Social Psychology

C. Thinking Creatively

At the beginning of this module, we told you about Shawn Carter, better known as Jay-Z. Carter
grew up living in the dangerous projects, dropped out of high school, and began dealing drugs at
a young age. Despite overwhelming odds, Carter succeeded in making ten hit albums, which
together have sold nearly 40 million copies. For his creative musical talent, he has received
seven Grammy Awards, two MTV Music Awards, an American Music Award, a Billboard
Music Award, and countless other honors. Carter is so creative and talented that he com-
pleted e Blueprint, a critically acclaimed album, in only two days! His creativity has
helped him succeed outside of the music business as well. Perhaps most notably, Cart-
er’s creativity is evident in his urban clothing brand Rocawear, which has become
Shawn Carter is a a multimillion-dollar business due to his creativity in marketing and product Shawn Carter is a very
very creative person development (Ali, 2006; DeCurtis, 2009).
as Jay-Z the rapper.
is intriguing story of Shawn Carter (Jay-Z) raises four interesting questions about
creativity: How is creativity defined? Is IQ related to creativity? How do creative people think and behave? Is creative person in his
creativity related to psychological problems? Although there are more than 60 definitions of creativity, we’ll Rocawear business.

begin with the one most commonly used (Boden, 1994).

How Is Creativity Defined? Einstein, who formulated the theory of relativity; Michelangelo,
who painted the Sistine Chapel; Sigmund Freud, who developed
e definition of creative thinking is somewhat different from the psychoanalysis; Dr. Seuss, who wrote rhyming books for children
definition of a creative individual. (and adults); the Rolling Stones, a well-known, 40-year-old rock-
and-roll band; Ray Kroc, who founded McDonald’s worldwide
Creative thinking is a combination of flexibility in thinking and reorga- hamburger chain; and Shawn Carter (Jay-Z), who is a rapper.
nization of understanding to produce innovative ideas and new or novel
Because there are so many different examples (and kinds) of
solutions (R. J. Sternberg, 2001). creativity, psychologists have used three different approaches to
A creative individual is someone who regularly solves problems, fash- measure creativity: the psychometric, case study, and cognitive
approaches (R. J. Sternberg & O’Hara, 2000).
ions products, or defines new questions that make an impact on his or her

society (H. Gardner, 1993, 2006a).
People can show evidence of creative thinking in many different

ways. For example, recognized creative individuals include Albert

Psychometric Approach Case Study Approach Cognitive Approach Photo Credits: left and right, © Getty Images
Because the psychometric approach Although case studies provide detailed
This approach, which uses objective problem- is limited to using objective tests, it portraits of creative people, the find-
solving tasks to measure creativity, focuses on provides little insight into creative ings are very personal or subjective and
the distinction between two kinds of thinking— minds. In comparison, the case not easily applied to others. In com-
convergent and divergent (Guilford, 1967; Runco, study approach analyzes creative parison, the cognitive approach tries to
2004). persons in great depth and thus build a bridge between the objective
provides insight into their develop- measures of the psychometric approach
Convergent thinking means beginning with a ment, personality, motivation, and and the subjective descriptions pro-
problem and coming up with a single correct solution. problems. vided by case studies. The cognitive
approach, which is also the newest,
Examples of convergent thinking include For example, Howard Gard- identifies and measures cognitive
answering multiple-choice questions and solv- ner (1993) used the case study mechanisms that are used during cre-
ing math problems. e opposite of convergent approach to analyze seven creative ative thinking (Freyd, 1994).
thinking is divergent thinking. people, including Sigmund Freud.
Gardner found that creative peo- For example, many individu-
Divergent thinking means beginning with a prob- ple are creative in certain areas als have reported that one cognitive
lem and coming up with many different solutions. but poor in others: Freud was very mechanism vital to creative think-
creative in linguistic and personal ing is the use of mental imagery,
For example, the two problem-solving tasks areas but very poor in spatial and which involves thinking in images,
on page 309 (nine-dot and candle-match puzzles) musical areas. Although case without words or mathematical sym-
are used to assess divergent thinking, which is studies provide rich insight into bols (Finke, 1993). Thus, the cogni-
a popular psychometric measure for creativity creative minds, their findings may tive approach involves analyzing the
(Amabile, 1985; Camp, 1994). be difficult to generalize: Freud’s workings of mental imagery and its
kind of creativity may or may not relationship to creative thinking.
Tests of divergent thinking have good reli- apply to Shawn Carter’s remark-
ability, which means that people achieve the same able achievements (Freyd, 1994). Now, let’s see what these three
scores across time (Domino, 1994). However, approaches say about creativity.
tests of divergent thinking have low validity,
which means that creative persons, such as Shawn
Carter, may not necessarily score high on psycho-
metric tests of creativity (H. Gardner, 1993).

310 M O D U L E 1 4 T H O U G H T & L A N G U A G E

Is IQ Related to Creativity?

In some cases, such as Michelangelo, Sig- in visual intelligence, and their right
mund Freud, and Albert Einstein, creativ- hemispheres are more active than their
ity seems to be linked to genius. However, le during creative activities (Treffert &
creativity is not the same as intelligence, as Wallace, 2002).
best illustrated by savants. Instead of linking creativity to genius,
Savants are about 10% of autistic individu- some psychologists believe creativity

als who show some incredible memory, music, involves relatively ordinary cognitive

or drawing talent. processes that result in extraordinary

Stephen Wiltshire (right photo) is a products (Weisberg, 1993). These cre-
savant who is world famous for his archi- ative products include inventions (Post-
tectural illustrations and incredible mem- its, genetic crops), new drugs (Viagra),
ory. Stephen earned the nickname “human and computer software (video games).
camera” because of his extraordinary abil- When the IQs of creative individuals
ity to look at a landscape for only minutes Stephen Wiltshire, “the human camera,” are closely examined and compared to
and then draw it from memory with excep- paints an aerial view of downtown Madrid after others, we find that people who are rec-
tional detail (Sacks, 2008; Treffert, 2006). ognized as creative tend to have above-
briefly seeing it by helicopter.

Despite their creativity, many savants score below 70 on IQ tests average IQ scores, but those with the highest IQs are not necessarily
(average score is 100). Savants lack verbal intelligence but excel the most creative (R. J. Sternberg & O’Hara, 2000).

How Do Creative People Think and Behave? Personality. On the positive side, creative people tend to be
Researchers have studied creative individuals to identify what is
unusual about their work habits and psychological traits (Helson, independent, self-confident, unconventional, risk-taking, hard-
1996; Simonton, 2000). Here are some of their findings. working, and obsessively committed to their work. On the negative
Focus. Creative people tend to be side, they tend to have large egos that make them insensitive
superior in one particular area, such as to the needs of others. They may pursue their goals at the
dance, music, art, science, or writing, expense of others, and they may be so absorbed in their work
rather than many areas. For example, that they exclude others.
Einstein (drawing at right) was supe- Motivation. ey are driven by internal values or personal
rior in the logical-spatial area—the goals; this is called intrinsic motivation. They are less con-
theory of relativity (E = mc2)—but cerned about external rewards such as money or recognition,
poor in the personal area—develop- Creative people can consider problems which is called extrinsic motivation. ey are motivated by
ing close relationships. from different viewpoints and are the challenge of solving problems; their reward is the satisfac-
Cognition. Creative individuals driven by strong internal goals. tion of accomplishment. On average, creative people work on

have the ability to change mental directions, consider problems a project for about ten years before reaching their creative peaks.
from many angles, and make use of mental images. ey are also One question o en asked about creative people is whether their
interested in solving unusual problems. creative fires are fueled by psychological or mental problems.

Is Creativity Related to Mental Disorders?
ere are numerous historical reports of a link between creativity One study found that parents with manic-depression (dramatic
and madness or insanity, more correctly called mental disorders. mood swings), as well as their children, obtained higher scores on
For example, Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens), Tennessee Williams, tests of creativity than did normal parents and children (Simeon-
Ernest Hemingway, Cole Porter, and Edgar Allan Poe were all ova et al., 2005). is and other research suggest that severe mood
reported to suffer from either depression or change could contribute to creativity by
manic-depression (swings between euphoria Creativity and Mental Disorders sharpening thoughts and broadening

Photo Credit: © Victor Lerena/epa/Corbis and depression) (Jamison, 1995). the person’s emotional, intellectual, and
A more formal study of 291 creative writ- Writers 46% perceptual views of the world (Jamison,
ers, artists, composers, thinkers, and scientists 1995). ere are of course many creative
indicated that 17–46% suffered from mental dis- Artists 38% individuals (writers) who have achieved

orders, especially mood disorders. As the graph Composers 30% creative breakthroughs without having
on the right shows, writers had the highest per- severe emotional problems (J. C. Kaufman
centage of mental disorders, especially alcohol- Thinkers & Baer, 2002).
26%

ism and depression (R. Post, 1994). 17% Next, we turn to an important compo-
Given the above results, researchers asked: Scientists nent of creative activities, the development
Does the mood disorder contribute to creativity? of language.

C . T H I N K I N G C R E A T I V E L Y 311

D. Language: Basic Rules

How many Our ability to use language is one of the most Young adults are estimated to have about
languages remarkable features of our species (A. R. McIn- 60,000 such pairings or words in their mental
are there? tosh & Lobaugh, 2003). As of this writing, people
are believed to speak about 6,900 different dictionaries (Pinker, 1995). However, these
languages, and although undiscovered lan- 60,000 symbols or words are rather use-
guages continue to be found, it is estimated that by the next cen- less unless the users follow similar rules
tury nearly half of the languages will be extinct (Erard, 2009; of grammar.
Garber, 2007; R. G. Gordon, 2005). Why is
this called Grammar refers to a set of rules for com-
Language is a special form of communication that involves learning com- a parrot? bining words into phrases and sentences to
plex rules to make and combine symbols (words or gestures) into an endless
express an infinite number of thoughts that can be
number of meaningful sentences.
understood by others.
e reason language is such a successful form of communication arises from For instance, our mental rules of grammar
two amazingly simple principles—words and grammar.
A word is an arbitrary pairing between a sound or symbol and a meaning. immediately tell us that the headline “Parrot
Bites Man’s Nose” means something very dif-
For example, the word parrot does not look like, sound like, or fly like a parrot, but ferent from “Man Bites Parrot’s Nose.” It may
it refers to a bird we call a parrot because all of us memorized this pairing as children. seem surprising, but speakers of all 6,900
languages learned the same four rules.

Four Rules of Language them. To illustrate the four rules of language, we’ll use the word
caterpillar. As a child, you may have watched its strange crawling
As children, each of us learned, without much trouble, motion, or perhaps you were even brave enough to pick one up.
the four rules of language. Now, as adults, we use these
rules without being aware of how or when we use

1 e first lan- 2 e second lan- 3 e third language rule 4 e fourth language

guage rule governs guage rule governs governs syntax, or grammar. rule governs semantics.
phonology. morphology. Syntax, or grammar, is a set Semantics (si-MAN-

Phonology (FOE- Morphology (mor- of rules that specifies how we ticks) specifies the mean-
nawl-uh-gee) specifies FAWL-uh-gee) is the system ings of words or phrases
how we make the that we use to group pho- combine words to form mean-
nemes into meaningful com- when they appear in
meaningful sounds that binations of sounds and words. ingful phrases and sentences.
For example, why doesn’t various sentences or
are used by a particular A morpheme (MOR-feem) is
the smallest meaningful combi- the following sentence contexts.
language. nation of sounds in a language. make sense? For instance, as you
Any English word
For example, a morpheme Caterpillars green long read “Did Pat pat a cat-
can be broken down may be and are. erpillar’s back?” how
into phonemes. do you know what the
a word, such as cat, You instantly realize word pat means, since
Phonemes (FOE- a letter, such as the s in cats, that this sentence is non- it appears twice in
neems) are the basic a prefix, such as the un- in sensical or ungrammatical succession. From your
sounds of consonants because it doesn’t follow knowledge of seman-
unbreakable, the English grammar rules tics, you know that the
and vowels. or a suffix, such as the -ed regarding where we place first Pat is a noun and
For example, the verbs and conjunctions. If the name of a person,
in walked. you apply the rules of Eng- while the second pat is
various sounds of lish grammar, you would a verb, which signals
c and p represent e word caterpillar is rearrange the combination some action.
different phonemes, actually one morpheme, of words to read: “Caterpil-
which are some of and the word caterpillars lars are long and green.” Somehow you knew Photo Credit: top, © Corbis/SuperStock
the sounds in the is two (caterpillar-s). Although you may not be that the same word,
word caterpillar. A er we learn to com- able to list all the rules of pat, had very different
At about 6 months bine morphemes to grammar, you automati- meanings depending
old, babies begin to form words, we cally follow them when you on the context. How
babble and make learn to combine speak. One way you know you know what words
basic sounds, or pho- words into mean- whether the word bear is a mean in different con-
nemes. We combine Learning and using the noun or a verb is by using texts is a very intrigu-
phonemes to form word caterpillar involve the fourth rule. ing question.
words by learning the ingful sentences by four basic rules.
second rule. using the third rule.

312 M O D U L E 1 4 T H O U G H T & L A N G U A G E

PowerStudy 4.5™

Understanding Language Module 4

One of the great mysteries of using and understanding Broca’s area is D. Control Centers:
language can be demonstrated by the following two Four Lobes
simple but very different sentences: prewired to combine
You picked up a caterpillar. sounds into words. Module 10
A caterpillar was picked up by you.
Wernicke’s area is F. Biological Factors
prewired to combine
words into sentences. crept slowly across the leaf ” is cor-
Despite a different word order, you know that these rect but that the sentence “ e crept
two sentences mean exactly the same thing. How you leaf caterpillar slowly the across” is
know that these different sentences mean exactly the meaningless. Chomsky’s answer is
same thing was explained by linguist Noam Chomsky A child learns to that young children can learn these
(1957). We’ll discuss two of Chomsky’s revolution- speak and understand complex and difficult rules of gram-
ary principles—mental grammar and innate brain words and sentences mar because our brains come with
program—that allow us to use and understand spoken because the brain has a a built-in, or innate, program that
language with relative ease (McGilvray, 2004). built-in, or innate, language program. makes learning the rules of gram-

Mental grammar. Almost every sentence we speak or under- mar relatively easy (p. 229). e brain’s innate program for learn-
stand is formed from a brand-new combination of words. Chomsky ing rules of grammar explains how children learn most of the
pointed out that the brain does not have the capacity to contain a list complex rules by age 4 or 5 and how children who are exposed
of all the sentences we will ever use. Instead, Chomsky argued that to two languages from birth learn the two distinct vocabularies
the brain contains a program or mental grammar that allows us to and grammar rules as quickly as their monolingual peers learn
combine nouns, verbs, and objects in an endless variety of mean- the rules of one language (Kovács & Mehler, 2009). However, it
ingful sentences. Chomsky’s principle of mental grammar answers is the interaction between the development of the brain’s innate
the question of how we can so easily create so many different sen- program and a child’s range of environmental experiences that
tences. e second question that Chomsky answered was: How do results in learning the complicated rules of grammar (Schlaggar
we acquire this mental grammar? et al., 2002).
Innate brain program. How is it possible that 4-year-old chil- But how does an innate grammar program, which could be
dren, with no formal schooling, can speak and understand an used by any child in any culture, specify the rules for forming
endless variety of sentences? For example, the average 4-year-old and understanding an endless number of meaningful sentences?
child can already determine that the sentence “The caterpillar Chomsky’s answer is perhaps his cleverest contribution.

Different Structure, Same Meaning Transformational rules are procedures by which we convert our ideas
One of the most difficult questions that Chomsky had to answer
was how an idea can be expressed in several different ways, with from surface structures into deep structures and from deep structures
different grammatical structures, yet mean the same thing. back into surface ones.

He answered this question by making a dis- For example, when you hear the two sentences about picking
tinction between two different structures of a up the caterpillar, you transform the words into their deep struc-
sentence: surface structure and deep structure. ture, which you store in memory. Later, when someone asks what
the person did, you use transformational rules to convert the deep
Surface structure refers to the actual wording of structure in your memory back into a surface structure, which

a sentence, as it is spoken.

Deep structure refers to an underlying meaning can be expressed in differently worded sentences. e distinction
between surface and deep structures is part of Chomsky’s theory
that is not spoken but is present in the mind of the

listener. of language.

We can illustrate the difference between surface Chomsky’s theory of language says that all languages share a com-

and deep structures with our same two sentences: mon universal grammar and that children inherit a mental program to

You picked up a caterpillar. learn this universal grammar.

A caterpillar was picked up by you. Chomsky’s theory, which is widely accepted today, was
Notice that these two sentences have dif- considered a major breakthrough in explaining how we
ferent surface structures, which means they acquire and understand language (M. C. Baker, 2002).
are worded differently. However, according You know that the sentence However, one criticism of Chomsky’s theory is that he
to Chomsky, you are able to look underneath “You picked up a caterpillar” downplays the importance of different environmental
the different surface structures of the two means the same as “A caterpillar opportunities for hearing and practicing sounds, which
sentences and recognize that they have the was picked up by you” because have been shown to interact with and influence language
same deep structure, which is why you know you recognize that both have development (Schlaggar et al., 2002).

the same deep structure.

they have the same meaning. Chomsky’s idea of an innate mental grammar would predict
Chomsky argues that we learn to shi back and forth between that children around the world should go through the same stages
surface and deep structure by applying transformational rules. of language development. Can this be true for all 6,900 languages?

D . L A N G U A G E : B A S I C R U L E S 313

E. Acquiring Language PowerStudy 4.5™

Module 3

B. Neurons: Structure &

If Chomsky is correct that all children connections (adult brains can grow some Function
inherit the same innate program for learn-
What do new neurons—p. 49). For example, a 6-month-

children’s ing grammar, then we would expect chil- old infant’s brain (left figure) has few neural
brains do? dren from around the world to go through interconnections, which are
similar stages in developing language and associated with performing
acquiring the rules for using language. And in fact, all children, relatively simple behaviors,
no matter the culture or the language, do go through the same such as babbling. In compar-
stages (Pinker, 1994). ison, a 24-month-old infant’s
Language stages refer to all infants going through four different brain (right figure) has hun-

periods or stages—babbling, single words, two-word combinations, dreds of neural interconnec-

and sentences. All children go through these four stages in the same 6-month-old tions, which are associated 24-month-old
brain has few with more complex behav- brain has more
order, and in each stage, children show new and more complex connections. iors, such as using two-word connections.

language skills.

e occurrence of each of the four stages is associated with combinations (Ropper & Samuels, 2009).
further development of the brain. At birth, an infant’s brain has Here are the four stages that each of us went through in learning
almost all of its neurons but they have not yet made all their to speak and understand the language of our parents or caregivers.
Photo Credits: top, From Conel, J. L. 1939, 1941, 1959, The Postnatal Development of the Human Cerebral Cortex, 6 Volumes, Cambridge: Harvard; left, © Romilly
Four Stages in Acquiring Language 2 Single Word Lockyer; right, © Royalty-Free/Masterfile

1 Babbling
One of the key features in human development is that infants Shortly before 1 year of age, an infant usually performs a behavior
begin to make sounds long before they can say real words. that every parent has been eagerly waiting for: to hear the child’s first
Infants repeat the same sounds over and over, and these sounds word. At about 1 year of age, infants begin not only to understand
are commonly called babbling. words but also to say single words.
Babbling, which begins at about 6 months, is the first stage in Single words mark the second stage in acquiring language, which occurs

acquiring language. Babbling refers to making one-syllable sounds, at about 1 year of age. Infants say single words that usually refer to what they

such as “dee-dee-dee” or “ba-ba-ba,” which are most common across can see, hear, or feel.

Bababa all languages. An infant’s ability to form sounds into words begins at about 8
Babbling is an example of an innate “sound” months and results from an interaction between the brain’s innate lan-
program in the brain that is involved guage program and the infant’s experience with hearing sounds (Jusc-
in making and processing sounds zyk & Hohne, 1997). About half the infant’s single words refer to objects
that will eventually be used to form (juice, cookie, doll, dada), and the other half refer to actions, routines,
words. Researchers have discovered or motions (up, eat, hot, more) (Pinker, 1994). e infant’s
that by 6 months of age, infants single words, such as “Milk” or “Go,” o en stand for lon- Milk.
A 6-month- have already learned to discriminate Go.
old brain between sounds, such as ba from pa,
has limited and to distinguish sounds in their ger thoughts such as “I want milk” or “I want to go out.”
capacity for native language from those used in As the infant learns to say words, parents usually
language. respond by speaking in a specific way called paren-
tese (motherese).
a foreign language (F. Bower, 2000). These findings indicate Parentese (motherese) is a way of speaking to young

that, at an early age, infants have already become accustomed children in which the adult speaks in a slower and higher

to making and hearing sounds that make up their native lan- than normal voice, emphasizes and stretches out each

guages. At about 9 months, babbling sounds begin to resemble word, uses very simple sentences, and repeats words

more the vowels and consonants that children will actually use and phrases. A 1-year-old
in speaking their native languages. Researchers conclude that parentese has at least brain has more
In children who can hear, babbling is oral. In deaf children connections and
who have been exposed only to the sign language of their deaf three functions: attract and hold an infant’s atten- more capacity for
parents, babbling is manual and not oral. at is, these babies tion, aid comprehension, and facilitate language
development (Leitzell, 2007). Also, parentese has language.

babble by repeating the same hand sign over and over (J. L. important cross-cultural benefits. For example, researchers found
Locke, 2006). is means that the brain has an innate program that the Shuar people from South America, who don’t understand or
for acquiring language, whether spoken or sign language. speak English, are able to understand the basic meanings of parentese
rough endless babbling, infants learn to control their vocal among English-speaking parents in North America (Bryant & Bar-
apparatus so that they can make, change, and repeat sounds and rett, 2007). us, parentese can convey meaning between people who
imitate the sounds of their parents or caregivers (Hoff, 2009). don’t speak the same language.
A er babbling, infants begin to say their first words. Next, the young child begins to combine words.

314 M O D U L E 1 4 T H O U G H T & L A N G U A G E

3 Two-Word Combinations 4 Sentences
Starting around age 2, children begin using single words that they Children make a rather large language leap when they progress
have learned to form two-word combinations. from relatively simple two-word combinations to using longer
Two-word combinations, which represent the third stage in acquiring and more complex sentences.

language, occur at about 2 years of age. Two-word combinations are Sentences, which represent the fourth stage of acquiring language,

strings of two words that express various actions (“Me play,” “See boy”) or occur at about 4 years of age. Sentences range from three to eight words

Hit ball. relationships (“Hit ball,” “Milk gone”). in length and indicate a growing knowledge of the rules of grammar.
Me play. Each of the two words provides a hint about what
However, a child’s first sentences differ from adult sentences
the child is saying. In addition, the relationship in that the child may omit the “small words” and speak in a pat-
between the two words gives hints about what tern that is called telegraphic speech.
the child is communicating. For example, “See Telegraphic speech is a distinctive pattern of speaking in which the

boy” tells us to look at a specific object; “Daddy child omits articles (the), prepositions (in, out), and parts of verbs.

shirt” tells us that something belongs to Daddy. For example, an adult may say, “I’m going to the store.” A 3- to
e child’s new ability to communicate by com- 4-year-old child may use telegraphic speech (omit article) and say,
bining two words and changing their order “I go to store.” However, by the time children are 4 or 5 years old,
marks the beginning of learning the rules of the structure of their sentences improves and indicates that they
grammar. From about 2 years of age have learned the basic rules of grammar.
A 2-year-old through adolescence, a child learns an Basic rules of grammar are the rules for com-
Photo Credits: (#1) © Romilly Lockyer; (#2) © Royalty-Free/Masterfile; (#3) © Laura Dwight; right (#4) © Frank Bates; top left, © Laura Dwight; top right, brain has average of a new word every 2 hours bining nouns, verbs, adjectives, and other parts of I goed to store.
© Frank Bates many (Pinker, 1994). I want blue toy.

connections A child’s language development is speech to form meaningful sentences.
and more partly dependent on how responsive
capacity for the parent or caretaker is. A respon- However, as children learn the rules of
language. grammar, they o en make errors of over-
generalization.
sive parent shows more contact, awareness, and warmth during Overgeneralization means applying a gram-

the child’s verbal interactions. For example, infants whose moth- matical rule to cases where it should not be

ers were more responsive to their speech at 13 months had more used.

advanced language abilities, including larger vocabularies at 21 For example, after a child learns the
months, compared to children of less responsive mothers (Tamis- rule of forming the past tense of many
LeMonda et al., 2001). verbs by adding a d sound to the end, he or A 4- to 5-year-old
By the age of 2, a child may have a vocabulary of more than 50 she may overgeneralize this rule and add a brain has
words, many of which will be used in two-word combinations. d to the past tense of irregular verbs (and
Although children usually go through a stage of forming single say, for instance, “I goed to store”). By the significantly more
words and then two-word combinations, there is no three-word time children enter school, they usually connections so that
stage. Instead, at a certain point the child will begin to form sen- have a good grasp of the general rules of
a child can learn
the basic rules of
complex grammar.

tences, which gradually increase in length through the fourth year. their language.

Going through the Stages activity in brain areas
Parents or caregivers sometimes worry about that were similar to those
How fast whether their child is late in developing

does a child language. In the real world, used by adults in speak-
go through normal children pass ing and understanding
the stages? through the four stages language (Dehaene-
of language at a pace that Lambertz et al., 2002).
can vary by a year or more. However, as Chom- 1. Babbling is study shows how
sky’s theory predicts and research has shown, all 2. Single word 3. Two words 4. Sentences environmental stimu-

normal children pass through the four stages, even though some of lation—hearing language sounds—activated the “language areas”
the stages may begin later or last for shorter or longer periods of of infants’ brains long before infants actually begin speaking.
time (Pinker, 1994). is study is a good example of how the brain and environment
As children proceed through the stages, there is a continuous interact in the development of spoken language and points out the
interaction between environmental stimuli and brain develop- importance of caregivers regularly talking to (verbally stimulating)
ment. For example, researchers used brain scans to identify maxi- their infants.
mum neural activity in 3-month-old infants who were listening to Next, we’ll discuss a number of innate (genetic) and environmen-
recordings of human speech. e infants showed increased neural tal interactions that are important in the development of language.

E . A C Q U I R I N G L A N G U A G E 315

E. Acquiring Language PowerStudy 4.5™

How does a It is quite amazing how children from How Module 4
child learn different countries around the world, did he D. Control Centers:
a particular such as Bali, China, Nigeria, Sweden, learn to
language? Japan, United States, Mexico, France, speak Four Lobes
Spain, Russia, and Thailand (right Thai?
photo), can acquire the sounds, words, and rules of their particular native
language. Each child learns his or her own
native language because of an interaction
between innate (genetic) and environmental
(learning) factors.

What Are Innate Factors?
All children go through the same four language stages because of is prewired to acquire and use language, whether spoken or signed.
innate language factors (Albert et al., 2000). In Module 4, we explained how damage to these same language
Innate language factors are genetically programmed physiological areas (Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas) disrupts the use and under-
and neurological features that facilitate our making speech sounds and standing of language (p. 78). Although your brain is prewired for
acquiring language skills. language, there is a best, or critical, time for learning a language.

We’ll examine three innate language features that work together Innate developmental factors. Researchers have discovered
so that we can learn to speak and use language. there is a critical period when acquiring language is the easiest
Innate physiological features. We have a (Shafer & Garrido-Nag, 2007).
specially adapted vocal apparatus (larynx and The critical language period is the time from infancy

pharynx) that allows us to make sounds and to adolescence when language is easiest to learn. Language

form words. In comparison, the structures of is usually more difficult to learn anytime after adolescence.

gorillas’ and chimpanzees’ vocal apparatus For example, immigrant children do very well Photo Credits: top, © Jeremy Horner/Corbis; center, Courtesy of Robert Zatorre, and Denise Klein, McGill University; bottom, © PhotoDisc, Inc.
prevent them from making the wide variety of learning English as a second language, while immi-
sounds necessary to form words (Lessmoell- grant adults, who are past the critical period, have
mann, 2006; Pinker, 1994). Without special- more difficulty and do less well (Jackendoff, 1994).
ized vocal apparatus, humans would be limited e critical period for learning language also explains
to making “animal” sounds. The brain is genetically why learning your native language was easy as a child
Innate neurological features. When peo- programmed to speak but, as an adult, learning a foreign language is many
times more difficult.
ple speak or use sign language, certain brain and understand.

areas are activated. e PET scan above shows a side view of the Innate biological factors provide the programming so a child
brain: red and yellow indicate the most neural activity (Petitto, can acquire any one of 6,900 languages. Which particular language
1997). ese findings indicate that the le hemisphere of the brain the child learns depends on his or her environment (parents).

What Are Environmental Factors?
How each child learns a particular language depends on social Social cognitive learning refers to the acquisition of language skills
interactions, one of the environmental factors. through social interactions, which give children a chance to observe, imi-

Environmental language factors refer to interactions children have tate, and practice the sounds, words, and sentences they hear from their

with parents, peers, teachers, and others who provide feedback that parents or caregivers.
For example, within eight months of training, Genie had
rewards and encourages language development, as well as provides
acquired a vocabulary of about 200 words. However, Genie’s long
opportunities for children to observe, imitate, and practice language skills. period of social deprivation le its mark, and even a er years of

What would happen if a child was continued social interactions, her language ability did not develop
deprived of almost all social interac- much beyond that of a 2- or 3-year-old child (J. C. Harris, 1995).
tions from ages 1 to 13? Such was the
case with Genie, whose mentally dis- Children who have the biggest vocabularies and perform best
turbed father strapped her to a potty on language tests are those whose parents are the most talkative
chair in a back room, punished her during the child’s first two years (Hart & Risley, 1996). Because
for making any sounds, and forbade watching TV drastically reduces conversations between parents
the mother or brother to talk to and child, researchers warn parents to limit their child’s TV
her. When discovered at age 13 by a viewing (Christakis et al., 2009). Other researchers encourage
social worker, Genie could not speak Parentese provides needed parents to use gestures, such as pointing, because children who
a single word (Curtiss, 1977). Genie’s stimulation and feedback. gesture more at a younger age later score higher on language
tests (Rowe & Goldin-Meadow, 2009). ese studies suggest envi-
case illustrates that even though children are prewired by hered- ronmental and innate factors interact with and influence a child’s
ity to speak a language, they need certain environmental stimuli, ability to acquire language.
such as listening, speaking, and interacting with others, in order When children master language, they have a powerful tool for
to learn to speak and use language. Genie’s case also illustrates the thinking, as we’ll discuss a er the Concept Review.
importance of social cognitive learning.

316 M O D U L E 1 4 T H O U G H T & L A N G U A G E

Concept Review

dog (dog, dag) n.; pl. dogs, dog. 1. If you form a concept of an 6. A system of symbols that we use in thinking,
object, event, or characteristic solving problems, and communicating with others
1. any of a large and varied by making a list of the properties is called (a) . There are four rules
group of domesticated that define it, you are forming for learning and using language. How we make the
animals (Canis familiaris) that a concept according to the meaningful sounds used by a particular language
have four legs, a tail, two is covered by the rules of (b) .
ears, prominent nose, a hairy model.
coat, and a bark.

2. If you form a concept by putting together Any English word can be broken down into basic
sounds of consonants and vowels, which are called
the average characteristics of an object and then (c) . How we group phonemes into
seeing whether a new object matches your average
object, you are forming a concept according to meaningful combinations of sounds and words is
covered by the rules of (d) . The
(a) theory. If you develop an idea smallest meaningful combination of sounds in a lan-
of a dog of average age, height, weight, and color,
you have formed a (b) of a dog. guage is called a (e) . How we combine words
to form meaningful phrases and sentences is specified by the rules
of (f) . How we know the meanings of words in
3. If you search for some rule, plan, or various contexts is covered by the rules of (g) .
strategy that results in your reaching a
certain goal that is currently out of reach, 7. Chomsky explained that a sentence can be stated in different
you are engaging in an activity called ways and yet have the same meaning. The actual wording of a sen-
(a) . During this activity, tence is called its (a) structure.
you go through three states: contemplating The underlying meaning of the sentence that is not
the unsolved problem, which is the spoken but is present in the mind of the listener is
(b) state; trying out called the (b) structure. To con-
various operations, rules, or strategies vert our ideas from surface structures into deep
to solve the problem, which is the structures and from deep structures back into sur-
(c) state; and face ones, we use (c) rules.
Photo Credits: (#2) © Haig Kouyoumdjian; (#3) © Craig McClain; (#8) © Romilly Lockyer; (#9) © Jeremy Horner/Corbis reaching the solution, which is the
(d) state. 8. In acquiring language, all children go through the same four
stages but at different rates. Beginning at about
the age of 6 months, a baby begins making one-
Answers to 4. Some problems can be solved by follow- syllable sounds, such as “bababa,” which is
problems on ing certain rules. If you correctly follow called (a) . By about 1 year of
rules that lead to a certain solution, you are age, a child forms (b) words,
page 309 using (a) . If you follow

rules that reduce the number of operations or allow you to take which usually refer to what the child can see, hear, or feel. At
about 2 years of age, a child makes (c) , which
shortcuts in solving problems, you are using (b) . are strings of two words that express various actions (“Me play”)

5. When you use a combination of flexibility in thinking and or relationships (“Hit ball,” “Milk gone”). At about 4 years of age,
reorganization of understanding to produce innovative ideas and a child begins forming sentences, which range from three to eight
solutions, you are engaging in (a) . words in length and indicate a growing knowledge of the rules of
If you begin with a problem and come up with (d) .
many different solutions, you are using
(b) thinking, which is one 9. One reason all children acquire a language in the same order is
that there are genetically programmed physiological and
definition of creative thinking. The opposite of neurological features in the brain and vocal apparatus.
this type of thinking is beginning with a prob-
lem and coming up with the one correct solu- These are known as (a) factors. Social
interactions between the child and others, which
tion; this is called (c) thinking. offer opportunities for observation, imitation, and

practice, are called (b) factors.

Answers: 1. exemplar; 2. (a) prototype, (b) prototype; 3. (a) problem solving, (b) initial, (c) operations, (d) goal; 4. (a) algorithms, (b) heuristics;
5. (a) creative thinking, (b) divergent, (c) convergent; 6. (a) language, (b) phonology, (c) phonemes, (d) morphology, (e) morpheme, (f) syntax or
grammar, (g) semantics; 7. (a) surface, (b) deep, (c) transformational; 8. (a) babbling, (b) single, (c) two-word combinations, (d) grammar or syntax;
9. (a) innate, (b) environmental

C O N C E P T R E V I E W 317

F. Decisions, Thought & Language

Decisions

How do We make many decisions each Should I have you want to undergo surgery. Would
day. Some decisions have very surgery? your decision be influenced differently
we make important consequences in our if a doctor tells you that the survival rate
decisions? lives, such as choosing a college, of surgery is 80% or that there is a 20% chance of dying
career, or spouse. Other decisions from surgery? Even though both statements express the
have much less importance, such as choosing a flavor of same risk, the 80% chance of survival sounds more appeal-
ice cream, the color of a shirt, or a movie to watch. We ing than the 20% chance of dying. inking about the suc-
would like to believe that we make decisions, especially cess of surgery is comforting, but thinking about the failure
important ones, based on thoughtful reasoning. But of surgery makes us uncomfortable (De Martino, 2006a).
how do we actually make decisions? Research does show that we o en base our decisions on emo-
Imagine that you are in the hospital and a doctor tion rather than intellect (Koenigs et al., 2007; Lehrer,
tells you about your treatment options. One of the treat- Emotions influence 2009). As we discuss next, research on gambling shows
ments involves surgery, and you must decide whether treatment decisions. what happens in our brains as we make decisions.

Gambling Decisions

Benedetto De Martino (2006b) and his team of researchers e results of brain scans showed that the part of
(2006) at the University College of London took brain scans of the brain responsible for strong negative emotions
men and women while they were being asked to make a deci- (amygdala) was very active while subjects were mak-
sion about whether or not to gamble. At the start of the ing their decisions, regardless of the choice they made.
study each subject was given about $100. ey were then Researchers concluded that emotions had a strong
told they could either “keep” 40% of their money or influence on how subjects made gambling decisions.
“lose” 60% of their money if they did not gamble. Further support for the significant role of emotions
When subjects were told they could “keep” 40% of in decision making comes from research studies
their money if they chose to not gamble, subjects gam- showing that people who lack emotions due to brain
bled only 43% of the time. When told they could “lose” trauma or injury o en have serious difficulties mak-
60% of their money if they did not gamble, subjects gam- ing even simple decisions (A. Damasio, 2006).
bled 62% of the time. Even when the chances of winning Gambling decisions are Emotions have the power to rule our choices about
and losing were identical, the wording of the instruc- ruled by emotions, not gambling as well as many other choices we make in
tions made a difference in the subjects’ decisions. rational thinking. life, including how we make political decisions.

Political Decisions

In 2008, John McCain (Republican) and Barack Obama (Demo- in which both candidates contradicted themselves. Results showed
crat) (see right photos) were competing against each other in the subjects were not critical of their own candidate, but Republicans
U. S. presidential election. How did you decide were as critical of Kerry as Democrats were of
which candidate to vote for? Were you able to Bush. Brain scans showed that during the task,
base your vote on only an objective evalua- the part of the brain where reasoning takes Photo Credits: left, © Getty Images; right, © Steve Pope/Landov
tion of their political positions, or were you place was inactive and subjects made com-
perhaps influenced by your feelings about pletely biased conclusions by ignoring infor-
having the first African American man be mation that could not be disputed. e most
president of the United States? active part of subjects’ brains during the task
During presidential elections, people was where emotions are processed (Westen,
make difficult decisions about which 2006a, 2006b).
candidate to vote for, and although We’ve known emotions can bias our
people may try to make their decisions decisions, and now researchers report our
objectively, research shows our political Which guided your decision to choose between John personalities also bias our political deci-
decisions are significantly influenced by McCain (left) and Barack Obama (right) for president— sions by influencing how we perceive and

objective thinking or biased emotions?

our emotions. For instance, during the think about the world and what is good
2004 presidential election, a group of “strong” Republicans and a or bad about it (Mayer, 2008).
group of “strong” Democrats were asked to evaluate statements Because words are so much a part of our reasoning process, we
made by George W. Bush (Republican) and John Kerry (Democrat) need to know how much words can influence or bias our thinking.

318 M O D U L E 1 4 T H O U G H T & L A N G U A G E

Words and Thoughts

Almost everyone has heard it said that the For example, according to the theory of linguistic relativity,
Does language Inuit (Eskimos) have dozens of words for people whose language divides colors into only two categories
influence snow because their survival depends (dark or black and bright or white) should perceive

thinking? on knowing how to travel and hunt fewer colors. In comparison, people whose lan-

in different kinds of snow. This guage divides colors into eleven categories (black,
particular observation was first made by amateur lin- white, red, yellow, green, blue, brown, purple,
guist Benjamin Whorf (1956), who noticed that pink, orange, gray) should perceive many more
languages differed in their vocabularies colors in their environment. However, researchers
depending on how much emphasis they gave discovered that although languages differ in their
to different objects and events in their envi- number of color categories, all languages divide
ronment. For example, Whorf reasoned that colors into the same basic categories. According
because the Inuit (Eskimos) have many names to Whorf ’s theory of linguistic relativity, we would
for snow, they must be able to perceive many have expected people to perceive colors differently,
more kinds of snow than Americans, for whom snow depending on whether their culture has two or eleven
conditions are less important. On the basis of these kinds names, but this is not what researchers found (Davies
of observations, Whorf formulated the theory of linguistic Linguistic & Corbett, 1997). us, people in different cultures
relativity. relativity theory seem to perceive colors in similar ways even if they
says differences do not have names for different colors (Pinker, 1994).
The theory of linguistic relativity states that the differences among languages
among languages result in similar differences in how people think of lead to differences Now, let’s examine Whorf ’s famous claim that
Inuit have more words for snow than do Americans.
and perceive the world. in thinking.

Inuit Versus American Words for Snow Thinking in Two Languages

In his original article, Whorf (1940) estimated that Inuit Suppose your native language is Chinese but you are also fluent in
(Eskimos) have about seven words for snow: falling snow, English. You are asked to read descriptions of two different people in
snow on the ground, snow packed hard like ice, slushy snow, either Chinese or English and then to write impressions of these indi-
dri ing snow, snow dri , and wind-driven flying snow, while viduals. You read a Chinese and an English description of a type of
most Americans use a single word, snow. Whorf reasoned person easily labeled in Chinese—shi gu, a person with strong family
that the Inuit’s larger vocabulary of snow-related words ties and much worldly experience—but not easily labeled in English.
should make them think and perceive snow very differently You read an English and a Chinese description of a type of person
than most Americans. Since Whorf ’s time, the number of easily labeled in English—an artistic character, a person with artistic
snow words attributed to Inuit has ranged from two dozen to abilities who is very temperamental—but
about 400 (Pullum, 1991). not easily labeled in Chinese. Researchers My native language is
Another linguist found that when subjects were reading and Chinese, but I also speak
We have about did a closer examina- thinking in Chinese, they formed a clearer
the same number tion and found that English, so which do I
of words for snow think in?

impression of the shi gu person; when
as you do! Inuit and Americans reading and thinking in English, they

Photo Credits: left, © Hans Blohm/Masterfile; right, © PhotoDisc, Inc. both have about eight formed a clearer impression of the artistic
words for snow (English words character (C. Hoffman et al., 1986). This is
for snow include blizzard, sleet, one of the few studies that supports the lin-
hail, hardpack, powder, avalanche, guistic relativity theory and the idea that
f lurry, and dusting) (L. Martin, language influences thinking (Hardin &
1986). So, as it turns out, Whorf Banaji, 1993).
was wrong about how many words Recent research shows not only that lan-
Inuit and Americans have for guage may influence thinking, but also that
snow. One reason Whorf ’s story it can lead to changes in our personalities.
about differences in snow words One study including 225 Spanish/English
lives on is that it’s a great (but bilingual subjects examined personality characteristics as subjects
untrue) story (Pullum, 1991). answered questions in each language. Researchers found that when
Although Whorf ’s story about snow words was untrue, using English, the bilingual subjects were noticeably more extra-
the basic question still remains: Do differences in language verted, agreeable, and conscientious than when speaking in Spanish
mean that people think and perceive the world in different (Ramirez-Esparza et al., 2006).
ways? One way to answer this question is to examine how We know that words are important tools for thinking, so what
individuals who are bilingual—that is, fluent in two lan- happens to an individual’s thinking if he or she has great difficulty
guages—think about and perceive their world. recognizing printed words? Our next topic is dyslexia.

F. D E C I S I O N S , T H O U G H T & L A N G U A G E 319

G. Research Focus: Dyslexia

What Kind of Problem Is Dyslexia?

Was that is Research Focus deals with a real-world Why can’t I equally, accounts for 80% of students identified as
word “bark” problem called dyslexia. spell the name having learning disabilities.
of my high Although people with dyslexia struggle with a
or “dark”? Dyslexia refers to an unexpected difficulty school? wide range of reading difficulties, many have nor-
learning to read despite intelligence, motivation,
mal or above-average IQ scores and some have very
and education. Causes of dyslexia include

genetic factors (defects in neural circuitry) and environmental factors successful and creative careers: Tom Cruise, movie actor;

(disadvantaged schooling) (S. E. Shaywitz et al., 2003). Jay Leno, TV talk-show host; Agatha Christie, author of
An example of a dyslexic is 16-year-old Steve Goldberg 100 mystery books; and Walt Disney, creator of animations
(Charkalis, 2005).
(right photo), who is motivated and intelligent and has In studying dyslexia, researchers combined the cogni-
won numerous medals for science projects. However, he tive approach—what happens when we read (not what you
cannot read or spell the name of his high school, read think)—with the physiological approach—what happens
phone numbers, or tell the difference between the words inside the brain.
dark and bark. Dyslexia, which affects boys and girls

What’s Involved in Reading? Why Can’t Dyslexics Read?
One problem dyslexics have is that their phoneme producer is
Earlier, we explained that children usually have no difficulty learning faulty so they cannot easily or quickly distinguish between
to speak because their brains come with innate or prewired areas for phonemes (ba, pa, la), and this results in problems distin-
speaking (p. 316). Learning to read is entirely different from learning guishing between like-sounding words (bark,
to speak because our brains have no innate areas dedicated specifi- park, lark), which makes reading difficult (Tallal,
cally to reading. Instead, we must spend many years practicing how 1995). Another problem is that dyslexics have
to read by learning to use three different brain areas that were origi- defective neural wiring between the phoneme
nally designed to do something else. at’s why reading is so difficult producer (#1) and the word analyzer (#2) and
to learn (Eden, 2003). automatic detector (#3). As a result, they cannot
easily or quickly recognize words or their mean-
Reading: 3 steps. Learning to read involves using 3 brain areas, each ings, which makes reading a slow and difficult
with a different function (Gorman, 2003; S. E. Shaywitz et al., 2003). process (Gorman, 2003; S. E. Shaywitz et al., 2003).

1 Phoneme (sound) producer. e first step in reading is to vocalize Can Training Help?
the word, either silently or out loud. Vocalizing involves changing the Because dyslexic children have deficits in the phoneme ana-
letters of each word into their basic sounds, called phonemes. For lyzer, researchers developed computer games to increase pho-
example, reading the word CAT involves vocalizing or changing the neme or sound processing, which is the first step in learning
letters C-A-T into the sounds KUH-A-TUH. e phoneme producer is to read. A er the dyslexic children played computer reading
located in brain area #1 (le inferior frontal gyrus) (figure below). games, brain scans showed that they actually had increased
neural activity in brain area #1, phoneme producer, and brain
2 Word analyzer. A er we vocalize, area #2, word analyzer. ey also developed better reading
or change a word’s letters into skills, listening comprehension, and word recognition (Gaab,
sounds, the next step is to make 2008; Temple et al., 2003).
a more complete analysis of a
written word, such as pulling 12 Parents are advised to encourage their dyslexic children
to play rhyming games and have their children read aloud
the word apart into syllables 3 while gently correcting their mistakes. Rhyming and reading Photo Credit: top, Los Angeles Times Photo by Brian Vander Brug
activities help dyslexic children develop correct associations
and linking syllables to CAT between sounds and words (Gorman, 2003). According to Dr.
their appropriate sounds. Sally Shaywitz (2003), the most successful programs to help
e word analyzer is located dyslexic children use the same core elements: practice with
in brain area #2 (le parieto- distinguishing between phonemes (computer games), build-
temporal area). When first ing vocabularies, and increasing comprehension.
learning how to read, children
rely heavily on using the phoneme Reading problems should be identified early, ideally between
producer and word analyzer. the ages of 5 and 7, when brain circuitry and reading skills are
being developed and can be most easily influenced (R. Lyon,
3 Automatic detector. With practice, brain 1999). Recent research identified two genes that contribute to
area #3 (le occipito-temporal area), called the dyslexia, which means that genetic testing for susceptibility to
automatic detector, becomes more active. e automatic detector takes dyslexia may be possible in the near future (Gruen, 2005).
on a bigger role by developing a permanent file of words so the reader
can recognize words on sight, which makes reading a quick, auto-
matic, and effortless process. Normally, these three processes work
together almost simultaneously, like members of a team.

320 M O D U L E 1 4 T H O U G H T & L A N G U A G E

H. Cultural Diversity: Influences on Thinking

Differences in Thinking

How does If you spend most of your time in one swimming toward the seaweed. On average, Japanese subjects
culture, you probably don’t realize how made 70% more statements about how the background looked than
culture influence much your culture influences your think- Americans and 100% more statements about the way the objects
thinking? ing (Hong et al., 2000). (fish) interact with the background.
For example, look at the Based on these kinds of findings, researchers concluded
underwater scene at the right and then look away that Americans usually analyze each object separately,
and describe what you saw. which is called analytical thinking, such as seeing a for-
Differences. When American students looked est and focusing on the biggest or strangest trees. In com-
at this underwater scene and then thought about parison, Asian people (Japanese, Chinese, and Koreans)
what they saw, they usually began by describ- think more about the relationship between objects and
American students’
ing the biggest, brightest, or most outstanding descriptions of this backgrounds, which is called holistic thinking, such as
feature—in this case, focusing on the fish and drawing differed from seeing a forest and thinking about how the many different
what they were doing (swimming to the right). In Japanese students’. trees make up a beautiful forest (Norenzayan & Nisbett,

contrast, Japanese students usually began by describing the back- 2000). Researchers suggest that differences in thinking between
Photo Credits: top, By courtesy of Takahiko Masuda and Dr. Richard Nisbett, University of Michigan; center, From Shaywitz, et al.,1995, “Sex differences in the ground and saying the bottom was rocky (Had you noticed?) and Americans and Asians—analytical versus holistic—come from dif-
functional organization of the brain for language,” Nature, 373, 607-609. Courtesy of NMR Research/Yale Medical School; bottom, © Ted Gibson the water was green (Had you noticed?). ey usually discussed ferences in social and religious practices and languages (Nisbett,
how the fish interact with the background, such as the fish were 2000; Nisbett & Miyamoto, 2005).

Male–Female Differences
Just as culture influences how we think, Brains Process Words Differently
Do men and so do gender differences. Research Not only do men and women use language differently, but their brains
women think shows that men and women think and may process language differently. Researchers used f MRI brain scans
differently? use language differently (Tannen, 1990, (p. 70) to identify which brain areas were most active during language
1994). tasks. e le f MRI scan shows that, in women, activity during cer-
Men and Women Use Language Differently tain word-processing tasks occurred almost equally in the right and

O Men more frequently use language to express ideas and le hemispheres (red and yellow areas indicate maximum activity). In
solve problems. Women more frequently use language to share contrast, the right f MRI scan shows that, in men, activity during the
concerns, daily experiences, and ordinary thoughts. same word-processing tasks occurred in only the left hemisphere
O Men use language to maintain their (B. A. Shaywitz et al., 1995). Other
independence and position in their group. L FRONT FRONT research did not find the same hemi-
Women use language to create connec- E L sphere differences between men and
tions and develop feelings of intimacy. F E women, but found they both use dif-
T F ferent parts of the left hemisphere
O Men prefer to attack problems, while T

women prefer to listen or give support. WOMEN when processing language (Sommer
Tannen concluded that neither the MEN et al., 2004). Differences in brain func-
female nor the male use of language, tioning between men and women do
which strongly reflects how they think, is not indicate that one brain is better
necessarily better; the two styles are just fMRI scans showed women use right and left hemispheres than another, only that they function
different. to process language; men use only left. differently (D. Halpern, 2003).

Difference in Language, Similarity in Thought
Is it possible to understand the concept of numbers without words for numbers? Brazil’s Pirahã
Count without people (right photo) are the first group found anywhere that lack words in their language for
words for specific numbers. Yet, Pirahã people can identify the number of items placed in front of them

numbers? by selecting a matching number of items. ey have accurate knowledge of numbers without

words for specific numbers. Their language has words for
only relative amounts, such as “some” and “more.” Contrary to prior belief,
counting may not be needed when it comes to thinking about quantity
(B. Bower, 2008b; M. C. Frank et al., 2008).
Next, we’ll discuss the interesting question of whether animals
have language and if my (R. P.) dog really understands what I say.

H . C U L T U R A L D I V E R S I T Y : I N F L U E N C E S O N T H I N K I N G 321

I. Application: Do Animals Have Language?

Criteria for Language 1 Language, which is a special form of communication,

What does Like most pet owners, I (R.P.) talk to my dog and involves learning a set of abstract symbols (whether words
my dog he usually behaves as if he understands what I say. for spoken language or hand signs for sign language).
For example, my dog Bear (photo below) behaves
understand? as if he understands “get your toy,” “go for walk,” 2 Language involves using abstract symbols (words or signs)
“time to eat,” and “watch television.” e obvious
question is: Has Bear learned a language? e answer to to express thoughts or indicate objects and events that
may or may not be present.
this question hinges on the difference between commu-
nication and language. Like many animals, Bear has the 3 Language involves learning complex rules of gram-
ability to communicate.
mar for forming words into meaningful phrases and
Communication is the ability to use sounds, smells, or ges- sentences.
tures to exchange information.
4 Language involves using the rules of grammar to
But language is much more than just communication.
Language is a special form of communication in which an generate an endless number of meaningful sentences.

individual learns complex rules for using words or gestures to Dogs communicate Because some animals, such as dolphins and pygmy
generate and understand an endless number of meaningful but don’t have a chimps, show an amazing ability to communicate,
sentences. language. researchers are debating whether animals can satisfy all

Although Bear can communicate—that is, understand my com- four criteria for language (Begley, 1998a; Savage-Rumbaugh &
mands and act accordingly—he, like most animals, shows no evidence Lewin, 1994). We’ll examine how close several animals come
of meeting the four criteria for having real language. to satisfying the four criteria.

Dolphins Dolphins are considered very intelligent, not that dolphins have a relatively sophisticated ability to use language

Do dolphins only because of their ability to learn but also (L. Herman, 1999).
use language? because in proportion to the size of their bod- Other evidence for dolphins having impressive communication
ies, dolphins’ brains are the largest of nonhu- abilities comes from watching a pair of dolphins carry out a com-
man mammals (smaller than human brains but larger than brains of plex sequence of movements in synchrony (referred to as “tandem”
great apes) (Tyack, 2000). Because dolphins have relatively large movements). Herman described these movements by saying that
brains, researchers are interested in how well they communicate. dolphins “may swim in a circle, leap out of water in a spinning
In the wild, dolphins use two kinds of sounds for communication: motion, and spit water out of their mouths together” (L. Herman,
clicks, which they use to probe the sea and “see” their environment, 2006, p. 150). Researchers have yet to determine how dolphins
and whistles, which they use in dolphin-to-dolphin communication, actually communicate information to each other, such as what
probably to express emotional states and identify the animal to the movements they will make.
group (L. Herman, 1999). Despite Herman’s impressive findings,
In testing the ability of dolphins to communi- some scientists remain skeptical. For example,
cate, psychologist Louis Herman (1999) has been David Kastak, a researcher of animal cogni-
training dolphins to respond to hand signals or tion, said, “What dolphins do may turn out to
whistles. He has taught two dolphins to respond be a lot more complex than what we thought Photo Credits: top, © Rod Plotnik; center and bottom, © 1989 Ed Kashi
to approximately 50 such signals (see right photos originally, but do they have what we would
for an example). call language? No. ey are not animals using
Herman found that dolphins can understand a nouns and verbs” (Mastro, 1999, p. E4).
variety of hand signals and perform behaviors in Although dolphins understand a variety
sequence. For example, the hand signal combina- of signals, perform behaviors in sequence,
tion “basket, right, Frisbee, fetch” means “Go to Hand signals in top photo tell dolphin form concepts, and even understand “sen-
the Frisbee on the right and take it to the basket.” to “jump over person,” which it does tences,” they show little evidence of using
More recently, Herman combined “words” by abstract symbols and applying rules of gram-
in bottom photo.

using gestures or whistles in basic “sentences,” mar to generate meaningful sentences to
such as “ball fetch surface hoop.” e two dol- communicate information to other dolphins.
phins responded correctly to both familiar and It is these criteria that distinguish the ability
novel “sentences” about 85% of the time. Her- to use language from the ability to commu-
man concluded that the ability of these two dol- nicate with signs, sounds, or gestures.
phins to pass tests of language comprehension Next, let’s turn to the apes, which in
(understanding “sentences”), which indicates terms of evolution are the animals closest to
an understanding of grammar or syntax, means humans.

322 M O D U L E 1 4 T H O U G H T & L A N G U A G E

Gorilla and Chimpanzee

Gorillas and chimpanzees have relatively Psychologist Herbert Terrace (1981) analyzed videotapes of
What does a large and well-developed brains. A gorilla’s chimps using sign language with their trainers. He was particu-
gorilla know? brain weighs about 500 grams, a chimpan- larly interested in the videotapes of a chimp named Nim, who
zee’s about 400 grams, and a human’s about learned more than 125 signs, such as “give orange me.” After
1,350 grams. However, because gorillas and observing over 20,000 of Nim’s signs on
chimpanzees lack the vocal apparatus nec- videotape, Terrace concluded Nim was
essary for making speech sounds, research- using signs more as tools to obtain things
ers have taught them other forms of than as abstract symbols or words and that
language, such as American Sign Language Nim never learned to form combinations of
(P. E. Ross, 1991). more than a few words. Perhaps the most
Shown on the right is researcher Fran- devastating criticism was Nim had primar-
cine Patterson using sign language to com- ily learned to imitate or respond to cues
municate with Koko the gorilla, who has a from human teachers rather than learning
vocabulary of about 1,000 signs (Boysen, and using rules of grammar to initiate or
2009). Similarly, Beatrice and Allen Gard- Francine Patterson taught Koko the gorilla a produce new sentences.
ner (1975) taught sign language to a chim- vocabulary of about 1,000 hand signs.
As a result of criticisms by Terrace and
Photo Credits: top, © Ron Cohn/koko.org/The Gorilla Foundation; center, Courtesy of Language Research Center, Georgia State University, Dr. Duane Rumbaugh, panzee named Washoe, who learned about 250 signs and passed others, research monies to study language in animals mostly disap-
© 1991 Public Sphere; bottom, © Michael Nichols/Magnum Photos her language skills on to her son (Time, 2007b). e finding that peared in the 1980s (Savage-Rumbaugh & Lewin, 1994). However,
gorillas and chimps can learn sign language raised the question of in the late 1980s, new findings on bonobos again raised the question
whether they use language in the same way as humans. of language in animals.

Bonobo Chimp: Star Pupil
e best evidence for language in animals comes for combining symbols that equals the language ability of a
Is this the from the work of psychologist Sue Savage- 2-year-old child (Savage-Rumbaugh, 1998). Although chimps

first real sign Rumbaugh. She reported that Kanzi, a bonobo can learn more than 400 symbols and even string several sym-
of language? (commonly called a pygmy chimp), has remark- bols together, their language ability is nowhere near that of a
able language skills that surpass previous accom- high-school student, who has a vocabulary of 60,000 words
plishments of common chimps (Savage-Rumbaugh & Lewin, 1994; and can string these words together into an endless number
Shanker et al., 1999). of meaningful sentences, o en about abstract
Instead of using sign language, Kanzi concepts (love, patriotism, courage, honor)
“speaks” by touching one of 256 symbols (M. Hauser, 2003).
on a board (top right photo), each of which Why did humans develop a complex lan-
stands for a word (Boysen, 2009). For guage while chimps did not? Researchers
example, Kanzi (bottom right photo) might BLACKBERRIES BUTTER VELVET PLANT now believe the development of human lan-

signal “Want a drink” by touching the sym- guage was triggered by a major genetic change
bol for “drink” or signal “Want to play” by (R. Klein, 2002). is conclusion is based on a
touching in sequence two symbols for “hid- new finding: the discovery of the first human
ing” and “play biting.” gene (FOXP2) involved specifically in lan-
By the time Kanzi was 6 years old, he guage. Individuals without this “language”
had a vocabulary of 90 symbols; at age 12, SHOT STRING PINE CONE gene are normal in other ways but not in

he knew about 190 symbols but used about Examples of symbols and their meanings communication; they have specific difficulties
128 regularly. Even more surprising, Kanzi pronouncing words and speaking grammati-
understands about 200 spoken English cally (Vargha-Khadem et al., 2005). Although
words, something that common chimps ancient humans shared this gene with other
have failed to master. animals, researchers discovered there was an
Perhaps Kanzi’s greatest accomplishment important change in this gene’s structure when
is his knowledge of word order. Psycholo- humans and chimps parted evolutionary com-
gists tested the ability of Kanzi to respond to pany (Krause et al., 2007).
600 spoken English commands that he had Some researchers point to a change in the
not previously encountered, such as “Put structure of this “language” gene (FOXP2)
the melon in the potty.” Savage-Rumbaugh as the reason that early humans were able to
suggests that 17-year-old Kanzi has an abil- gradually develop their primitive sounds and
ity to use abstract symbols (keyboard) and Kanzi has an amazing ability to use and clicks into the complex, fluent language that
a kind of primitive grammar (word order) respond to either symbols or English words. we speak today (Paabo, 2003).

I . A P P L I C A T I O N : D O A N I M A L S H A V E L A N G U A G E ? 323

Summary Test

A. Forming Concepts C. Thinking Creatively

1. There are two theories of how you have formed 7. A combination of flexibility in thinking
your concept of a dog and how you form concepts and reorganization of understanding to
generally. If you form a concept of an object, event, produce innovative ideas and solutions
or characteristic by making a list of the properties is referred to as (a) .
that define it, you are using the (a) Psychologists distinguish between two dif-
model. If you form a concept by constructing an ferent kinds of thinking. If you begin with a
idea of the ideal object and then seeing whether a problem and come up with the one correct
new object matches that idea, you are using (b) solution, it is called (b) .
theory. If you begin with a problem and come up
with many different solutions, it is called (c) ,
2. A concept is a way to group objects, events, or characteristics which is another definition of creative thinking.
on the basis of some common property they all share.
Concepts perform two important functions: They allow us
to (a) objects, and thus better organize and D. Language: Basic Rules
store information in memory, and to identify things without
(b) . 8. Our most impressive skill is thought to be a spe-
cial form of communication in which an individual
learns complex rules to manipulate symbols (words
B. Solving Problems or gestures) and so generates an endless number of
meaningful sentences; this form of communication
3. The process of searching for some rule, is called .
plan, or strategy that results in reaching a
certain goal that is currently out of reach is 9. All of the 6,900 known languages share four basic language
called (a) . We usually go rules, which are normally learned during childhood. The first
through three states in solving problems: language rule governs (a) , which specifies how
(b) , , we make meaningful sounds that are used by a particular lan-
and . guage. The second language rule governs (b) ,
which specifies how we group phonemes into meaningful combi-
4. We win at games by following rules. If we correctly follow nations of sounds and words. The third language rule governs
a set of rules that lead to a solution, these rules are called
(a) . As you gain experience with solving (c) , which specifies how we combine words to
form meaningful phrases and sentences. The fourth language rule
problems, you may use rules of thumb that reduce the number governs (d) , which specifies the meanings of Photo Credits: (#1) © Haig Kouyoumdjian; (#3) © Craig McClain; (#7) © Victor Lerena/epa/Corbis
of operations or allow you to take shortcuts in solving problems;
these shortcuts are called (b) . In making every- words in various contexts.

day decisions, you rely on information that is more prominent or 10. The linguist Noam Chomsky distinguished between how a
easily recalled and overlook other information that is available sentence is worded, which he called the (a)
but less prominent or notable; this is an example of using the structure, and the meaning of the sentence, which he called the
(c) heuristic. (b) structure. Procedures for converting our
ideas from surface structures into deep structures and from deep
5. By studying how people eventually solve problems, psycholo- structures back into surface ones are called (c) .
gists have discovered a number of useful strategies, including
changing our (a) . This often involves breaking
out of a pattern called (b) , in which we cannot E. Acquiring Language
see an object as having a function different from its usual one.
11. Children around the world acquire language in the same four
6. The sudden grasp of a solution after many incorrect attempts is stages that are associated with growth and development of the
called (a) . Another kind of thinking that is use- (a) . In the first stage, generally at about the age
ful in solving problems is to find (b) , which are of 6 months, the infant makes one-syllable sounds; this is called
similarities between new situations and familiar situations. Still (b) . By about 1 year of age, a child forms
another useful strategy for solving problems is to break the prob- (c) , which usually refer to what the child
lem down into a number of (c) , which, when can see, hear, or feel. At about 2 years of age, a child makes
completed in order, will result in a solution. (d) to express various actions or relationships.

324 M O D U L E 1 4 T H O U G H T & L A N G U A G E

At about 4 years of age, a child is forming (d) . Individuals with dyslexia have a problem
sentences, which range from three to eight
words in length and indicate a growing with changing letters into sounds or (e) and
have faulty (f) connections between brain area
knowledge of the (e) . #1 and brain areas #2 and #3.

12. A child’s beginning sentences differ
from adult sentences. A child’s speech is called H. Cultural Diversity: Influences on Thinking
(a) because it omits articles,
prepositions, and parts of verbs. In learning the rules for combin- 17. Men tend to use language to express ideas, maintain their
position in the group, and solve (a) , while
ing nouns, verbs, and adjectives into meaningful sentences, women use language more to share concerns
children often apply a grammatical rule to cases where it should
not be used. This type of error is called (b) . and daily experiences and develop feelings of
(b) .
Although all children pass through these stages in the same order, Image not
they may go through them at different ages and speeds.
Photo Credits: (#11) © Jeremy Horner/Corbis; (#17) Shaywitz, et al., 1995, Courtesy of NMR Research/Yale Medical School; (#19) © Michael Nichols/Magnum Photos 18. fMRI scans of the brain have shown that available due
13. Children are able to acquire a language with so little formal women process some words equally in both to copyright
(a) , while men process words restrictions

training because of genetically programmed physiological and only in the (b) hemisphere.
neurological features in the brain and vocal apparatus; these
features are called (a) factors. One innate factor
is the period of time from infancy to adolescence when language is
easier to learn, called the (b) . Children acquire I. Application: Do Animals Have Language?

the sounds and rules of a particular language because of their 19. Many animals have the ability to use
interactions with their surroundings; these interactions are called sounds, smells, or gestures to exchange informa-
(c) factors. The approach that emphasizes tion; this is the ability to (a) .
observation, exploration, and imitation in language acquisition Another question is whether animals can com-
is (d) . municate with abstract symbols; this is called
(b) . To decide that an animal
truly uses language, researchers must show
F. Decisions, Thought & Language that the animal has learned complex rules

14. A study on gambling found that even of (c) to manipulate symbols
(words or gestures) and so generate an endless number of mean-
when people knew that their chances of win- ingful sentences. The best evidence for language in animals is the
ning and losing were identical, the wording of
what they were told made a difference in their (d) , who has matched the language ability of a
2-year-old child.
(a) . Another study on how
the brain responds when people are making
political decisions found that the part of the
brain where (b) takes place
is inactive and the most active part of the brain
is where (c) are processed.

15. Whorf has suggested that language determines or influences Answers: 1. (a) exemplar, (b) prototype; 2. (a) categorize, (b) relearning;
the way people think and that people with different languages think 3. (a) problem solving, (b) initial state, operations state, goal state;
and perceive their world differently. This is called the theory of 4. (a) algorithms, (b) heuristics, (c) availability; 5. (a) mental set,
(b) functional fixedness; 6. (a) insight, (b) analogies, (c) subgoals;
. There is only weak support for Whorf’s theory. 7. (a) creative thinking, (b) convergent thinking, (c) divergent thinking;
8. language; 9. (a) phonology, (b) morphology, (c) syntax or grammar,
G. Research Focus: Dyslexia (d) semantics; 10. (a) surface, (b) deep, (c) transformational rules;
11. (a) brain, (b) babbling, (c) single words, (d) two-word combinations,
16. About 80% of learning disabilities are accounted for (e) rules of grammar; 12. (a) telegraphic, (b) overgeneralization;
by (a) , which is an unexpected diffi- 13. (a) innate, (b) critical language period, (c) environmental, (d) social
culty in reading despite intelligence, motivation, and cognitive learning; 14. (a) decisions, (b) reasoning, (c) emotions;
education. The three steps in reading involve three dif- 15. linguistic relativity; 16. (a) dyslexia, (b) phoneme producer, (c) word
ferent brain areas, each with a different function: Brain analyzer, (d) automatic detector, (e) phonemes, (f) neural or brain;
area #1 is called the (b) , brain area #2 17. (a) problems, (b) intimacy; 18. (a) hemispheres, (b) left; 19. (a) com-
is called the (c) , and brain area #3 is called the municate, (b) language, (c) grammar, (d) bonobo (pygmy chimp)

S U M M A R Y T E S T 325

Critical Thinking

Music Improves
Language Skills in Kids

QUESTIONS “Can you tell me how to get, how use of many senses, such as watching 4How many senses Photo Credit: © Scott J. Ferrell/Congressional Quarterly/Alamy
to get to Sesame Street?” Ses- other musicians, reading lips, touch- do we have? What
1What type of ame Street has been using music to ing, and hearing the music. Singing, are they? Which sens-
learning takes teach children language for over 40 for example, is a phenomenal exam- es are used when
place as children years. We know children enjoy music. ple of multisensory learning. When playing music?
listen to their parents Infants attentively listen to their par- children sing, they use their ears to
sing? ents singing to them. Children often listen to the sounds and voices 5According
sing loudly to themselves and with around them, their eyes to watch the to Gardner’s
2 Specifically, what their peers at school. They seem to movement of others, and their entire multiple-intelligence
is used to mea- be naturally wired for music. Many bodies to develop rhythm and coor- theory, which three
sure brain wave educators, parents, and television dination. One beneficial outcome of types of intelligence
activity? show creators have assumed singing this multisensory process is that it are exhibited when
helps children learn language faster. really facilitates learning. Generally, children sing?
3 Does this correla- But the real question is whether the more senses involved, the more
tion mean a per- music simply makes learning more learning takes place. 6Which type of
son with 20 years of accessible and entertaining for chil- aphasia would
musical training will dren, or if it actually advances the Over years of research it has be- singing benefit most
have greater brain learning of language. come clear that musical training ex- by helping people
activity than a person ercises the very same brain areas speak more fluently?
with 5 years of musi- A recent research study examined necessary for language skills. Teach-
cal training? Why or the relationship between musical ing letters and words to children ANSWERS
why not? training and language skills, and its through songs is a very effective TO CRITICAL
results are really interesting. In this learning strategy and it helps make THINKING
study, adults wore electrodes on their learning much more fun! Research QUESTIONS
scalp to measure brain wave activity clearly supports the work Sesame
while watching and listening to a cel- Street has being doing for decades,
list perform and a person speak. The teaching children language through
adults in the study consisted of musi- song and music. It turns out Sesame
cians (with varying years of experi- Street and other similar children’s
ence) and nonmusicians. Researchers television programs have been teach-
originally expected the musicians to ing language skills the right way all
have an advantage (greater brain ac- along. (Adapted from Gadzikowski,
tivity) only when it came to respond- 2007; Musacchia et al., 2007; Schon
ing to the cellist and not to speech. et al., 2008; Swaminathan, 2007;
However, results showed that musi- Tremmel, 2007; Warner, 2007)
cians had greater responses in their
brains to both music and speech than
nonmusicians. Specifically, there was
a positive correlation between years
of musical training and activity in
brain areas responsible for speech
and communication.

These research findings indicate
that musical training improves the
same processing skills in the brain
and nervous system needed for
speaking and reading. If you consid-
er the skills involved in learning
music, this finding makes perfect
sense. Music training requires the

326 M O D U L E 1 4 T H O U G H T & L A N G U A G E

Links to Learning

Key Terms/Key People Learning Activities

algorithms, 308 insight, 309 PowerStudy for Introduction PowerStudy 4.5™
analogy, 309 language, 305, 312, 322 to Psychology 4.5
automatic detector, 320 language in dolphin,
availability heuristic, 308 Use PowerStudy to complete quizzes and learning activities for ought and
babbling, 314 gorilla, and bonobo Language. e DVD also includes interactive versions of the Summary Test on
basic rules of grammar, 315 chimp, 322, 323 pages 324–325 and the critical thinking questions for the article on page 326,
categories in the brain, 307 language stages, 314 key terms, an outline and an abstract of the module, and an extended list of
Chomsky’s theory of mental grammar, 313 correlated websites.
morphemes, 312
language, 313 morphology, 312 CengageNOW!
cognitive approach, 305 overgeneralization, 315 www.cengage.com/login
communication, 322 parentese, 314 Want to maximize your online study time? Take this easy-
concepts, 306 phoneme producer, 320 to-use study system’s diagnostic pre-test and it will create a personalized study
convergent thinking, 310 phonemes, 312 plan for you. e plan will help you identify the topics you need to understand
creative individual, 310 phonology, 312 better and direct you to relevant companion online resources that are specific
creative thinking, 310 problem solving, 308 to this book, speeding up your review of the module.
creativity and mental prototype theory, 306
savants, 311 Introduction to Psychology Book Companion Website
disorders, 311 semantics, 312 www.cengage.com/psychology/plotnik
criteria for language, 322 sentences, 315 Visit this book’s companion website for more resources to help you
critical language single words, 314 study, including learning objectives, additional quizzes, flash cards, updated
social cognitive links to useful websites, and a pronunciation glossary.
period, 316 learning, 316
deep structure, 313 subgoals, 309 Study Guide and WebTutor
differences in thinking, 321 surface structure, 313 Work through the corresponding module in your Study
divergent thinking, 310 syntax or grammar, 312 Guide for tips on how to study effectively and for help learning the material
dyslexia, 320 telegraphic speech, 315 covered in the book. WebTutor (an online Study Tool accessed through your
early formation of eResources account) provides an interactive version of the Study Guide.
theory of linguistic
concepts, 307 relativity, 319
environmental language
thinking, 305
factors, 316 transformational rules, 313
exemplar model, 306 two-word
functional fixedness, 309
functions of concepts, 307 combinations, 315
grammar, 312 word, 312
heuristics, 308 word analyzer, 320
innate brain program, 313
innate language factors, 316

Suggested Answers to Critical Thinking 4. We have five senses, which are vision, audition, taste, smell,
and touch (Module 5). Playing music uses three of these
1. Social cognitive learning emphasizes the acquisition of language senses: vision, audition, and touch.
through social interactions, such as listening to parents sing, which give
children the opportunity to observe, imitate, and practice the words and 5. The three types of intelligence exhibited during singing are ver-
sentences they hear (p. 316). bal intelligence (using language), musical intelligence (singing),
and body movement intelligence (moving bodies to develop
2. Brain wave activity is measured and recorded by a complex machine rhythm and coordination) (p. 283).
called an EEG, or electroencephalogram (p. 152).
6. Broca’s aphasia is when a person cannot speak fluent sen-
3. No. Correlations only describe a relationship between two or more events, tences but can understand written and spoken words (p. 78).
which in this example are years of musical training and amount of brain Singing helps people speak more fluently and, as such, can be
activity. Correlations do not demonstrate cause and effect between vari- of benefit to people with Broca’s aphasia.
ables (pp. 32–33). It is possible for an individual with 5 years of musical
training (or even no musical training) to exhibit greater brain activity when L I N K S T O L E A R N I N G 327
listening to music than an individual with 20 years of musical training.

15 Motivation
MODULE

Photo Credit: © Hans Neleman/Corbis
A. Theories of Motivation 330 H. Application: Eating Problems & Treatments 352

B. Biological & Social Needs 332 Summary Test 354

C. Hunger 334 Critical Thinking 356

D. Sexual Behavior 338 Viagra for Men and Women?

E. Cultural Diversity: Genital Cutting 346 Links to Learning 357

Concept Review 347

F. Achievement 348

G. Research Focus:
Overcoming Educational Disadvantages 351

328

Introduction

Motivation Achievement

Why would Once a middle-school teacher and wrestling coach, Victor remembers being in
Erik Weihenmayer has become one of the most Why did friends the seventh grade when
a blind person respected and well known athletes in the world. In call him a some of his Black buddies

climb the world’s 2001, Erik climbed to the top of Mount Everest, the “White boy”? called him a “White boy”
highest mountains? world’s highest peak. In 2002, he stood on top of because they thought he
Mount Kosciuszko, completing his seven-year was studying too hard. “You can’t be cool if you’re
journey to climb the Seven Summits, the highest mountain on each of the seven smart,” says Victor, who was Mission Bay High’s
continents. During these adventures, he endured severe winds, –70°F weather, student body president, had a 3.7 (A–) grade point
and countless life-threatening situations. average, and planned to attend the University of
Erik’s quests were far from over. In Southern California in the fall (adapted from the
2003, he joined some of the world’s best San Diego Union-Tribune, June 17, 1994).
athletes to compete in the Primal Quest, Victor (photo below) grew up with an obstacle
the toughest multisport adventure race that goes largely unnoticed and is rarely discussed
in the world, taking place over ten days in public: pressure from students in the same racial
across 457 miles of high elevation in the or ethnic group not to succeed in the classroom.
Sierra Nevadas. It involves intense kayak- Faced with this negative peer
ing, mountain biking, caving, whitewater pressure, some minority stu-
rafting, and trekking. Averaging only dents (principally Latino,
2 hours of sleep a night, Erik and his African American, and
team became one of only about half of the Native American teen-
teams to cross the finish line. age boys) stop studying,
Erik accomplished these amazing feats don’t do homework,
while facing another major challenge: avoid answering ques-
blindness. He is the only blind person in tions in class, join
history to reach the summit of the world’s gangs, and even drop
highest peak, Mount Everest, and one of out of school.
the youngest to climb the Seven Summits. Similar to Vic-
Erik never allows his blindness to inter- tor’s own experience,
Erik Weihenmayer, a blind man, fere with his pursuit of adventure and life students who are Victor was proud of his A–
climbed the Seven Summits, the tallest fulfillment. For instance, his blindness doing well in school average, but some of his
is accompanied by increased eye pressure, are often accused peers believed that being
peak on every continent.
smart wasn’t cool.

Photo Credits: left, © Didrik Johnck/Corbis; right, © San Diego Union-Tribune/ZUMA Press which is exacerbated in high elevations. Erik described this pressure when he of “acting White” by peers in their same racial or
reached 19,000 feet during one of his climbs by saying, “It felt like someone ethnic group. Educators believe that such a cultural
stabbed me in the eye with a fork” (Weihenmayer, 1999). Yet, he continued to the bias against appearing too smart prevents students
top of the peak (adapted from Everest News, 1999; Touchthetop, 2009). from achieving their full potential (R. Fryer, 2005,
Reporters who question Erik about why he risks his life to climb and pursue 2006). How Victor overcame this negative peer
dangerous adventures are really asking about his motivation. pressure and did succeed will be discussed later in
Motivation refers to the various physiological and psychological factors that cause us this module.

to act in a specific way at a particular time.

When you are motivated, you usually show three characteristics: What’s Coming

1. You are energized to do or engage in some activity. We’ll look at four general theories that psycholo-
2. You direct your energies toward reaching a specific goal. gists use to explain motivation, discuss the differ-
3. You have differing intensities of feelings about reaching that goal. ences between social and biological needs, and then
focus on specific examples, such as hunger, sexual
We can observe these three characteristics in Erik’s behavior: behavior, and achievement. We’ll examine why
some people are achievers and others are under-
1. He was energized to engage in intense sport activities for ten days with achievers. We’ll discuss why people become over-
little sleep or rest. weight and why dieting is so difficult. We’ll look at
two serious eating disorders that result more from
2. He directed his energy toward climbing peaks few people had ever psychological than from biological factors.
conquered—in some cases making him the only blind person to do so.
We’ll begin with four general theories that psy-
3. He felt so intensely about reaching his goal that even when exhausted and chologists use to explain motivation.
feeling stabbing pain in his eye, he persisted in reaching the summit.

We’ll discuss various motivating forces, including those involved in eating and
drinking, sexual behavior, achievement, and, of course, climbing mountains.

I N T R O D U C T I O N 329

A. Theories of Motivation PowerStudy 4.5™

Why does Module 10
Erik climb? F. Biological Factors

Many people who watch or hear about Erik engaging in his many dangerous climbs or other adventures ask, Why is
he doing that? e same can be asked of you: Why are you willing to work hard for four to six years to get a college
degree? ese are questions about motivation. We’ll discuss four general theories of motivation—the instinct,
incentive, and cognitive theories, and the newest, the brain’s reward/pleasure center theory.

Instinct Brain: Reward/Pleasure Center
In the early 1900s, William McDougall During his climbs up to each of the Seven Sum-
Is he (1908) claimed that humans were moti- What’s his mits, Erik was motivated to satisfy various biologi-
driven by vated by a variety of instincts. reward for cal needs, such as eating and drinking. e human
climbing? body is set up genetically to send biological signals
instincts? Instincts are innate tendencies or bio-
to the brain, which is genetically wired to interpret
logical forces that determine behavior. the body’s biological signals and thus motivate the person to eat or drink
by causing feelings of hunger or thirst (Kalat, 2009). Later we’ll describe
McDougall listed about half a dozen instincts, such as the body’s biological signals and how the brain interprets these signals
combat, curiosity, sympathy, and self-assertion. He might to produce feelings of hunger or fullness.
have explained Erik’s motivation to climb as arising from
instincts involving curiosity and self-assertion. But attrib- One reason you are motivated to eat is that
uting mountain climbing to an instinct is more like labeling chewing on a favorite food can be so pleasurable.
than explaining the underlying motivation. At one point, Only recently have researchers discovered that this
psychologists had proposed over 6,000 instincts to explain “eating” pleasure comes from the brain’s reward/
every kind of human motivation. Although instincts pleasure center (Dackis & O’Brien, 2001; Dallman
proved useless in explaining human motivation, they et al., 2005).
proved useful in explaining animal behaviors because ani-
mal researchers redefined instincts as fixed action patterns The reward/pleasure center includes several areas

(FitzGerald, 1993). of the brain, such as the nucleus accumbens and the Food triggers
A fixed action pattern is an innate biological force that predis- ventral tegmental area, and involves several neurotrans- reward center.
mitters, especially dopamine. These components make
poses an organism to behave in a fixed way in the presence of a

specific environmental condition. up a neural circuity that produces rewarding and pleasurable feelings.

Researchers discovered the brain’s reward/pleasure center (figure
below) by using newly developed brain scans (fMRI—p. 70) that can
identify neural activity in the living brain. For example, researchers
found that cocaine produced its pleasurable feelings by activating two
brain areas, nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area, that are
involved in the brain’s reward/pleasure center (Dackis & O’Brien, 2001).
Using this same technique, researchers found that a number of other Photo Credits: left, © John Dominis/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images; right, © Michael Melford
activities also triggered the brain’s reward/
pleasure center. us, animals are motivated
Animals have innate biological tendencies called instincts. to continually press a lever to obtain brain
stimulation, and people are motivated to
For example, the above photo shows how a baboon is eat, engage in sex, gamble, use recreational
innately predisposed to behave in a fixed aggressive pat- drugs, and listen to “spine-chilling” music
tern—opens mouth, stares, rises on hind feet—in the face because, as brain scans (f MRIs) have Nucleus
of a specific stimulus, a threatening cheetah. Ethologists, shown, all these behaviors activate the accumbens
researchers who study animal behaviors, reported that fixed brain’s reward/pleasure center (Aharon et
action patterns help animals adapt to their natural environ- al., 2001; Bartels, 2002; Begley, 2001; Blood & Ventral tegmental area
ments. For example, in Module 10 (p. 228) we explained how
birds that can walk immediately a er birth become attached Zatorre, 2001; Breiter et al., 2001; de Araujo et Reward/pleasure center
to, or imprinted on, the first moving object (animal, human, al., 2008; Grimm, 2007; Shizgal & Arvanitogi-
or basketball) that the baby bird encounters. Once imprinted, annis, 2003). Recently, genes have been linked to several behaviors that
the baby bird continues to interact with that bird or object trigger the brain’s reward/pleasure center, including obesity, risk taking
as if it were its parent. Imprinting is an example of a fixed (gambling), smoking, and sexual activity (Harmon, 2006). is means
action pattern that is extremely useful in helping young ani- having specific variations of genes makes people more likely to engage
mals survive (Lorenz, 1952). in these pleasurable activities.
Why does Erik climb? Erik may climb because this behavior acti-
Instincts represented an early but failed attempt to explain vates the brain’s reward/pleasure center. He may also be motivated to
human motivation. We’ll jump from the early 1900s to the climb by a variety of psychological factors, such as gaining various
early 2000s and examine current research that sheds a new incentives or fulfilling his expectations, which we’ll examine next.
light on human motivation.

330 M O D U L E 1 5 M O T I V A T I O N

Incentives The issue of motivation Cognitive Factors
ousands of people train for months to run grueling
Why do becomes very personal when Why do people 26-mile-long marathons, in which only the top two or
run marathons? three receive any prize money and the rest receive only
you study? we ask you to explain why
you sacrificed so much and T-shirts. What motivates people to endure such agony?
worked so hard to get into college. Now that e answer can be traced to the early 1960s, when psychologists began applying
you’re in college, what is motivating you to study cognitive concepts to explain human motivation (Bandura, 1986; Deci & Ryan,
for all those exams and write all those papers? 1985; Fiske, 2008; B. Weiner, 1991). ese cognitive researchers said that one
One answer is that you are motivated to get a col- reason people run marathons, usually for no reward other than a T-shirt, has to
lege degree because it is a very do with the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
big incentive (Fiske, 2008; The degree was Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors that either
Petri & Govern, 2004). worth the hard work!
reduce biological needs or help us obtain incentives or external rewards.

Intrinsic motivation involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors because the

behaviors themselves are personally rewarding or because engaging in these activities

fulfills our beliefs or expectations.

Intrinsic motivation explains that people volunteer their services, spend
hours on hobbies, run marathons, or work on personal projects because these
activities are personally rewarding, fulfilling, or challenging. Intrinsic motiva-
tion emphasizes that we are motivated to engage in many behaviors because
of our own personal beliefs, expec-
tations, or goals, rather than exter- I need to prove to
nal incentives (Linnenbrink-Garcia myself that I can do it!

Incentives are goals that can be either objects or & Fredricks, 2008; Ryan & Deci,
thoughts that we learn to value and that we are moti- 2000).
Why does Erik climb? Accord-
vated to obtain. ing to cognitive theory’s concept of
Incentives have two common features. First, intrinsic motivation, another reason
Erik is motivated to engage in dan-
they can be either thoughts (“I want to get a gerous and almost impossible climbs
degree”) or objects (money, clothes) that we is that climbing itself is very reward-
LEARN to value. For example, when you were 5 ing to Erik. Erik began climbing
years old, you had not yet learned the value of a to help him meet his own personal
good education. Second, the value of incentives goals and expectations, which are
can change over time. A pizza is not an incentive powerful motivators. “Often,” Erik
at 7 .., but it may be an important incentive at said, “we are forced to throw out the
Photo Credits: left, © Richard Sjoberg; right, © Jupiterimages/Comstock Images/Alamy 7 .. Many of our behaviors are motivated by a expectations of others and rise to the
variety of incentives, including grades, praise, level of our own internal potential”
money, clothes, or academic degrees. You can (Weihenmayer, 2009).
think of incentives as pulling us or motivating us
to obtain them. Explaining Human Motivation
Why did you pay $65 for a concert ticket? Why did you
Would you like a dessert? Incentives Why did run a marathon? Why did you study so much for that test?
explain why there’s always room for dessert
when we say we are full or why we continue to they do that? How could you eat a whole pizza? Why did you drink so
buy more clothes even when our closets are much last night? The answers to these questions about
full. Even though our immediate needs seem to human behaviors involve three different factors. You may be motivated because
be met (“I’m full” or “I have enough clothes”), certain behaviors trigger the brain’s reward/pleasure center. You may be moti-
highly valued incentives, such as desired foods vated to obtain incentives, which you have learned to value. You may be moti-
or great clothes, have the power to motivate vated by cognitive or intrinsic factors, such as wanting to satisfy your personal
or pull us toward obtaining them. Incen- beliefs, reach certain goals, or fulfill your expectations. Human motivation is so
tives also explain why people often buy things difficult to explain because it may involve all three of these factors. In addition,
on impulse. you can be motivated by emotional factors (anger, fear, happiness) or personal-
ity factors (outgoing, shy, uninhibited), which we’ll discuss in Modules 16, 19,
Why does Erik climb? Another reason Erik is and 20.
motivated to climb probably involves obtaining One of the main functions of emotions is to satisfy a number of biological
incentives, such as recognition by national media, and social needs, which we’ll examine next.
speaking invitations, and money from corporate
sponsors and sales of his books. However, other
equally powerful reasons for Erik’s climbing
probably involve cognitive factors (Eccles, 2005).

A . T H E O R I E S O F M O T I V A T I O N 331

B. Biological & Social Needs

How many needs e most popular daytime television programs are the soap operas, which dramatize a whole range of human
do you have? needs—the good, the bad, the ugly, and the dumb. As the soap opera characters try to satisfy their needs, they
get into endless difficulties. We’ll discuss some of the more common biological and social needs.

Biological Needs Social Needs One reason that Satisfying Needs
It’s pretty obvious that the man and about 90% of You may
What are his pet pig are about to satisfy their Why did adults in the Which remember
they get need gets from Mod-
they doing? hunger, a basic biological need.
Biological needs are physiological married? United States get satisfied? ule 1 that

requirements that are critical to our married is that one of the

survival and physical well-being. being married satisfies a number of founders of the humanistic

Researchers have social needs. approach in psychology was
identified about a dozen Social needs are needs that are Abraham Maslow. Maslow was

biological needs, such acquired through learning and experience. particularly interested in

as the needs for food, Depending on your learning and human motivation, especially
water, sex, oxygen, sleep, experiences, you may acquire dozens in how we choose which bio-
Satisfying biological needs and pain avoidance, all of social needs, such as the needs logical or social need to satisfy.

of which help to keep our bodies functioning at their for achievement, affiliation (forming For example, should you study
best and thus help us survive (Petri & Govern, 2004). social bonds), fun (play), relaxation, late for an exam and satisfy
When genes are defective. Perhaps because bio- helpfulness, independence, and nur- your social need to achieve, or
logical drives are critical for survival, their automatic turance (Petri & Govern, 2004). go to bed at your regular time
regulation is built into a newborn’s brain. In rare One reason and satisfy your biological need
cases, individuals are born with defective genes that marriage is for sleep? Maslow (1970) pro-
cause biological needs to run amok. For example, so popular is posed that we satisfy our needs
some children are born with defective “eating” genes that it satisfies in a certain order or according
that result in never feeling full but being constantly a number of to a set hierarchy (figure on
hungry and obsessed with food and eating (Webb et social needs, opposite page).
al., 2006). Children with this genetic problem (the including af- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Prader-Willi syndrome affects the hypothalamus) filiation, nur- is an ascending order, or hierarchy,

can never be le alone with food because they will eat turance, and in which biological needs are

everything in sight. Getting married achievement. placed at the bottom and social Photo Credits: left, © Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images; center and right, © PhotoDisc, Inc.
satisfies social e need for
Another kind of rare genetic problem affecting only needs at the top. According to
needs. affiliation, or
40 families worldwide destroys the ability to sleep. Maslow’s hierarchy, we satisfy our

As individuals with this genetic defect (fatal familial forming lasting, biological needs (bottom of hierar-

insomnia) reach their fi ies, they find that one day they positive attachments, is one of our chy) before we satisfy our social

cannot sleep through the night and from then on they stronger social needs and is impor- needs (top of hierarchy).

never sleep again. Over a period of several months, tant to maintaining physical health Maslow hypothesized that,
these individuals lose the ability to walk, speak, and and psychological well-being (Simp- a er we satisfy needs at the
think. Finally, within 15 months, their sleepless body son & Tran, 2006). bottom level of the hierarchy,
shuts down its functions, resulting in coma and death In some cases, the distinction we advance up the hierarchy
(Grimes, 2006; Max, 2006). ese two examples show between biological and social needs to satisfy the
that the proper regulation of biological needs is critical is blurred. For example, we may eat needs at the
for healthy physiological functioning and survival. or drink not only to satisfy biological next level.
When psychological factors interfere. Besides needs but also to make social contact However, if
genetic defects, psychological factors can interfere with or deal with stress. Similarly, we may we are at a
the regulation of biological needs. For example, some engage in sex for reproduction, which higher level
individuals develop the rare eating disorder anorexia is a biological need, or to express and our basic
nervosa, which involves self-starvation. Without pro- love and affection, which is a social Do you satisfy needs are not
fessional help, these individuals may starve themselves need. Because we have only so much biological satisfied, we
to death. Eating disorders show how psychological fac- time and energy to satisfy a relatively needs first? may come

tors can override basic biological needs. We’ll discuss large number of biological and social back down the hierarchy.
eating disorders in the Application section. needs, how do we decide which needs We’ll examine Maslow’s
Although there are a relatively limited number of to satisfy first? e answer may be hierarchy of needs in more
biological needs, there are many more social needs. found in Maslow’s hierarchy. detail.

332 M O D U L E 1 5 M O T I V A T I O N

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

If you were very hungry and very A er you meet the needs at one level, you advance to the next
Which needs lonely at the same time, which need level. For example, if your physiological needs at Level 1 are
do you would you satisfy first, your biological satisfied, you advance to Level 2 and work on satisfying your
safety needs. Once your safety needs are satisfied, you advance
satisfy first? need (hunger) or your social need
(affiliation)? One answer to this ques- to Level 3, and so forth, up the needs hierarchy.
tion can be found in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which says Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is represented by a pyramid
that you satisfy your biological needs before you can turn
your attention and energy to fulfilling your personal and social and shows the order in which you satisfy your biological
needs. According to Maslow, when it comes to satisfying your and social needs. e first needs you satisfy are physiologi-
needs, you begin at the bottom of the needs hierarchy, with cal or biological ones, so please go to the bottom of the
physiological needs, and then work your way toward the top. pyramid and begin reading Level 1. en continue reading
Levels 2, 3, 4, and 5, which takes you up the pyramid.

5Level Self-actualization: Fulfillment of one’s unique potential. If we face roadblocks in
reaching our true potential, we will feel frustrated. For example, if you are majoring in
business and your real interest and talent is music, your need for self-actualization may
be unsatis ed. According to Maslow, the highest need is self-actualization, which
involves developing and reaching our full potential as unique human beings. However,
Maslow cautioned that very few individuals reach the level of self-actualization
because it is so difficult and challenging. Examples of individuals who might be said
to have reached the level of self-actualization are Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein,
Eleanor Roosevelt, and Martin Luther King, Jr.
4Level Esteem needs: Achievement, competency, gaining approval and recognition.
During early and middle adulthood, people are especially concerned with
achieving their goals and establishing their careers. As we develop skills to
gain personal achievement and social recognition, we turn our energies to
Level 5.
3Level Love and belonging needs: Affiliation with others and acceptance
by others. Adolescents and young adults, who are beginning to form
serious relationships, would be especially interested in ful lling their
needs for love and belonging. After we nd love and affection, we
advance to Level 4.
2Level Safety needs: Protection from harm. People who live in
high-crime or dangerous areas of the city would be very concerned
about satisfying their safety needs. After we nd a way to live in a
safe and secure environment, we advance to Level 3.
1Level Physiological needs: Food, water, sex, and sleep.
People who are homeless or jobless would be especially
concerned with satisfying their physiological needs above
all other needs. We must satisfy these basic needs before
we advance to Level 2.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs suggests the order in which we satisfy our needs.

Conclusion. One advantage of Maslow’s hierarchy is priorities to needs: Some may value love over self-esteem, or
that it integrates biological and social needs into a single vice versa (Neher, 1991). We’ll discuss Maslow’s hierarchy of
framework and proposes a list of priorities for the order needs later on when we explain humanistic theories of person-
in which we satisfy various biological and social needs ality (see p. 443). Despite criticisms of Maslow’s hierarchy, it
(Fiske, 2008; Frick, 2000). remains a useful reminder of the number and complexity of
human needs.
One problem with Maslow’s hierarchy is that
researchers have found it difficult to verify whether his To give you a sample of how psychologists study human
particular order of needs is accurate or to know how motivation, we have selected two biological needs—food and
to assess some of his needs, especially self-actualization, sex—from Maslow’s Level 1 and one social need—achieve-
which very few individuals are able to reach (Geller, ment—from Maslow’s Level 4. We consider these needs in the
1982). Another problem is that people give different
following sections.
B . B I O L O G I C A L & S O C I A L N E E D S 333

C. Hunger

Optimal Weight

Why don’t e reason you never see fat wolves is that they, In comparison, home pets may become fat because their owners,
like all animals, have an inherited having the best of intentions, give the pets too much
you see fat biological system that carefully food or food so tasty that their pets eat too much.
wolves? regulates their eating so that And unlike wild animals, home-bound pets may

they maintain their optimal, or have few opportunities to run around and burn off
ideal, weights (Kolata, 2000b). the extra food or surplus calories.
Optimal or ideal weight results from an almost perfect A calorie is simply a measure of how much energy food

balance between how much food an organism eats and Animals rely on a biological contains. For example, foods high in fats (pizza, cheese-
how much it needs to meet its body’s energy needs. system to regulate weight. burgers, french fries, donuts) usually have several times
more calories than foods high in protein (fish, chicken,
In the wild, animals usually eat only to replace fuel
used by their bodies, and thus they rarely get fat. In addition, most eggs) or high in carbohydrates (vegetables, fruits, grains). e same
wild animals use up a tremendous amount of energy in finding food. factors that make pets overweight also make humans overweight.

Overweight

Why Like animals, we humans have an not getting enough exercise to burn off surplus calories (CDC,
inherited biological system that 2006c). For example, some college freshmen gain 6 to 9 pounds,
the huge regulates hunger to keep us primarily because of all-you-can-eat dining halls and late-night
increase? at our ideal weights. How- junk food (Hellmich, 2008; Levitsky, 2003). Also, probably because
ever, there is currently a marriage is associated with eating more and being less active, mar-
worldwide problem of overweight and obesity. ried people gain an average of 6 to 9 pounds more than their single
Overweight means that a person is 20% over the
peers (Gordon-Larsen, 2007).
ideal body weight. From an evolutionary perspective, consuming nutritionally

Obesity means that a person is 30% or more 1976 26% dense food became necessary to provide energy needed for the Photo Credits: top, © PhotoDisc, Inc.; center, © Les Stone/Corbis Sygma; bottom, © Ross Durant Photography/Getty Images
above the ideal body weight. 2000 55% demanding lifestyle of hunting and gathering. However, over time,
our lifestyles have become increasingly sedentary, creating energy
The numbers on the right show that, over 2007 67% imbalances that explain our rising obesity rates (Leonard, 2009).
the years, the percentage of adult Americans Percentage of adult
who are overweight or obese has increased dra- Americans who are Being overweight or obese significantly shortens people’s life
matically (J. O. Hill et al., 2003; Kluger, 2007a). overweight or obese span and increases their risk for heart disease, stroke, high blood
pressure, clogged arteries, and adult-onset diabetes (B. Healy, 2006;
Also, the percentage of American youths who are overweight (34%) Hsu, 2006; Whitlock et al., 2009). In the United States, annual
or obese (20%) has increased at an alarming rate. Research shows medical spending on overweight and obese patients is $92.6 billion
that 50–80% of these youths will battle weight problems through (Finkelstein et al., 2003).
adulthood (CDC, 2006a; Kotz, 2007a).
Overweight and obesity are primarily caused by two factors: However, solving the problem of being overweight or obese is
eating more than is required to fuel the body’s energy needs and complicated because eating is influenced by three hunger factors.

Three Hunger Factors Psychosocial hunger factors come from learned associations
between food and other stimuli, such as snacking while watching
What Hunger is considered a biological
drive because eating is essential
controls your to our survival. However, the television; sociocultural influences, such as pressures to be thin;

eating? way in which you satisfy your and various personality problems, such as depression, dislike of

hunger drive—when, where, body image, or low self-esteem.

and how much you eat—is influenced by three differ- Genetic hunger factors come from inherited instructions

ent factors: biological, psychosocial, and genetic (J. O. found in our genes. These instructions determine the number of

Hill et al., 2003). fat cells or metabolic rates of burning off the body’s fuel, which

Biological hunger factors come from physiological push us toward being normal, overweight, or underweight.

changes in blood chemistry and signals from diges- These three hunger factors interact to influence your

tive organs that provide feedback to the brain, weight. For example, because of psychosocial factors, some

which, in turn, triggers us to eat or stop eating. Psychosocial hunger factors of us eat when we should not, such as during stress. Because
If your eating was regulated primarily can override other factors. of biological factors, some of us may respond too much or
by biological factors, as in most animals, too little to feedback from our digestive organs. Because of
you would keep your weight at optimal levels. e facts that 67% genetic factors, some of us can eat more calories and still maintain
of adults are overweight or obese and that some individuals suf- optimal weight.
fer from serious eating problems indicate the influence of both We’ll discuss these three hunger factors, beginning with
psychosocial and genetic factors. biological factors.

334 M O D U L E 1 5 M O T I V A T I O N

PowerStudy 4.5™

Biological Hunger Factors Module 4

Why do e Japanese sumo wrestler on the hunger factors, which come from E. Limbic System: Old Brain
right is Konishiki, nicknamed peripheral and central cues (Woods et al., 2000).
you start Meat Bomb (now retired). He is Peripheral cues come from changes in blood chemistry or
eating? 6 feet 1 inch tall and weighs signals from digestive organs, which secrete various hormones.

580 pounds, which is consid- Central cues result from activity in different brain areas,
ered normal by sumo standards but obese by West- which in turn results in increasing or decreasing appetite.
ern medical charts. He maintains his huge body by
consuming about 10,000 calories daily, which is 3–5 Peripheral and central cues make up a complex bio-
times the amount required by an average-sized man. logical system that evolved over millions of years to
Konishiki’s eating is partly regulated by biological help humans and animals maintain their best weights
for survival.

Peripheral Cues Central Cues

Signals for feeling hungry or full come from a number of 1 e brain has an area with different
body organs that are involved in digestion and regulation groups of cells that are collectively
of blood sugar (glucose) levels, which is the primary called the hypothalamus. Each group
source of fuel for the body and brain. of cells is involved in a different kind
of motivation, including regulation of
1 When empty, the stomach secretes a thirst, sexual behavior, sleep, intensity
Hypothalamus of emotional reactions, and hunger.
hormone, ghrelin, which carries “hunger
signals” to the brain’s hypothalamus, We’ll focus on two groups of cells, the
the master control for hunger regula- lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus, that
tion (Raloff, 2005). When the stom- 2affect hunger in opposite ways, either increasing or decreasing appetite.
ach is full, stretch receptors in its walls e lateral hypothalamus refers to a group of brain cells that
send “full signals” to the brain’s hypothalamus, which receives “hunger signals” from digestive organs—increase in ghrelin,
fall in level of blood glucose, and fall in levels of leptin. e lateral
2decreases appetite (Chaudri et al., 2006; Kluger, 2007). hypothalamus interprets these “hunger signals” and increases your
e liver monitors the level of glu- appetite (Kluger, 2007; Woods et al., 2000).
cose (sugar) in the blood. When the For example, electrical stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus
level of glucose (blood sugar) falls, causes rats to start eating, while destruction of the lateral hypothala-
the liver sends “hunger signals” to 3mus causes rats to stop eating and even starve without special feeding.
the brain’s hypothalamus; when the level of glucose e ventromedial hypothalamus refers to a group of brain cells that
rises, the liver sends “full signals” to the hypothalamus receives “full signals” from digestive organs—a full stomach activates
(Woods et al., 2000). stretch receptors, rise in level of blood glucose, rise in levels of leptin,
and increase in the hormones PYY and CCK. e ventromedial
3 e intestines also secrete ghrelin, hypothalamus interprets these “full signals” and decreases appetite.
For example, stimulation of the ventromedial hypothalamus causes
which carries “hunger signals” to the rats to stop eating, while destruction of the ventromedial hypothala-
hypothalamus, increasing appetite. mus causes rats to overeat. Research with rats genetically prone to
obesity shows that certain brain cells in their hypothalamus don’t
e intestines also secrete another grow much and are less sensitive to leptin, compared with other rats
Photo Credit: © Kim Newton/Woodfin Camp & Associates hormone called PYY, which carries (Bouret et al., 2008). In addition, various chemicals affect other cells
“full signals” to the hypothalamus, of the hypothalamus and regulate our appetites for specific foods
decreasing appetite (Raloff, 2005). Finally, (Kluger, 2007).
the intestines secrete a hormone called CCK
(cholecystokinin), which signals the hypothalamus to Summary. The hypothalamus is involved in regulating different
kinds of motivated behaviors; in this case, we focused on hunger. e
4inhibit eating (Kluger, 2007). hypothalamus has one group of cells, called the lateral hypothala-
Fat cells secrete a hormone, called mus, that responds to “hunger signals” by increasing your appetite so
leptin, which acts on the brain’s hypo- you start eating. e hypothalamus has another group of cells, called
thalamus. If levels of leptin are falling, the ventromedial hypothalamus, that responds to “full signals” by
the hypothalamus increases appetite; if levels are rising, decreasing your appetite so you stop eating. is wonderfully complex
the hypothalamus decreases appetite. e secretion of biological system for regulating hunger is hard-wired and present in
leptin helps maintain a constant level of body fat and a newborn’s brain. Although this system is designed to keep us at our
defend against starving the body to death (Rui, 2005). ideal weights, we’ll discuss genetic and psychological factors that can
interfere with this system and cause overeating and even starvation.
Summary. e stomach and intestines secrete a num-
ber of “hunger” or “full” hormone signals that act on the
hypothalamus, which is the master control for regulat-
ing eating and produces central cues for increasing or
decreasing appetite.

C . H U N G E R 335

C. Hunger

Genetic Hunger Factors

Are identical Researchers generally find On the basis of twin studies, researchers concluded that
that identical twins inherited factors contribute 70–80% to the maintenance of
twins always the (photo on right), even a particular body size and weight, while environmental fac-
same weight? when separated soon tors contribute the other 20–30% (Bulik et al., 2003). e
a er birth and reared finding that genetic hunger factors contribute 70–80% to
in adopted families, are much more alike in having a certain body size and weight explains why identi-
weight than fraternal twins reared apart (T. J. cal twins have similar body types. e finding that environ-
Bouchard et al., 1990). is similarity in weight mental factors contribute 20–30% to body size explains why
is due to genetic hunger factors. Identical twins share the one twin may weigh a little more or less than the other.
Genetic hunger factors come from inherited same genes and thus are Research shows that people who have a commonly

instructions found in our genes. These instructions similar in weight. found variation of a gene are at an increased risk of

determine the number of fat cells or metabolic rates of becoming obese. Scientists now believe there may be as many as 100 different fat
burning off the body’s fuel, which push us toward being genes and are working to identify them (C. Bouchard, 2009; Christman, 2006).
normal, overweight, or underweight. So far, psychologists have identified four genetic hunger factors.

1 We inherit different numbers of fat cells. 3 We inherit a set point to maintain a certain amount of body fat. Photo Credits: top, © Cohen/Ostrow/Getty Images; bottom, Courtesy of Jeffrey M. Friedman, Rockefeller University
Fat cells, whose number is primarily deter- The set point refers to a certain level of body fat (adipose tissue)
mined by heredity, do not normally multiply that our bodies strive to maintain constant throughout our lives.
except when people become obese. Fat cells
shrink if we are giving up fat For example, a person whose body has a higher set point
and losing weight (left) will try to maintain a higher level of fat stores and thus have
and greatly enlarge if we are storing fat a fatter body (right figure). In comparison, a person whose
and gaining weight (right) (Fried, 2008; body has a lower set point will maintain a lower level of fat
Spalding et al., 2008). stores and thus have a thinner body (Woods et al., 2000).
If a person diets to reduce the level of fat stores, the body
People who inherit a larger compensates to maintain and build back fat stores by
number of fat cells have the ability automatically lowering the metabolic rate and thus con-
to store more fat and are more likely suming less fuel. at’s the reason dieters may lose weight
to be fatter than average. for the first two or three weeks and then stop losing; the
body has lowered its metabolic rate. Researchers concluded
2 We inherit different rates of metabolism. that because the body protects its fat stores, long-term dieting
Metabolic rate refers to how efficiently our bodies break will be unsuccessful in treating overweight people unless they
food down into energy and how quickly our bodies burn off also exercise (Leibel et al., 1995).
that fuel.
4 We also inherit weight-regulating genes.
For example, if you had a low metabolic rate, you Weight-regulating genes play a role in influencing appetite, body metabolism,
would burn less fuel, be more likely to store excess fuel and secretion of hormones (leptin) that regulate fat stores.
as fat, and thus may have a fatter body. In comparison,
if you had a high metabolic rate, you would burn off For example, the mouse on the left has a gene that increases a brain
chemical (neuropeptide Y) that increased eating, so it weighs three times as
more fuel, be less likely to store fat, and thus much as the normal-weight mouse on the right (Gura, 1997). Researchers
may have a thinner body (left figure). This also found a gene that can jack up metabolism so that calories are burned
means that people can consume the same off as heat rather than stored as fat (Warden, 1997). In total, researchers
number of calories but, because of different have found 11 genetic mutations than can disrupt appetite regulation, lead-
metabolic rates, may maintain, lose, or gain ing someone to continue to eat without feeling full (Kluger, 2007).
weight. There are only two known activi-
ties that can raise metabolic rate: exercise You have seen how genetic hunger factors
and smoking cigarettes. Research shows are involved in the regulation of body
fat and weight. But genes alone can-
that exercise raises metabolic rate 20–30% not explain our obesity epidemic
and nicotine raises it 4–10%. That’s the (Gillman, 2007).
reason exercise helps dieters lose weight
and smokers generally gain weight when Next, we’ll explore several psy-
they stop smoking (Aamodt & Wang, 2008; chological factors involved in the
Audrain et al., 1995). regulation of eating and weight.

336 M O D U L E 1 5 M O T I V A T I O N

Psychosocial Hunger Factors Psychosocial hunger factors come from learned associations
between food and other stimuli, such as snacking while watching
Always Many of us have a weakness for television; sociocultural influences, such as pressures to be thin; and
certain foods, and mine (R. P.) various personality traits, such as depression, dislike of body image,
room for is for desserts. Even though or low self-esteem.
dessert? my biological and genetic hun- Psychosocial hunger factors can have an enormous effect on our
ger factors may tell me (my brain) eating habits and weight and contribute to many problems associated
when to start and stop eating, I can use my large fore- with eating, such as becoming overweight, eating when stressed or depressed,
brain to override my innately programmed biological and and bingeing (A. Ward et al., 2000). We’ll discuss three psychosocial hunger
genetic factors. My forebrain allows me to rationalize that factors—learned associations, social-cultural influences, and personality traits.
one dessert can do no harm. is kind of rationalizing
comes under the heading of psychosocial hunger factors.

Learned Associations Social-Cultural Influences Personality & Mood Factors
e best examples of how learned
Obesity rates vary across the globe: Japan, 4%; If a person has certain personality traits, he
associations influence eating are Italy, 10%; France, 11%; Germany, 14%, United or she may be at greater risk for overeating as
when we eat not because we’re hun- Kingdom, 24%, and United States, 34% (OECD, well as developing serious eating disorders,
gry but because it’s “lunchtime,” 2009). Here are examples of how social-cultural such as overeating when stressed or depressed,
because foods smell good, because influences affect body weight. going on food binges (bulimia nervosa), or
our friends are eating, or because Czech Republic. In the 1970s, the Czech starving oneself (anorexia nervosa).
we can’t resist large portions Republic government subsidized cheap fatty e particular personality traits that
(Hellmich, 2005). sausage and dairy products. e result was that have been associated with eating problems
45% of Czech women and a smaller percentage include heightened sensitivity to rejection,
It’s tough to pass on supersizing, of men are obese. Also, the Czech Republic has excessive concern with approval from oth-
Photo Credits: top, © Royalty Free/Masterfile; center, © Guang Nu/Reuters Newmedia, Inc./Corbis; left, © Illustration Works/Corbis even though we don’t need it all. the world’s highest death rates from heart dis- ers, high personal standards for achieve-
ease. e government instituted programs to ment, a history of physical or sexual abuse,
Americans o en rely on external encourage healthier eating habits, which were and the need to have control (over oneself or
cues to stop eating, such as the end effective until fast-food restaurants opened all one’s body) (Polivy & Herman, 2002). Some-
of a TV program or getting to the over the country (Elliott, 1995; Jarrett, 2006). one with these kinds of personality traits,
bottom of a soda, which, combined China. In parts of China, which are o en accompanied by stress, anxi-
with a preference for large portions fatty fast foods have become ety, and emotional upset, may find it very
and tasty junk foods high in calo- very popular along with a difficult and sometimes almost impossible to
ries, has led to a rising rate of over- more sedentary lifestyle. control his or her eating (J. E. Brody, 2003).
weight and obesity in both children is has resulted in Mood factors, such as stress, anxiety, and
and adults (Hellmich, 2005; Rozin an increase in obesity depression, can lead to bursts of overeating
et al., 2003; Wansink et al., 2007). rates over the last 15 or indulgence in sweet and unhealthy foods.
years: from 12.8% in Overeating when under emotional strain
Another learned association that 1991 to 29% in 2006 is called “emotional eating” and occurs in
influences eating is that we eat more (CDC, 2008e). In In Chinese, “xiao pangzi” otherwise healthy people (Macht, 2007).
when we experience stress (Macht, addition, there has means “little fatties.” Although hunger is considered a biologi-
2007). For instance, 76% of female
and 33% of male college students been an alarming increase in obesity among cal need, you have seen how psychosocial
report eating more when they feel children, who are pampered by a culture that hunger factors can
stress, and unfortunately for them, prizes well-nourished children as indicating influence where, when, I look too fat!
college usually involves plenty of affluence and well-being (Mydans, 2003). and how the hunger
stress (Hellmich, 2008)! United States. In the United States, there drive is satisfied. And,
are many cultural pressures on females, in as we’ll discuss in the
Health professionals advise us particular, to be thin. For example, the mass Application section,
to unlearn many of our learned media advertise that the ideal female is one there are extreme
food associations. We should eat with a slender body (think size 0 models). cases in which
only when hungry and eat smaller As a result, many American females report psychosocial fac-
portions and healthier foods (Pi- being dissatisfied with their weight and see tors can override
Sunyer, 2003; Story et al., 2008). themselves as overweight even when they are the hunger drive.
not. Some also develop an eating disorder as a Next, we’ll
result (Mayo Clinic, 2006a). Currently, there discuss another
are some media efforts to counter traditional very important
beauty stereotypes and promote the acceptance biological need, Personality traits
of a wider definition of beauty (Dove, 2009). sexual behavior. influence eating habits.

C . H U N G E R 337

D. Sexual Behavior PowerStudy 4.5™

Module 4

A. Genes & Evolution

Why do Although we don’t look, sound, or behave be impregnated. In comparison, humans engage in sexual behavior
lions know the same as lions do, we share similar bio- for many reasons, which points to psychological sex factors.
logical and genetic factors that regulate
Psychological sex factors play a role in developing a sexual or gender

how to do it? sexual behavior. The sexual behavior of identity, gender role, and sexual orientation. In addition, psychological factors
lions and most animals is controlled chiefly can result in difficulties in the performance or enjoyment of sexual activities.
by genetic and biological factors, which means For example, otherwise healthy men and
that most animals engage in sex primarily for women may report difficulties in sexual
reproduction. activities arising from stress, anxiety, or guilt,
Genetic sex factors include inherited instruc- which can interfere with the functioning of

tions for the development of sexual organs, the genetic and biological sex factors. One reason

secretion of sex hormones, and the wiring of the psychological factors play such an important

neural circuits that control sexual reflexes. role in human sexual behavior is that our large

Biological sex factors include the action of sex forebrains have the capacity to think, reason,

hormones, which are involved in secondary sexual and change our minds and thus increase,

characteristics (facial hair, breasts), sexual motiva- In most animals, sexual behavior is regulated interfere with, or completely block sexual
tion (more so in animals than in humans), and the by genetic and biological factors. motivation, performance, or enjoyment.
development of ova and sperm.
As we did for the hunger drive, we’ll dis-
Lions, like most animals, generally avoid sexual interactions cuss, in order, the influences of genetic, biological, and psychological
unless the female is in heat, which means she is ovulating and can factors on sexual behavior.

Genetic Influences on Sexual Behavior

Which How we develop a particular 1e Egg with 2 A human sperm also Sperm
sex organ, male or female, is with X
sex organ? determined primarily by a human egg x contains one of the sex chro- chromosome
genetic program that is con- contains one mosomes. However, the Sperm
tained in a single human cell about the size of a of the sex chromosome sperm’s chromosome can be with Y
chromosomes, chromosome
grain of sand (Faller et al., 2004). which is either an X chromosome,
always an X which has instructions for
Sex Chromosome chromosome. development of female sex

Unlike the other cells of our body, which con- us, each organs and body, or a Y
tain 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), the sperm and human egg
egg each contain half that number and are called has a single X chromosome, which has
chromosome. instructions for male sex organs
sex chromosomes (figure below). and body. us, the sperm (X or Y)
The sex chromosome, which is in the sperm or
determines the sex of the infant.
the egg, contains 23 chromosomes, which in turn

Sperm have genes that contain 3 During fertilization,

instructions for determining a single sperm penetrates Male Following fertilization,
an egg and results in a instructions the human cell, which is
the sex of the child. fertilized egg with 23
pairs of chromosomes. If called a zygote, will divide
or As we discussed ear- the last pair has the com- over and over many thou-
lier (p. 68), each chromo- bination XY, it means sands of times during
some is made up of a long the egg contains the the following weeks and
strand of DNA (deoxy- genetic instructions for months and eventually Photo Credit: © George B. Shaller/Bruce Coleman, Inc.
Egg r ibonucleic acid). On developing a male’s sex Female develop into a female body
this long strand of DNA organs (top right figure). instructions with female sex organs or
are hundreds of genes, If the last pair has the a male body with male sex
which contain the chemically coded instruc- combination XX, it organs.
tions for the development and maintenance of means the egg contains the genetic
our bodies. In the figure above, notice that some instructions for developing a female’s How an unborn infant
sperm have an X chromosome and some have a sex organs (bottom right figure). actually develops male
Y, which contain different genetic instructions or female sex organs is an interesting
and, as you’ll see, result in the development of story, especially since everyone begins
different sex organs (penis or vagina). as a female.

338 M O D U L E 1 5 M O T I V A T I O N

PowerStudy 4.5™

Genetic Influences (continued) Biological Influences Module 4
F. Endocrine System
Differentiation You have seen how genetic sex factors influence
Although it would seem that at fertilization you are des- the development of the body’s sex organs. e next big event to affect a
tined to be either a male or a female, there is actually no person’s sex organs and sexual motivation occurs at puberty as a result of
physical difference between a male and a female embryo biological sex factors.
for the first four weeks of development in the womb. Dur- Sex hormones secreted during puberty both directly and indirectly
ing this time period, the embryos are identical and have affect our bodies, brains, minds, personalities, self-concepts, and mental
the potential to develop into either a male or a female. At health. We’ll focus on how sex hormones affect our bodies.
about the fifth week, the embryo begins to differentiate Sex hormones. Before and shortly after birth, sex hormones are
into either a male or a female because of the presence or released in our bodies.
absence of certain sex hormones (Bendsen et al., 2006). Sex hormones, which are chemicals secreted by glands, circulate in the blood-

Male Sex Organ and Male Brain stream to influence the brain, body organs, and behaviors. The major male sex

In an embryo that began from an XY fer- hormones secreted by the testes are androgens, such as tes-

tilized egg, the Y sex chromosome has tosterone; the major female sex hormones secreted by the

instructions for the development of ovaries are estrogens.

male testes. At about the fi h week, the Sex hormones remain inactive until puberty, when a
recently discovered hormone called kisspeptin stimu-
testes begin to grow and produce tiny lates the production of androgens and estrogens to pre-
amounts of male hormones or andro- pare the body for reproduction (Roa et al., 2008). Testosterone
gens, one of which most people know
XY = High as testosterone. Male–female differences. The presence or Male
Testosterone absence of testosterone in the womb causes different hypothalamus

Presence of high The presence of high testoster- neural programming so that the male hypothalamus triggers release of
testosterone one does two things: It triggers the functions differently from the female hypothalamus. testosterone.
results in a development of the male sexual organ The male hypothalamus triggers a continuous release
male brain. (penis), and it programs a particu-
of androgens, such as testosterone, from the testes. The
lar area of the brain, called the hypothalamus, so that at
puberty it triggers the pituitary gland to secrete hormones increased level of androgens causes the development of male

on a continuous basis, which results in the continuous secondary sexual characteristics, such as facial and pubic hair,

production of sperm. muscle growth, and lowered voice.

Female Sex Organs and Female Brain The female hypothalamus triggers a cyclical release of Estrogen
estrogens from the ovaries. The increased level of estrogens

In an embryo that began from an XX fer- causes the development of female secondary sexual charac- Female
tilized egg, the second X sex chromo- teristics, such as pubic hair, breast development, and wid- hypothalamus
some contains instructions for the ening of the hips. The cyclical release of hormones (estrogen triggers release of
development of ovaries. and progesterone) also regulates the menstrual cycle. estrogen.

The presence of low testosterone Sexual Motivation
in the developing embryo does two In humans, normal sexual development and motivation depend upon lev-
XX = Low things: It leads to the automatic devel- els of sex hormones being within the normal range. In rare cases, males
Testosterone opment of female sexual organs (clito- are born with an extra X chromosome, XXY or Klinefelter’s syndrome,
which results in undersized testes and penis, decreased secretion of testos-
Presence of ris and vagina), and the hypothalamus, terone, infertility, no development of secondary sexual characteristics at
low testosterone which is normally programmed for puberty, and little or no interest in sexual activity. However, when given
female hormonal functions, keeps its testosterone replacement at puberty, males regain sexual interest and drive
results in a female program. us, at puberty, this (Lanfranco et al., 2004). us, the absence of sex hormones interferes with
female brain. normal sexual development and motivation.

female-programmed hypothalamus triggers the pituitary Recently, a creative group of researchers studied whether women’s ovula-
gland to secrete hormones on a cyclic basis, which results tory cycle affects their success as lap dancers in gentlemen’s clubs. Results
in the menstrual cycle. showed that during the time of their cycle when there is an increase in sexual
hormones, women earned the most money giving men lap dances (G. Miller
Importance of Testosterone et al., 2007). is and other studies find that men are sensitive to women’s
e presence of testosterone, which is secreted by fetal tes- peaks in sexual hormones, which results in their increased sexual motiva-
tion and desire (Gangestad et al., 2002; Haselton & Gangestad, 2006).
tes, results in male sexual organs and a male hypothala-
mus; the absence of testosterone results in female sexual As genetic and biological factors guide our bodies toward physical
organs and a female hypothalamus (Kalat, 2009). sexual maturity, numerous psychological factors are preparing our minds
for psychological sexual maturity. Next, we’ll examine these psychological
When the infant is born, the doctor identifies the sex factors.
infant’s sex organs and says those famous words, “It’s
a boy” or “It’s a girl.” At that point a hormonal clock
begins ticking and its alarm will set off biological factors
at puberty.

D . S E X U A L B E H A V I O R 339

D. Sexual Behavior

Psychological Influences on Sexual Behavior psychological factors can result in difficulties in the
performance or enjoyment of sexual activities.
How do As boys and girls go through puberty,
various genetic and biological factors Genetic, biological, and psychological sex
boys and girls prepare their bodies for sexual matu- factors combine and interact to result in
become men rity (Ojeda et al., 2006). At the same
and women? time their bodies are developing, boys and girls developing into sexually
boys and girls are observing, imi- mature men and women.
tating, and learning behaviors of their mothers, fathers,
older siblings, and other adults in their environments. At Three psychological sex factors are
this point, psychological sex factors come into play. especially important—gender identity,
Psychological sex factors play a role in developing a sexual or Sex hormones gender roles, and sexual orientation. We’ll
activate many physical and discuss each in turn, beginning with gender
gender identity, gender role, and sexual orientation. In addition, identity.
psychological changes.

Gender Identity

Between the ages of 2 and 3, a child can correctly Gender identity is a psychological sex factor that exerts a powerful influ-
answer the question “Are you a boy or a girl?” e cor- ence on future sexual thoughts and behavior, as clearly illustrated in the case
rect answer indicates that the child has already acquired of someone with a gender identity disorder, who is commonly referred to as a
the beginnings of a gender identity (Blakemore, 2003). transsexual.
Gender identity, which was formerly called sexual identi-
Gender identity disorder is commonly referred to as transsexualism. A transsexual
ty, refers to the individual’s subjective experience and feelings is a person who has a strong and persistent desire to be the other sex, is uncomfortable

of being either a male or a female. about being one’s assigned sex, and may wish to live as a member of the other sex

The doctor’s words, “It’s (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
a girl” or “It’s a boy,” set in Transsexuals usually have normal genetic and biological (hormonal) factors,
motion the process for acquir-
ing a gender identity. From but for some reason, they feel and insist that they are trapped in the body of the
that point on, parents, siblings, wrong sex and may adopt the behaviors, dress, and mannerisms of the other sex.
grandparents, and others
behave toward male and female ere is no clear understanding of why transsexuals reject their biological sex;
infants differently, so that they no physical cause or connection has been identified (McHugh, 2009). Current
learn and acquire their proper data indicate the incidence of transsexualism is about the same for males and
gender identity (C. L. Martin females (Bartlett et al., 2000). Infrequently, adults with gender identity disorder
et al., 2002). For example, the may seek surgery to change the sex organs they were born with to the other sex.
little girl in the right photo is By age 3, children know Because transsexuals acquire gender identities that do not match their external Photo Credits: center, © Fancy Collection/SuperStock; bottom, © George Simian/Corbis
checking out a pretty dress in if they are boys or girls. sex organs, they experience problems in thinking and acting and may not easily
fit into or be accepted by society (Friess, 2009). However, the vast majority of
the mirror, a behavior that she has observed her mother people do acquire gender identities that match their external sex organs.
doing and that she is now imitating.
As you acquire a male or female gender identity, you are also acquiring a
matching gender role.

Gender Roles

A er the first step in becoming psychologically sexually mature, For example, young boys learn stereotypical male behaviors,
which is acquiring a male or female gender identity—“I’m a such as playing sports, competing in games, engaging in rough-
boy” or “I’m a girl”—comes the second step, which is acquiring a and-tumble play, and acquiring status in his group. In comparison,
gender role. girls learn stereotypical female behaviors, such as
Gender roles, which were formerly called sex roles, refer to providing and seeking emotional support, empha-

the traditional or stereotypical behaviors, attitudes, and person- sizing physical appearance and clothes, and learn-

ality traits that society designates as masculine or feminine. ing to cooperate and share personal experiences

Gender roles greatly influence how we think and behave. (Ruble et al., 2006; Rudman & Glick, 2008).

Between the ages of 3 and 4, American children learn As children, we all learned early on to adopt a
the stereotypical or traditional expectations regarding male or female gender role, o en without being
the kinds of toys, clothes, and occupations for men and aware of how subtly we were rewarded for imi-
women. By the age of 5, children have acquired many of tating and performing appropriate sex-typed
the complex thoughts, expectations, and behaviors that behaviors. Learning and adopting a gender role
accompany their particular gender role of male or female By age 5, a child knows how continue through adolescence and into adult-
(Best & omas, 2004). a boy or girl behaves. hood and result in very different gender roles.

340 M O D U L E 1 5 M O T I V A T I O N

For instance, adult American women tend male gender roles—dominant, controlling, and indepen-
to show stereotypical gender roles that can dent—can lead to different kinds of sexual thoughts and
be described as socially sensitive, behaviors than female gender roles—socially sensitive,
nurturing, and concerned with nurturing, and concerned. us, some of the confusion,
others’ welfare. In comparison, conflict, and misunderstanding over sexual behavior
adult American men tend to come from underlying differences in gender roles.
show gender roles that can be A major task a couple will have in establishing a
described as dominant, controlling, healthy, loving relationship is to work out the many
and independent (Eagly et al., 2004; Dominant Sensitive differences in thoughts, beliefs, and expectations that
Rudman & Glick, 2008). Controlling Nurturing come from combining two different gender roles.
Independent Concerned
Function. A major function of gen- After we acquire a gender role, the next step
der roles is to influence how we think and behave. Notice that involves knowing one’s sexual orientation.

Sexual Orientation

In answering the question “Do you find males or females sexually Later, when these children reached puberty, doctors discovered
arousing?” you are expressing your sexual orientation, which is the that some of these “girls” actually had the chromosomes of males
third step in reaching psychological sexual maturity. and some of the “boys” had the chromosomes of females. However,
Sexual orientation, also called sexual preference, refers to some of those raised as “girls” decided to

whether a person is sexually aroused primarily by members of his remain female and received corrective sur-

or her own sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes. 1st Step: gery (a vagina) and hormones (developed

Homosexual orientation refers to a pattern of sexual arousal Gender identity breasts). Others raised as “boys” decided
by persons of the same sex. to remain male and also received correc-

Heterosexual orientation refers to a pattern of sexual arous- tive surgery and hormones. In these cases,

al by persons of the opposite sex. children chose the gender identity and

Bisexual orientation refers to a pattern of sexual arousal by 2nd Step: orientation that matched their upbring-
persons of both sexes. Gender role ing, not their genetic makeup. Based on
such cases, researchers believed that gen-
A recent national survey of sexual orientation found
that the vast majority (90%) of the American population der identity and gender orientation could
reported having a heterosexual orientation, 2% a homo- be changed if, before the age of 2, infants
sexual orientation, 2% a bisexual orientation, and the were assigned a gender identity and raised
remaining 6% declined to identify their sexual orientation 3rd Step: accordingly (Money, 1987). However,
(Mosher et al., 2005). Sexual orientation another case has questioned this belief.

Photo Credits: top left and right, © PhotoDisc, Inc.; bottom, © Left Lane Productions/Corbis Of several models that explain how we develop a par- Tragic case. While doctors were doing
ticular sexual orientation, the interactive model is perhaps a routine medical procedure to repair an
the most popular (Money, 1987; Zucker, 1990). 8-month-old male’s foreskin, they acci-
The interactive model of sexual orientation says that genet- dentally destroyed the infant’s penis. As a

ic and biological factors, such as genetic instructions and prena- result, doctors advised the parents to raise

tal hormones, interact with psychological factors, such as the the boy (John) as a girl (Joan). However,

individual’s attitudes, personality traits, and behaviors, to influ- since about the age of 8, Joan had been

ence the development of sexual orientation. unhappy being and acting like a female

Genetic and biological factors. ere is debate over and began to suspect that she was really
how much genetic and biological factors influence sexual a boy. By the time Joan was 14, she had
orientation. Some researchers prefer the term sexual pref- received corrective surgery (a vagina)
erence because it suggests that we have considerable freedom in and hormonal treatment to physically look like a girl (developed
choosing a sexual orientation and that genetic and biological fac- breasts) but was so unhappy she threatened suicide and told doctors
tors do not play a major role (Baumrind, 1995; Byne, 1997). Other she thought she was a boy. A er much discussion, doctors agreed
researchers prefer the term sexual orientation because they believe to help Joan change back to John. In his 30s, John got married and
genetic and biological factors play a major role (M. Diamond & Sig- reported he never liked being a female and was very happy being
mundson, 1997). A case that involved changing a person’s gender a male. Based on Joan-John’s experience, researchers believe that
identity intensified this heated debate. individuals are genetically and biologically predisposed for having
Changing gender identity. In the 1960s, genetic and biological a male or female gender identity, which is not easily changed by
factors were thought to play minor roles in developing gender iden- being raised a certain way (boy or girl) (M. Diamond & Sigmund-
tity. at’s because some babies who were born with inconclusive son, 1997). This case suggests that, unlike previously believed,
sex organs (tiny penis, no testicles) were said to be girls and were humans may have a genetic predisposition to develop a male or
raised as girls; others were said to be boys and were raised as boys. female gender identity and gender orientation.

D . S E X U A L B E H A V I O R 341

D. Sexual Behavior

Male–Female Sex Differences

How are After we have acquired a gender identity, gender Male–Female Sex Differences
men different role, and sexual orientation, there remain the
sometimes difficult and complex decisions about Men 29% 15 or more sexual partners since the age of 25
from women? when, where, and with whom sexual behavior is
appropriate. Virtually every sex survey during the 11% Women

past 30 years reports that men think about sex more, have more sexual Men 54% Think about sex daily
partners, reach orgasm more, and masturbate more than women (right
graph). Why men consistently report more sexual activity and are allowed Women 19%
more sexual freedom than women has come to be known as the double Men Reached orgasm during sex
standard (M. Crawford & Popp, 2003). 75%

The double standard for sexual behavior refers to a set of beliefs, values, and Women 29% Masturbated during past year
Men 85%
expectations that subtly encourages sexual activity in men but discourages the

same behavior in women. Women 45%
The existence of a double standard allowing more freedom in sexual
Source: Laumann et al., 1994; Mosher et al., 2005
behavior for men than for women is well established (Peplau, 2003). How
these male–female differences in sexual behavior came about is explained Because of their importance, we’ll discuss how each theory
by two different theories—the biosocial theory and the evolutionary theory. explains the male–female differences in sexual behaviors.

Biosocial Theory Evolutionary Theory

ere are two major questions about male–female sexual behav- A different explanation for the differences in sexual behavior
ior that need answering. First, why do men consistently report between men and women comes from evolutionary theory.
greater interest in sex as shown by increased frequency of sexual Evolutionary theory, which emphasizes genetic and biological forces,

activities, a greater number of extramarital affairs, and a desire says that our current male–female differences in sexual behavior, which we
for more sex partners (about 18 partners) than women (about 4 call the double standard, arise from genetic and biological forces, which in
or 5 partners) (Buss & Schmitt, 1993)? Second, in an interna- turn grew out of an ancient set of successful mating patterns that helped
tional study of 37 cultures, 10,000 individuals were asked to state the species survive.
their top priorities in choosing a mate. Across all cultures and According to evolutionary theory, men developed a greater
all racial, political, and religious groups, why do men generally interest in sex and desire for many attractive sex partners because it
value physical attractiveness more than women, while women maximized their chances for reproduction. In comparison, women
value the financial resources of prospective mates twice as much would not benefit from indiscriminate and frequent mating because
as men do (Buss et al., 1990)? One answer to these questions it would place them at risk for having offspring of low quality and
comes from the biosocial theory of sexual differences. create an unstable environment for raising their children. Instead,
Biosocial theory, which emphasizes social and cultural forces, says women placed a high priority on finding a man who was a good
that differences in sexual activities and in values for selecting mates protector and provider, so she and her children would have a better
developed from traditional cultural divisions of labor: Women were pri- chance for survival (Gangestad & Simpson, 2000).
marily childbearers and homemakers, while men were primarily providers Evolutionary theory explains many other sexual behaviors. For

and protectors. Provider example, men may deceive women about their feelings, commit-
According to the biosocial theory, the double stan- & protector ment, and love to gain sexual access, and women may deceive
men about their chances of gaining sexual access
dard arose from men’s roles as protectors and pro- Childbearer to evoke jealousy in existing mates and increase
viders, which allowed them greater control of and & homemaker their perceived mate value (Buss, 2003; Haselton
access to women and in turn allowed and encouraged
greater sexual freedom. In comparison, women’s roles et al., 2005). Even some homosexual behavior
restricted and discouraged sexual activities and pro- among animals can be explained by evolutionary
tected against potential problems with jealousy, which theory. For instance, female couples in the alba-
could disrupt or interfere with being successful child- tross family (large sea birds) may raise more chicks
bearers and homemakers (right photo) (W. Wood & than male–female couples, which suggests an
Eagly, 2002). evolutionary advantage (N. Bailey & Zuk, 2009). Photo Credit: Royalty-Free
Biosocial theory focuses on the importance of dif- Evolutionary theory explains the occurrence
ferent social and cultural pressures that resulted in and development of male–female differences in
men and women developing different social roles, sexual behavior (Buss, 2009; de Waal, 2002).
which in turn led to men and women developing dif- Next, we’ll return to a controversial question in
ferences in sexual behavior, which today we call the sexual behavior: Why does an individual develop
double standard. a homosexual orientation?

342 M O D U L E 1 5 M O T I V A T I O N

Homosexuality

Were According to national surveys, about e acceptance of homosexuality by Ameri-
3% of the American male population cans has certainly increased in recent years, but
the brothers are homosexual (gay) and about 1.5% it remains a deeply divisive issue. Many people
born gay? of the female population are homo- say they would be more accepting of homosex-
sexual (lesbian). The question of uality if it were shown to be a genetic predis-
whether sexual orientation is determined by choice or bio- position, since it would be similar to inheriting
logical factors results in varied public opinion. A recent other preferences, such as being left-handed
survey found that half of American adults believe sexual Both brothers are gay and (Leland, 1994). We’ll discuss recent genetic/
orientation is a result of only biological factors, one-third share similar genetic factors. biological and psychological factors that bear

believe it is a result of choice and biological factors, and a smaller on the question of whether brothers Rick and Randy (above photo)
percentage believe it is a result of only choice (R. Epstein, 2006). were genetically predisposed to be gay or chose to be gay.

Genetic/Biological Factors Psychological Factors
During the past 20 years, there has been a growing search for genetic and hormonal influ-
ences that contribute to the development of homosexuality. Some evidence comes from In studying psychological factors, research-
the study of sexual orientation in twins. For example, studies on identical male and female ers observe the behaviors of young children
twins found that, if one male or female twin of an identical pair was gay, about 31–65% of and consistently find that young boys who
the time so was the second twin; this compared to 8–30% for fraternal twins and 6–11% prefer girl playmates and girls’ toys, avoid
for adopted brothers or sisters (J. M. Bailey & Zucker, 1995; Kendler et al., 2000b). How- rough-and-tumble play,
ever, these and other twin studies are criticized because some of the twins were not reared and wear girls’ clothing I knew I was
separately, so it is impossible to determine the effects of similar environments on sexual have a tendency to develop gay before I did
orientation. More recent research provides strong evidence that homosexual orientation anything.
has a genetic cause and that no single gene determines sexual orientation, but rather
numerous genes are involved (M. Abrams, 2007; Rahman & Wilson, 2008). a homosexual orientation
(Dawood et al., 2000). In
Another kind of evidence comes from studies on genetic similarities among brothers. addition, adult gay men
Researchers studied over 900 men who had at least one sibling and examined numerous and lesbian women
factors including their sexual orientation, the number of biological and nonbiological sib- recall engaging in more
lings they had, and whether or not they lived with their siblings. Results found the only behaviors of the oppo-
factor that increases the likelihood of a man having a homosexual orientation is having site sex as children than
several older biological brothers. While the national rate of men having a homosexual do heterosexual adults
orientation is about 3%, the rate increases to about 5% for men who have several older bio- (J. M. Bailey & Zucker, 1995). Although
Photo Credits: top, © Red Morgan/Time Magazine/Silver Image; right, © Nick Cardillicchio/Photolibrary logical brothers (Bogaert, 2006a, 2006b). ese results further support the role of genetic these studies are correlational and cannot
and biological factors, such as prenatal environment, in determining sexual orientation. show cause and effect, they do suggest that
certain psychological factors (kinds of play
To examine biological factors involved in the development of sexual orientation, one behaviors and preferences) are associated
study scanned people’s brains as they smelled male and female odors associated with sex- with developing a homosexual orientation
ual attraction. Results showed that in heterosexual men, the hypothalamus (involved in (Dawood et al., 2000).
sexual responses—pp. 80, 339) became activated only when smelling the female odor, but One psychological factor that influ-
in homosexual men, activation occurred only when smelling the male odor. us, activa- enced attitudes on homosexuality was that,
tion in the part of the brain involved in sexual responses is determined by sexual orienta- until the 1970s, virtually all professional
tion and not biological sex. However, researchers cannot conclude whether changes in health organizations considered homo-
brain activity are the cause or the result of men’s sexual orientation (Savic, 2005; Savic et sexuality to be an abnormal condition that
al., 2005). Other brain research found the right hemisphere is slightly larger than the le often required psychotherapy to change.
in both men and women who are attracted to women, whereas, in men and women who However, over the past 30 years, countless
are attracted to men, the brains are more symmetrical. us, sexual orientation may be studies found that homosexuals scored
reflected in brain structure (Savic & Lindström, 2008). about the same as heterosexuals on a wide
variety of mental health tests, meaning
If there is a genetic/biological predisposition to homosexuality, we might expect a person that homosexuals are as mentally healthy
would become aware of his or her homosexual orientation before learning about or engaging as heterosexuals (K. P. Rosenberg, 1994).
in homosexual behavior and despite pressure from parents, siblings, or peers to develop a het- For these reasons, most professional health
erosexual orientation. Research shows the average age when homosexual males report begin- organizations now consider homosexual-
ning to have same-sex attraction is 10 and for homosexual females it is 12, which is usually ity a normal form or expression of sexual
before they know much about or engage in homosexual behavior (Savin-Williams, 2005). behavior and discourage all discriminatory
practices toward homosexuals.
All the above findings suggest that, to a certain extent, Rick and Randy were born with Next, we’ll discuss several of the more
genetic or biological tendencies that played a role in the development of a homosexual orienta- common sexual problems and their
tion. Researchers continue to actively pursue studies on the genetic and biological factors pos- treatments.
sibly involved in sexual orientation. ere are also psychological factors worth considering.
D . S E X U A L B E H A V I O R 343
s

D. Sexual Behavior

Sexual Response, Problems, and Treatments

What are Various surveys report that 10–52% of men 1st stage: Excitement. e body becomes physiologically and
and 25–63% of women aged 18 to 59, mar- sexually aroused, resulting in erection in the male and vaginal
some of the ried and unmarried, experience a variety of lubrication in the female.
problems? sexual problems (Heiman, 2002). Some seek 2nd stage: Plateau. Sexual and physiological arousal continues
help for their problem, while others are in males and females.
ashamed or embarrassed and suffer in silence. ere are two cate- 3rd stage: Orgasm. Men have rhythmic muscle contractions
gories of sexual problems—paraphilias and sexual dysfunctions. that cause ejaculation of sperm. Women experience similar rhyth-
Paraphilias, commonly called sexual deviations, are characterized by mic muscle contractions of the pelvic area. During orgasm, women
repetitive or preferred sexual fantasies involving nonhuman and men report very pleasurable feelings.

objects, such as sexual attractions to particular arti- 4th stage: Resolution. Physiological responses

cles of clothing (shoes, underclothes). return to normal.

Sexual dysfunctions refer to problems Problems. Sexual problems can occur at

of sexual arousal or orgasm that interfere different stages. For example, some individuals

with adequate functioning during sexual cannot reach stage 1, excitement, while others

behavior. can reach stages 1 and 2 but not stage 3, orgasm.

When a person seeks help for a ere were few successful treatments for sex-
sexual problem, the clinician will ual problems until Masters and Johnson (1970)
check whether the causes are organic published their treatment program, which has
or psychological. several stages. First, the therapist provides basic
Organic factors refer to medical con- information about the sexual response and helps
ditions or drug or medication problems that Masters and Johnson proposed four the couple communicate their feelings. en the thera-
stages of the human sexual response. pist gives the couple “homework,” which is designed
lead to sexual difficulties.

For example, certain medical conditions (such as diabetes mel- to reduce performance anxiety. Homework involves learning to
litus), medications (such as antidepressants), and drugs (such as pleasure one’s partner without genital touching or making sexual
alcohol abuse) can interfere with sexual functioning. demands. is nongenital pleasuring is called sensate focus. A er
Psychological factors refer to performance anxiety, sexual trauma, using sensate focus, the couple moves on to genital touching and
guilt, and failure to communicate, all of which may lead to sexual problems. intercourse. Sex therapists have expanded and modified Masters and
Four-stage model. To understand how psychological factors Johnson’s program and report considerable success with treating
cause sexual problems, it helps to know Masters and Johnson’s many sexual problems.
(1966) four-stage model of the sexual response. We’ll discuss two common sexual problems and their treatments.

Premature or Rapid Ejaculation Inhibited Female Orgasm

John and Susan had been married for three years and were both Greta and Bill had been married for five years and were in their
28 years old. When the clinician asked about their problem, late twenties. When asked about their problem, Greta said that she
Susan said that sex was over in about 30 seconds because that’s didn’t think she had ever had an orgasm. She added that she loved
how long it took for John to have an orgasm. John replied that he Bill very much but that she was becoming less interested in sex
had always reached orgasm very quickly and didn’t realize it was (Durand & Barlow, 2006). Greta’s problem has a name; it is called
a problem. Susan said that it was a problem for her (Althof, 1995). inhibited female orgasm.
John’s problem is called premature ejaculation.
Inhibited female orgasm refers to a persistent delay or absence of
Premature or rapid ejaculation refers to persistent or recurrent orgasm after becoming aroused and excited.
absence of voluntary control over ejaculation, in which the male ejacu-
lates with minimal sexual stimulation before, upon, or shortly after pen- About 10% of women never reach orgasm, and many others do
etration and before he wishes to. so only occasionally (L. Lyon et al., 2008). Difficulty in reaching
orgasm is one of the most common complaints of women seeking
Premature or rapid ejaculation is the most common male sex- help for sexual problems (Laumann et al., 2005).
ual problem and is reported by 20–40% of adult men (L. Lyon et
al., 2008). A common treatment for it is called the squeeze tech- Psychological treatment begins with sensate focus, during which
nique. First, the partner stimulates the man’s penis to nearly full the couple learns to pleasure each other and the woman learns to
erection. en, the partner squeezes the head of the penis, which relax and enjoy her body’s sensations. e man is told how to help
reduces arousal and erection. is squeeze procedure is repeated a woman reach orgasm—for example, by using his hand or, in Gre-
until the male develops a sense of control over arousal and ejacu- ta’s case, using a vibrator (Durand & Barlow, 2006). is program
lation (Riley & Segraves, 2006; Waldinger, 2008). is procedure has proved successful in treating inhibited female orgasm.
has proved successful in treating premature ejaculation.
Next, we’ll discuss a sexual problem that involves a potentially
deadly transmitted disease—AIDS.

344 M O D U L E 1 5 M O T I V A T I O N

AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

What On June 5, 1981, the U. S. Centers for e criterion of T-cell levels below 200 became a part of the definition of
Disease Control and AIDS in 1993. T-cells are a critical part
is AIDS? Prevention issued HIV Infections Worldwide of the body’s immune system, which

a report describ- Eastern Europe fights against toxic agents (viruses
ing five gay men in Los Angeles who & Central Asia and bacteria). Because of this change,
North America 1.6 million some people who were previously
1.2 million
East, South, & Southwest Asia
had a rare form of pneumonia. Later, North Africa & 8.3 million
Middle East
this rare pneumonia was determined to Latin America 510,000 defined as being HIV positive are now
be one symptom of HIV. and defined as having AIDS, even if no obvious
Sub-Saharan symptoms have developed. Researchers report that HIV
HIV positive refers to the presence of HIV anti- Caribbean Africa originated in African monkeys, then spread to chimpanzees
2.1 million
26 million
bodies, which means that the individual has been

infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and, in the 1950s, to humans (Bailes et al., 2003).

which is believed to cause AIDS. About 40 million people worldwide are infected with HIV and one more

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is a person gets infected every 8 seconds, with people aged 13–29 being at highest

life-threatening condition that is present when the individual is risk (CDC, 2008d). About 25 million people have died of AIDS since the first
HIV positive and has a level of T-cells (CD4 immune cells) no case was reported in 1981, making it one of the most deadly diseases in his-
higher than 200 per cubic milliliter of blood or has developed tory (Engeler, 2006; Gerlach, 2006). As shown in the map (above), the AIDS
one or more of 26 specified illnesses (for example, pneumonia, virus is widespread and has reached epidemic levels in Sub-Saharan Africa
skin cancer). It may take years or even decades for HIV to (Gerlach, 2006). Currently, over 1 million people in the United States are
develop into AIDS. living with HIV (CDC, 2009).

Risk for AIDS Progression of Disease Treatment
HIV cannot survive in air, in water, or on A er infection, the AIDS virus repli-
things that people touch. There are no cates rapidly and intensively. As a The number of AIDS-related deaths began to
reports of individuals getting AIDS through result, newly infected individuals are decrease in the late 1990s as a result of break-
casual contact, such as through touch. HIV 100–1,000 times more infectious than throughs in drugs. e new drug treatment pro-
survives best in blood tissues and some they are throughout the remainder of gram has patients taking a drug “cocktail” of
bodily fluids, such as semen and vaginal the disease (Koopman, 1995). In addi- many pills daily, which include several new
fluids. us, people who come in physical tion, newly infected individuals have drugs (protease inhibitors and HIV-inhibiting
contact with blood or bodily fluids (semen no symptoms and the presence of drugs). In many cases,
or vaginal fluids) from someone who has antibodies to HIV cannot be con- these new drugs reduce
HIV are at risk for getting AIDS. firmed biochemically for at least 60 HIV to undetectable lev-
days. us, the newly infected person els, but the drugs still do
The pie chart below shows that in the is regarded as a walking time bomb. not wipe out the virus.
United States, those people at greatest risk Instead, the virus “hides
for AIDS are gay men and heterosexual HIV destroys T-cells (CD4 cells), out” in the body and returns if patients stop tak-
intravenous drug users (high-risk hetero- which are immune cells that fight off ing the drugs, which means these drugs must be
sexual contact) (CDC, 2008d). In the rest toxic agents (viruses and bacteria). It taken for life. Because the anti-HIV drugs
of the world, about 75% of AIDS cases are takes an average of 7 years for a person reduce life-threatening symptoms, these drugs
spread through heterosexual intercourse infected with HIV to develop AIDS have enabled AIDS patients to live longer. e
(S. Sternberg, 2002). (T-cell count below 200) and another 2 earlier patients begin HIV treatment, the better
to 3 years a er that to develop diseases their chance of survival (S. Sternberg, 2008b).
How People Get AIDS that result in death. e reason a per-
son with AIDS is especially susceptible The dramatic decreases in deaths from
Intravenous Male-to-male sexual to infections and diseases is that HIV AIDS because of the drug cocktails used in the
drug use 4% contact and IDU slowly destroys a person’s immune early 1990s have slowed greatly. at’s because
(IDU) system’s defenses, which means the HIV became resistant to some of the “new”
Photo Credit: © S. Wanke/PhotoDisc, Inc. body loses its ability to fight off toxic drugs and some patients stopped taking the
12% agents (infections or diseases). drugs because there were too many pills to take
or because of side effects (nausea, brittle bones)
31% 53% Because of yet unknown qualities (S. Sternberg, 2008a). In 2006, the first once-
of their immune systems, about 10% a-day pill for HIV treatment was approved so
High-risk Male-to-male to 17% of HIV-infected individuals people no longer have to take so many pills
heterosexual sexual contact will be AIDS-free 20 years a er infec- (S. Sternberg, 2006). Researchers continue to
tion. Researchers are studying these search for new drugs and vaccines to treat HIV/
contact AIDS-free individuals to find out how AIDS (Karlin, 2008; Science Daily, 2009a).
their immune systems can fight off
AIDS (Kolata, 2000a). Now, we’ll discuss a cruel cultural influence
on female sexual behavior.

D . S E X U A L B E H A V I O R 345

E. Cultural Diversity: Genital Cutting

Good Tradition or Cruel Mutilation?

What Men have a long history of trying to control the got into the car with her mother and driver. ey didn’t go shop-
sexual motivation of women. In many coun- ping but stopped at a doctor’s house. Once inside, they went into an
is genital tries, men want to marry virgins and insist that operating room where a doctor asked Soraya to lie on the operating
cutting? women remain virgins until table. He tied her feet down with a rope so she could not
marriage, although the men move. Her mother said it was time for Soraya to become a
do not hold themselves to the same standards. woman and undergo genital cutting.
One extreme example of men controlling the Like her mother and her mother’s mother, Soraya
sexual motivation and behavior of women is underwent this ancient rite of passage. But unlike them,
found in parts of Africa, Indonesia, and the Soraya broke the silence to fight this cruel mutilation. At
Arabian Peninsula, where young girls undergo age 36, Soraya made a documentary film called Fire Eyes
genital cutting before they become sexually to protest the practice of genital cutting (Tawa, 1995).
mature (Corbett, 2008; MacInnis, 2006). About 3 million women a year and a total of 140 mil-
Genital cutting involves cutting away the female’s lion women have undergone genital cutting (formerly

external genitalia, usually including her clitoris and called female circumcision), mostly in childhood and

surrounding skin (labia minora). The remaining edges At age 13, Soraya Mire often without anesthesia or sterile procedures. Geni-
are sewn together, which leaves only a small opening underwent genital cutting. tal cutting has taken place for the past 5,000 years and
for urination and menstruation. is currently practiced in about 28 African countries by peo-

Soraya Mire (above photo) remembers the day her mother said, ple of all different religious, ethnic, and cultural groups (Associated
“I’m going to buy you some gi s.” Soraya, who was 13, obediently Press, 2006f; MacInnis, 2006; E. Rosenthal, 2006; WHO, 2008).

What Is Its Purpose? Are There Complications? Is There a Solution?
e United Nations health organizations
In many of the poorer societies Because of the high social status of Soraya’s father,
of Africa and Ethiopia, genital who was a general, her genital cutting was per- have endorsed laws against genital cutting,
cutting is a common ritual to formed by a doctor. However, in the majority of but such laws cannot eliminate this strong
physically mark young girls and cases, it is done by someone with no medical train- sociocultural tradition. As one supporter
increase their chances for future ing who uses a knife, razor, or sharp stone and less of genital cutting said, “This procedure
marriage. Many African nations than sterile procedures (Associated Press, 2006f). helps to keep women’s sexual drives at
have placed government bans Because the genital area has a high concentration acceptable and reasonable levels” (Dani-
on genital cutting, but few of nerves and blood vessels, szewski, 1997). Although Westerners are
are enforcing the rules genital cutting results in horrified by this barbaric practice, many
(Corbett, 2008; Ras-Work, severe pain, bleeding, and African societies consider this practice
2006). even hemorrhaging, which part of their culture and do it out of love Photo Credits: top, Los Angeles Times, photo by Gina Ferazzi; bottom, © Mariella Furrer
Girls commonly under- can lead to shock and death. for their daughters (Corbett, 2008). For
go genital cutting before Because of poor surgical pro- example, when a newspaper in Ghana,
they reach puberty, usually cedures, girls endure many Africa, published articles in favor of ban-
between the ages of 4 and medical complications, ning genital cutting, local women had
10. The primary reason including infections, cysts, great success in getting support to keep
for genital cutting is the and scarring. is procedure this ancient practice and reject values
men’s belief that if women also makes menstruation from the outside world.
are surgically deprived of and intercourse painful and
receiving sexual pleasure, Young girl is being held while childbirth dangerous (Nour, In 2002, the Kenyan president banned
they will remain clean and undergoing genital cutting. 2000; E. Rosenthal, 2006). genital cutting, but it is still being practiced
in some regions. Feminists in Egypt and
virginal until marriage. Men Girls submit to the fear, pain, and trauma of other African nations who are fighting this
in these societies often refuse genital cutting for varied and complex reasons. Par- cruel tradition have run into considerable
to marry a woman who has ents have genital cutting done in the beliefs that it resistance from both men and women who
not undergone genital cutting is for the good of their daughters, that their religion approve of it (Lacey, 2002, 2003). Genital
because they believe that she is requires it, that it will make their daughters mar- cutting is an extreme example of how far
unclean and not a virgin (Asso- riageable, and that it is necessary to maintain female human societies (men) will go to control
ciated Press, 2006f; A. Walker & chastity (Corbett, 2008; Nour, 2000). However, a er the sexual behavior of women.
Parmar, 1993). genital cutting many women suffer anxiety and
e male equivalent of geni- depression from worry about their disfigured geni- We have discussed two biological
tal cutting would be amputation tals, menstruation difficulties, and fear of infertility drives, hunger and sex. A er the Concept
of the male’s penis. (Caldwell et al., 1997). Review, we’ll examine an important social
need—achievement.

346 M O D U L E 1 5 M O T I V A T I O N

Concept Review

1. Physiological or psychological factors that 9. Biological cues for hunger that come from
cause us to act in a specific way at a particular the stomach, liver, intestines, and fat cells are
time are included in the definition of Hypothalamus called (a) cues. Biological

. cues that come from the brain are called
(b) cues.
2. Innate biological forces predispose an
animal to behave in a particular way in the 10. The part of the hypothalamus that is involved in feelings of
presence of a specific environmental condi- being hungry is called the (a) ; the part that is
tion. These ways of behaving are called involved in feelings of being full is called the (b) .

. 11. We inherit the following genetic factors

3. There are several areas in the brain, including the nucleus involved in weight regulation: a certain number of
accumbens and ventral tegmental area, that make up a neural cir- (a) cells that store fat; a certain
cuit called the (a) center. This center especially (b) rate that regulates how fast we
uses the neurotransmitter (b) . Many behaviors burn off fuel; a certain (c) point
(eating, engaging in sex, gambling) that activate this center are that maintains a stable amount of body fat; and
Photo Credits: (#1) © Michael Melford; (#4) © Jupiterimages/Comstock Images/Alamy; (#14) © Nick Cardillicchio/Photolibrary; (#15) © S. Wanke/PhotoDisc, Inc. (c) with pleasurable feelings. weight-regulating (d) that influ-
ence appetite, metabolism, and hormone secretion.
4. External stimuli, reinforcers, goals, or
rewards that may be positive or negative 12. Psychological factors that influence eating include
and that motivate one’s behavior are called (a) associations, (b)
influences, and (c) variables.
.

5. When we perform behaviors to reduce 13. Genetic sex factors involve the 23rd chromosome, called
biological needs or obtain various incen- the (a) , which determines the
tives, we are acting under the influence of sex of the child. Biological sex factors include
(a) motivation. When sex hormones, which for the male are called
we perform behaviors because they are (b) and for the female are
personally rewarding or because we are called (c) . Psychological sex
following our personal goals, beliefs, or factors include the subjective feeling of being male
expectations, we are acting under the influence of or female, which is called (d) ;
(b) motivation. adopting behaviors and traits that society identifies as male or
female, which is called (e) ; and being more sex-
6. Needs that are not critical to your survival but that ually aroused by members of the same or opposite sex, which is
are acquired through learning and socialization, such
as the needs for achievement and affiliation, are called called (f) .

(a) needs. Needs that are critical to 14. Findings from the sexual orientation of identical
your survival and physical well-being, such as food, twins and the shared genetic material from gay broth-
water, and sex, are called (b) needs. ers are examples of (a) factors in
the development of a homosexual orientation. Young
7. The ascending order or hierarchy with biological boys who prefer girls’ toys and girl playmates and
needs at the bottom and social needs at the top is engage in opposite-sex behaviors show a tendency
to develop a homosexual orientation, which shows the effects of
. This idea assumes that we satisfy (b) factors on sexual orientation.
our biological needs before we satisfy our social needs.

8. There are three major factors that influence 15. A person who has been infected by the human immuno-
eating. Cues that come from physiological
changes are called (a) fac- deficiency virus but has not yet developed any illness-
es is said to be (a) . A person whose
tors. Cues that come from inherited instruc- level of T-cells has dropped to 200 per cubic milliliter
tions are called (b) factors.
Cues that come from learning and personality of blood but who may or may not have developed an
illness is defined as having (b) .
traits are called (c) factors.

Answers: 1. motivation; 2. fixed action patterns; 3. (a) reward/pleasure, (b) dopamine, (c) rewarded or encouraged; 4. incentives; 5. (a) extrinsic,
(b) intrinsic; 6. (a) social, (b) biological; 7. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs; 8. (a) biological, (b) genetic, (c) psychosocial; 9. (a) peripheral, (b) central;
10. (a) lateral hypothalamus, (b) ventromedial hypothalamus; 11. (a) fat, (b) metabolic, (c) set, (d) genes; 12. (a) learned, (b) social-cultural,
(c) personality; 13. (a) sex chromosome, (b) androgens, (c) estrogens, (d) gender identity, (e) gender role, (f) sexual orientation; 14. (a) genetic,
(b) psychological; 15. (a) HIV positive, (b) AIDS

C O N C E P T R E V I E W 347

F. Achievement

Need for Achievement It doesn’t look
cool if you work
Why did At the beginning of the mod- hard for grades. academic achievement (McWhorter, 2000). For Victor, academic
ule, we told you about Victor, achievement was one of his many social needs.
Victor succeed? an African American high- Social needs, such as the desire for affiliation or close social bonds,

school student whose buddies nurturance or need to help and protect others, dominance or need to

called him a “White boy” because they thought he influence or control others, and achievement or need to excel, are

was studying too hard. “You can’t be cool if you’re smart,” acquired through learning and experience.

says Victor, who was Mission Bay High’s student body If you are working hard to achieve academic success, you
president, had a 3.7 (A–) grade point average, and are demonstrating your social need for achievement.
planned to attend the University of Southern Cali- The achievement need refers to the desire to set challeng-

fornia in the fall (adapted from the San Diego ing goals and to persist in pursuing those goals in the face of

Union-Tribune, June 17, 1994). obstacles, frustrations, and setbacks.

Victor (right photo) grew up with an obstacle e achievement need not only is a major concern of
that goes largely unnoticed and is rarely discussed college students but also ranks high (Level 4 out of 5)
in public: pressure from students in the same in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. We’ll discuss four ques-
racial or ethnic group not to succeed in the classroom (R. Fryer, tions related to the achievement need: How is the need for achieve-
2005). Educators believe that the high dropout rates for minorities ment measured? What is high need for achievement? What is fear
result, in part, from peer pressure not to succeed in school or show of failure? What is underachievement?

How Is the Need for Achievement Measured? What Is High Need for Achievement?

Do you have a strong need to achieve? Researchers David ere is perhaps no better example of individuals with high need for
McClelland and John Atkinson tried to answer this question achievement than Olympic athletes. One example is Michael Phelps,
with a test called the ematic Apperception Test, or TAT. who has won 16 Olympic medals, including 8 gold medals in 2008
The Thematic Apperception Test, (the individual record for the most gold medals at a single Olympics).
Photo Credits: top, © San Diego Union-Tribune/ZUMA Press; right, © Julian Abram Wainwright/Corbis
commonly called the TAT, is a personality Michael’s performances have Figure/Text Credit: From Abnormal Psychology, by Barlow/Durand, 2/E, p. 79. Copyright © 1997. Brooks/Cole Publishing.

test in which subjects are asked to look at earned him countless other awards,

pictures of people in ambiguous situations including several World Swimmer of

and to make up stories about what the the Year awards. He trains for at

characters are thinking and feeling and least 5 hours a day, 6 days a week, to

what the outcome will be. be the best swimmer he can be.

For example, the sample TAT card Michael has all the traits of someone
on the le shows a young man with a with a high need for achievement
What do you think sad expression and a bright sun and (J. W. Atkinson & Raynor, 1974; Michael Phelps trains 5 hours
is going on in this fruit tree in the background. If you D. C. McClelland, 1985). a day, 6 days a week.
were taking the TAT, you would be
TAT card? High need for achievement is shown by those who persist longer at

asked to describe what is happening in this card. To mea- tasks; perform better on tasks, activities, or exams; set challenging but realis-

sure the level of achievement, your stories would be scored tic goals; compete with others to win; and are attracted to careers that require

in terms of achievement themes, such as setting goals, com- initiative.

peting, or overcoming obstacles (J. W. Atkinson, 1958; D. C. Although the vast majority of us will not make the Olympics, most
McClelland et al., 1953). e TAT assumes that the strength of of us will show varying degrees of the need to achieve by doing our
your need to achieve will be reflected in the kinds of thoughts best, striving for social recognition, and working to achieve material
and feelings you use to describe the TAT cards. However, rewards (Hareli & Weiner, 2002). is need for achievement will vary
TAT stories are difficult to score reliably because there is no based on cultural factors, such as parental influence (Maehr, 2008).
objective way to identify which thoughts and feelings indicate e idea that there is a need for achievement and that it motivates
level of achievement (Keiser & Prather, 1990). More recently, many of our behaviors has generated a great deal of research. However,
objective paper-and-pencil tests have been developed to mea- measuring a person’s need for achievement and making predictions
sure achievement motivation because these tests are easier to about an individual’s level of achievement have proved difficult for two
administer and score and have somewhat better reliability reasons: e TAT and paper-and-pencil tests have limited reliability
and validity than the TAT (R. M. Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2009). and validity (p. 287), and achievement motivation is difficult to quan-
However, measuring the need for achievement has proved tify because it involves intrinsic motivation (p. 331), which includes
difficult because it relates to intrinsic motivational factors that one’s personal beliefs and expectations (Petri & Govern, 2004).
include beliefs and expectations, which have proved difficult If we consider one side of a coin to be a need for achievement, then
to quantify (Petri & Govern, 2004). the other side is fear of failure and making excuses for failing.

348 M O D U L E 1 5 M O T I V A T I O N

Fear of Failure Just as some individuals may be motivated by a need Underachievement
for achievement, others may be motivated by a fear of One of our friends described his
Why do Why do some 14-year-old son, Rich, as having all
underachieve? the brains in the world but doing
some fail? failure. J. W. Atkinson (1964) believed that, in order
to understand why a person succeeds or fails in nothing with them. Although Rich
reaching a goal, we must examine not only a person’s need for achievement is a computer wizard, he gets terrible grades in school,
but also the fear of failure. never does his homework, and doesn’t seem to have any
Fear of failure is shown by people who are motivated to avoid failure by choos- ambition. Rich might be called an underachiever.

ing easy, nonchallenging tasks where failure is unlikely to occur. Underachievers are individuals who score relatively high on

For example, fear of failure may motivate a student to study just enough tests of ability or intelligence but perform more poorly than their
to avoid failing an exam but not enough to get a good grade or set higher scores would predict.
academic goals. In fact, the fear of failure is a good predictor of poor The most common examples of underachievers are
grades: e greater a student’s fear of failure, the poorer his or her grades students who score relatively high on ability or intel-
(W. E. Herman, 1990). Atkinson said that individuals who are motivated ligence tests but perform poorly in
primarily by a fear of failure will never do as well, work as hard, school or academic settings (Lupart
or set goals as high as those who are motivated by a need & Pyryt, 1996). Researchers found
for achievement. Also, the greater one’s fear of failure, the that underachievement is not related
greater the chances of trying to look good by engaging in to socioeconomic class, that there
self-handicapping (Zeidner & Matthews, 2005). are two or three male underachievers
Self-handicapping. If a person is motivated primarily by for every female underachiever, and that
the fear of failure, how does this individual explain his or her about 15% of students are underachievers
poor performances yet keep a good self-image? One solution (McCall, 1994).
is to use self-handicapping (E. Jones & Berglas, 1978). Characteristics. The psychological
Self-handicapping refers to doing things that contribute to characteristics of underachievers include

failure and then using these very things, knowingly or unknow- having a poor self-concept, low self-esteem,

ingly, as excuses for failing to achieve some goal. and poor peer relationships and being shy

For example, instead of studying for an exam, a stu- or depressed. e cognitive characteristics
dent goes to a movie and then does poorly on the test. He of underachievers include fear of failure,
excuses his bad grade by saying he didn’t study, which is poor perceptions of their abilities, and
an example of self-handicapping. Researchers found that Underachievers have the lack of persistence. is means that under-
individuals with low self-esteem are most likely to engage ability but not the motivation. achievers are less likely to persist in getting

in self-handicapping because it is one way to look good to their peers and their college degrees, holding on to jobs, or maintain-
thus protect their already low self-esteem (Elliot & Church, 2003). Self- ing their marriages (McCall, 1994). us, underachieve-
handicapping excuses may involve health (missed sleep, have a cold), drug ment reduces performance in academic, job, and marital
use (have a hangover), unrealistically high goals (How could I possibly do settings, and its effects may last through adulthood.
that?), or procrastination (I didn’t have enough time). In the short term, e paradox of underachievement is that underachiev-
self-handicapping helps preserve our positive self-image and self-esteem, ers have the abilities but are not motivated to use them.
but in the long term, it interferes with taking personal responsibility to Clinicians, counselors, and researchers are developing
achieve our goals (Rhodewalt & Vohs, 2005). treatment programs to help underachievers change their
One example of how fear of failure affects motivation is seen in indi- beliefs and expectations so they will develop the motiva-
viduals who are underachievers. tion to use their considerable abilities (McCall, 1994).

Three Components of Success
Explaining why some students are more suc- encouragement from a parent or caregiver (Finn & Rock, 1997).
Why is cessful than others involves the interaction Researchers also found that students who were more successful in
school had come from more stimulating home environments (par-
a person of three components that we have just dis- ents spoke more to children, children had more books and watched
less television) (Cleveland et al., 2000). us, having a stimulating
successful? cussed: need for achievement, fear of failure,
and psychological factors (self-concept, self- home environment leads to a higher need
esteem, and confidence in one’s abilities). For for achievement, which in turn leads to
example, researchers wondered why some
minority children from low-income more success in life. Finally, successful
homes were successful in school while students not only worked harder but
others were not. Those minority stu- also liked what they were doing. This
dents who succeeded had higher self- “enjoyment of work” is an important
esteem, had more confidence in their cognitive factor that greatly influences
abilities, and received more support and motivation and is our next topic.

F. A C H I E V E M E N T 349

F. Achievement

Cognitive Influences Intrinsic Motivation
Each year, over 1,600 seniors compete in the Would receiving money for volunteering
Do you work Intel Science Talent Search to win the most What happens to give blood “turn off” or decrease the
for love or prestigious high-school science award in the if volunteers intrinsic motivation of donors to the
money? United States. One winner was Eric Larson get paid? point that they might give less blood or
(photo below), a senior from Oregon who has none at all?
always enjoyed science, especially thinking about questions no one Researchers generally believed that if people were given
else can answer. Larson’s project classified mathematical objects external rewards (money, awards, prizes, or tokens) for doing
called fusion categories, which no one had labeled tasks (donating blood) from intrinsic motivation, their per-
before (Bedrosian, 2009; Crepeau, 2009). His formance of and interest in these tasks would decrease (Deci
work has implications for theoretical physics & Moller, 2005). Because of the widely held belief that external
and computer science (Ehrenberg, 2009). Lar- rewards decreased intrinsic motivation, many books advised
son’s love of science is a motivating force that that rewards should not be used in educational settings, hospi-
comes from various cognitive factors. tals, or volunteer organizations because such rewards would do
Cognitive factors in motivation refer to how more harm than good. Recent reviews of this issue indicate that

people evaluate or perceive a situation and how INTRINSIC the effects of external rewards on intrinsic motivation are more
these evaluations and perceptions influence their MOTIVATION complex than originally thought.
willingness to work. Competent Researchers have reached three general conclusions about the
Determined influence of external rewards on intrinsic motivation (Deci &
Eric Larson perceives science projects as Personally rewarding Moller, 2005; Eisenberger et al., 1999; Lepper et al., 1999). First,
interesting and enjoyable and works hard giving unexpected external rewards does not decrease intrin-
to complete them. He describes science and Enjoyable

math as “beautiful” (Larson, 2009). Compared to Larson’s love of sic motivation, but people may come to expect such rewards.
science, others find science projects hard and boring and take sci- Second, giving positive verbal feedback for doing work that was
ence courses only because they are required. e difference between better than others may actually increase intrinsic motivation.
taking science courses because of a love of science and because of ird, giving external rewards for doing minimal work or com-
course requirements illustrates the difference between two kinds of pleting a specific project may decrease intrinsic motivation.
motivation—intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation (Ryan & Recent studies indicate that, unlike
Deci, 2000). previously thought, external rewards
Intrinsic motivation involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors that are unexpected or involve positive

without receiving any external rewards because the behaviors themselves verbal feedback may increase intrinsic

are personally rewarding or because engaging in these activities fulfills our motivation. External rewards that are

beliefs or expectations. tied to doing minimal work or com-

Larson’s dedication to science is in large part fueled by intrin- pleting a specific project may decrease Photo Credits: top, Courtesy of Intel Corporation; bottom left and right, © PhotoDisc, Inc.
sic motivation, which is related to feeling competent, curious, intrinsic motivation. For example,
and interested, having self-determination, and enjoying the when parents or teachers praise chil-
task, whether it’s a science project, work you like, a hobby, or dren, the praise is likely to increase
volunteer work. In comparison, extrinsic motivation involves intrinsic motivation if the praise is
different factors. sincere and promotes the child’s feel-
Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in certain activities or behav- ings of being competent and indepen- People who donate blood
dent. In contrast, insincere praise, are usually intrinsically
iors that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain incentives and praise for very small accomplish-
motivated.
external rewards.

If you do a job, task, or assigned work because ments, or praise that is controlling rather than rewarding may
it is required, your motivation is o en extrinsic, decrease intrinsic motivation (Deci & Moller, 2005).
which may involve being evaluated or compet- For a long time it was also thought that external rewards
ing, or seeking recognition, money, or other automatically decreased creative work and interest. But
incentives, such as acquiring a car or home. researchers have found that the effects of giving children a
Another major difference between intrinsic and reward for completing a creative task depend on how children
extrinsic motivation is that working because of perceive the reward. If they perceive the reward as a treat, it will
EXTRINSIC intrinsic motivation (loving what you’re doing) increase their intrinsic interest, but if they see the reward as
MOTIVATION makes you feel powerfully motivated. Without external pressure to be creative, it will decrease their intrinsic
Competitive intrinsic motivation there would be less dona- interest (Eisenberger & Armeli, 1997). All these studies show
Get recognition tions and fewer people would volunteer their that external rewards influence cognitive factors, which in turn
Obtain incentives time or donate their blood (Deci et al., 1999). may increase or decrease intrinsic motivation.
Make money

So, here’s an interesting question: What would happen to intrinsic Next, we’ll examine how poor and minority students can
motivation if you got paid for doing something that you love doing? overcome educational disadvantages.

G. Research Focus: Overcoming Educational Disadvantages

Why Did Poor and Minority Students Do Well?

How should poor ere has been a long history of research Also, children of professionals hear many more words of encour-
and minority indicating that poor and minority chil- agement than welfare children, and welfare children hear many
dren do not perform as well as their more words of discouragement than children of professionals. e
students be middle-class and White peers in many outcome for young children who hear fewer words spoken by their
parents and receive a lot of discouragement is lower IQ scores and
educated? schools across the United States. Over poorer academic success than for children who hear many words
many years, it has become increasingly and receive a lot of encouragement (Hart & Risley, 2006).
clear that educating poor minority students to the national standards
of proficiency is certainly possible, but requires considerable effort. Other related research reports that children from middle-class
In order to develop school programs to help poor and minority families have parents who are more sensitive, more encouraging,
students overcome their academic disadvantages, education policy and less detached. Researchers conclude that although wealth influ-
makers rely on research findings that identify factors that have an ences children’s IQs and academic success, parenting style mat-
important influence on children’s intellectual and academic achieve- ters even more. us, the advantages of middle-class children are
ment. For instance, researchers report that parents who are profes- due primarily to the language their parents use and their parents’
sionals speak more to their children than parents who are on welfare. child-rearing approach (Brooks-Gunn, 2006).

Procedure and Results Conclusions
Children from low-
By using research findings about the dis- class families who are
advantages of poor and minority children behind in school need
to develop education programs, many more than the same
schools have been able to educate these education provided to
students to meet and rise above national middle-class families.
standards of proficiency. e schools that These children have a
best educate poor and minority children lot of catching up to do
follow three practices. First, the school day and therefore need a
is much longer; the first class o en begins better, more intensive
before 8 .., the last class ends after 4 education. Results on
.., and summer vacations are limited to the effect these special
one month. Second, there are clearly stated schools have on stu-
education goals and principals closely dents’ academic perfor-
monitor whether or not teachers are mance suggest that
achieving the goals. Teachers are very schools should not only
committed to these goals, and some go as focus on academics, but
far as making themselves available in the Not only are students taught academics, such as reading and math, also include personality
evenings to help students with their home- but slogans, such as REACH, are used to help them build character. and behavioral curricu-
lum. Programs like
work. ird, these schools not only are teaching students academics, but also are teaching them character, KIPP offer promise in
such as how to sit in class, make appropriate eye contact, and work cooperatively in a team (Tough, 2006). reducing the academic
Some of the best-recognized schools for their success in educating poor and minority students are oper- achievement and IQ
ated by KIPP (Knowledge Is Power Program). One of the slogans KIPP schools use to teach students proper gap between low-class
classroom behavior is SLANT (Sit up, Listen, Ask questions, Nod, and Track the speaker with their eyes). and minority students
Children in KIPP schools appreciate the valuable lessons they receive about respectful behavior, saying it and middle-class and
even helps them to pay better attention to speakers. KIPP schools use other slogans too, such as the one in White students. Yet,
the above photo and “All of Us Will Learn.” Research findings indicate that the “noncognitive” skills these these relatively few pro-
schools are teaching students, such as patience, respect, self-control, and motivation to work hard, have an grams are only a begin-
Photo Credit: © 2006 Justine Kurland important role in children’s future academic and career success (Tough, 2006). ning to a large-scale
Many of the KIPP schools have demonstrated their effectiveness by improving students’ performances educational issue that
on state exams. For instance, recent state exam scores for middle-school students at one KIPP school in requires substantial
New York were 12% higher than the state average. When compared to scores from other children in their public school reform
high-poverty neighborhoods, 86% of KIPP eighth-grade students scored at grade level in math, but only 16% (Tough, 2006).
of students attending other schools reached math proficiency. is is especially impressive because when
students enter KIPP schools, they are usually at least two grade levels behind (Tough, 2006).

G . R E S E A R C H F O C U S : O V E R C O M I N G E D U C A T I O N A L D I S A D V A N T A G E S 351

H. Application: Eating Problems & Treatments

Dieting: Problems, Concerns, and Benefits

Why is Some of us have learned to eat at certain times or obese has increased dramatically, from 26% in 1976 to 67% in
(learned associations) or eat when stressed (per- 2007 (J. O. Hill et al., 2003; Kluger, 2007). Losing weight is difficult
dieting so sonality variables), or we come from families that because the body is genetically designed to store extra calories as fat
difficult? encourage eating to show appreciation (cultural and because our large forebrains are good at rationalizing why we
influences). Any of these psychosocial factors— need to eat another piece of pizza and have a late-night snack.
learned associations, personality variables, or cultural influences—
can override our genetic and biological factors and lead us to become We’ll use the dieting experiences of television talk-show host
overweight. e percentage of adult Americans who are overweight Oprah Winfrey to illustrate the difficulties of dieting and how best
to maintain an optimal weight.

Overweight and Dieting Diet Program/Lifestyle
Oprah’s difficulties in controlling her weight
In the 1970s, when Oprah Winfrey was in her twenties, she weighed 140 confirm the experiences of many dieters who
pounds. By the mid-1980s, Oprah weighed 190 pounds, which is con- have found it not only difficult to lose weight
sidered overweight for her height and frame. She described getting but even more difficult to keep the weight off.
home from work and being overwhelmed by a compulsion to eat. Researchers agree that the best way to keep Photo Credits: top and center left, © UPI/Bettmann/Corbis; center right, © AP Images/Charles Bennet; bottom left, © AP Images/Charles Rex Arbogast; bottom
When her weight reached 211, she decided it was time weight off is by monitoring your weight daily, center, © Lee Celano/Reuters/Corbis
for a diet program (B. Greene & Winfrey, 1996). and when you begin to regain, immediately
In the 1980s, Oprah went on a diet and lost nearly start eating better and increasing your exercise
190 pounds 70 pounds. She showed off her slim figure on TV and (Wing, 2005). Researchers found that a pro-
gram of exercise and diet involves four factors:
said she was finally cured of overeating. She was wrong. (1) changing one’s attitudes toward food (mak-
In the 1990s, Oprah did not make the necessary changes in her ing it less important); (2) changing one’s eating
lifestyle and she regained all her lost weight and then some, reach- patterns (consuming fewer calories); (3) devel-
ing about 237 pounds (People, March 14, 2005, p. 148). oping a regular exercise program (a critical
In 2005, through devoted dieting and exercise, Oprah got down to 142 pounds part of a weight program); and (4) perhaps the
a trim and fit 160 pounds. She believed she was finished most important, sticking to this weight pro-
with her ongoing weight battle. Unfortunately, she was wrong again. gram over the long term, often for a lifetime
Only four years later, she now tops the scale at 200 pounds. She asks (J. E. Brody, 2000b).
herself, “How did I let this happen again?” (Winfrey, 2009).
Like all bodies, Oprah’s body has two physiological factors Low-fat or low-carbohydrate diet? There
that make it difficult to keep off lost weight. has been a big debate over which of these diets is
Physiological factors. One physiological factor is that more effective. Dieters report that a low-fat diet
Oprah’s body, which is set up to store a certain amount of fat, works better for some, while a low-carbohydrate
237 pounds automatically adjusts to any decrease in fat stores by diet works better for others. A recent long-term
study found that low-carb diets beat low-fat diets
lowering its rate of metabolism (J. M. Friedman, 2003). is results in in weight loss, but the results from other studies
her body more efficiently burning fuel so she must eat even less or are mixed (Seppa, 2008a; Shai et al., 2008). How-
exercise more to avoid regaining lost weight. Another physiologi- ever, researchers report that whichever diet you
cal factor is that Oprah’s body has a genetically fixed set point, choose, the ONLY reason you lose weight is that
which maintains her fat stores at a stable level. If the level of you’re consuming fewer calories (Christensen,
fat stores drops below her set point, her body compensates by 2003). And, don’t forget the exercise.
increasing her appetite so her fat stores will return to their for-
mer level (J. M. Friedman, 2003). is means the body fights a Food addiction. Obesity has been suspected
reduced food intake with two physiological actions: reducing the rate 160 pounds to be a result of an addiction to food. But neuro-
logical connections between overeating and drug
of metabolism and trying to increase fat stores. addiction have only recently been found. For
Like most dieters who have regained their lost weight, Oprah admit- instance, overeaters and drug addicts have defi-
ted, “I didn’t do whatever the maintenance program was. I thought I ciencies in dopamine (a chemical that makes us
was cured. And that’s just not true. You have to find a way to live in feel good). Also, similar brain activation patterns
the world with food” (People, January 14, 1991, p. 84). A er dieting, have been found during food and drug cravings
people like Oprah need to develop a maintenance program to eat (C. Brownlee, 2005; Grimm, 2007). us, obese
less and exercise more. people may be compulsively driven to eat food
Psychological factors. Oprah also realized that food had just as drug addicts are driven to use drugs.
become more than nutrition. “For me, food was comfort, pleasure,
200 pounds love, a friend, everything. Now I consciously work every day at not Next, we’ll discuss the causes and treatments
of two serious eating disorders.
letting food be a substitute for emotions” (Tresniowski & Bell, 1996, p. 81). us, some
dieters need a change in lifestyle so that they don’t eat when stressed or depressed.

352 M O D U L E 1 5 M O T I V A T I O N

Serious Eating Disorders

Must you On the beautiful tropical young girls began to develop a different body image—
island of Fiji, a bulky being slim. By 1998, the incidence of an eating disorder
be thin? body had always been (bulimia nervosa) had almost doubled to 29% of young
girls. Girls said they wanted to be thin because everyone
viewed as a beautiful on TV who has everything is slim (Becker et al., 2002).
body and women complimented each other
on gaining weight. But then TV arrived in is is an example of how cultural factors can encourage
1995 and began showing programs full of eating disorders. We’ll discuss two serious eating disor-
young, slender females and commercials with TV programs change ders, anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, their causes
slim models. A er watching these programs, people’s body image. and treatments.

Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa

Miss America 2008, Kirsten Haglund (right photo), devel- Carol’s life seemed perfect when she was growing up, but all the time
oped anorexia nervosa at age 15. The lack of nutrition something was terribly wrong. “It was like I had to live in this fantasy
caused her collarbones to stick out, and her energy was so world where everything was sweet and good and I got straight A’s,” Carol
depleted that she felt exhausted a er walking up only a few explains. “I started work when I was really young and I would do anything
stairs (Haglund, 2008). Kirsten, now 20, has overcome for anyone there and everyone thought I was so nice and so
her eating disorder and helps those struggling with sweet. And I was just dying inside, literally.” Carol, who began
anorexia nervosa (an-uh-REX-see-ah ner-VOH-sah) binge eating at the age of 15, was not overweight to begin
(Haglund, 2008; Wilkins, 2009). with. She would eat a huge amount of food in one brief
Anorexia nervosa is a serious eating disorder charac- period and then force herself to vomit as a way of avoiding

terized by refusing to eat and not maintaining weight at any weight gain (adapted from the Daily Aztec, March 22,

85% of what is expected, having an intense fear of gain- 1984). Carol’s disorder, which is called bulimia nervosa

ing weight or becoming fat, and missing at least three (boo-LEE-me-ah ner-VOH-sah), affects about 2% of the

consecutive menstrual cycles. Anorexics also have a general population and about 8% of people who are

disturbed body image: They see themselves as fat overweight or obese (DeAngelis, 2002).

even though they are very thin (American Psychiatric Bulimia nervosa is characterized by a minimum of two

Association, 2000). binge-eating episodes per week for at least three months;

Anorexia nervosa, as defined by these fear of not being able to stop eating; regularly engaging

symptoms, is a relatively rare disorder that in vomiting, use of laxatives, or rigorous dieting and

affects about 0.5% to 3.7% of U. S. girls and fasting; and excessive concern about body shape and

women and a much lower percentage of boys Kirsten Haglund had anorexia and weight (APA, 2000).
and men (NIMH, 2008a). never saw herself as skinny. Risk factors. One risk factor involves cultural

Risk factors. One risk factor for anorexia pressures to develop a slim body, as seen in the
nervosa is a dysfunctional family. ese children increase in bulimia nervosa among Fijian girls.
have parents who set excessively high standards Another risk factor involves personality char-
they cannot possibly achieve (Eggers & Liebers, 2007). acteristics, such as being excessively concerned about appearance, being
Another risk involves personality factors, such as being too sensitive, and having low self-esteem and high personal standards for
very anxious, compulsive, rigid, and a perfectionist (Bulik, achievement. For some, bouts of depression, anxiety, mood swings, and
2006; Gura, 2008a). Recent brain scan studies show that the problems with social relationships may trigger episodes of bulimia nervosa,
parts of the brain that normally respond to the pleasurable, which may lead to obesity (Stice, 2002).
rewarding aspects of eating do not seem to work in people Treatment. The psychological treatment for bulimia nervosa may
with anorexia (Kaye, 2008). us, there may be multiple involve ways to control weight as well as one of two kinds of psychother-
risk factors for developing anorexia nervosa. apy: cognitive-behavioral therapy, which focuses on substituting positive
Photo Credit: © Steve Marcus/Reuters/Corbis Treatment. Well-established psychological treatments thoughts for negative ones, or interpersonal therapy, which focuses on
for anorexics have had limited success, and drugs have not improving a person’s social functioning (Z. Cooper & Shafran, 2008; Hil-
been too useful (V. V. W. McIntosh et al., 2005; B. T. Walsh bert et al., 2007; G. T. Wilson et al., 2002). Drug treatment for bulimia ner-
et al., 2006). A relatively new treatment program has vosa, which involves the use of antidepressants and possible unwanted side
reported success using a form of family therapy. Parents effects, was shown to be less effective than psychotherapy (Mitchell et al.,
are asked to become involved in helping their anorexic 2007). Follow-up studies report that about 50% of bulimics recover fully.
daughter to start eating and then gradually letting her con- e half who do not recover may vomit as a long-term habit or overeat while
trol her own eating (Tyre, 2005). Generally, recovery is dif- no longer vomiting (Eggers & Liebers, 2007).
ficult: About 30% make a full recovery; about 35% regain e eating disorders of anorexia and bulimia nervosa clearly illustrate
some weight but maintain a poor body image; about 25% how various personality and psychosocial factors can not only influence
have chronic, recurrent symptoms; and about 5% die from but even override the normal functioning of one of our basic biological
starvation or suicide (Eggers & Liebers, 2007). needs, food.

H . A P P L I C A T I O N : E A T I N G P R O B L E M S & T R E A T M E N T 353

Summary Test

A. Theories of Motivation and other stimuli, sociocultural influences, and various personali-
ty problems are called (c) factors. Factors that
1. The combined physiological and come from inherited instructions contained in our genes are called
psychological factors that cause you to
act in specific ways at particular times (d) factors.

are referred to as (a) . 5. Biological factors that influence eating come from two
When motivated, you usually different sources. Cues arising from physiological changes in
exhibit three characteristics: you are your blood chemistry and signals from your body organs are
(b) to do something; you (c) called (a) ; cues from your brain are called
your energies toward a specific goal; and you have different (b) .
(d) of feelings about reaching that goal.
6. Genetic factors that influence hunger come from four different
2. There are four general theories that together help explain sources: the number of cells that store fat, which are called
human motivation. The theory that applies primarily to animal (a) ; your rate of burning the body’s fuel,
motivation involves innate biological forces that determine behav- which is called your (b) ; the body’s tendency
ior. This is called the (a) theory. The reward/ to keep a stable amount of fat deposits, which is called the
pleasure center theory says there are several areas in the brain, (c) ; and a number of (d) genes
including the (b) and , that that influence appetite, metabolism, and secretion of hormones
especially use the neurotransmitter (c) . Many regulating fat stores.
behaviors (eating, engaging in sex, gambling) that activate this
center are (d) with pleasurable feelings. The
theory that says we are motivated by external rewards is called D. Sexual Behavior
the (e) theory. The theory that distinguishes
between extrinsic and intrinsic motivations is called the 7. Human sexual behavior is influenced by three different factors.
Inherited instructions for the development of sexual
(f) theory. If we are motivated because we organs, hormonal changes at puberty, and neural
find the activities personally rewarding or because they fulfill
our beliefs or expectations, our motivation is said to be due to circuits that control sexual reflexes are called
(a) factors. The fact that hu-
(g) motivation. mans engage in sexual behavior for many rea-

sons besides reproduction and the fact that
humans experience sexual difficulties that
B. Biological & Social Needs have no physical or medical basis indicate the
influence of (b) factors on sexual behavior. Fac- Photo Credits: (#1) © Richard Sjoberg; (#4) Courtesy of Jeffrey M. Friedman, Rockefeller University
3. Food, water, and sleep are examples of (a) tors that regulate the secretion of sex hormones, which play a role
needs. In comparison, needs that are acquired in the development of secondary sexual characteristics, influence
through learning and socialization are called sexual motivation (more so in animals than in humans), regulate
(b) needs. The theory that we the development of ova and sperm, and control the female men-
satisfy our needs in ascending order, with physio- strual cycle, are called (c) factors.
logical needs first and social needs later, is called
(c) . According to this theory, 8. Biological sex factors include the secretion of sex hormones,
needs are divided into five levels: biological, which is controlled by an area of the brain called the
safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and (a) . The major male sex hormones secreted by
self-actualization. the testes are called (b) , and the major female

C. Hunger sex hormones secreted by the ovaries are (c) .
When hormone levels are within the normal range, there is little
(d) between levels of sex hormones and sexual
4. If there is an almost perfect balance between motivation in humans.
how much food an organism needs to main-
tain the body’s energy needs and how much 9. Three psychological sex factors are the individual’s subjective
the organism actually eats, the organism’s experience and feelings of being a male or a female, which is
weight is said to be (a) . called (a) ; traditional or stereotypical behaviors,
Three different factors influence the hunger drive. Factors that attitudes, and personality traits that society designates as mascu-
come from physiological changes in blood chemistry and signals line or feminine, which are called (b) ; and
from digestive organs that provide feedback to the brain, which, in whether a person is sexually aroused primarily by members of
turn, triggers us to eat or stop eating, are called (b) his or her own sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes, which is called
factors. Factors that come from learned associations between food (c) .

354 M O D U L E 1 5 M O T I V A T I O N

10. The findings that identical twins are often alike in their sexual 15. If you engage in behaviors without receiving any external
orientation and that homosexual brothers shared similar inherited reward but because the behaviors themselves are personally
material indicate the influence of (a) factors on rewarding, you are said to be (a) motivated. If
homosexual orientation. The finding that genetic factors do not you engage in behaviors to reduce biological needs or obtain exter-
necessarily determine sexual orientation indicates the influence of nal rewards, you are said to be (b) motivated.
(b) factors on sexual orientation.

11. There are two kinds of sexual problems. Problems that G. Research Focus:
are characterized by repetitive or preferred sexual fantasies Overcoming Educational Disadvantages
involving nonhuman objects (articles of clothing) are called
(a) . Problems of sexual arousal or orgasm that R E A C H 16. Schools that best educate
interfere with adequate functioning during sexual behavior are poor and minority students have
called (b) . When a person seeks help for a (a) class days,
and clearly stated (b) and teach students not
sexual problem, the clinician will check whether the causes are only academics but also (c) . Research findings
(c) or .
indicate that the (d) skills these schools are
12. If a person has been infected by the human immunodeficiency teaching students, such as patience and respect, have an important
virus (HIV) but has not yet developed one or more of 26 illnesses,
that person is said to be (a) . A person whose effect on children’s future academic and career success.

level of T-cells (CD4 immune cells) has dropped to below 200 per H. Application: Eating Problems & Treatments
cubic milliliter of blood (one-fifth the level of a healthy person)
and who may or may not have any other symptoms is said to have
(b) . 17. A healthy weight-maintenance program, which
can reduce the risk of serious medical problems
of (a) people, involves chang-
E. Cultural Diversity: Genital Cutting ing (b) toward food, changing
(c) patterns, developing an
13. In some cultures the female’s external genitalia, usually (d) program, and sticking to
including her clitoris and surrounding skin
(labia minora), are cut away; this practice is a long-term (e) program. Two
serious eating disorders are a pattern characterized by bingeing,
called . Girls often submit fear of not being able to stop eating, and regularly purging the
to the fear, pain, and trauma of this proce-
dure so as to gain social status, please their body, which is called (f) ; and another pattern in
which a person starves to remain thin, has a fear of being fat, and
Photo Credits: (#13) © Mariella Furrer; (#14) © PhotoDisc, Inc.; (#17) © UPI/Bettmann/Corbis parents, and comply with peer pressure. A has a disturbed body image, which is called (g) .
number of feminists in Africa have formed
a society to fight the sexual mutilation of
females.

F. Achievement

14. High in Maslow’s needs hierarchy is a desire to set challenging Answers: 1. (a) motivation, (b) energized, (c) direct, (d) intensities;
goals and persist in pursuing those goals in the face of obstacles, 2. (a) instinct, (b) nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, (c) dop-
frustrations, and setbacks. This social amine, (d) rewarded or encouraged, (e) incentive, (f) cognitive, (g) intrin-
need is called the (a) . sic; 3. (a) biological, (b) social, (c) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs; 4. (a) ideal
Someone who persists longer at tasks, or optimal, (b) biological, (c) psychosocial, (d) genetic; 5. (a) peripheral
shows better performance on tasks, cues, (b) central cues; 6. (a) fat cells, (b) metabolic rate, (c) set point,
activities, or exams, sets challenging but (d) weight-regulating; 7. (a) genetic, (b) psychological, (c) biological;
realistic goals, competes with others to 8. (a) hypothalamus, (b) androgens, (c) estrogens, (d) correlation or associ-
win, and is attracted to careers that require initiative is said to ation; 9. (a) gender identity, (b) gender roles, (c) sexual orientation;
have a high (b) . Individuals who score relatively 10. (a) genetic, (b) psychological; 11. (a) paraphilias, (b) sexual dysfunc-
high on tests of ability or intelligence but perform more poorly tions, (c) psychological, physiological; 12. (a) HIV positive, (b) AIDS;
than their scores would predict are called (c) . 13. genital cutting; 14. (a) achievement motive, (b) need for achievement,
Individuals who choose either easy, nonchallenging tasks or chal- (c) underachievers, (d) fear of failure; 15. (a) intrinsically, (b) extrinsically;
lenging tasks where failure is probable and expected are said to be 16. (a) longer, (b) education goals, (c) character, (d) noncognitive;
motivated by (d) . 17. (a) overweight, (b) attitudes, (c) eating, (d) exercise, (e) maintenance,
(f) bulimia nervosa, (g) anorexia nervosa

S U M M A R Y T E S T 355

Critical Thinking

Viagra for Men and Women?

QUESTIONS Eric (not his real name), who was 64 Despite its incredi- 5 What is one rea-
and happily married, was diag- ble success, Viagra son that Viagra did
1What are the two nosed with prostate cancer. He chose doesn’t work for 30–40% of men who not work in 30–40% of
different causes of to have his prostate gland removed, have impotence. Some of these men those who tried it?
sexual problems (dys- knowing there was a 50–50 chance of experience unwanted side effects, such
functions), and which becoming impotent, which is the as one man who stopped taking Viagra 6 What is one rea-
one applies to Eric? inability to have an erection (also because “your face gets very hot, you son that Viagra
called erectile dysfunction). After sur- feel like your heart is beating faster did not improve sexual
2 Why do you gery, Eric did become impotent and than it should, there’s anxiety” (Leland, functioning in women?
think that Viagra developed a terrible fear that his wife 1998, p. 68). Also, although Viagra can
was discovered by would leave him. Eric volunteered for cause erections, it may not resolve the ANSWERS
accident? a study on a brand new drug to treat underlying sexual difficulties in TO CRITICAL
impotence. For Eric, the new drug unhappy relationships. Finally, a few THINKING
3 How is the trans- worked so well that he called it a “won- hundred deaths have been associated QUESTIONS
mitter involved in der drug” because it gave him back a with Viagra, which resulted in a warn-
producing an erection normal married life. This drug later ing label about not prescribing Viagra
(a gas called nitric became known as Viagra (sildenafil). for men with certain heart problems.
oxide) different from Still, drug manufacturers cannot ignore
most other transmit- What’s unusual about Viagra is that Viagra’s effectiveness on so many men.
ters discussed earlier it was discovered by accident. Scien- In fact, they are hoping to find the
(p. 54)? tists were looking for drugs to treat magic “pink pill” for women.
heart disease and found that, while one
4 Why might men drug didn’t work on heart disease, it In past research with women who
who are not did cause erections. Scientists changed have decreased sexual desire, Viagra
impotent want to goals and began testing the particular has not proved effective, since the per-
try Viagra? drug on men who were impotent. centage of women (21%) who reported
improved sexual functioning with Via-
It was not until the early 1980s that gra was about the same as for those
scientists figured out the plumbing who took placebos. However, in recent,
behind erections. They discovered that more targeted research with women,
when a man feels aroused, his penis researchers report that Viagra seems to
releases a gas, nitric oxide, which acti- counteract orgasm problems caused by
vates an enzyme (cyclic GMP), which taking antidepressants (72% reported
triggers the blood vessels in the penis improvement). This is a significant
to relax, which allows blood to rush in finding because antidepressants are
and cause stiffness (erection). Scien- strongly associated with reducing
tists found that Viagra worked by orgasms in women and are one of the
keeping the enzyme around longer so major reasons many women stop tak-
that blood vessels stayed relaxed lon- ing needed depression medication.
ger, which allowed blood to f low in
and cause an erection. Although Viagra is not a miracle pill
for all men and women, for about 70%
Estimates are that between 10 and of men who suffer some degree of impo-
20 million American men suffer some tency, especially after prostate surgery,
degree of impotence. For many of and about 70% of women who lack the
these men, the idea of having an erec- ability to reach orgasm as a result of
tion 20 to 40 minutes after taking Via- side effects from antidepressant medi-
gra is very appealing. Viagra, “the cation, Viagra appears to be a very
little blue pill,” has been available for good deal. (Adapted from BBC News,
10 years, and similar drugs have fol- 2003; J.S. Cohen, 2001; Horowitz, 1999;
lowed because of the skyrocketing Kotz, 2008; Leland, 1998; L.Lyon et al.,
sales. Viagra and similar drugs 2008; Mestel, 1999; Nurnberg et al.,
account for 19 million prescriptions a 2008; Roan, 1998; N. Seppa, 2008b)
year, more than $1.5 billion!

356 M O D U L E 1 5 M O T I V A T I O N

Links to Learning

Key Terms/Key People Learning Activities

achievement need, 348 intestines, 335 PowerStudy for Introduction PowerStudy 4.5™
AIDS, 345 intrinsic motivation, 331, to Psychology 4.5
anorexia nervosa, 353
biological hunger factors, 350 Use PowerStudy to complete quizzes and learning activities for Motivation.
lateral hypothalamus, 335 e DVD also includes interactive versions of the Summary Test on pages 354–355
334, 335 liver, 335 and the critical thinking questions for the article on page 356, key terms, an out-
biological needs, 332 maintenance program, 352 line and an abstract of the module, and an extended list of correlated websites.
biological sex factors, 338 male hypothalamus, 339
biosocial theory, 342 Maslow’s hierarchy of CengageNOW!
bisexual orientation, 341 www.cengage.com/login
bulimia nervosa, 353 needs, 332, 333 Want to maximize your online study time? Take this easy-
central cues, 335 metabolic rate, 336, 352 to-use study system’s diagnostic pre-test and it will create a personalized study
cognitive factors in motivation, 329 plan for you. e plan will help you identify the topics you need to understand
obesity, 334 better and direct you to relevant companion online resources that are specific
motivation, 350 optimal or ideal to this book, speeding up your review of the module.
double standard for sexual
weight, 334 Introduction to Psychology Book Companion Website
behavior, 342 organic factors, 344 www.cengage.com/psychology/plotnik
evolutionary theory, 342 overweight, 334 Visit this book’s companion website for more resources to help you
extrinsic motivation, 331, paraphilias, 344 study, including learning objectives, additional quizzes, flash cards, updated
peripheral cues, 335 links to useful websites, and a pronunciation glossary.
350 premature or rapid
fat cells, 335, 336 Study Guide and WebTutor
fear of failure, 349 ejaculation, 344 Work through the corresponding module in your Study
female hypothalamus, 339 psychological factors, 344 Guide for tips on how to study effectively and for help learning the material
fixed action pattern, 330 psychological sex factors, covered in the book. WebTutor (an online Study Tool accessed through your
gender identity, 340 eResources account) provides an interactive version of the Study Guide.
gender identity 338, 340
psychosocial hunger
disorder, 340
gender roles, 340 factors, 334, 337
genetic hunger factors, 334, reward/pleasure center, 330
self-handicapping, 349
336 set point, 336, 352
genetic sex factors, 338 sex chromosomes, 338
genital cutting, 346 sex hormones, 339
heterosexual sexual dysfunctions, 344
sexual orientation, 341
orientation, 341 social needs, 332, 348
high need for stomach, 335

achievement, 348 ematic Apperception
HIV positive, 345 test, or TAT, 348
homosexual orientation, 341 underachievers, 349
hypothalamus, 335 ventromedial
incentives, 331 hypothalamus, 335
inhibited female weight-regulating
genes, 336
orgasm, 344
instinct, 330
interactive model of sexual

orientation, 341

Suggested Answers to Critical Thinking 4. Men with no erectile problems may want to try Viagra because
they incorrectly believe that Viagra increases not only erections
1. There are two general causes of sexual dysfunctions. One cause involves but also sexual desire and motivation, which it doesn’t.
organic factors, such as medical problems or problems caused by drugs.
The other cause involves psychological factors, such as anxiety, sexual 5. The reasons Viagra did not work in 30–40% of men with
trauma, guilt, or communication difficulties, all of which lead to sexual erectile problems may be serious organic (medical) problems
problems. In Eric’s case, the cause was organic, since he had no problems or psychological problems (low sexual motivation, fear or anx-
with having an erection until his prostate gland was removed. iety about performing), which Viagra doesn’t necessarily help.

2. Although finding a pill to treat impotence was a high priority, scientists did not 6. One reason Viagra was no more effective than a placebo in
yet understand how erections occurred and so did not know where to look for improving female sexual functioning is that Viagra essentially
a drug to treat impotence. It was by accident that scientists, who were initially deals with the flow of blood into and out of sexual organs and
studying a drug to treat heart disease, found a drug that produced erections. doesn’t seem to improve sexual desire. Thus, women’s low
sexual desire or motivation, which may be a psychological
3. All the transmitters discovered earlier were chemicals (pp. 54–55). That’s problem, is a difficulty that Viagra doesn’t seem to help.
why finding that the transmitter involved in erections was a gas (nitric
oxide) was completely unexpected. L I N K S T O L E A R N I N G 357

16 Emotion
MODULE
A. Peripheral Theories 360 370
Photo Credit: © Manpreet Romana/372
AFP/Getty Images374
B. Cognitive Appraisal Theory 361 I. Application: Lie Detection
Summary Test 375
C. Affective Neuroscience Approach 362 Critical Thinking

D. Universal Facial Expressions 364 Why Do They Have to Learn to Smile?
Links to Learning
E. Functions of Emotions 365

F. Happiness 366

G. Cultural Diversity: Emotions across Cultures 367

Concept Review 368

H. Research Focus: Emotional Intelligence 369

358

Introduction

Emotional Experience Staying Happy Being attacked by
What happened to Bethany Hamilton at 7:30 on a Friday morning was a shark results in a
What did something she would never forget. Bethany paddled her sur oard How long
Bethany feel about a quarter-mile off the north shore of Kauai, Hawaii, and as she
do emotions very different emo-
during a shark waited to catch the best waves, she noticed the water was clear and last? tional experience
calm, like a swimming pool. e waves turned out to be too small to than winning big
attack? ride so she relaxed by holding the sur oard with her right arm and bucks in a lottery. Since lotteries began

letting her le arm dangle in the warm water. Suddenly she saw a glimmer of gray in the clear in the late 1970s, over 4,000 people
blue water. Almost instantly, Bethany felt tremendous pressure and fierce yanking on her le have become instant millionaires.
arm. It was then she realized that the razor-sharp teeth of a 15-foot tiger shark were wrapped Immediately after winning, the new
tightly around her le arm. When she saw the water around her turn bright red with streaks of millionaires reported feeling intense
her blood, her heart pounded like a hammer and her adrenaline flowed like water from a fire pleasure, being ecstatic, and living in a
hose. e shark eventually let go of her arm and swam away. With great courage and persever- dream world (Angelo, 1991). But what
ance, Bethany paddled to the beach as quickly as she could with only her right arm. Her le happens when a winner finally realizes
arm had been violently ripped off almost to the armpit, and the shark even took a big chunk that for the next 20 years he or she will
out of her sur oard! receive a large monthly check? Will
As Bethany approached the beach, people helped her off the sur oard and called for help. the emotional high continue, or will
She was rushed to the hospital for surgery, and about a week a er her stitches were removed, being a millionaire become a taken-
Bethany began surfing again. It was difficult learning to surf with only her right arm, but her for-granted experience?
extraordinary drive helped her win several surfing competi-
tions a er the attack. Although Bethany at times experiences
dread and fright that something bad is going to happen again,
for the most part, she is as comfortable as other surfers are
while in the water (adapted from B. Hamilton, 2004).
Bethany experienced a variety of emotions during and a er
her shark attack. During the attack, she felt intense anxiety and
fear for her life. When she reached the shore, she felt relieved
to be alive but worried about her missing arm. Sometime later,
Photo Credits: left, © AP Images/Kalahari Photo/Jamie-Andrea Yanak; right, © Ian McKinnell/Getty Images she felt fright about surfing again, but she also felt pride and
joy a er catching her first big wave a er the attack. Although
Bethany experienced over a half-dozen emotions, they all Ten years after winning a $20-million
shared the same four components (Frijda, 2008). lottery, would you still be very happy?
An emotion is defined in terms of four components. First, you
Researchers have studied lottery
interpret or appraise some stimulus (event, object, or thought) in winners to find out what effect such
an enormous windfall has had on their
terms of your well-being. Second, you experience a subjective feeling, lives (CPO, 2006). Later in this mod-
ule, we’ll tell you what the researchers
such as fear or happiness. Third, you have physiological responses, discovered about happiness and how it
applies to lottery winners and you.
Bethany was attacked by such as changes in heart rate or breathing. Fourth, you may show
a shark, which bit off her What’s Coming
observable behaviors, such as smiling or crying.
entire left arm! Bethany’s experience with the shark illustrates the four We’ll discuss how emotions occur;
how much our physiological responses,
components of an emotion: facial expressions, and interpretations
First, she interpreted or appraised the stimulus, a shark attack, as a very serious threat to contribute to emotions; whether feel-
her well-being and survival. ing or thinking comes first in experi-
Second, she had the subjective experience or feeling of fear and terror. encing an emotion; whether there is a
ird, she had a variety of physiological responses, such as heart pounding and adrenaline set of basic or universal facial expres-
pumping, which cause arousal and prepare the body for action, such as swimming away fast. sions that occur across all cultures;
Fourth, she showed overt or observable behaviors, such as fearful facial expressions and what the functions of emotions are;
rapid paddling to the beach. In some cases, such as playing poker, a person may experience a how specific emotions work; and how
wide range of emotions but try to hide his or her overt behaviors by showing no facial expres- emotions are used in lie detection.
sion, commonly known as a “poker face.” In other cases, cultural factors influence overt
behaviors, such as allowing American women but not usually American men to cry in public. We’ll begin our discussion of emo-
Although there is general agreement that emotions have four components, there is much tions with how a swimmer’s sight of a
discussion of the order in which these four components occur (Frijda, 2008). For instance, shark causes him or her to feel fear.
did Bethany have to think about the shark before she felt fear, or did she feel fear immediately
and then think about how terrified she was? We’ll discuss this as well as many other questions I N T R O D U C T I O N 359
about emotions, such as why people can identify a fearful face quicker than a happy one.