ensure that voluntary physician-
nerable people into assisted suicide to reduce assisted death occurs only as a last resort (F. G. Miller et al., 1994). Researchers
the financial burden of caring for them (CBS reviewed the effects of Oregon’s assisted suicide law and concluded that there have
News, 2004b; Verhovek, 2002). For example, not been any of the abuses or problems feared by opponents and that most of the
making assisted suicide easier may increase the individuals who chose doctor-assisted suicide were well-educated, mostly elderly
chances that people who are suffering from cancer patients who had health insurance and were concerned about loss of bodily
mental problems or temporary emotional functions and increasing pain (Wineberg & Werth, 2003).
difficulties will take their own lives without
exploring other possibilities for living. e pros and cons of doctor-assisted suicide will continue to be debated, espe-
cially since the elderly population will almost double in the next 35 years.

H . A P P L I C A T I O N : S U I C I D E 427

Summary Test

A. Puberty & Sexual Behavior 5. Parenting styles affect many aspects of adolescents’ develop-
ment. Parents who attempt to shape and control their children
1. Girls and boys experience three major in accordance with a set standard of conduct are termed
biological changes as they go through a peri-
od called (a) . For both girls (a) . Parents who attempt to direct their chil-
dren’s activities in a rational and intelligent way and are support-
and boys, one of these changes is the devel- ive, loving, and committed are called (b) .
opment of (b) maturity,
which for girls includes the first menstrual Parents who are less controlling and behave with a nonpunishing
and accepting attitude toward their children’s impulses are called
cycle, called (c) , and for (c) .
boys includes the production of sperm. These
physical changes in girls and boys are triggered by a portion of
the brain called the (d) . A second change is the C. Personality & Social Changes
development of (e) sexual characteristics, such
as pubic hair and gender-specific physical changes. A third change 6. How you describe yourself, including your values, goals,
traits, interests, and motivations, is a function of your sense of
is a surge in (f) growth, especially height. The (a) , which is part of the problem to be faced in
changes for girls tend to start about two years earlier than those
for boys. stage 5 of Erikson’s eight (b) stages. Those who
are unsuccessful in resolving the problems of this stage will expe-
rience (c) , which results in low self-esteem, and
B. Cognitive & Emotional Changes may become socially withdrawn.

2. Piaget’s fourth cognitive stage, which begins in adolescence 7. An adolescent’s feeling of worth,
attractiveness, and social competence
and continues into adulthood, is called the (a) is called , which is
stage. During this stage, adolescents and adults develop the
ability to think about (b) concepts, plan for influenced particularly by physical
appearance, social acceptability, and
the future, and solve abstract problems. One reason adolescents management of public behaviors
engage in more risky behaviors is that they have an underdevel-
oped (c) but a fully functioning emotional (anxiety and stress).

center, called the (d) . 8. The challenges of adulthood are covered in the last three of

3. According to Kohlberg’s theory, moral Erikson’s eight (a) stages. According to his theo- Photo Credits: (#1) © Lawrence Manning/Corbis; (#7) © David Michael Kennedy; (#9) © PhotoDisc, Inc.
ry, in stage 6, young adults face the problems of intimacy versus
reasoning can be classified into three (b) . In stage 7, middle adults face problems of
distinct levels, and everyone progresses
through the levels in the same order. generativity versus (c) . In stage 8, older adults
reflect on their lives; if they feel positive and content about how
However, not all adults reach the they lived and what they accomplished, they will have a feeling of
higher stages. The first level, the
(a) level, has two satisfaction or (d) ; if not, they will have a feeling
of regret and (e) .
stages. In stage 1, moral decisions are
determined primarily through fear of
punishment, while at stage 2 they are
guided by satisfying one’s self-interest. The D. Gender Roles, Love & Relationships

second level, the (b) level, also has two stages. 9. During childhood and adolescence, males and
In the first of these, stage 3, people conform to the standards of females experience pressures and expectations
others they value; in stage 4, they conform to the laws of society. from parents, peers, and society to behave in dif-
In the third level, the (c) level, moral decisions ferent ways. These expected patterns of behavior
are made after thinking about all the alternatives and striking a and thought, called , influence
balance between human rights and the laws of society. cognitive, personality, and social development.

4. Making impersonal moral decisions, such as keeping the 10. The kind of love that involves continually
money found in a stranger’s wallet, involves areas of the brain thinking about the loved one and is accompanied by sexual feelings
associated with retrieving (a) . In comparison, and powerful emotional reactions is called (a)
making personal moral decisions, such as keeping the money love. The kind of love that involves trusting and tender feelings for
found in a fellow worker’s wallet, involves areas of the brain someone whose life is closely bound up with one’s own is called
associated with (b) . (b) love. Sternberg’s triangular theory of love

428 M O D U L E 1 8 A D O L E S C E N C E & A D U L T H O O D

has three components: feeling physiological aroused and 15. If the aging process is caused by genetic
attracted is (c) , feeling close and committed defects, physiological problems, or diseases, it
Photo Credits: (#15) © David J. Sams/Stock, Boston; inset, (#17) © PhotoDisc, Inc. Figure/Text Credit: (#13) List adapted from “International Preferences in Selecting Mates,” by D. M. Buss, M. Abbott, A. Angleitner,is (d), and pledging to nourish feelings is is called aging, an example
A. Asherian, A. Biaggio, A. Blanoco-Villasenor, A. Bruchon-Scwietzer, H. Y. Ch’U, J. Czapinski, B. Deraad, B. Ekehammar, N. E. Lohamy, M. Fioravanti, J. Georgas, P. Gjerde, R. Guttmann, E. Hazan, S. Iwawaki, H.(e) . Infatuated love primarily activates the of which is Alzheimer’s disease.
Jankiramaiah, F. Khosroshani, D. Kreitler, L. Lachenicht, M. Lee, K. Kiik, B. Little, S. Mika, M. Moadel-Shahid, G. Moane, M. Montero, A. C. Mundy-Castle, T. Niit, E. Nsenduluka, R. Pienkowski, A. M. Pirttila-Backman,brain’s (f)and causes feelings of euphoria.
J. P. De Leon, J. Rousseau, M. A. Runco, M. P. Safir, C. Samuels, R. Sanitioso, R. Serpell, N. Smid, C. Spencer, M. Tadinac, E. N. Tordorova, Z. K. Troland, L. Van Den Brande, G. Van Heck, L. Van Langenhove & K. S. Yang,In comparison, a more committed love activates additional16. In later adulthood (about age 50), women
1990, Journal of Cross-Cultural Personality, 21, 5–47, and additional data from “Mate Preferences in 37 Cultures,” by D. M. Buss. In W. J. Lonner & R. Malpass (Eds.), Psychology and Culture. Allyn & Bacon. experience a gradual reduction in the secretion
(g) brain areas, which help in forming a of estrogen, which results in cessation of ovulation and the men-
Number per 100,000longer-lasting relationship.
strual cycle; this is called (a) . In late adulthood
11. One way that we select a mate is by developing an organized (60–80), men do not stop producing testosterone, but they
mental list of desirable characteristics and then looking for may experience a decrease in sexual responsiveness due to
someone who matches this mental list, which is called a (b) changes.

.

E. Research Focus: Happy Marriages H. Application: Suicide

12. Gottman identified four problems that can 17. A number of factors have been Suicides, ages 15–24
result in the failure of a long-term relationship: found to be related to teenage sui- 10
cide. Before committing suicide,
these problems involve (a) , adolescents usually have a number
, , and of (a) problems, 6

. In successful marriages, wives such as depression, feelings of help- 2
learn to express their (b) in gentle lessness, or drug-related problems;
ways so their husbands are more likely to listen and accept, and adolescents also show a number of
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

husbands learn not to reject their wives’ (c) (b) symptoms, Source: Centers for Disease Control & Prevention

without listening and finding something reasonable in it. such as falling grades, social isolation and withdrawal, difficulties
with family and peers, and antisocial behavior. Usually, suicide is
preceded by events or feelings called (c) ; these
F. Cultural Diversity: Preferences for Partners may include problems with relationships or bouts of depression

13. People’s lists of desirable United States: Love ranked FIRST, or drinking.
traits for a mate show remark- that is, love was the most important
factor in choosing a spouse. 18. Among the risk factors for suicide in the elderly are
able similarity across cultures. depression and loneliness, but the major contributing cause is
However, there are some dif- (a) problems. Currently, there is considerable
ferences in ranking between Iran: Love ranked THIRD, while discussion in the United States over the right of a person
ranked higher were education, with a terminal disease to end his or her life through
ambition, chastity. (b) suicide.

the genders; for example, men
rank (a) higher than women do, and women
rank (b) higher than men do. Also, different
cultures place different values on the desirability of marrying
someone who is a (c) and marrying someone
primarily because of being in (d) . Answers: 1. (a) puberty, (b) sexual, (c) menarche, (d) hypothalamus,
(e) secondary, (f) physical; 2. (a) formal operations, (b) abstract or hypo-
G. Physical Changes: Aging thetical, (c) prefrontal cortex, (d) limbic system; 3. (a) preconventional,
(b) conventional, (c) postconventional; 4. (a) information, (b) emotions;
14. The gradual and natural slowing of our physical and psycho- 5. (a) authoritarian, (b) authoritative, (c) permissive; 6. (a) identity or self,
logical processes from middle through late adulthood is called (b) psychosocial, (c) identity confusion; 7. self-esteem; 8. (a) psychosocial,
(a) aging. This process occurs when certain (b) isolation, (c) stagnation, (d) integrity, (e) despair; 9. gender roles;
(b) and interfere with 10. (a) passionate, (b) companionate, (c) passion, (d) intimacy,
organ functioning and when the natural production of toxic (e) commitment, (f) reward/pleasure center, (g) emotional; 11. schema;
(c) (free radicals) causes random damage to 12. (a) criticism, defensiveness, contempt, stonewalling, (b) complaints,
body organs and to DNA (the building blocks of life). This aging (c) advice; 13. (a) good looks, virginity, (b) financial prospects, (c) virgin,
process, which decreases the effectiveness of sensory and body (d) love; 14. (a) normal, (b) genes, proteins, (c) molecules, (d) disease and
organs, eventually exceeds the body’s ability to repair itself and death; 15. pathological; 16. (a) menopause, (b) physiological; 17. (a) psy-
results in greater susceptible to (d) . chological, (b) behavioral, (c) precipitators; 18. (a) health or medical,
(b) assisted

S U M M A R Y T E S T 429

Critical Thinking

Are Teens
Too Young to Drive?

QUESTIONS Car crashes are the No. 1 cause of of teen driving by saying, “It’s like 5What are some Photo Credit: © Peter Samuels/Getty Images
death and disability for teens, turning on the engine of a car with- factors that are
1Besides traffic killing more than 5,000 a year and out a skilled driver at the wheel” not specific to teens
accidents, what are injuring 300,000 more. Teenage (Wallis & Dell, 2004). that increase the
other costs or dangers drivers are about four times more probability of getting
of teen driving? likely to crash than older drivers A contributing factor to teens’ into a car accident?
and three times more likely to die in poor judgment is that they don’t un-
2What immature a crash. The risk of crashes is high- derstand well-established risky driv- 6Are stricter laws
teen characteris- est for 16-year-olds; one in five will ing behaviors are dangerous. For the solution to
tics may contribute to have a car crash within the first year instance, only 28% of teens reported reducing the dangers
their irresponsible of driving. using a cell phone is a risk; only 10% of teen driving?
driving? said having other teens in the car is
The possibility of raising the legal a distraction while driving; and only ANSWERS
3What other irre- driving age has been receiving in- 50% reported not wearing a seat belt TO CRITICAL
sponsible teen creasing attention. Proponents argue or speeding is dangerous. All these THINKING
behaviors may be a that teens are too immature to han- things place drivers in serious risk QUESTIONS
result of an “executive dle the responsibility of driving. In of harm.
branch” that is not yet fact, a recent national survey found
fully developed? that nearly two-thirds (61%) of peo- Several states have already im-
ple believe that a 16-year-old is too posed restrictions on 16-year-old
4 What part of the young to have a driver’s license, and drivers, such as prohibiting late-night
brain is responsi- more than half (53%) think teens driving and limiting the number of
ble for thrill-seeking should be at least 18 to obtain a driv- passengers they are allowed to have
and risk-taking er’s license. Opponents of raising the in their car. But, how far should law-
behaviors? legal driving age argue that respon- makers go to reduce the dangers of
sible teen drivers should not be pun- teen drivers? Jeffrey Runge, an emer-
ished for the mistakes of careless gency room doctor, has treated many
teens causing accidents. teen crash victims and makes it clear
that lawmakers should take the dan-
The opinion of the majority of gers of teenage drivers very seriously:
Americans about teens being too “If we had any other disease that was
young to drive is supported by scien- wiping out our teenagers at the rate
tific findings. Brain researchers re- of thousands per year, there would
port the “executive branch” of the be no end to what we would do as a
teen brain—the part that considers society to stop that” (Stafford, 2005).
risks and consequences, makes judg- (Adapted from Associated Press,
ments, and controls impulsive behav- 2006d; Brophy, 2006; R. Davis, 2005;
ior—is not fully developed until age Henderson, 2006; L. Lyon, 2009;
25 and is far less developed in 16-year- O’Donnell, 2005; Stafford, 2005;
olds than in older teens. Driving is Vetter, 2008; Wallis & Dell, 2004;
especially dangerous because the Williamson, 2005)
teenage years are filled with a huge
rush of hormones that encourage
thrill-seeking and risk-taking behav-
iors. For instance, when a teen drives
15–20 mph over the speed limit, the
part of the brain that processes a
thrill works fine, but the part that
warns of dangerous consequences is
essentially useless. Psychologist Lau-
rence Steinberg describes the dangers

430 M O D U L E 1 8 A D O L E S C E N C E & A D U L T H O O D

Links to Learning

Key Terms/Key People Learning Activities

adolescence, 407 personal identity or PowerStudy for Introduction PowerStudy 4.5™
aging process, 424 self-identity, 416 to Psychology 4.5
authoritarian parents, 413
authoritative parents, 413 personality and social Use PowerStudy to complete quizzes and learning activities for Adolescence &
BioPsychoSocial development, 416 Adulthood. e DVD also includes interactive versions of the Summary Test on
pages 428–429 and the critical thinking questions for the article on page 430,
approach, 409 personality change, 417 key terms, an outline and an abstract of the module, and an extended list of
brain changes in aging, 415 physiological changes in correlated websites.
brain in love, 419
brain or neural factors in aging, 424 CengageNOW!
postconventional level, 412 www.cengage.com/login
moral reasoning, 412 preconventional level, 412 Want to maximize your online study time? Take this easy-
cognitive development, 410 prefrontal cortex and to-use study system’s diagnostic pre-test and it will create a personalized study
commitment, 419 plan for you. e plan will help you identify the topics you need to understand
companionate love, 419 executive functions, 411 better and direct you to relevant companion online resources that are specific
conventional level, 412 processing speed, 415 to this book, speeding up your review of the module.
desirable traits, 423 puberty, 408
elderly suicide, 427 reaction time, 415 Introduction to Psychology Book Companion Website
Erikson’s psychosocial reasons for marrying, 423 www.cengage.com/psychology/plotnik
risk-taking behavior, 411 Visit this book’s companion website for more resources to help you
stages, 417 schema, 420 study, including learning objectives, additional quizzes, flash cards, updated
estrogen, 408 self-esteem, 416 links to useful websites, and a pronunciation glossary.
evolutionary psychology sexual changes in men, 425
sexual changes in Study Guide and WebTutor
theory, 418 Work through the corresponding module in your Study
female gender roles, 418 women, 425 Guide for tips on how to study effectively and for help learning the material
female secondary sexual social role theory, 418 covered in the book. WebTutor (an online Study Tool accessed through your
stage 5: identity versus role eResources account) provides an interactive version of the Study Guide.
characteristics, 408
formal operations stage, 410 confusion, 417
gender roles, 418 stage 6: intimacy versus
intimacy, 419
Kohlberg’s theory of moral isolation, 417
stage 7: generativity versus
reasoning, 412
limbic system, 411 stagnation, 417
male gender roles, 418 stage 8: integrity versus
male secondary sexual
despair, 417
characteristics, 408 successful
menarche, 408
menopause, 425 relationships, 422,
normal aging, 424 teenage/young adult
passion, 419
passionate love, 419 suicide, 426
pathological aging, 424 testosterone, 408
perceptual speed, 415 triangular theory of
permissive parents, 413
love, 419
unsuccessful

relationships, 422
vulnerability, 411

Suggested Answers to Critical Thinking 4. Sex hormones secreted during puberty increase the growth of the
limbic system, which is believed to account for teenagers’ thrill-
1. Typical families with teen drivers spend $20,000 total during the first seeking and risk-taking behaviors, as well as their moodiness.
three years of teen driving, and if their teen crashes, the amount
increases to $25,000. Teen crashes result in a hefty economic cost 5. Numerous factors increase the likelihood of even a seasoned
of over $40 billion a year. Also, let’s not forget the thousands of inno- driver getting into an accident. Some examples are road con-
cent drivers and passengers who die or get injured as a result of struction, poor visibility (fog), slippery roads (rain, snow), using a
careless teen driving. phone while driving, fatigue, tailgating, rubbernecking, applying
makeup, and using an electric razor.
2. Teenagers are known to make poor judgments, act impulsively, and
take great risks. Common immature teen characteristics include 6. Stricter restrictions on teen driving can help only so much
excessive socializing, feelings of invulnerability, and a susceptibility to because the brains of teens are simply not mature yet. Still, laws
get easily distracted, all of which may contribute to reckless driving. that impose strict conditions for a teen to obtain a driver’s license
can reduce fatal crashes involving 16-year-olds by up to 21%.
3. Some irresponsible teen behaviors that result from an underdeveloped
executive branch include using drugs, having unprotected sex, bullying L I N K S T O L E A R N I N G 431
or fighting, stealing, not wearing a seat belt, and dropping out of school.

Freudian &

19 Humanistic
Theories
MODULE

Photo Credit: © Colin Anderson/
Getty Images
A. Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory 434 H. Application: Assessment—Projective Tests 450
B. Divisions of the Mind
C. Developmental Stages 436 Summary Test 452
D. Freud’s Followers & Critics
E. Humanistic Theories 438 Critical Thinking 454
Concept Review
F. Cultural Diversity: Unexpected 440 Can Personality Explain Obesity?

High Achievement 442 Links to Learning 455
G. Research Focus: Shyness
447
432
448
449

Introduction

Personality Ted Haggard founded New Life Church in the On the one hand, personality theories try to explain why
basement of his house 25 years ago and became Haggard’s personality ended his career as an evangelical pastor.
How did a prominent author and national evangelical On the other hand, personality theories also try to explain why
he become a some individuals have personalities that help them overcome
horrendous problems and achieve personal success. One such
deceiver and Christian leader with a congregation of 14,000 individual is Charles Dutton.
worshippers in the largest church in Colorado.
a liar? He is married with five children and has boyish

dimples and a warm smile. Changing Personality
In 2006, at the peak of his career, a male prostitute accused Hag- Charles Dutton had been in and out of
gard of having a three-year sexual affair with him and of using How did he reform schools since he was 12 years old

drugs. is accusation was alarming not only because Haggard was change from and was finally sent to prison for man-
a married pastor, but also because a criminal to slaughter and illegal possession of a fire-
he publicly supported a constitu- arm. While in prison, he got into trouble
tional amendment banning gay an actor? for being a ringleader of a riot and was

marriage. punished with solitary confinement. To pass his time, he took
When the accusations were along a friend’s book of plays by black authors. Dutton was so
first broadcast on the news, Hag- moved by the plays’ messages that for the first time he thought
gard confessed to church officials, about channeling his rage and anger into acting.
saying, “Ninety-eight percent of At one point he spent more than 60 painful days in the prison
what you know of me was the hospital a er a fellow inmate had plunged an ice pick through
real me. Two percent of me would his neck. During those long days in the hospital, Dutton decided
rise up, and I couldn’t overcome that it was time to put his life in order and accomplish something
At the height of his career, it” (Haggard, 2006a). Then, in worthwhile during his remaining time in prison. He obtained a
Ted Haggard, well-known pastor, a television news interview the high school equivalency certificate and then a two-year college
confessed to “sexual immorality.” next morning, Haggard denied degree, read dozens of plays, and even started a prison theater.

ever having sex with a male prostitute and ever using drugs. Church After his parole, he attended college and
officials were shocked and appalled when they saw the other side of got his B.A. in drama. His high point
Ted during the interview as he lied while still smiling at the camera, came when he was accepted into Yale
appearing calm and assured. drama school.
As evidence of Haggard having sexual encounters with a male By the early 1990s, ex-problem boy,
prostitute and using drugs continued to build, he made the following ex-con, ex-prisoner Charles Dutton
public confession: “ e fact is that I am guilty of sexual immoral- (right photo) had turned into a very
ity . . . I’m a deceiver and a liar. ere is part of my life that is so repul- successful actor and starred in his
sive and dark that I’ve been warring against it all of my adult life” own television series. He has since
(Haggard, 2006a). Haggard resigned as president of the 30-million- gone on to star in and direct mov- Charles Dutton, formerly a
member National Association of Evangelicals and was dismissed as ies (S. King, 1991; M. Schneider, convict and violent prisoner,
Photo Credits: left, © Dennis Oda; right, © Fox/Yorma Kahana/Shooting Star senior pastor of New Life Church. In less than 24 hours, everything 2007). Dutton’s story is an emo-
Haggard had worked so hard for during the past 25 years quickly tionally painful search for identity, became a respected actor
and director.

slipped away from him. culminating in the discovery and development of his acting
Figuring someone out involves examining the puzzling, fas- potential. We’ll discuss a theory of personality that emphasizes
cinating, and complex components of our innermost selves, our the development of our full potential.
personalities.
Personality refers to a combination of long-lasting and distinctive behav- What’s Coming

iors, thoughts, motives, and emotions that typify how we react and adapt to We’ll discuss two very different theories of personality: Sigmund
Freud’s psychodynamic theory emphasizes unconscious forces,
other people and situations. irrational thoughts, and the lasting impressions of childhood
experiences, whereas humanistic theories emphasize our ratio-
Haggard’s moral public persona and dark private self raise a num- nal processes and our natural striving to reach our true
ber of questions about personality: How does personality develop? potentials.
Why do personalities differ? How well do we know ourselves? ese
kinds of questions are explored by theories of personality. We’ll begin with a look at Ted Haggard’s problems and where
A theory of personality is an organized attempt to describe and explain his inner demons came from.

how personalities develop and why personalities differ.

I N T R O D U C T I O N 433

A. Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory

Definition

Why sexual Freud’s theory of personality begins with a “sexual immorality” at age 50 by searching through Ted’s child-
controversial assumption that is an important hood and his unconscious thoughts and forces. Here’s what Freud
immorality at key to unlocking the secrets of personality. To would find.
age 50? understand how Freud found this key idea, Background. Ted Haggard was raised in a very religious fam-

we’ll journey back in time to the late 1800s. ily with a born-again father and a mother who counted the days
At that time, Freud was wondering why several to Sunday to help get Ted and his siblings excited
of his women patients had developed very notice- about church. Ted remembers dressing in starched
able physical symptoms, such as losing all sensa- shirts and clip-on ties, clipping his nails just before
tion in their hands or being unable to control the church, and never missing a service. Ted wanted to
movements of their legs. What most puzzled Freud, attend journalism school, but his father pushed him
who was a medical doctor, was that despite these to attend a Christian college. Soon a er, Ted recalls
obvious physical complaints, he could not identify receiving a calling from God to become a pastor
a single physical cause for these symptoms. Some- (Asay, 2007; Colorado Springs Gazette, 2002). Even
how, Freud’s brilliant mind solved this problem and, though Ted believes God wanted him to become
in so doing, found an important key to unlocking a pastor, he admits to battling dark sexual desires
the secrets of personality. Freud reasoned that since throughout his adult life, which finally made him
there were no observable physical or neurologi- behave in inappropriate ways (Haggard, 2006a).
cal causes of the women’s physical symptoms, the Freud would say Freud might point to Ted’s childhood, which was
causes must come from unconscious psychological childhood experiences and full of religious pressure, as greatly affecting his
forces (Westen & Gabbard, 1999). unconscious forces played personality development and causing problems that
In the 1800s, Freud’s belief that human behavior eventually overwhelmed Ted. Explaining the com-
a role in Ted Haggard’s
“sexual immorality.”

was influenced by unconscious psychological forces was revolution- plex development of someone’s personality, such as Ted Haggard’s,
ary, and it led to his equally revolutionary theory of personality. is such a difficult task that only a dozen or so psychologists have
Freud’s psychodynamic theory of personality emphasizes the impor- tried. One of the best-known attempts to explain personality is
tance of early childhood experiences, unconscious or repressed thoughts included in Sigmund Freud’s (1901/1960, 1924, 1940) overall theory
that we cannot voluntarily access, and the conflicts between conscious and of psychoanalysis, which includes two related theories: a method of
unconscious forces that influence our feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. psychotherapy, which we’ll discuss in Module 24, and a theory of

Freud believed not only that unconscious psychological forces personality development, which we’ll focus on here.
had a powerful influence on personality but also that these We’ll begin with Freud’s controversial and revolutionary
forces originated in early childhood. If Freud were alive today, assumption that unconscious psychological forces inf luence
he would look for reasons behind Ted Haggard’s self-confessed behavior.

Conscious Versus Unconscious Forces Unconscious forces represent wishes,

Why was Ted Ted Haggard’s life was full of incon- desires, or thoughts that, because of their dis- Conscious
sistencies. His public behaviors as a
Haggard fighting pastor and husband were moral and turbing or threatening content, we automati- thoughts
his dark side? respectable, but his private behaviors cally repress and cannot voluntarily access.

of having sexual relations with a male Did Ted have sexual relations with a
escort were immoral and degrading to his character: “ e public male escort because of some unconscious
person I was wasn’t a lie; it was just incomplete . . . the darkness forces that he was unaware of and had Behavior

increased and finally dominated me. As a result, I did things repressed? According to Freud, although
that were contrary to everything I believe” (Haggard, 2006a). repressed thoughts are unconscious, they
Ted indicated that just as he had preached all along, he may influence our behaviors through Photo Credit: © Kevin Moloney/Getty Images
believed homosexual acts were immoral and lying about a sex- unconscious motivation. Unconscious
ual affair was equivalent to “the stinking garbage of a rotting forces
Unconscious motivation is a Freudian con-

sin” (Haggard, 2006b). In doing so, he was expressing conscious cept that refers to the influence of repressed

thoughts. thoughts, desires, or impulses on our conscious Freud would say that
Conscious thoughts are wishes, desires, or thoughts that we are thoughts and behaviors. unconscious thoughts,
desires, and feelings
aware of, or can recall, at any given moment. Freud used unconscious forces and influence behaviors.
However, Freud theorized that our conscious thoughts are motivation to explain why we say or do
things that we cannot explain or understand. Once he assumed that
only a small part of our total mental activity, much of which there were unconscious forces and motivations, Freud needed to find
involves unconscious thoughts or forces (Adler, 2006; Westen et ways to explore the unconscious.
al., 2008).

434 M O D U L E 1 9 F R E U D I A N & H U M A N I S T I C T H E O R I E S

Techniques to Discover the Unconscious

What was in It was one thing for Freud to propose directly opposite to his own unacceptable
the existence of powerful uncon- thoughts and wishes.
Ted Haggard’s scious psychological forces and Because neither Ted nor any
unconscious? motivations, but it was quite of us can easily or voluntarily
another thing for him to show reveal or talk about our un-
that such unconscious forces actually existed. For exam- conscious thoughts and de-
ple, were there any signs that unconscious psychological sires, Freud needed to find
forces were making Ted Haggard act out his sexual ways for his patients to
desires that were contrary to his conscious beliefs? reveal their unconscious
Ted’s very strong religious upbringing and pressure thoughts and desires, some
from his father to attend a Christian college may have of which may be psycho-
been too much for Ted to cope with as he was growing logically threatening or
up. ese early experiences may have served as uncon- disturbing. From observ-
scious forces that led him to act out against his Christian ing his patients during
values, such as by having an affair with a male escort even Freud proposed ways to unlock therapy, Freud believed he
though he was a married pastor with five children. Also, in con- unconscious wishes and feelings. had found three techniques that

trast to his homosexual desires and his long-term relationship with uncovered, revealed, or hinted at a person’s unconscious wishes
a male escort is his strong public advocacy to ban gay marriages. and desires.
e inconsistency between the values Ted learned while growing Three techniques. Freud’s three techniques to uncover the
up and his sexual desires during adulthood undeniably led to Ted unconscious were free association, dream interpretation, and
feeling anxious and guilty. As a way of coping with his anxiety and analysis of slips of the tongue (commonly known as Freudian slips)
guilt, Ted actively condemned gay marriages, a behavior that is (Grunbaum, 2006).

Free Association Dream Interpretation Freudian Slips

One of Freud’s techniques for Freud listened to and interpreted his patients’ dreams because At one time or another, most of us,
revealing the unconscious was he believed that dreams represent the purest form of free according to Freud, unintentionally
to encourage his patients to relax association and a path to the unconscious. reveal some unconscious thought or
and to sit back or lie down on Dream interpretation, a Freudian desire by making what is now called
his now-famous couch and talk a Freudian slip (Grunbaum, 2006).
freely about anything. He called technique of analyzing dreams, is
this process free association. Freudian slips are mistakes or slips
based on the assumption that of the tongue that we make in everyday
Free association is a Freudian speech; such mistakes, which are often
technique in which clients are dreams contain underlying, hid- embarrassing, are thought to reflect
encouraged to talk about any unconscious thoughts or wishes.
thoughts or images that enter their den meanings and symbols
head; the assumption is that this For example, a colleague was
kind of free-flowing, uncensored that provide clues to uncon- lecturing on the importance of
talking will provide clues to uncon- regular health care. She said, “It is
scious material. scious thoughts and desires. important to visit a veterinarian
for regular checkups.” According
Free association, which is one Freud distinguished between to Freud, mistakes like substituting
of Freud’s important discover- veterinarian for physician are not
ies, continues to be used today the dream’s obvious story or accidental but rather “intentional”
by some therapists (Lothane, ways of expressing unconscious
2006b). However, not all thera- plot, called manifest content, desires. As it turns out, our col-
pists agree that free associations league, who is in very good health,
actually reveal a client’s uncon- Exploring the unconscious and the dream’s hidden or dis- was having serious doubts about
scious thoughts, desires, and with free association, dreams, guised meanings or symbols, her relationship with a person who
wishes (Grunbaum, 1993). called latent content. happened to be a veterinarian.
and slips of the tongue

For example, Freud interpreted the hidden meaning of
dreams’ objects such as sticks and knives as being symbols
for male sexual organs and interpreted other objects (such as
boxes and ovens) as symbols for female sexual organs. e
therapist’s task is to look behind the dream’s manifest con-
tent (bizarre stories and symbols) and interpret the symbols’
hidden or latent content, which provides clues to a person’s
unconscious wishes, feelings, and thoughts (Lothane, 2006a).

Freud assumed that free association, dream interpretation, and slips According to Freud’s theory, there is a continuing battle
of the tongue share one thing in common: ey are all mental processes going on in our minds between conscious thoughts and
that are the least controlled by our conscious, rational, and logical minds. unconscious forces. How our minds fight these battles
As a result, he believed that these three techniques allowed uncensored is perhaps one of Freud’s best-known theories, and you’ll
clues to slip out and reveal our deeper unconscious wishes and desires easily recognize many of the terms, including id, ego,
(Grunbaum, 2006). and superego.

A . F R E U D ’ S P S Y C H O D Y N A M I C T H E O R Y 435

B. Divisions of the Mind

Id, Ego, and Superego

What was Ted Haggard wrote an apology let- Freud might Freud’s theory, some of Ted’s driving forces
ter that was read to his congrega- say that were rising from unconscious battles among
in his apology tion. Ted’s letter revealed some of Haggard’s three separate mental processes, which you
immoral
letter? his problems and internal struggle. acts result know as the id, ego, and superego.
from inner Iceberg example. To understand how the
Here is an excerpt from his letter conflicts
(Haggard, 2006a): “For extended periods of time, I would id, ego, and superego interact, imagine an ice-
enjoy victory and rejoice in freedom. en, from time to between his berg floating in the sea. e part of the iceberg
time, the dirt that I thought was gone would resurface, id and that is above water represents conscious forces
and I would find myself thinking thoughts and experienc- of which we are aware, while parts below the
superego.

ing desires that were contrary to everything I believe and teach.” water indicate unconscious forces of which we are not aware.
e above excerpt and other quotes you’ve read earlier in this Freud divided the mind into three separate processes, each with
module suggest Ted was fighting a number of psychological and a different function. Because of their different functions, Freud
emotional battles. After years of maintaining his privacy, Ted’s believed that interactions among the id, ego, and superego would
problems became public when he confirmed that accusations of him result in conflicts (Westen et al., 2008).
having sexual relations with a male escort were true. According to Please begin at the top le with number 1, the id.

1 Id: Pleasure Seeker 3 Superego: Regulator
Freud believed that mental processes must have a source of energy, which he As children learn that they must follow rules and
called the id. regulations in satisfying their wishes, they develop
The id, which is Freud’s first division of the mind to develop, contains two biological a superego.
drives—sex and aggression—that are the source of all psychic or mental energy; the id’s The superego, which is Freud’s third division of the

goal is to pursue pleasure and satisfy the biological drives. mind, develops from the ego during early childhood; the

Freud assumed that the id operated at a superego’s goal is to apply the moral values

totally unconscious level, which is analogous and standards of one’s parents or caregivers

to an iceberg’s massive underwater bulk. e 2. Ego: 3. Superego: and society in satisfying one’s wishes.
id operates according to the pleasure principle. Reality principle. Moral standards. ink of the iceberg’s visible tip as rep-

The pleasure principle operates to satisfy drives Tip of iceberg Tip represents resenting that part of the superego’s moral
and avoid pain, without concern for moral restric- represents the conscious conscious part standards of which we are conscious or
of superego.
part of the ego.

tions or society’s regulations. The lower, hidden part of Huge, aware and the huge underwater bulk as
You can think of the id as a spoiled child who the iceberg represents a hidden, representing the part of the superego’s
underwater moral standards that are unconscious or
operates in a totally selfish, pleasure-seeking part of the ego that is outside our awareness.
way without regard for reason, logic, or moral- unconscious. bulk
ity. Simply following the pleasure principle represents A child develops a superego through
leads to conflict with others (parents), and this 1. Id: Pleasure principle. a part of the interactions with the parents or caregiv-
conflict results in the development of the ego. The iceberg’s huge, hidden, ers and by taking on or incorporating the
underwater bulk represents superego parents’ or caregivers’ standards, values,
2 Ego: Executive Negotiator between the id, which Freud assumed that is and rules. e superego’s power is in mak-
Id and Superego was totally unconscious. ing the person feel guilty if the rules are
unconscious.

As infants discover that parents put restric- disobeyed. Because the pleasure-seeking
tions on satisfying their wishes, infants learn to control their wishes through the id wants to avoid feeling guilty, it is motivated to
development of an ego. listen to the superego. You can think of a superego
The ego, which is Freud’s second division of the mind, develops from the id during as a moral guardian or conscience that is trying to
infancy; the ego’s goal is to find safe and socially acceptable ways of satisfying the id’s regulate or control the id’s wishes and impulses. Photo Credit: © Kevin Moloney/Getty Images
desires and to negotiate between the id’s wants and the superego’s prohibitions. Disagreements. Freud believed that in some sit-

Freud said that a relatively large part of the ego’s material is conscious (iceberg uations there is little or no disagreement between the
above water), such as information that we have gathered in adapting to our envi- goals of the id and superego, which means a person
ronments. A smaller part of the ego’s material is unconscious (below water), such experiences little if any conflict. However, in other
as threatening wishes that have been repressed. In contrast to the id’s pleasure situations, there could be disagreements between
principle, the ego follows the reality principle. the goals of the id and superego, which result in the
The reality principle is a policy of satisfying a wish or desire only if there is a socially ego (executive negotiator) trying to mediate this
acceptable outlet available. conflict. Freud describes a number of mental pro-

You can think of the ego as an executive negotiator that operates in a reasonable, cesses that the ego uses to mediate conflicts between
logical, and socially acceptable way in finding outlets for satisfaction. e ego works the id and superego. We’ll next discuss these mental
to resolve conflicts that may arise because of different goals of the id and superego. processes, called defense mechanisms.

436 M O D U L E 1 9 F R E U D I A N & H U M A N I S T I C T H E O R I E S

Anxiety

Why do you Suppose you know that you should study for tomorrow’s conflict is the ego, which, like any
exam but at the same time you want to go to a friend’s good executive, tries to negotiate
feel anxious? party. Freud explained that in this kind of situation an acceptable solution. However,
there is a conflict between the desires of the pleasure- this id–superego conflict along
seeking id and the goals of the conscience-regulating superego, and this with the ego’s continuing nego-
conflict causes anxiety. tiations to resolve this conflict
Anxiety, in Freudian theory, is an uncomfortable feeling that results from causes anxious feelings. Freud
suggested that the ego, as execu-
inner conflicts between the primitive desires of the id and the moral goals of tive negotiator, tries to reduce the
anxious feelings by using a num-
the superego. What happens if you want to ber of mental processes, which
For example, the study-or-party situation sets up a conflict party but know you should study? he called defense mechanisms
(Cramer, 2006).
between the pleasure-seeking goal of the id, which is to go to the
party, and the conscience-keeping goal of the superego, which is
to stay home and study. Caught in the middle of this id–superego

Defense Mechanisms

In trying to decide whether to go to a Projection falsely and unconsciously attributes your own unacceptable
Have you ever friend’s party or stay home and study for an feelings, traits, or thoughts to individuals or objects.
rationalized? important exam, a student would experi- A student who refuses to accept responsibility for cheating
ence increasing levels of anxiety. Freud rea- during exams may look at other students and decide that they are
soned that anxiety is a sure sign of the id–superego inner conflict cheating.
and that in order to reduce levels of anxiety, the ego may use Reaction formation involves substituting behaviors, thoughts, or feel-

defense mechanisms (Cramer, 2003, 2006). ings that are the direct opposite of unacceptable ones.

Defense mechanisms are Freudian processes that operate at uncon- A person who feels guilty about engaging in sexual activity may

scious levels and that use self-deception or untrue explanations to protect use reaction formation by joining a religious group that bans sex.
the ego from being overwhelmed by anxiety. Displacement involves transferring feelings about, or response to, an

According to Freud, a student’s ego has two ways to reduce object that causes anxiety to another person or object that is less threatening.
anxiety over deciding whether to party or study. The student’s If you were anxious about getting angry at your best friend, you
ego can take realistic steps to reduce anxiety, such as motivating might unknowingly displace your anger by picking an argument
or convincing the student to stay home and study. Or the stu- with a safer individual, such as a salesclerk, waiter, or stranger.
dent’s ego can use a number of defense mechanisms, which Sublimation, which is a type of displacement, involves redirect-

reduce anxiety by deceiving the student to think it’s fine to ing a threatening or forbidden desire, usually sexual, into a socially

party and then study tomorrow. Here is a brief summary acceptable one.

of some of Freud’s more popular defense mechanisms. For instance, a person might sublimate
Rationalization involves covering up the true reasons for strong sexual desires by channeling that

actions, thoughts, or feelings by making up excuses and energy into physical activities.
Conclusions. Freud believed defense
incorrect explanations.

A student may rationalize that by going to a mechanisms are totally unconscious, which
party tonight he or she will feel more motivated means that, if a best friend or spouse points out that you
to study for the exam tomorrow, even if he or are being defensive, you will absolutely deny it. We all use
she will be very tired and in no mood or condi- defense mechanisms at some time, and they can be helpful or
tion to study tomorrow. harmful. For example, the occasional use of defense mecha-
Denial is refusing to recognize some anxiety-provoking nisms is normal and helps reduce conflict and anxiety so we

event or piece of information that is clear to others. can continue to function as we work on the real cause of our

Heavy smokers would be using denial if they disre- anxiety. However, the overuse of defense mechanisms may
garded the scientific evidence that smoking increases prevent us from recognizing or working on the real causes of
the risk of lung cancer and cardiovascular disease our anxiety. ere is growing scientific evidence that we
and in addition would be using rationalization if do indeed use unconscious defense mechanisms much as
they say they can quit any time they want. Defense mechanisms Freud theorized, which is to reduce anxiety and conflict.
function like a mental In fact, many of us have a dominant or most-often-used
Repression involves blocking and pushing unac- traffic cop trying to reduce defense mechanism, which may be effective in reducing
ceptable or threatening feelings, wishes, or experiences conflict and anxiety.

into the unconscious. short-term but not necessarily long-term anxiety (M. C. Anderson,

Having feelings of jealousy about your best friend’s academic 2009d; Cramer, 2003, 2006).
success might be threatening to your self-concept, so you unknow- We have discussed the three divisions of the mind—id, ego, and
ingly block these unwanted feelings by also unknowingly pushing superego—and how the ego may use defense mechanisms to reduce
them into your unconscious. anxiety. Now we’ll turn to how one’s ego and personality develop.

B . D I V I S I O N S O F T H E M I N D 437

C. Developmental Stages

Development: Dealing with Conflicts Fixation: Potential Personality Problems
Imagine a theory so broad that it is able to Freud explained that the way a person
What describe almost exactly how and why your Why did deals with early psychosexual conflicts

shaped Ted’s personality developed the way it did and why Ted develop lays the groundwork for personality
you did or did not develop certain personal- growth and future problems. is means
personality? ity problems along the way. Such is Sigmund problems? that, to a large extent, Ted’s later person-

Freud’s personality theory, which can give a complex description of ality problems grew out of early childhood experiences. Freud
how each of us develops a different personality. would say that Ted’s problems in finding his identity
Case study. For example, let’s return to the case of Ted Hag- began in childhood, likely as a result
gard. He was raised in a strong Christian family that never missed of having a specific need or wish
a Sunday service, and his father encouraged him to attend a Chris- that was either undergratified
tian college. He got married and had five children while becoming or overgratified.
the founder of the largest church in Colorado. Ted’s life also had a Fixation. As an adult,
dark side consisting of infidelity, lies, and hypocrisy, all of which there were times when
made him feel anxious and guilty. He preached one thing and did Ted was happy, but at
the opposite behind everyone’s back. When his immoral acts were other times he was anxious
discovered, he confessed to church officials but then went on a tele- and guilt-ridden. The problem
vision news broadcast smiling happily and denying all accusations. for any theory of personality is to
Psychosexual stages. According to Freud, the development of explain how problems and con-
Ted’s personality, such as being all smiles on the outside but feeling tradictions in personality occur. Healthy personality involves
anxious and guilty internally, was primar- For example, why did Ted preach resolving conflicts during
the psychosexual stages.

ily influenced by how he dealt with the five in front of 14,000 worshippers
different kinds of conflicts that occurred at and become politically active, yet engage in immoral sexual
five different times or stages. According to conduct and then lie about it? Freud would explain that the
Freud (1940), our personality develops as development of Ted’s personality depended, to a large extent,
we pass through and deal with potential on the way he dealt with early psychosexual conflicts. One way
conflicts at five psychosexual stages. a child can deal with or resolve these conflicts—wanting to sat-
Psychosexual stages are five developmen- isfy all desires but not being allowed to by the parents—is to

tal periods—oral, anal, phallic, latency, and become fixated at a certain stage.

genital stages—each marked by potential con- Fixation, which can occur during any of the first three stages—

flict between parent and child. The conflicts oral, anal, or phallic—refers to a Freudian process through which an

According to Freud, arise as a child seeks pleasure from different individual may be locked into a particular psychosexual stage because
Haggard’s personality
developed as he passed body areas that are associated with sexual feel- his or her wishes were either overgratified or undergratified.
through five psycho- ings (different erogenous zones). Freud empha-
sized that the child’s first five years were most For example, if a person were Photo Credits: top right, © Dennis Oda; bottom right, © Kevin Moloney/Getty Images
sexual stages. fixated at the oral stage because of

important in personality development. too little gratification, he might go

You can think of each psychosexual stage as being a source of through life trying to obtain oral sat-
potential conflict between the child’s id, which seeks immedi- isfaction through eating too much,
ate gratification, and the parents, who place restrictions on when, boasting too much, or focusing on
where, and how the gratification can take place. For example, the other oral behaviors. If fixation had
child may want to be fed immediately, while the parent may wish to occurred at the oral stage because
delay the feeding to a more convenient time. e kind of interactions of too much gratification, he might
that occur between parent and child in satisfying these psychosex- focus on seeking oral gratification
ual needs and the way a child learns to deal with psychosexual con- while neglecting to develop other
flicts, especially during breast feeding or toilet training, will greatly aspects of his personality.
influence the personality development as well as future problems Next, we’ll summarize Freud’s
and social interactions. psychosexual stages, focusing on
One of Freud’s controversial ideas is the relationship between possible parent–child conf licts, Fixation at one psycho-
early psychosexual stages and the development of later personality, problems from fixation, and impli- sexual stage can cause
social, and emotional problems. Here is Freud’s explanation of how cations for future personality and
sexual problems.

different problems may arise. social development.

438 M O D U L E 1 9 F R E U D I A N & H U M A N I S T I C T H E O R I E S

Five Psychosexual Stages

What happens According to Freud, every child goes through certain situations, such as nursing, bottle feeding, and toilet train-
during the ing, that contain potential conflicts between the child’s desire for instant satisfaction or gratification and the par-
stages? ents’ wishes, which may involve delaying the child’s satisfaction. How these conflicts are resolved and whether a
child becomes fixated at one stage because of too much or too little satisfaction greatly influence the development
of personality and onset of future problems.

1 Oral Stage 4 Latency Stage
Time. Early infancy: first 18 months of life. Time. Middle and late childhood: 6
Potential conflict. The oral stage lasts for the first 18 months of life and is a time to puberty.
when the infant’s pleasure seeking is centered on the mouth. Potential conflict. The latency stage,

Pleasure-seeking activities include sucking, chewing, and biting. If we which lasts from about age 6 to puberty,

were locked into or fixated at this stage because our oral wishes were grati- is a time when the child represses sexual

fied too much or too little, we would continue to seek oral gratification as thoughts and engages in nonsexual activi-

adults. Fixation at this stage results in adults who continue to engage in oral ties, such as developing social and intel-

activities, such as overeating, gum chewing, or smoking; oral activities can lectual skills.

be symbolic as well, such as being overly demanding or “mouthing off.” At puberty, sexuality reappears
and marks the beginning of a new
2 Anal Stage stage, called the genital stage.

Time. Late infancy: 1½ to 3 years. 5 Genital Stage
Potential conflict. The anal stage lasts from the age of about 1½ to 3 years and
is a time when the infant’s pleasure seeking is centered on the anus and its functions Time. Puberty through adulthood.
of elimination. Potential conflict. The genital stage
lasts from puberty through adulthood and
Fixation at this stage results in adults who continue to engage in activi-
ties of retention or elimination. Retention may take the form of being very is a time when the individual has
neat, stingy, or behaviorally rigid (thus the term anal retentive). Elimi- renewed sexual desires that he or she
nation may take the form of being generous, messy, or very loose or seeks to fulfill through relationships
carefree (thus the term anal expulsive). with other people.

3 Phallic Stage How a person meets the conflicts
Time. Early childhood: 3 to 6 years. of the genital stage depends on
Potential conflict. The phallic (FAL-ick) stage lasts from the age of about 3 to how conflicts in the first three
6 and is a time when the infant’s pleasure seeking is centered on the genitals. stages were resolved. If the indi-

Freud theorized that the phallic stage is particularly important for per- Freud would say that Ted’s vidual is fixated at an earlier
sonality development because of the occurrence of the Oedipus complex personality depended to stage, less energy will be avail-
(named for Oedipus, the character in Greek mythology who unknowingly a large extent on what able to resolve conflicts at the
killed his father and married his mother). genital stage. If the individual
happened during five successfully resolved conflicts in
The Oedipus (ED-ah-pus) complex is a process in which a child competes with psychosexual stages.

the parent of the same sex for the affections and pleasures of the parent of the opposite sex. the first three stages, he or she will have the

According to Freud, the Oedipus complex causes different problems for boys and girls. energy to develop loving relationships and
Boys. When a boy discovers that his penis is a source of pleasure, he develops a sexual a healthy and mature personality.
attraction to his mother. As a result, the boy feels hatred, jealousy, and competition toward
Summary. Freud ’s psychodynamic
his father and has fears of castration. e boy resolves his Oedipus complex by identifying theory of personality development made
with his father. If he does not resolve the complex, fixation occurs and he may go through a number of assumptions that, at the
life trying to prove his toughness. time, were revolutionary. His assumptions
Girls. When a girl discovers that she does not have a penis, she feels a loss that Freud included the inf luence of unconscious
called penis envy. Her loss makes her turn against her mother and develop sexual desires forces; the division of the mind into the
for her father. A girl resolves her Oedipus complex, sometimes called the Electra complex id, ego, and superego; the importance of
(for Electra, a woman in Greek mythology who killed her mother), by identifying with her resolving conf licts at five psychosexual
Photo Credit: center, © Dennis Oda mother. If this complex is not resolved, fixation occurs and the woman may go through stages; the importance of fixation; and the
life feeling inferior to men. importance of the first five years to person-
Over the years, the idea of the Oedipus complex has waned in popularity and cred- ality development.
ibility, both within psychoanalysis and within the culture at large. at’s because there Next, we’ll discuss what Freud’s crit-
are significant challenges in scientifically testing this idea. Still, scientific studies do show ics have had to say about his theory and
some support for the existence of the Oedipus complex (Westen et al., 2008). assumptions.

C . D E V E L O P M E N T A L S T A G E S 439

D. Freud’s Followers & Critics

Disagreements

What did Because Freud’s theory was so creative and revolutionary for its time, it attracted many followers, who formed a famous
they argue group called the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. However, it was not long before members of the society began to dis-
agree over some of Freud’s theories and assumptions, such as whether Freud placed too much emphasis on biological
about? urges (sex and aggression), psychosexual stages, and importance of early childhood experience in personality develop-
ment (Horgan, 1996; Westen et al., 2008). We’ll focus on three influential followers who broke with Freud’s theory.

Carl Jung Alfred Adler Karen Horney

Why did Freud’s Why did one of the What would a
“crown prince” stop society’s presidents woman say about
talking to him? resign? penis envy?
In 1910 Carl Jung, Alfred Adler was Karen Horney was
with the whole- another contempo- trained as a psycho-
hearted support of rary of Freud’s who analyst; her career Photo Credits: left, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD; center, Courtesy, Adler School of Professional Psychology. Reproduced by permission of Kurt Adler;
Sigmund Freud, later became presi- reached its peak right, Courtesy, Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis.
Jung disagreed became the first presi- Adler disagreed on dent of the Vienna Horney disagreed shortly a er Freud’s
on the importance dent of the Vienna the importance of Psychoanalytic Soci- on the importance death in 1939. For
of the sex drive. Psychoanalytic Soci- biological urges. ety. However, a er many years, Horney
of penis envy.

ety. Freud said that Jung was to be his Adler voiced his disagreement with Freud was dean of the American Institute of
“crown prince” and personal successor. at one of the society’s meetings, he was so Psychoanalysis in New York.
However, just four years later, Jung and badly criticized by the other members that Horney strongly objected to Freud’s
Freud ended their personal and profes- he resigned as president. view that women were dependent, vain,
sional relationship and never again spoke Like Jung, Adler disagreed with and submissive because of biological
to each other. Freud’s theory that humans are governed forces and childhood sexual experiences.
e main reason for the split was that by biological and sexual urges. Adler She especially took issue with Freud’s idea
Jung disagreed with Freud’s emphasis on believed that the main factors influencing that penis envy affects girls’ development.
the sex drive. Jung believed the collective a child’s development were sibling influ- In contrast to Freud’s psychosexual
unconscious—and not sex—was the basic ences and child-rearing practices. conflicts, Horney insisted that the major
force in the development of personality. In contrast to Freud’s biological drives, influence on personality development,
The collective unconscious, according to Adler proposed that humans are moti- whether in women or men, can be found

Jung, consists of ancient memory traces and vated by social urges and that each person in child–parent social interactions.

symbols that are passed on by birth and are is a social being with a unique personal- Unlike Freud, who believed that every

shared by all peoples in all cultures. ity. Adler formed his own group, whose child must experience child–parent

Jung’s theory of collective unconscious philosophy became known as individual conflicts, Horney theorized that such
and his elaborate theory of personality, psychology. In contrast to Freud’s empha- conflicts are avoidable if the child is
called analytical psychology, had more sis on unconscious forces that influence raised in a loving, trusting, and secure
influence on the areas of art, literature, our behaviors, Adler suggested that we are environment. Karen Horney would now
philosophy, and counseling/therapy than aware of our motives and goals and have be called a feminist and is credited with
on current areas of psychology. the capacity to guide and plan our futures. founding the psychology of women.

Neo-Freudians division of the mind into the id, ego, and superego;
and the use of defense mechanisms to protect the ego.
Karen Horney is sometimes referred to as a neo- However, they mostly disagreed with Freud’s placing
Freudian because she changed and renovated so much emphasis on biological forces, sexual drives,
Freud’s original theory. One of the best-known and psychosexual stages. e neo-Freudians turned
neo-Freudians was Erik Erikson, who formulated the emphasis of Freud’s psychodynamic theory away
his own theory of personality development, which from biological drives toward psychosocial and cultural
we discussed in Modules 17 and 18. Erikson pro- influences (Plante, 2005).
posed that everyone goes through a series of psycho- From early on, followers of Freud criticized his
social stages, rather than the psychosexual stages Neo-Freudians focused on theory and, as you’ll see, criticisms continue to the
proposed by Freud. social and cultural factors. present day.

Neo-Freudians generally agreed with Freud’s basic
ideas, such as the importance of the unconscious; the

440 M O D U L E 1 9 F R E U D I A N & H U M A N I S T I C T H E O R I E S

PowerStudy 4.5™

Freudian Theory Today Module 11

What is the In 1993, Time magazine’s cover featured a picture of Sigmund Freud with the ques- D. Long-Term Memory:
tion “Is Freud Dead?” Answering this question with a loud “Yes” are several scholarly Storing

current status of books that seriously question Freud’s theory and all its assumptions (Crews, 1996, 1999). Answering this ques-
Freud’s theory? tion with a loud “No” are hundreds of members of the American Psychological Association’s psychoanalysis
division and many neuroscientists who meet the attacks on Freud with equally strong defenses (Horgan, 1996;
Solms, 2006). To give you an idea of where Freud’s theory stands today, we’ll focus on four questions: How valid is Freud’s theory? How
important are the first five years? Are there unconscious forces? What was the impact of Freud’s theory?

1 How Valid Is Freud’s Theory? 3 Are There Unconscious Forces?
Too comprehensive. Freud’s psychodynamic theory, which includes One of Freud’s major assumptions was that unconscious or
how the mind develops (id, ego, and superego), how personality repressed forces influence our conscious thoughts and behaviors.
develops (psychosexual stages), and how to do therapy (psychoanal- An esteemed scientist says 80–90% of what we do is unconscious
ysis), is so comprehensive that it can explain almost any behav- (Kandel, 2008). For instance, when you speak,
ior. Advocates of Freud’s theory state that it is a coherent and you use correct grammar while paying little
sophisticated view of the mind, while critics argue that or no conscious attention to doing so. Patterns
Freud’s theory is too comprehensive to be useful in explain- of brain activity can actually reveal which
ing or predicting behaviors (Horgan, 1996; Kandel, 2006). choice a person is going to make before he or
Difficult to test. Current followers agree that some of she is aware of it. In one study, researchers
Freud’s concepts, such as the id being the source of energy, took brain scans of people while they held a
the importance of the Oedipus complex in personality button in each hand and were instructed to
development, and basic drives limited to sex and aggression, push either button. e brain scans revealed
have been difficult to test or verify. e same followers add which hand people were going to use before
that other Freudian ideas, such as the influence of uncon- the people were even aware they had made a
scious forces, the long-term effects of early childhood pat- decision (Haynes, 2008).
terns, and the existence of defense mechanisms, have been In contrast to Freud’s theory of the re-
experimentally tested and received support (Fotopoulou, pressed unconscious forces, cognitive neu-
2006; Ramachandran, 2006; Westen et al., 2008). roscientists developed a different concept,
Must be updated. However, if psychoanalysis or psy- called implicit or nondeclarative memory
chodynamic theory is to survive in the 2000s, Freud’s theory (p. 246) (Solms, 2006).
must continue to be tested experimentally and updated with Implicit or nondeclarative memory means

findings from other areas of psychology. For example, Freud’s learning without awareness, such as occurs in experi-

theory needs to include how genetic factors account for 20% encing emotional situations or acquiring motor hab-

to 50% of a wide range of behaviors and explain how brain During the 1990s, its. Although we are unaware of such learning, it
development, which is not complete until early adulthood, is Freud’s theory had can influence our conscious feelings, thoughts, and
associated with and necessary for the development of related several major revisions. behaviors.

behaviors, thoughts, and feelings (Westen, 1998). Currently, neuro- us, there is strong evidence for the influence of unconscious
scientists are examining many of Freud’s questions about the mind forces on conscious thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Bargh &
and hope to build upon his theory (Solms, 2006). Morsella, 2008).
2 How Important Are the First Five Years? 4 What Was Freud’s Impact?
Based on observations of his patients, Freud concluded that person- Freud’s theory has had an enormous impact on society, as can be
ality development is essentially complete a er the first five years. seen in the widespread use of Freudian terms (ego, id, rationaliza-
However, Freud never did systematic research or collected longitu- tion) in literature, art, and our everyday conversations. Freud’s
dinal observations to support his hypothesis that personality devel- theory also has had a great impact on psychology: Many of his con-
opment is fixed during a child’s first five years (Bruer, 1999). In fact, cepts have been incorporated into the fields of personality, develop-
there are two lines of research showing the opposite. First, our ear- ment, abnormal psychology, and psychotherapy. For example,
lier discussion of resilient children (p. 394) indicated that the occur- researchers found that repeatedly exposing people who have spider
rence of serious psychological and physical problems during the first phobias to spider-related images at a subliminal level (below aware-
five years does not necessarily stunt or inhibit personality develop- ness) improves their ability to approach spiders (J. Weinberger et
ment, as Freud predicted. al., 2008). However, as we discussed, some of Freud’s ideas are dif-
Second, a number of longitudinal studies that followed children ficult to verify (Oedipus complex), and Freud’s psychoanalytic the-
into adulthood indicate that personality development is not complete ory was modified in the 1990s (Guterl, 2002; Westen et al., 2008).
in the first five years but rather continues well into middle adulthood Unlike Freud’s psychodynamic theory, which paints a picture
(Caspi & Roberts, 1999; R. R. McCrae & Costa, 2003). For these rea- of humans filled with irrational and unconscious forces with lit-
sons, current psychologists question Freud’s idea that personality tle free choice, we next discuss a family of theories—humanistic
development is complete in the first five years. theory—that is almost the direct opposite of Freud’s theory.

D . F R E U D ’ S F O L L O W E R S & C R I T I C S 441

E. Humanistic Theories

How did he At the beginning of this module, we What Dutton and Haggard shared in common as young
told you about two very different men was that neither showed particular evidence of having
develop his people. One was evangelica l special talents or great potentials. Few people would have
real potential? Christian leader Ted Haggard, predicted that Ted Haggard, who as a teen wanted to pur-
who struggled with numerous sue journalism, would become a nationally recognized
personal problems. At age 50, as a husband, father, and Christian pastor. No one would have predicted that
national evangelical leader, he confessed to having sex- angry, tough, mean Charles Dutton would discover,
ual relations with a male escort and purchasing drugs. of all things, acting and would channel his anger into
e other person was Charles Dutton, who had been becoming a very successful professional actor. The
in and out of reform schools since he was 12 years old, When most would have lives of these two men demonstrate the difficulty in
was sent to prison on charges of manslaughter, and given up, Charles Dutton predicting someone’s potential and whether he or
spent time in solitary confinement for his ringleader she will develop it. Developing our potential is at the
turned his life around.

role in a prison riot. Just when most people would have given up on heart of humanistic theories.
reforming Dutton, he began to reform himself. Inspired by read- Humanistic theories emphasize our capacity for personal growth,

ing a book of plays, he began to channel his rage against society development of our potential, and freedom to choose our destiny.
into becoming a student and then an actor. A er leaving prison, Humanistic theories reject the biological determinism and the
Charles Dutton (right photo) worked hard to change his life and irrational, unconscious forces of Freud’s psychodynamic theory.
became a very successful theater, television, and movie actor and Humanistic theories emphasize freely choosing to go a er one’s
director (Brantley, 2003; M. Schneider, 2007). dream and to change one’s destiny, as Lorena Ochoa is doing.

Three Characteristics of Humanistic Theories Lorena Ochoa’s life illustrates the humanists’ emphasis
on developing fully one’s potential to lead a rich and mean-
Lorena Ochoa has always set high goals. Since childhood, ingful life and becoming the best person one can be (Moss,
What was she has aimed to become the world’s best golfer. Lorena 2002). Lorena’s drive to reach her lifelong dream exempli-
her goal? started golfing at the age of 5, and by age 7, she was play- fies the three characteristics that distinguish humanistic
theories from other theories of personality. We’ll describe
ing in tournaments. Her countless hours of practicing, each of the three characteristics unique to humanistic the-
training, and pushing herself to the limits helped her to become the top- ories: a phenomenological perspective, a holistic view, and
ranked female golfer in the world. What makes Lorena even more amazing is a goal of self-actualization (P. T. P. Wong, 2006).
her humanitarian efforts. She started a foundation to improve education for
children in Mexico. Her foundation built an elementary school and will soon
build a high school (Kantrowitz, 2007; Lopez, 2008; Ochoa, 2007).

1 Humanistic theories stress learning about the world 2 Humanistic theories emphasize looking at the whole situation or person,
through personal experiences, which illustrates the phenom-
enological (feh-nom-in-no-LODGE-uh-cal) perspective. which illustrates the holistic (hole-LIS-tick) view. Photo Credits: top, © Fox/Yoram Kahana/Shooting Star; bottom, © Getty Images
The phenomenological perspective The holistic view means that a person’s personality is more than the sum of its

means that your perception or view of individual parts; instead, the individual parts form a unique and total entity that

the world, whether or not it is accu- functions as a unit.
For example, the holistic view would explain that Lorena became the top-
rate, becomes your reality.
ranked female golfer in the world because of her unique combination of many
For instance, Lorena’s phenom- traits—discipline, ability, motivation, desire—rather than any single trait.
enological perspective of how she per-
ceived her golfing abilities may or may 3 Humanistic theories highlight the idea of developing one’s true potential,
not have been accurate. However, because
she believed so strongly that she had the which is called self-actualization.
abilities, this perception became her real- Self-actualization refers to our inherent tendency to develop and reach our true
ity. Other examples of phenomenological
perspectives are long-held beliefs that potentials.
women could not perform certain By becoming a professional golfer and humanitarian, Lorena is a won-
jobs—for example, police officer, doc-
tor, plumber, truck driver, or lawyer. derful example of someone who is developing and reaching her true poten-
Since women have demonstrated tial and thus is getting closer to achieving a high level of self-actualization.
that they can perform these jobs, Lorena’s life According to humanists, each of us has the capacity for self-actualization.
this particular perception has been dream has been to Humanists believe that one’s self-esteem, self-expression, sense of belonging,
proven false. become the world’s creativity, and love are as important to human life as the biological needs of
food and water (Rabasca, 2000a).
best golfer.
e beginning of humanistic theories in the 1960s can be traced to two
psychologists—Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. ey had surprisingly
different backgrounds but arrived at the same upli ing ideas.

442 M O D U L E 1 9 F R E U D I A N & H U M A N I S T I C T H E O R I E S

Maslow: Need Hierarchy and Self-Actualization

Why did We can trace the official beginning of on other important aspects of human nature,
a behaviorist the humanistic movement to the early such as feelings, emotions, and beliefs. For these
1960s and the publication of the Journal reasons, Maslow (1968) broke away from the
become a of Humanistic Psychology. One of the reward/punishment/observable behavior men-
tality of behaviorism and developed his human-
humanist? major figures behind establishing this istic theory, which emphasized two things: our
journal was Abraham Maslow. Interest- capacity for growth, or self-actualization, and
ingly enough, Maslow was trained as a behaviorist, but along our desire to satisfy a variety of needs, which he
the way he felt there was too much emphasis on rewards and arranged in a hierarchy.
punishments and observable behaviors and too little emphasis

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-Actualization

Maslow’s For just a moment, think of all the One of the major characteristics of the humanistic movement is
Hierarchy of Needs needs that you try to meet each day: the emphasis on a process called self-actualization.
Level 5 eating, having a safe place to live, talk-
Self-actualization: ing to your friends, perhaps working Self-actualization refers to the development and fulfillment of
fulfillment of one’s at a part-time job, caring for loved one’s unique human potential.
unique potential
Level 4 ones, and studying for exams. Maslow Maslow (1971) developed the concept of self-actualization
Esteem needs: believed that you satisfy these needs after studying the lives of highly productive and exceptional
achievement, in a certain order. As you may re- people, such as Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, and Eleanor
competency, member from Module 15 (p. 333), Roosevelt. Maslow believed that these individuals had been able
gaining approval Maslow arranged all human needs to reach the goal of self-actualization because they had developed
and recognition the following personality characteristics.
Level 3 into a hierarchy of five major
Love and belonging needs. Characteristics of Self-Actualized Individuals
needs: affiliation
Photo Credits: top, © J. Howard Miller/National Archives and Records Administration; bottom, © Bob Adelman/Magnum Photos with others and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs O ey perceive reality accurately.
acceptance by arranges needs in ascending order
others (figure on left), with biological needs O ey are independent and autonomous.
Level 2 at the bottom and social and personal
Safety needs: O ey prefer to have a deep, loving relationship with
protection from needs at the top. Only when needs at only a few people.
harm, safety and a lower level are met can we advance
survival to the next level. O ey focus on accomplishing their goals.
Level 1
Physiological According to Maslow’s hi- O ey report peak experiences, which are moments of
needs: food, water, erarchy, you must satisfy your great joy and satisfaction.
sex, and sleep biological and safety needs be-
fore using energy to fulfill your Maslow believed that, although very few individuals reach
personal and social needs. the level of self-actualization, everyone has a self-actualizing
Finally, you can devote time tendency. is tendency motivates us to become the best kind of
and energy to reaching your person we are capable of being.
true potential, which is called ere is no doubt that Maslow would also have considered
self-actualization, your highest Martin Luther King, Jr., an
need. example of a self-actualized
Maslow divided our needs into person. Martin Luther King,
two general categories: deficiency Jr., devoted his life to achieving
and growth needs. civil rights for all people. At le
Deficiency needs are physiological he delivers his famous “I Have a
needs (food, sleep) and psychological Dream” speech at a civil rights
needs (safety, love, esteem) that we try rally in Washington, D. C. He
to fulfill if they are not met. was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Growth needs are those at the higher peace at age 35. He was gunned
levels and include the desire for truth, down by an assassin’s bullet
goodness, beauty, and justice. Civil rights leader Martin Luther at age 39. King’s achievements
According to Maslow, we must King, Jr., is an example of a exemplify the humanistic idea
satisfy our deficiency needs before we self-actualized person. of self-actualization.
have the time and energy to satisfy our
growth needs and move toward self- About the same time that Maslow was making this journey
actualization. from behaviorism to humanism and developing the concept
of self-actualization, another psychologist by the name of
Carl Rogers was developing a different but related humanistic
theory.

E . H U M A N I S T I C T H E O R I E S 443

E. Humanistic Theories

Rogers: Self Theory

Carl Rogers was initially trained in the e self-actualizing tendency guides us toward positive or health-
What are the two psychodynamic approach, which he ful behaviors rather than negative or harmful ones. For example,
most important used in his practice as a clinical psy- one of the two boys in the photo below has lost the use of his legs
concepts? chologist. However, Rogers began to feel and must use a wheelchair. Part of his self-actualizing process will

that Freud placed too much emphasis include learning to deal with his disability, engaging in positive
on unconscious, irrational forces and on biological urges, and too healthful behaviors, and getting to know himself.
little emphasis on human potential for psycho- Self or self-concept refers to how we

logical growth. As a result, Rogers gradually see or describe ourselves. The self is made

abandoned the psychodynamic approach in favor up of many self-perceptions, abilities, per-

of a new theory of personality that he developed sonality characteristics, and behaviors

in the 1960s. Rogers’s new humanistic theory is that are organized and consistent with one

o en called self theory because of his emphasis another.

on the self or self-concept. Because of very different experi-
Self theory, also called self-actualization theory, ences, the boy in the wheelchair will

is based on two major assumptions: that personality develop a self-concept different from

development is guided by each person’s unique self- that of his friend who has normal

actualization tendency, and that each of us has a per- use of his legs. According to Rogers

sonal need for positive regard. (1980), self-concept plays an impor-

Rogers’s first major assumption about self- Because of different experiences, the boy in tant role in personality because it
actualization is similar but slightly different from the wheelchair will likely develop a different influences our behaviors, feelings, and
Maslow’s use of the term. thoughts. For example, if you have a
concept of self than the other boy. positive self-concept, you will tend to
Rogers’s self-actualizing tendency refers to an

inborn tendency for us to develop all of our capacities in ways that best act, feel, and think optimistically and constructively; if you have a Photo Credits: top, © Don Smetzer/Getty Images; center, © AP Images/Jim Cooper; bottom, © Carlo Allegri/Getty Images
maintain and benefit our lives. negative self-concept, you will tend to act, feel, and think pessimis-

The self-actualizing tendency relates to biological functions, tically and destructively.
such as meeting our basic needs for food, water, and oxygen, as Sometimes a person may be undecided about his or her real self.
well as psychological functions, such as expanding our experi- As we discover our real self, we may undergo a number of changes
ences, encouraging personal growth, and becoming self-sufficient. in personality.

Real Self Versus Ideal Self

Who is the real We all change how we see ourselves but probably not In some cases, the hopes and wishes of one’s ideal
as much as hip-hop star Sean Combs, who, through self may contradict the abilities and experiences of the
Sean Combs? the years, has radically changed his appear- real self. For example, a student’s ideal self
ance and even his name. For example, at the My ideal self is may be someone who is very responsible
based on my hopes and studies hard, but the real self may be
start of his career, Combs was known as “Puff Daddy” and his
appearance (top photo) and behaviors (legal problems) and wishes. someone who puts things off and studies

might have been described as pushing some of society’s less than is required.
limits. Now, however, Combs is known as “Diddy” and has Contradiction between ideal and real self. Accord-
a rather conventional appearance (bottom photo). He has ing to Rogers, a glaring contradiction between the ideal
donated huge amounts to charities, and he previously and real selves can result in personality problems. Rog-
attempted to release a gospel album, unlike his other ers suggested that we can resolve
albums that all require a “Parental Advisory” warning. My real self contradictions between our ideal
is based on my and real selves by paying more
e question is: Which is Combs’s real self? actual experience. attention to our actual experiences,
Carl Rogers said that his clients o en asked questions
related to their selves: “How do I find myself?” “Why do working to have more positive experiences,
I sometimes feel that I don’t know myself?” “Why do I say or do things and paying less attention to the expecta-
that aren’t really me?” Rogers developed a clever answer to these relatively tions of others. In working out discrepancies
common and perplexing questions. He said there are two kinds of selves: between our ideal and real selves, we may
a real self and an ideal self. undergo a variety of changes in our appear-
The real self, according to Rogers, is based on our actual experiences and ance and behaviors, such as Sean Combs

represents how we really see ourselves. experienced.

The ideal self, according to Rogers, is based on our hopes and wishes and Now that you know what the self is,

reflects how we would like to see ourselves. here’s how Rogers says that it develops.

444 M O D U L E 1 9 F R E U D I A N & H U M A N I S T I C T H E O R I E S

Positive Regard

Why are One reason I (H. K.) am one of the It’s so nice many of whom feel lonely and
millions of dog owners is that my you’re always lack social support (Lilienfeld &
there millions dog Cocoa shows great happiness at glad to see me. Arkowitz, 2008a).
of dog owners? seeing me, no matter how grouchy,
distracted, or sad I may feel or act. e need to feel appreciated is
so important we have a number of days throughout
In fact, researchers find that because people perceive their the year that are designated for appreciation, such
pets as showing appreciation, being supportive, and giving as Mother’s, Father’s, Grandparent’s, and Secre-
pleasure, pets are helpful in reducing stressful feelings and tary’s days, as well as birthdays and the heartfelt
lowering blood pressure (K. Allen, 2003; Lilienfeld & Valentine’s Day.
Arkowitz, 2008a; Springen, 2008). e healing power of e creation of appreciation days and the popu-
pets can be so strong that patients with heart failure larity of pets illustrate the second assumption of
report having less anxiety and stress when visited in the Carl Rogers’s self theory, which is that we have a
hospital by dogs rather than people (Song, 2005). Some need to receive positive regard.
doctors have begun to encourage hospital patients to Positive regard includes love, sympathy, warmth,

have their pets visit them (Peters, 2008). acceptance, and respect, which we crave from family,

Pets can be especially helpful during times of lone- friends, and people who are important to us.

liness, when people need to feel appreciated and loved. As such, Rogers believed that positive regard was essential for the healthy
pets can be a great source of companionship and social support for development of one’s self and for successful interpersonal relation-
people who have depression and children who have been neglected, ships (Liebert & Spiegler, 1994).

Photo Credits: top, © Jose Azel/Woodfin Camp & Associates; bottom, © Peter Kramer/Getty Images; center, © PhotoDisc, Inc. Conditional and Unconditional Positive Regard No matter how she parents. Rogers believed the development of
dresses, she hopes a healthy and positive self-concept depends
Unlike friends and family, pets never pass to get unconditional on receiving as much unconditional positive
What’s a big judgment; they provide endless amounts of regard as possible.
problem for positive regard no matter how their owners positive regard.
teenagers? look, feel, dress, or talk. In contrast, friends Unconditional positive regard refers to the
warmth, acceptance, and love that others show
and family can be very judgmental and may you because you are valued as a human being
give only conditional positive regard. even though you may disappoint people by
behaving in ways that are different from their
Conditional positive regard refers to the positive regard we receive if standards or values or the way they think.
we behave in certain acceptable ways, such as living up to or meeting the
standards of others. Parents who provide love and respect,
even if a teenager does not always abide by
For instance, one way teenagers display their independence is by their fashion standards, are showing uncon-
choosing different (radical, awful, outrageous) hairstyles and fash- ditional positive regard, which will foster
ions. In this case, if the teenagers receive only conditional positive the development of a healthy self-concept.
regard based on conforming to the traditional fashion standards
of their parents, they may develop a negative self-concept or feel
bad or worthless because they displeased or disappointed their

Importance of Self-Actualization I never gave up Underwood persisted in singing because of
Carrie Underwood was the winner of the on my dream to the tendency for self-actualization, which
provides direction and motivation to develop
What does it fourth season of “American Idol” and has be a singer.
take to reach since become a multi-platinum-
your potential? selling recording artist, winning one’s potential.
Rogers recognized that our tendency for self-
countless awards and prestigious actualization may be hindered, tested, or blocked by
recognitions. For instance, her debut album, Some a variety of situational hurdles or personal difficulties,
Hearts, was the fastest-selling female country album as happened to Underwood. But like Underwood, Rog-
ever, and she was voted Female Vocalist of the Year at ers believed that we will experience the greatest self-
the 40th Annual Country Music Association actualization if we work hard and diligently to remove
Awards in 2006. situational problems, resolve our personal prob-
lems, and, hopefully, receive tons of unconditional
e life of Carrie Underwood is a case study positive regard.
in self-actualization. Her dream since child- Humanistic theories contain powerful positive
hood was to become a professional singer, messages, but how do these upli ing messages work
and despite years of disappointing attempts in real life?
to establish a singing career, she never lost
sight of her dream. Rogers would explain that

E . H U M A N I S T I C T H E O R I E S 445

E. Humanistic Theories

Applying Humanistic Ideas

Unlike almost every other theory of per- of Erin’s teaching was providing positive regard, including warmth,
What problems sonality, humanism holds that people are acceptance, and respect, to show them that someone truly cares.
do at-risk basically good and can achieve their true With Erin’s support, these students shattered stereotypes by not

students face? potentials if the roadblocks placed by soci- only graduating from high school but also going on to earn under-
ety, poverty, drugs, or other evil influences graduate and graduate degrees. e lives of these students had been
are removed (Megargee, 1997). One of the pri- transformed and it did not stop at their education. ese
mary goals of the humanistic approach is to 150 students are now known as the “Freedom Writ-
find ways of removing blocking influences so ers,” and their mission is to teach tolerance and inspire
people can grow and self-actualize. others through their success. The Freedom Writers
In 1998, a racially diverse group of 150 high- shared their story in the book they wrote together, e
school seniors walked across a graduation stage, Freedom Writers Diary. Later, a Hollywood movie was
an event few people expected to ever happen. made about their amazing success, Freedom Writers
These teenagers grew up in rough neighbor- (Freedom Writers, 1999; Gruwell, 2007).
hoods, witnessing and, for many, being victims In the United States, there are many mentoring
of gun shootings. At the start of high school, programs, such as Big Brothers/Big Sisters of Amer-
these students made it clear they hated school The Freedom Writers shattered ica, that instill a sense of pride and self-confidence
and had no desire to learn. Thus, they were stereotypes because of the positive and give children the motivation to achieve success.
labeled “unteachable, at-risk” students. So, how regard received from their teacher, Children who participated in mentoring programs
did these 150 disadvantaged students overcome reported significantly higher self-confidence, grades,
Erin Gruwell.

the many roadblocks on the path to graduating from high school? and social skills than children without mentors (Vredenburgh,
Helping these students overcome roadblocks was Erin Gruwell, 2007). us, applying humanistic principles helped improve the
a dedicated teacher and role model. Erin encouraged students to self-confidence, grades, and social skills of children who came
think beyond the negative expectations others had of them and from problem families or neighborhoods.
to actively set life goals. By believing in each of her students, Erin Next, we’ll review the important humanistic concepts and discuss
helped them develop and reach their own potentials. At the heart what critics have to say about humanistic theories.

Evaluation of Humanistic Theories
Perhaps the main reason humanistic theories, such as those of Maslow and Rogers, continue to be popular is that
How popular they view people as basically good and believe that people can develop their true potentials (Clay, 2002). However,
is humanism? these optimistic views of human nature have triggered a number of criticisms.

Impact Criticisms Photo Credit: © AP Images/Mark J. Terrill
In the case of the Freedom Writers described Humanistic theories have come under considerable criticism because Rogers and
above, the sense of self-worth of at-risk students Maslow provided little or no scientific evidence that an inherent (biological) ten-
skyrocketed when their teacher and successful role dency to self-actualization really exists. Because the major assumption of self-actu-
model, Erin Gruwell, provided lots of positive alization and other humanistic concepts, such as positive regard and self-worth, are
regard. This program illustrates the humanistic difficult to demonstrate experimentally, critics argue that humanistic theories pri-
theories’ emphasis on building self-worth through marily describe how people behave rather than explain the causes of their behaviors.
positive regard. In a real sense, Erin Gruwell For these reasons, critics regard humanistic theories more as a wonderfully positive
removed roadblocks so that students could find a view of human nature or a very hopeful philosophy of life rather than as a scientific
path to their true potential through a process called explanation of personality development (Burger, 2008). One major problem is that
self-actualization (K.J.Schneider et al., 2002). humanistic theories generally ignore research showing that 20% to 60% of the devel-
opment of intellectual, emotional, social, and personality traits comes from genetic
Humanistic theories have had their great- factors (Jang, 2005; McClearn et al., 1997; Parens et al., 2006). This means that
est impact in counseling, clinical settings, and genetic factors must be considered when discussing a person’s true potential or a
personal growth programs, where ideas like self- person’s ability to achieve self-actualization.
concept, self-actualization, and self-fulfillment
have proven useful in developing healthy person- Maslow hoped that humanistic theories would become a major force in psychol-
alities and interpersonal relationships (Rabasca, ogy. Although the humanistic approach has not achieved Maslow’s goal, humanism’s
2000a; Soyez & Broekaert, 2005). Compared to ideas inspired the human potential movements in the 1960s–1970s and have been
Freud’s idea that we are driven by unconscious integrated into approaches for counseling, psychotherapy, and, as we learned with the
irrational forces, humanism says we are driven Freedom Writers, education (Clay, 2002). Humanistic theories are becoming more
by positive forces that point us toward realizing widespread as positive psychology (p. 495), a relatively recent approach, is bringing
our good and true selves. humanistic ideas into the mainstream (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).

446 M O D U L E 1 9 F R E U D I A N & H U M A N I S T I C T H E O R I E S

Concept Review

1. The combination of long-lasting and distinctive behaviors, 7. Personality theories that emphasize our capacity for personal
thoughts, and emotions that are typical of how we react and adapt growth, the development of our potential, and freedom to choose
to other people and situations forms our . our destinies are referred to as theories.

2. Freud’s theory of personality, which emphasizes the impor- 8. Humanistic theories have three characteristics in common.
tance of early childhood experiences and of conflicts between They take the perspective that our perception of the world, wheth-
conscious thoughts and unconscious forces, is called a er or not it is accurate, becomes our reality;
this is called the (a) per-
theory. spective. Humanistic theories see personality

3. Freud developed three techniques for probing the unconscious. as more than the sum of individual parts and
A technique that encourages clients to talk about any thoughts or
images that enter their head is called (a) . A tech- consider personality as a unique and total
entity that functions as a unit; this is the
nique to interpret the hidden meanings and symbols in dreams is (b) view of personality.
called (b) . With a third
technique, the therapist analyzes the mistakes Humanistic theories point to an inherent
tendency that each of us has to reach our
or (c) that the client makes true potential; this tendency is called
in everyday speech.
(c) .
4. Freud considered the mind to have three
major divisions. The division that contains 9. The idea that our needs occur in ascending
the biological drives and is the source of order, with biological needs at the bottom and
all psychic or mental energy is called the social and personal needs toward the top,
(a) . This division operates according to the and that we must meet our lower-level needs
(b) principle, which demands immediate satis- before we can satisfy higher ones is called
faction. The division that develops from the id during infancy and (a) . Our physiological needs (food, sleep) and
whose goal is finding safe and socially acceptable ways of satisfy- psychological needs (safety, belongingness, esteem) are called
ing the id’s desires is called the (c) . This division (b) needs because we try to fulfill them if they
operates according to the (d) principle, which are not met. The highest need of self-actualization, which includes
involves satisfying a wish only if there is a socially acceptable out- the desire for truth, goodness, beauty, and justice, is called a
let. The division that develops from the id during early childhood (c) need.

and whose goal is applying the moral values and standards of 10. Carl Rogers’s self theory of personality makes two basic
one’s parents and society is called the (e) .
assumptions. The first is that personality development is guided
by an inborn tendency to develop our poten-
5. Conflicts between the id and the superego over satisfaction of tial; this idea is called (a) .
desires may cause the ego to feel threatened. When threatened, the
ego generates an unpleasant state that is associated with feelings of The second assumption is that each of us has
a personal need for acceptance and love,
uneasiness, apprehension, and heightened physiological arousal; which Rogers called (b) .
this unpleasant state is called (a) . Freud suggested
that the ego may reduce anxiety by using unconscious mechanisms According to Rogers, it is important that
we receive love and acceptance despite the
that produce self-deception; these are called (b) . fact that we sometimes behave in ways that

6. Freud proposed that the major influence on are different from what others think or
Photo Credit: (#10) © Jose Azel/Woodfin Camp & Associates personality development occurs as we pass through
five developmental periods that he called the value; this type of acceptance is called
(c) .
(a) stages, each of which results
in conflicts between the child’s wishes and parents’ 11. Rogers proposes that we have two kinds of selves: the self that
restrictions. The result of a person’s wishes being is based on real-life experiences is called the (a)
overgratified or undergratified at any one of the self; the self that is based on how we would like to see ourselves is
first three stages is called (b) . called the (b) self.

Answers: 1. personality; 2. psychodynamic; 3. (a) free association, (b) dream interpretation, (c) Freudian slips or slips of the tongue; 4. (a) id,
(b) pleasure, (c) ego, (d) reality, (e) superego; 5. (a) anxiety, (b) defense mechanisms; 6. (a) psychosexual, (b) fixation; 7. humanistic; 8. (a) phe-
nomenological, (b) holistic, (c) self-actualization; 9. (a) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, (b) deficiency, (c) growth; 10. (a) self-actualization, (b) posi-
tive regard, (c) unconditional positive regard; 11. (a) real, (b) ideal

C O N C E P T R E V I E W 447

F. Cultural Diversity: Unexpected High Achievement

Boat People: Remarkable Achievement

What was We have always been of 536 school-age children. e children had
puzzled by why students been in the United States for an average of
different about with similar academic 3½ years. They had generally lived in low-
these children? skills perform so differ- income metropolitan areas with troublesome
ently: Some do well on neighborhoods and rundown schools that
our exams, while others do poorly. A humanist were plagued with problems and not known
would look at the same differences and ask, for their high academic standards. Despite
“Why are some students developing their poten- all these problems, the children of the boat
tial, while others are not?” One answer comes people performed remarkably well in school.
from studying thousands of Indo-Chinese refu- Here’s what researchers found.
gees, known as the boat people, who were Amazing success. e researchers com-
allowed to resettle in the United States in the puted the mean grade point average for the
1970s and 1980s. 536 children, who were fairly evenly distrib-
On their arrival in America, the boat people’s © Jason Goltz uted among grades 1 to 12. ey found that
only possessions were the clothes they wore. ey 27% of the children had a grade point aver-
knew virtually no English, had almost no knowl- age (GPA) in the A range, 52% had a GPA in
edge of Western culture, and had no one to turn Refugee boat people’s children, who first the B range, 17% in the C range, and only 4%
to for social or financial support. In spite of hor- had to learn English, went on to achieve had a GPA below C. Equally noteworthy was
rendous difficulties, refugee children achieved the children’s overall performance in math:
remarkable academic success.

such remarkable academic success that American educators were Almost 50% of the children earned A’s, while another 33% earned
scratching their heads and asking why. B’s. On national math tests, the Indo-Chinese children’s average
Background. Researchers set out to discover why these refugee scores were almost three times higher than the national norm.
children had achieved astonishing scholastic success against over- A er analyzing all these data, researchers were able to identify
whelming odds (N. Caplan et al., 1992). e researchers selected a several reasons immigrant Indo-Chinese students achieved such
random sample of 200 Indo-Chinese refugee families with a total high grades.

Values and Motivation Parental Attitudes
Although Indo-Chinese refugee children had been in the One reason Indo-Chinese
What were United States for an average of only 3½ years, they were doing How did children earned great
their values? better in math than 90% of their peers. It could not be the
parents help? academic success was the
quality of their schools, which were average, undistinguished personal and cultural val-
low-income schools in metropolitan areas. But clearly there were powerful factors ues transmitted by their parents, who were
helping these children overcome the problems of learning a second language and committed to help their children succeed
adapting to a new culture. Researchers located these powerful factors in the values of through educational performance. After
the Asian family. studying the immigrant parents’ values and
The primary values held by the Indo-Chinese families were that parents and how they instilled these values in their chil-
children have mutual respect, cooperate freely, and are committed to accomplish- dren, researchers concluded that for American
ment and achievement. A clear example of commitment to accomplishment was the schools to succeed, parents must become more
amount of time Indo-Chinese children spent doing homework: ey averaged about committed to the education of their children.
3 hours a day, while American students averaged about 1½ hours. us, among refu- In this case, Americans can truly learn from
gee families, doing homework, not watching television, was the main activity; the the values of these refugees.
older children helped the younger children. In explaining the immigrant children’s
Another primary value is that parents were very involved in their children’s educa- wonderful academic achievement, humanists
tion: Over 50% of parents read aloud and helped with would emphasize how parental values served
Parental Values homework. When children were asked, “What accounts to remove mental roadblocks that otherwise

for your academic success?” the children most often might have hindered their children from Photo Credit: © Jason Goltz
checked the category “having a love of learning.” Love of developing their true potentials and reaching
Children learning was one of the values nourished and passed on self-fulfillment.

from parent to child. When children were asked, “How Next, we turn to a relatively common per-
much do you choose your own destiny?” the children sonality problem, shyness, and discuss how
Parental values on the answered that they did not trust luck or fate but were the different theories of personality explain its
importance of education masters of their own destinies. causes.
motivated the children.

448 M O D U L E 1 9 F R E U D I A N & H U M A N I S T I C T H E O R I E S

G. Research Focus: Shyness

What Is Shyness and What Causes It?

What’s it It’s one thing to discuss Freud’s psycho- Shyness Clinic, which was founded in the 1970s by
dynamic theory of personality, but it’s well-known shyness researcher, Philip Zimbardo of
like to be shy? another to see it in action—in this case, to Stanford University (Noriyuki, 1996).
treat shyness. Shyness is a feeling of distress that comes from being

At some time and in some situations, we have all felt a little tense, stressed, or awkward in social situations and from

shy. However, there are degrees of shyness, and a high degree of worrying about and fearing rejection.

shyness can interfere with enjoying personal and social interac- Surveys indicate that about 40% of adults report 20–60%
tions. For example, when Alan was a child, he would walk home mild but chronic shyness and, although they are good are shy.
from school through alleys to avoid meeting any of his classmates. at hiding their shyness, internally they feel distress.
Although he received a perfect math score on his SAT, he dropped About 20% report more severe shyness and are unable to hide their
out of the University of Texas because he always felt like a stranger pain and distress (Chavira et al., 2002). e cause and treatment
and was continually frustrated by not being able to reach out and for shyness depend partly on which theory of personality guides
make contact with people. He was so shy that he could not even our thinking. We’ll contrast answers from two different theories:
use the Internet. Finally, feeling so lonely, Alan sought help at the Freud’s psychodynamic theory and social cognitive theory.

Psychodynamic Approach Social Cognitive Theory
As a practicing psychoanalyst, Don- Unlike the Freudian approach, which relies primarily
Is shyness due ald Kaplan (1972) uses his clinical What are on therapists’ personal observations, social cognitive
to unresolved experience and psychodynamic con- the three theory uses primarily experimental studies to answer

conflicts? cepts to answer the question, What factors? questions about personality. Social cognitive theory

causes shyness? Kaplan traces the breaks shyness down into three measurable or observ-
causes of shyness back to unresolved conflicts at one or able components—cognitive, behavioral, and environmental—which can
more of Freud’s psychosexual stages. For example, one very be studied using the experimental method described in Module 2 (Chavira
shy client reported that his mother constantly fed him so et al., 2002). For example, in a series of longitudinal studies, researchers
that he would never cry or whimper. As a result, Kaplan found that about 10–15% of the population have a shy personality that, to
suggests that this client’s unresolved conflict during the a large extent, comes from genetic factors—for example, inheriting a ner-
oral stage resulted in his feelings of inadequacy and shyness vous system that is easily aroused by novel stimuli (Battaglia, 2005; Kagan,
in later social interactions. 2003a). By observing the social interactions (the behav-
According to Kaplan, the symptoms of ioral component) of shy people, researchers found that
shyness include both conscious fears, such shy people have too few social and communication skills
as having nothing to say, and unconscious and, as a consequence, they are continually punished
fears of being rejected. Shy people may deal during social interactions (Gabrieli, 2005; Putnam,
with these anxieties by using defense mech- 2005). By giving personality tests (the cognitive compo-
anisms; for example, one client reduced his nent), researchers found that shy people are overly self-
anxiety through displacement, by changing conscious, which leads to worrisome thoughts and
his fears of being rejected into opposite feel- irrational beliefs that interfere with social functioning
ings of self-righteousness and contempt. (Romney & Bynner, 1997). Therapies based on social
One advantage of the psychodynamic cognitive theory (Module 20) have proved successful in
Photo Credits: top and bottom, © Walter Wick/Getty Images approach is that it suggests that a number of helping shy individuals decrease their anxiety in social
causes, such as conscious and unconscious situations, develop better social skills, and decrease levels
fears as well as unresolved psychosexual of shyness (Greco & Morris, 2001; Kluger, 2005).
conflicts, are involved in shyness. One advantage of social cognitive theory is that it
One disadvantage of the psychodynamic breaks shyness down into three measurable or observ-
approach is that Freudian concepts (uncon- able components, which can be experimentally studied
scious fears, unresolved psychosexual The cause and treatment for shyness and appropriate treatments developed.
stages) are difficult to verify by experimen- depend partly on which theory of
tal methods (E. F. Torrey, 2005). For exam- personality the therapist follows. One disadvantage of this approach is that research-
ers may overlook certain influences that we are neither
ple, saying that being fixated at the oral stage may result in conscious nor aware of, such as how our brain processes emotions or
a person becoming a shy adult is mostly a descriptive guess experiences conditioned emotional responses, both of which can trigger
rather than a testable hypothesis. shy behaviors ( eall-Honey & Schmidt, 2006; Westen, 1998).
A very different account of what causes shyness comes Our discussion of shyness raises the interesting question of how psy-
from the social cognitive theory of personality. chologists measure or assess personality traits, such as shyness.

G . R E S E A R C H F O C U S : S H Y N E S S 449

H. Application: Assessment—Projective Tests

Definition of Projective Tests

At the beginning of this module, they are most likely given personality tests to identify their
How did friends we discussed Ted Haggard, personal problems.
describe Ted’s the 50-year-old pastor, who Personality tests are used to measure observable or overt

personality? at the height of his career traits and behaviors as well as unobservable or covert character-

confessed to committing istics. Personality tests are used to identify personality problems

infidelity with a male prostitute. When a close friend and psychological disorders as well as to predict how a person

described Haggard’s personality, he said that Ted was a might behave in the future.

family man who followed God’s word (top photo) Was Ted Although you may not have taken a personality test,
(Goodstein & Banerjee, 2006). Before the accusations Haggard generally you certainly have taken many ability tests, such as
against Ted were made, none of his family, friends, or an honest, righteous exams.
man or a deceitful,
colleagues described him as a deceitful, dishonest, or immoral one? Ability tests include achievement tests, which measure

immoral individual (bottom photo). When friends were what we have learned; aptitude tests, which measure our

describing Ted’s personality, they were making a kind of potential for learning or acquiring a specific skill; and intelli-

psychological assessment. gence tests, which measure our general potential to solve prob-

Psychological assessment refers to the use of various lems, think abstractly, and profit from experience (R. M. Kaplan

tools, such as psychological tests or interviews, to measure & Saccuzzo, 2009).

various characteristics, traits, or abilities in order to under- The primary tools of assessment are tests of ability
stand behaviors and predict future performances or behaviors. and personality. ere are two kinds of personality tests.
We’ll now focus on one kind, projective personality tests,
Psychological tests are usually divided into ability and later (p. 474) discuss objective personality tests. Personality
tests and personality tests, which differ considerably. For example, assessment is a $400-million-a-year industry (Gladwell, 2004).
when people enter a psychological or drug treatment program,

Examples of Projective Tests Projective tests require individuals to look at some meaningless object Photo Credits: top, © Dennis Oda; center, © Kevin Moloney/Getty Images
or ambiguous photo and describe what they see. In describing or making Figure/Text Credit: (right) From Abnormal Psychology, by Barlow/Durand, 2/E, p. 79. Copyright © 1997. Brooks/Cole Publishing.
In describing Haggard’s personality, we can identify observable
behaviors, such as happy, family-oriented, and friendly, as well as up a story about the ambiguous object, individuals are assumed to project
unobservable behaviors, such as anxious, guilt-ridden, and deceitful.
In Freud’s psychodynamic theory, observable behaviors reflect con- both their conscious and unconscious feelings, needs, and motives.
scious wishes, desires, and thoughts, while unobservable behaviors Although Freud didn’t develop projective tests, they are
may reflect unconscious forces. Freud developed three techniques for
revealing unconscious forces—free association, dream interpretation, assumed to reveal unconscious thoughts (Butcher, 2009b; Groth-
and interpretation of slips of the tongue. We now add a fourth tech- Marnat, 2009). We’ll examine two widely used projective tests—
nique to reveal hidden or unconscious forces: projective tests. Rorschach (ROAR-shock) inkblot test and ematic Apperception
Test (TAT).

Rorschach Inkblot Test Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

What do you see in this inkblot? What’s happening in this picture?
e Rorschach inkblot test, which was A person would be shown a picture like the one on the
published in the early 1920s by a right and asked to make up a plot or story about what
Swiss psychiatrist, Hermann Ror- the young man is thinking, feeling, or doing. is is an
schach (1921/1942), contains five example of, but not a real, TAT card.
inkblots printed in black and white The Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT, involves showing

and five that have color (the ink- a person a series of 20 pictures of people in ambiguous situa-

blot shown on the left is similar tions and asking the person to make up a story about what the

to but is not an actual Rorschach people are doing or thinking in each situation. What’s
inkblot). e TAT, which was developed by Henry Murray (1943), happening in
What might The Rorschach inkblot test is used this picture?
this be? is used to assess the motivation and personality charac-
to assess personality by showing a per- teristics of normal individuals as well as clients with personality problems

son a series of ten inkblots and then asking the person to (Butcher, 2009a; R. M. Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2009).

describe what he or she thinks each image is. Before we discuss how well the Rorschach inkblot test and the TAT assess

This test is used primarily in the therapeutic set- personality traits and identify potential problems, we’ll look at another per-
ting to assess personality traits and identify potential sonality test that you have probably heard of: handwriting analysis. How
problems of clients (I. B. Weiner & Meyer, 2009). much can someone learn from just your handwriting?

450 M O D U L E 1 9 F R E U D I A N & H U M A N I S T I C T H E O R I E S

Two Characteristics

What does Handwriting analysts (graphologists) rating the success of job applicants, or iden-
charge about $75 an hour to do per- tifying one’s profession (M. C. Healy, 2005;
handwriting sonality assessments that they claim Tripician, 2000). In order for handwriting
show? reveal a person’s strengths and weak- analysis or any personality assessment test
to be an effective personality assessment
nesses, which are important in select- tool, it must have two characteristics: valid-
ing job applicants and identifying people who may not be ity and reliability. Handwriting analysis is
trusted (M. C. Healy, 2005; Scanlon & Mauro, 1992). no better than chance in assessing person-
However, researchers report that handwriting analysis is Which handwriting reveals ality because it lacks validity.
no better than chance at assessing personality characteristics, an honest and sincere person?

Validity Reliability

Handwriting analysis is fun but no better than chance as a In judging the usefulness of any personality test, the major question is
personality test because it lacks validity. always the same: How good are the test’s validity and reliability?

Validity means that the test measures what it says it mea- Reliability refers to having a consistent score at different times. A person who
sures or what it is supposed to measure. takes a test at one point in time should receive the same score on a similar test
taken at a later time.
For example, for a personality test to be valid, it must
measure personality traits specific to the person rather For example, handwriting analysis may have good reliability provided
than general traits that apply to almost everyone. Hand- your handwriting remains about the same across time. But, even if hand-
writing analysis does not measure, identify, or predict writing analysis has good reliability, it is still no better than chance at
traits specific to an individual, so it has no validity as a assessing or predicting an individual’s personality traits because graphol-
personality test (M. C. Healy, 2005; Tripician, 2000). ogy lacks the important characteristic of validity.

In addition to validity, a good personality test must is means that the usefulness of projective personality tests, such as
have a second characteristic, reliability. the Rorschach test and TAT, depends on their validity and reliability.

Usefulness of Projective Tests

Are they Projective tests, such as the Rorschach inkblot assessing personality traits and problems, and researchers, who con-
valid and test, have been used for over 80 years. How- tinue to disagree about the reliability and validity of projective tests
reliable? ever, there is still a debate between therapists, (Mestel, 2003b; Society for Personality Assessment, 2005). is debate
who report that projective tests are useful in involves the advantages and disadvantages of projective tests.

Advantages Disadvantages

Individuals who take projective tests do not know which are One disadvantage of projective tests comes from their use of ambiguous
the best, correct, or socially desirable answers to give stimuli to which there are no right or wrong answers. The current
because the stimuli—the inkblot or the TAT picture—are method of scoring the Rorschach is based on analyzing and making
ambiguous and have no right or wrong answers. us, judgments about so many different variables (such as content, theme,
one advantage of projective tests such as the Ror- color, and detail of the cards) that disagreements o en arise
schach and the TAT is that they are difficult to over interpretations and classifications (Mestel, 2003b). For
fake or bias, since there are no correct or socially example, there are several studies using the Rorschach in which
desirable answers. clinicians scored and interpreted the results as indicating that
When clients respond to Rorschach’s meaning- perfectly normal individuals were classified as psychologically
less inkblots or make up stories about what is hap- disordered (J. M. Wood et al., 2003). Although the Rorschach is
pening in TAT’s ambiguous pictures, clinicians assume one of the more popular personality assessment tests and some
that clients project their hidden feelings, thoughts, studies show it has high reliability and validity, there are other
or emotions onto these ambiguous stimuli. Based Clinicians’ studies that point to serious problems in scoring and interpret-
on this assumption, some clinicians believe that experience affects ing responses and making assessments based on the Rorschach
a second advantage of projective tests is that they reliability and validity test (Society for Personality Assessment, 2005; J. M. Wood et
are another method for assessing a client’s hidden of projective tests. al., 2003, 2006).

and unconscious thoughts and desires of which he or she is In spite of criticisms, some experienced clinicians report that pro-
normally unaware (Groth-Marnat, 2009). Other research- jective tests can provide reliable and valid information about a cli-
ers suggest that the Rorschach test is useful as an interview ent’s personality and problems, especially when combined with other
technique in eliciting unique information about the person assessment techniques (Exner & Erdberg, 2005). Thus, a clinician’s
(Aronow et al., 1995). us, the Rorschach test’s advantage training and experience play a major role in the accuracy of assessing
is obtaining information about the person in a setting where a client’s personality and problems using projective tests (R. M. Kaplan
there are no right or wrong answers. & Saccuzzo, 2009).

H . A P P L I C A T I O N : A S S E S S M E N T — P R O J E C T I V E T E S T S 451

Summary Test

A. Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory the ego reduce anxiety through self-deception are called
(b) ; they can be helpful or harmful, depending
1. The lasting behaviors, thoughts, and emotions that typify how on how much we rely on them.
we react and adapt to other people and situations make up our
(a) . An organized
attempt to explain how personali- C. Developmental Stages
ties develop and why they differ is
called a (b) of 6. The essence of Freud’s theory of personality
development is a series of five developmental stages,
personality. called (a) , during which the indi-

2. Freud’s approach, which empha- vidual seeks pleasure from different parts of the
sizes the importance of early child- body. The stage that lasts for the first 18 months of
hood experiences and conflicts life is called the (b) stage. It is fol-
between conscious and unconscious lowed by the (c) stage, which lasts
forces, is called a (a) theory of personality. until about the age of 3. The next stage, until about
According to Freud, those wishes, desires, or thoughts of which the age of 6, is called the (d) stage.
we are aware or that we can readily recall are (b) ; The stage that lasts from about 6 to puberty is called
those that we automatically repress because of their disturbing or the (e) stage; it is followed by the
threatening content are (c) . (f) stage, which lasts through adulthood.

3. Freud’s technique of encouraging clients to talk about 7. The resolution of the potential conflict at each stage has
any thoughts or images that enter their heads is called important implications for personality. A Freudian process through
(a) . His assumption that dreams provide clues which individuals may be locked into earlier psychosexual stages
to unconscious thoughts and desires gave rise to his technique of because their wishes were overgratified or undergratified is called
(b) . Mistakes that we make in everyday speech
that are thought to reflect unconscious thoughts or wishes are ; it can occur at any of the first three stages.

called (c) . D. Freud’s Followers & Critics

B. Divisions of the Mind 8. Jung believed that the basic force is not the
sex drive, as Freud believed, but ancient memory
4. According to Freud, the biological drives traces and symbols shared by all peoples in all
of sex and aggression are the source of all
psychic or mental energy and give rise to the cultures, called the (a) .
According to Adler’s philosophy, each person
development of the (a) . is a social being with a unique personality and
Because this division of the mind strives
to satisfy drives and avoid pain without is motivated by (b) . Karen
Horney disagreed with Freud’s emphasis on
concern for moral or social restrictions, biological urges and insisted that the major
it is said to be operating according to the
(b) . During infancy, the influence on personality development was (c)
between parents and child.
second division of the mind develops from the id; it is called the
(c) . The goal of this second division is to find 9. Those who generally agreed with Freud’s basic ideas but dis-
safe and socially acceptable ways of satisfying the id’s desires. agreed with his emphasis on biological forces, sexual drives, and
The ego follows a policy of satisfying a wish or desire only if a psychosexual stages are referred to as . They
socially acceptable outlet is available; thus it is said to operate turned the emphasis of psychodynamic theory to psychosocial
according to the (d) . During early childhood, and cultural influences.
the third division of the mind develops from the id; it is called
the (e) . The goal of this division is to apply the 10. Criticisms of Freud’s psychodynamic theory include that it
is so comprehensive that it is not very useful for explaining or
moral values and standards of one’s parents and society in satisfy- predicting behaviors of a specific (a) ; that some
ing one’s wishes.
Freudian ideas (Oedipal complex) are out of date because they
5. When the id, ego, and superego are in conflict, an unpleasant cannot be (b) ; and that psychodynamic theory
state of uneasiness, apprehension, and heightened physiological must be updated with findings about (c) factors
arousal may occur; this is known as (a) . The and the association between (d) development
Freudian processes that operate at unconscious levels to help and related behaviors.

452 M O D U L E 1 9 F R E U D I A N & H U M A N I S T I C T H E O R I E S

E. Humanistic Theories In comparison, social cognitive theory breaks shyness down into
three measurable or observable components that can be investi-
11. Humanistic theories emphasize gated using (c) .
our capacity for personal growth,
development of our potential,
and freedom to choose our H. Application: Assessment—Projective Tests
(a) . They stress
that our perception of the world 16. Tests that are used to measure observable
traits and behaviors as well as unobservable
becomes our reality; this is called characteristics of a person and to identify
the (b) perspec-
tive. These theories emphasize that personality problems and psychological dis-
orders are called tests.
one’s personality is unique, func-
tions as a unit, and is more than the sum of individual parts;
together these ideas make up the (c) view. 17. Achievement tests measure what we have
learned; aptitude tests measure our potential
These theories also highlight the idea of an inherent tendency to for learning or acquiring a specific skill; and
reach our true potentials, which is called (d) .
intelligence tests measure our general poten-
tial to solve problems, think abstractly, and profit from experience.
12. According to Maslow, our needs are arranged in a hierarchy Collectively, these are called tests.
with (a) at the bottom and (b)
toward the top.
18. For a test to be useful, it must have two characteristics. First,
13. How we see or describe ourselves, including how we perceive a test must measure what it is supposed to measure; this is called
our abilities, personality characteristics, and behaviors, is referred (a) . Second, a person’s score on a test at one
to as our (a) . According to Carl Rogers, the point in time should be similar to the score obtained by the same
development of self-concept depends on our interactions with person on a similar test at a later point in time; this is called
others. If we receive (b) positive regard even (b) .

when our behavior is disappointing, we will develop a positive 19. Typically, a combination of tests is used to assess personality.
self-concept and tend to act, feel, and think optimistically and
constructively. Tests that involve presenting an ambiguous stimulus and asking
the person to describe it are called (a) tests. A
test used to assess personality in terms of how the subject inter-
Photo Credits: (#11) © AP Images/Mark J. Terrill; (#14) © Jason Goltz; (#15) © Walter Wick/Getty Images prets a series of inkblots is called the (b) test.
F. Cultural Diversity: Unexpected High Achievement A test in which the subject is to make up a story about people
© Jason Goltz
14. Indo-Chinese children overcame shown in ambiguous situations is called the (c) .
problems of language and culture and
excelled in American schools in part
because of the held
by their families, including mutual Answers: 1. (a) personalities, (b) theory; 2. (a) psychodynamic, (b) con-
respect, cooperation, parental involve- scious thoughts, (c) unconscious forces or thoughts; 3. (a) free association,
ment, and the belief that they, not fate, (b) dream interpretation, (c) slips of the tongue or Freudian slips; 4. (a) id,
controlled their destinies. (b) pleasure principle, (c) ego, (d) reality principle, (e) superego; 5. (a) anx-
iety, (b) defense mechanisms; 6. (a) psychosexual stages, (b) oral, (c) anal,
G. Research Focus: Shyness (d) phallic, (e) latency, (f) genital; 7. fixation; 8. (a) collective unconscious,
(b) social urges, (c) social interactions; 9. neo-Freudians; 10. (a) individual
15. As a practicing psychoanalyst, Donald or person, (b) tested or verified, (c) genetic, (d) brain; 11. (a) destinies,
Kaplan traces the causes of shyness back to (b) phenomenological, (c) holistic, (d) self-actualization; 12. (a) biological
unresolved conflicts at one or more of Freud’s needs, (b) social and personal needs; 13. (a) self or self-concept, (b) uncon-
(a) . The Freudian approach ditional; 14. primary values; 15. (a) psychosexual stages, (b) personal
primarily uses therapists’ (b) observations, (c) experimental studies; 16. personality; 17. ability;
to answer questions about personality. 18. (a) validity, (b) reliability; 19. (a) projective, (b) Rorschach inkblot,
(c) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

S U M M A R Y T E S T 453

Critical Thinking

Can Personality
Explain Obesity?

QUESTIONS About two of every three Ameri- would be to make long-term lifestyle 5What psychologi-
can adults are overweight or changes. After not having moved his cal impulses or
1Which part of obese. Peter Herida is one of the body for 20 years, Peter spent his conflicts may have
Freud’s psycho- very few who is medically defined as first 3 months learning how to walk made losing weight
dynamic theory might “super massive morbid obese.” As a again. He exercised and dieted for difficult for Peter?
explain why Peter 10–12-year-old child, Peter already years afterward. At age 49, he swims
could not control his weighed 179 pounds. At age 46, his a mile a day and works out daily. 6How might
eating? weight reached an astonishing 863 His health improved so much he humanistic theo-
pounds (pictured at right). His gro- takes only two medications a day ries explain Peter’s
2 Does Peter have a cery bill was nearly $400 a week, compared to the 14 he took before. obesity and then the
food addiction? and he ate over 3,000 calories at He is no longer a diabetic, he sleeps dramatic changes he
each meal. Peter took 14 different without difficulty breathing, and his made in his life?
3 What roles might medications four times a day be- heart is functioning better.
the Freudian con- cause of the life-threatening health ANSWERS
cepts of the id, ego, damage caused by his extreme mor- Peter’s efforts helped him to lose TO CRITICAL
and superego have bid obesity. Some of Peter’s medical a whopping 560 pounds during the THINKING
had in Peter becoming problems included heart failure, dia- first 10 months after surgery. His QUESTIONS
so obese that he could betes, and difficulty breathing dur- self-esteem skyrocketed and he re-
not walk? ing sleep. He became so heavy he warded himself by purchasing his
could not walk, which resulted in dream car, a mint-condition 1982
4 Following Freud’s him being housebound for 20 years. Mercedes sedan, which he says
psychodynamic His mobility became so limited that “beats the heck out of a wheelchair
theory, what kinds of a trip to the doctor’s office required van and emergency vehicle motor-
questions might you a wheelchair van, two fire truck cade” (Herida, 2005). Peter became
ask or what tech- crews, and one ambulance crew to a motivational speaker to encourage
niques might you use transport him. others to strive to reach their poten-
to understand Peter’s tial just as he did. (Adapted from
overeating behavior? During one doctor’s visit, Peter Herida, 2003, 2005; Incredible
was told that unless he took radical weight loss stories, 2007; Taneeru,
measures to lose weight quickly, he 2006)
would die soon. Peter chose to un-
dergo gastric bypass surgery, a risky
procedure that promised to make
his stomach smaller so he would feel
full after eating much less food. His
doctor warned him that because of
his weight and health problems, the
operation carried a 60% chance of
death. So, when Peter woke up after
surgery, he promised himself, “I’m
going to try and make this thing
work, as I now was given a second
chance at life!” (Herida, 2003).

Peter knew the operation was the
easy part and the challenging part

454 M O D U L E 1 9 F R E U D I A N & H U M A N I S T I C T H E O R I E S

Links to Learning

Key Terms/Key People Learning Activities

ability tests, 450 personality, 433 PowerStudy for Introduction PowerStudy 4.5™
Adler, Alfred, 440 personality tests, 450 to Psychology 4.5
anal stage, 439 phallic stage, 439
anxiety, 437 phenomenological Use PowerStudy to complete quizzes and learning activities for Freudian &
collective unconscious, 440 Humanistic Theories. The DVD also includes interactive versions of the
conditional positive perspective, 442 Summary Test on pages 452–453 and the critical thinking questions for the
pleasure principle, 436 article on page 454, key terms, an outline and an abstract of the module, and an
regard, 445 positive regard, 445 extended list of correlated websites.
conscious thoughts, 434 projection, 437
defense mechanisms, 437 projective tests, 450 CengageNOW!
deficiency needs, 443 psychological www.cengage.com/login
denial, 437 Want to maximize your online study time? Take this easy-
displacement, 437 assessment, 450 to-use study system’s diagnostic pre-test and it will create a personalized study
dream interpretation, 435 psychosexual stages, 438 plan for you. e plan will help you identify the topics you need to understand
ego, 436 rationalization, 437 better and direct you to relevant companion online resources that are specific
fixation, 438 reaction formation, 437 to this book, speeding up your review of the module.
free association, 435 real self, 444
Freudian slips, 435 reality principle, 436 Introduction to Psychology Book Companion Website
Freud’s psychodynamic reliability, 451 www.cengage.com/psychology/plotnik
repression, 437 Visit this book’s companion website for more resources to help you study,
theory of personality, 434 Rorschach inkblot test, 450 including learning objectives, additional quizzes, flash cards, updated links to
genital stage, 439 self or self-concept, 444 useful websites, and a pronunciation glossary.
growth needs, 443 self-actualization, 442, 443
holistic view, 442 self-actualizing Study Guide and WebTutor
Horney, Karen, 440 Work through the corresponding module in your Study
humanistic theories, 442 tendency, 444 Guide for tips on how to study effectively and for help learning the material
humanistic theories, self theory, 444 covered in the book. WebTutor (an online Study Tool accessed through your
shyness, 449 eResources account) provides an interactive version of the Study Guide.
evaluation, 446 sublimation, 437
id, 436 superego, 436
ideal self, 444
implicit or nondeclarative ematic Apperception
test, or TAT, 450
memory, 441 theory of personality, 433
Jung, Carl, 440 unconditional positive
latency stage, 439 regard, 445
Maslow’s hierarchy of unconscious forces, 434
unconscious
needs, 443 motivation, 434
neo-Freudians, 440 validity, 451
Oedipus complex, 439 validity of Freud’s
oral stage, 439 theory, 441
parental attitudes, 448

Suggested Answers to Critical Thinking 4. Since Freud believed that most personality development and seeds
of problems occurred during the first five years, you would ask
1. The part of Freud’s psychodynamic theory that focuses on the questions about his early childhood, especially his relationship with
development of personality involves how a person goes through the his parents. To reveal Peter’s unconscious forces, you might use
five psychosexual stages and whether fixation occurs. For example, free association and dream interpretation.
Peter may have become fixated at the oral stage, resulting in the
inability to control his eating. 5. Psychological impulses or conflicts that may have led to Peter’s
overeating and may make losing weight challenging include anxiety,
2. We can’t be sure Peter has a food addiction because obesity is only tension, worry, and insecurity. Also, overeating was likely a means
suspected to result from an addiction to food. Preliminary research of achieving pleasure, gratification, and excitement.
suggests obese people may be compulsively driven to eat food just
as drug addicts are driven to use drugs. More research on the neuro- 6. Humanistic theories describe positive human growth. However, a
logical connections between overeating and addiction is necessary. humanist might say that because Peter had not received enough
unconditional positive regard, he developed a negative self-concept,
3. Peter’s id, which follows the pleasure principle, wanted to eat all the which interfered with his self-actualization and led him to overeat.
time. Peter’s superego, which contains moral standards, would A humanist would also say we all have the capacity for self-
argue against overeating because it jeopardizes health and well- actualization and reaching our own potential, which for Peter
being. Peter’s ego, which follows the reality principle, would try to was achieving a healthy weight and lifestyle.
find a socially acceptable outlet for the id’s desires. In Peter’s case,
the id’s desires apparently won out. L I N K S T O L E A R N I N G 455

Social Cognitive

20 & Trait Theories
MODULE
458
Photo Credit: © Matthias Clamer/462
Getty Images466
A. Social Cognitive Theory 468 Summary Test 476
B. Trait Theory 469 Critical Thinking 478
C. Genetic Influences on Traits 470
D. Evaluation of Trait Theory 471 Personality Tests Help Employers 479
Concept Review 472 Find Applicants Who Fit
E. Research Focus: 180-Degree Change 474 Links to Learning
F. Cultural Diversity: Suicide Bombers
G. Four Theories of Personality
H. Application: Assessment—Objective Tests

456

Introduction

Power of Beliefs Wangari Maathai (wan-GAH-ree mah- Determination At just 5 feet 3 inches, Kiran Bedi wouldn’t
DHEYE) was born in Kenya into a normally attract much attention. Yet, with
Why did she What’s

get threatened, family of peasant farmers. She grew unusual about her petite stature and only a wooden baton,

clubbed, and jailed? up in a beautiful countryside filled this woman? she once turned back a 3,000-member,
with many varieties of shrubs and sword-wielding group of rioters by herself.
trees. Water cascaded down to streams Her male colleagues felt overwhelmed and ran away.
where she drank to quench her thirst. In 1972, Kiran Bedi became India’s first female police officer.
According to Kenyan tradition, as the Sure, she faced criticism from her male counterparts who believed
oldest daughter, Maathai spent most she didn’t have the physical strength or mental toughness the job
of her days side by side with her required. But, she never let their negative comments hold her back.
mother, helping her and learning Bedi began her service in the traffic division and made head-
from her. She later made a bold deci- lines when she towed the illegally parked cars of government
sion to break with cultural expectations officials. She later worked as a narcotics officer and antiterrorist
and study in the United States, where she specialist. She even reformed the largest prison in Asia, and her
earned both bachelor’s and master’s work there has led to prison reform all over the world. From the
degrees. Upon returning home, Maathai beginning of her career, she believed the duty of police officers
yet again challenged cultural expecta- was not to simply catch the bad guys but to show people the way
tions by becoming the first woman in to a better life.
She chose to be tortured Kenya to earn a Ph.D. and later the In India, a country where women strug-
and jailed rather than change first female professor at the University gle to achieve gender equality, Bedi’s
of Nairobi. unyielding determination didn’t go
her major beliefs.

When Maathai returned to Kenya, she realized there were fewer unnoticed. She has received many pres-
and fewer of the magnificent trees that once filled the region. One tigious awards for her achievements,
day she went to her yard and planted a tree, and it was then that she including the Asian version of the Nobel
founded the Green Belt Movement, an organization that helps con- Prize. She has become a hero and role
serve the environment, educates people about environmental issues, model for Indian women, as well as all
and trains women to have jobs as nursery managers and forest rang- women living in countries where the
ers. Maathai empowered women by letting them plant their own struggle for gender equality contin-
trees and make profits from the products (nuts, fruits) to support ues. Bedi has taught women that with
their children’s education and household needs. determination they can overcome crit- Kiran Bedi fought
Photo Credits: left, © Siphwe Sibeko/Reuters/Landov; right, © India Today Group/Getty Images As Maathai began her efforts to restore nature, she quickly realized icisms and stereotypes to realize their against stereotypes to
that the government in Kenya was corrupt and was largely responsible dreams (Bedi, 2006; Turnbull, 2008).
fulfill her dream.

for the deforestation by illegally selling land and trees to make room Kiran Bedi, like the many thousands of female officers around
for buildings. e Green Belt Movement challenged the government’s the world, has shown that women make good cops, partly because
abuse of power, corruption, and destruction of the environment. of their particular personality traits: Women are less authoritarian,
Maathai initiated sit-ins and a hunger strike but was attacked with more open, better listeners, and less likely to trigger showdowns
tear gas and viciously clubbed by police. On one occasion she was than are their male counterparts (Lonsway et al., 2003; Munoz,
beaten unconscious. She received many death threats, was arrested 2003). Apparently, what women may lack in sheer muscle power,
more than a dozen times, and once even went into hiding. they make up for in a winning combination of personality traits.
Despite the brutality she experienced time and time again, In this module, we’ll discuss personality traits, which are pow-
Maathai persisted in her struggle for human rights and environ- erful motivating forces that we all have, cannot live without, like
mental conservation. Today, the Green Belt Movement has planted to talk about, and are o en asked to change but find it difficult to
30 million trees in Kenya and provided work for tens of thousands do so.
of women. Her unwavering dedication, absolute selflessness, and
inspiring courage led her to receive many honors. In 2004, Maathai What’s Coming
became the first African woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize
(adapted from Maathai, 2004, 2005, 2006; Mjøs, 2004). We’ll discuss two theories of personality, each with a different
What were the forces that shaped Maathai’s personality and gave emphasis. e first is social cognitive theory (previously called
her the strength and motivation to persist in the face of overwhelm- social learning theory), which stresses the influences of cognitive,
ing adversity? In this module, we’ll discuss some forces that shape learning, and social processes on personality development. e
and mold our personalities. second is trait theory, which focuses on measuring traits and
In a different nation, an ocean away, Kiran Bedi waged her own describing how traits make up our different personalities and
personal struggle against forces that said no Indian woman should influence our behaviors.
be doing what she wanted to do.
We’ll begin with three social cognitive forces that helped shape
Wangari Maathai’s personality.

I N T R O D U C T I O N 457

A. Social Cognitive Theory

Review and Definition personality is shaped primarily by our inborn tendency
How many of us would still have fought to for self-actualization or self-fulfillment, which includes
What protect the environment a er being beaten

shaped her repeatedly, having our life threatened, and both biological and psychological factors.
personality? being imprisoned more than a dozen Now we discuss two more answers: first, social
times, as Maathai did? What forces cognitive theory and, later, trait theory.
shaped Maathai’s personality and gave her such courage, Social cognitive theory says that personality devel-

self-confidence, and perseverance? In Module 19, we dis- opment is shaped primarily by three forces: environmen-

cussed two approaches to this question: Freud’s psycho- tal conditions (learning), cognitive-personal factors, and

dynamic theory and humanistic theories. behavior, which all interact to influence how we evaluate,

Freud’s psychodynamic theory said that our personality is Maathai won interpret, organize, and apply information.
shaped primarily by our inborn biological urges, especially honors because of her Social cognitive theory grew out of the research
sex and aggression, and by how we resolve conflicts during unwavering courage.
the psychosexual stages, especially during the first five years. of a number of psychologists, especially Albert
Bandura (1986, 2001a). According to social cogni-
Humanistic theories, such as those of Abraham Maslow and tive theory, we are neither good nor bad but are shaped primarily
Carl Rogers, assume that we are basically good and that our by three influential factors.

Interaction of Three Factors 1 Cognitive factors sacrifice so much to reach her goals of
2 Behaviors preserving the environment and empow-
For about 30 years, Wangari Maathai has 3 Environmental factors
been fighting for human rights and envi- Y ering women. According to social cogni-
ronment conservation. During this time, O tive theory, Maathai’s personality was
she has suffered tremendous personal hard- U influenced and shaped by the interactions
ships, including being beaten and impris-
oned. You can’t help wondering what among three significant forces—namely,
shaped her personality and gave her the cognitive-personal, behavioral, and envi-
strength, determination, and character to ronmental factors.

Cognitive-Personal Factors Behaviors Environmental Factors

Maathai was born to a family of peasant farmers and grew up For the past 30 years, Maa- Maathai lived in Kenya at a time of po-
during a time when Kenya had an abundance of greenery. Her thai has spoken forcefully litical oppression, which resulted in
childhood experiences taught her the beauty of nature’s won- against deforestation, found- harsh beatings, imprisonment, and
ders. Her family encouraged her to be self-confident, ambi- ed the Green Belt Movement, sometimes death when speaking out Photo Credits: top, © Tor Richardsen/AFP/Getty Images, bottom, © AP Images/Karel Prinsloo
tious, and determined to achieve her dreams. Being born into and empowered women by against the government’s corrupt ac-
a farming family and being taught to value nature are exam- involving them in restoring tions. ese environmental factors cer-
ples of cognitive-personal factors that helped shape Maathai’s the environment. These are tainly affected Maathai’s personality
personality. examples of the kinds of be- development.
Cognitive factors include our beliefs, expectations, values, inten- haviors that also shaped her
personality. Environmental factors include our so-
tions, and social roles. Personal factors include our emotional cial, political, and cultural influences, as
Behaviors include a vari- well as our particular learning experiences.
makeup and our biological and genetic influences. ety of personal actions, such
as the things we do and say. Just as our cognitive factors influ-
Cognitive factors guide per- ence how we perceive and interpret our
sonality development by influenc- In Maathai’s case, the po- environment, our environment in turn
ing the way we view and interpret litical and social behaviors affects our beliefs, values, and social
information. For example, Maathai that she engaged in to help roles.
views the world from the stand- preserve the environment
point of someone whose liveli- in turn strengthened her We can assume that living in such
hood depended on nature. ese belief that the government’s an oppressive environment strength-
kinds of beliefs (cognitions) give actions to replace greenery ened Maathai’s determination to get a
Maathai the strength and deter- with buildings was morally Ph.D. and to devote her life to restoring
mination to fight to plant more and politically wrong. trees and empowering women.
trees. us, cognitive-personal
factors influence our personali- Just as behavior influ- According to Bandura (2001a), per-
ties by affecting what we think, ences our beliefs, so too does sonality development is influenced by
Maathai plants trees because believe, and feel, which in turn our environment influence the interactions among these three fac-
of cognitive-personal factors. affect how we act and behave. both. tors. He especially focused on cognitive-
personal factors.

458 M O D U L E 2 0 S O C I A L C O G N I T I V E & T R A I T T H E O R I E S

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Why Albert Bandura (1986, 2001a) origi- that much of human personality and behavior is
nally called his theory of personal- shaped by our own thoughts and beliefs.
are beliefs ity development the social learning
important? theory. However, to emphasize the For example, the people in the photo on the
importance of cognitive factors in left are members of Wangari Maathai’s interna-
personality development, he has changed the name to tional Green Belt Movement. Maathai founded this
the social cognitive theory. organization over 30 years ago to help restore the
Bandura’s social cognitive theory assumes that personal- environment all over the world while helping to
empower women by getting them actively involved
ity development, growth, and change are influenced by four in the organization. According to Bandura’s social
cognitive theory, the personalities of these members
distinctively human cognitive processes: highly developed lan-
will, to a large extent, be molded by cognitive fac-
guage ability, observational learning, purposeful behavior, tors such as the beliefs, values, and goals of the
Green Belt Movement. We’ll briefly explain each
and self-analysis. Cognitive factors—beliefs, of Bandura’s cognitive factors.
values, and goals—influence
Bandura believes that these four cognitive processes
reach their highest level of functioning in humans and their personalities.

Four Cognitive Factors Locus of Control

At the heart of Bandura’s social cognitive theory is the idea that much Can you control when you’ll graduate?
of personality development is shaped and molded by cognitive pro- is is the kind of question that intrigued Julian Rotter (1990),
cesses that influence how we view and interpret the world. And, in who was interested in how social cognitive theory applied to
turn, how we view and interpret the world influences how we behave. human behavior. Rotter developed a well-known scale to mea-
Here’s how Bandura’s cognitive processes apply to Green Belt Move- sure a person’s expectancies about how much control he or she
1ment members. has over situations, which Rotter called the locus of control.
Language ability. Locus of control refers to our beliefs about how much control we
is is a powerful tool for processing and under-
standing information that influences personality development. We have over situations or rewards. We are said to
turn this information into ideas, beliefs, values, and goals, which shape, Can you control
guide, and motivate our behaviors. For example, the Green Belt Move- when you will have an internal locus of control if we believe
that we have control over situations and rewards.
graduate?
We are said to have an external locus of
ment teaches and values restoring the environment and empowering
women, which helps motivate members to be more nurturing, giving, control if we believe that we do not

2and self-confident. have control over situations
Observational learning. Almost all of us “people watch”; we observe
and rewards and that

events outside ourselves

parents, brothers, sisters, peers, friends, and teachers; by doing so, we (fate) determine what

learn a great deal. Observational learning involves watching, imitating, happens. People fall on

and modeling. Most of the time, the observer provides his or her own a continuum between

reward for developing some belief or performing some behavior. For internal and external

example, observational learning allows the members of the Green Belt locus of control.

Photo Credits: top, © AP Images/Sayyid Azim; center, © PhotoDisc, Inc. Movement to imitate and model the personality characteristics of For example, if you believe that when you graduate depends
3Wangari Maathai. primarily on your motivation and determination, then you
Purposeful behavior. Our capacity to anticipate events, plan ahead, have more of an internal locus of control. If you believe that
when you graduate depends mostly on chance or things out-
and set goals influences our personality development, growth, and side your control, then you have more of an external locus
change. For instance, in working to restore the environment, members
of the Green Belt Movement organize and plan ways to plant more of control. Having more of an internal locus of control is an
advantage because hundreds of studies report a positive rela-
trees and speak firmly against deforestation, which encourages them to tionship between internal locus of control and psychologi-
4become responsible, confident, and passionate about their cause.
Self-analysis. is is an internal process that allows us to monitor cal functioning. For example, people with an internal locus
of control are generally higher achievers, cope better with
our own thoughts and actions. By deciding to change our goals or values, chronic illness, and report less stress, anxiety, and depression
we can affect our personality development. For instance, members of the than those with an external locus of control. Also, an inter-
Green Belt Movement may use self-analysis to check their personal nal locus of control during childhood seems to protect people
progress and to reward themselves for meeting the organization’s goals. against some health problems in adulthood (Burger, 2008;
According to Bandura’s social cognitive theory, these four cognitive Gale et al., 2008; Livneh et al., 2004; Spector et al., 2001).
processes influence our personality development, growth, and change. These findings indicate that a specific belief influences
To make the relationship between cognitive factors and personal- how you perceive your world, which, in turn, affects how you
ity more concrete, we’ll focus on three specific beliefs: locus of control behave. Next, we’ll examine two other beliefs that influence
(this page), delay of gratification, and self-efficacy (next page). behavior.

A . S O C I A L C O G N I T I V E T H E O R Y 459