Information Sources for Planning and Management 621
There are many potential sources of development officer quickly found the
conflict between the ecotourism industry funds to build a new roof. The symbolism
and the local people. The goal interference of the local town council meeting each
between those who want to physically uti- week under a park-provided roof is strong
lize nature and those who want to spiritu- evidence of the tourism benefit flowing to
ally experience nature can be the basis of the town. In eastern Kenya, the Kenya
substantial conflict. The influx of foreign Wildlife Service has built schools for local
money, new ideas and new power struc- communities, and in one case provided a
tures may leave the locals in a state of con- cement mixer to a village. In all three
cern. Therefore, the ecotour manager, examples the agencies made sure that signs
whether he or she works for government or on the structures showed, to all who could
a private company, must be astute in devel- read, that they were provided with funds
oping positive community relations. Every derived from the nearby park agencies,
community has its own needs, but experi- with the money ultimately coming from
ences elsewhere in the world show some tourism income.
general principles worth considering
(Ashley and Roe, 1998). These principles Some private companies and many gov-
are outline below. ernment agencies have programmes to pro-
vide specialized training to talented young
In most cases, it is very important that people. This can take the form of small
the ecotourism provides obvious and scholarships, or can be substantial grants
appreciated local community benefit. It for education at colleges or universities.
takes intelligence gathering to develop an Utali College in Nairobi, Kenya, is a fine
understanding of what type of benefit is example of a college designed specifically
appropriate. And the benefit must be suffi- for the training of people for all aspects of
ciently visible so that the local community the tourism industry. This college provides
sees it occurring and understands where it training for all types of jobs in tourism,
is coming from. For example, the provision such as room cleaners, cooks, waiters,
of jobs for local people is an obvious bene- safari drivers, guides and hotel managers.
fit, and one that is usually appreciated and
valued. People who work in the ecotourism Cultural impact
business naturally become supportive of
that industry and support it in community Tourism has value-changing impact on all
decision processes. involved. Given that ecotourism has an
inherent goal of personal education, it has
In many parts of the world there are the potential for higher levels of personal
consultants available who specialize in change for the travellers and for the local
community relations and community people than many other forms of travel.
development. For example, throughout Many ecotourist destinations have been
eastern and southern Africa, there is a substantially changed by the tourism
cadre of people with expertise in the devel- industry. It is a hotly debated topic
opment of community relations plans for whether these changes are positive or nega-
the application of development pro- tive, and in most cases they are probably
grammes. In both Kenya and Tanzania the both, depending on the view of the
national park agencies have specialized observer (Travis, 1982).
staff whose role is that of community rela-
tions. These people work with local politi- All involved in the ecotourism industry
cal bodies, develop personal relationships must be aware of the cultural impact inher-
with politicians, serve as a sounding board ent in this activity. This requires a certain
for complaints, and importantly develop a humility, recognizing that people’s ideas,
list of community needs. Ruaha National values and behaviours will be changed for-
Park is in southern Tanzania. When the ever due to tourism. Tourism planners and
roof blew off the local government council managers may have to hire or otherwise
building in a storm, the Ruaha community
622 P.F.J. Eagles
involve local expertise in cultural manage- Service spearheaded an effort to undertake
ment. For long-term programme success local economic impact studies in Australia.
positive cultural management policies will Examples include the economic impact of
ensure a supportive local community. Coolah Tops National Park (Conner and
Christiansen, 1998) and Montague Island
Local economic impact Nature Reserve (Christiansen and Conner,
1999). These Australian and Canadian
Positive local economic impact is one of approaches are useful examples of the
the strongest arguments made by govern- approaches that can be effectively used for
ments and local people when they support the calculation of the economic impact of
ecotourism development. The financial parks and the associated ecotourism. The
gain can come from three sources: (i) the Canadian approach calculates provincial-
spending of the tourists; (ii) the investment level impact, the Australian model calcu-
of the private sector; and (iii) the invest- lates community-level impact.
ment of the public sector. Typically, the
public sector investment, in the form of Environmental Management
special protection regimes, such as the cre-
ation of national parks and wildlife The effective management of the natural
reserves, comes first. This is followed by environment and its presentation for eco-
small tourist flows. As the private sector tourists are key components of ecotourism.
recognizes a potential market, its invest- Environment management is composed of
ment of money and expertise often results several fields: site sensitivity and ecologi-
in much larger tourist flows. cal impact, environmental protection and
sustainable operations, and park manage-
Many studies have looked at the eco- ment.
nomic impact of ecotourism (Butler and
Hvenegaard, 1988; Hvenegaard, 1992; Filion Site sensitivity and ecological impact
et al., 1994; Lindberg and Enriquez, 1994;
Driml and Common, 1995; Kangas et al., Almost by definition, sites that have high
1995). These studies are typically available ecotourism potential are ecologically sensi-
in university libraries. However, economic tive. Therefore, all activities must be very
impact from tourism is not always obvious. carefully planned to ensure maximum pos-
This is especially true when many other itive ecological benefits and minimum nega-
economic activities are also occurring in tive ecological impacts. Many governments
the same area. In these latter cases, eco- have laws and policies requiring the cre-
tourism managers have a responsibility to ation of an environmental impact study of
document the local economic impact, and proposed developments in ecologically
then ensure that this impact is communi- sensitive areas. Adherence to such laws or
cated to the appropriate people. policies requires special studies under-
taken by highly trained specialists. Large
There are many ways to approach the government agencies, such as park agen-
measurement of local community impact. cies, often have such staff within their own
The provincial economic impact model organizations. Corporations typically hire
developed for the Federal Provincial Parks consultants to undertake the work. Small
Council in Canada is a user-friendly com- corporations must rely on their own exper-
puter model for the calculation of the eco- tise and that gleaned from government staff
nomic impact of a park (Stanley et al., and private experts. After the impact stud-
1999). The model has been specifically ies are complete, site design and construc-
designed to be useful to a manager who has tion must be carried out in a manner that
no special training in economics, but wants follows the recommendations from the
a competent estimate of the economic
impact of a park or a cultural event. New
South Wales National Park and Wildlife
Information Sources for Planning and Management 623
impact studies. Facility and programme best-practice approach for developing envi-
operation must adhere to developed envi- ronmental sustainability and maintaining a
ronmental standards. viable business. More recently Basche
(1999) wrote a manual explaining the gen-
The field of environmental management eral principles of sustainable tourism as
surrounding ecotourism is too large to dis- adopted by the Tourism Council of
cuss within this particular chapter. How- Australia. The principles are explained
ever, such management is heavily data under the following headings: use resources
dependent. Large amounts of current and sustainably, reduce over-consumption and
relevant data must be collected on the waste, maintain diversity, integrate tourism
environmental features of the subject area. into planning, support local economics,
These data must be intelligently analysed involve local people and indigenous com-
in order to produce useful information for munities, consult stakeholders and the
planning and management purposes. public, train staff, market tourism responsi-
bly, and undertake research. This book
The SEACAM programme in eastern provides understandable directions for sen-
Africa produced useful guidelines for the sitive and sustainable tourism. Details are
assessment of the impact of tourism facili- provided on seven specific activities: road
ties in coastal areas (Grange and Odendaal, transport, marine tours, camping tours,
1999). This book describes in detail the bushwalking tours, horse-riding, raft and
information needs, the procedures, and kayak tours, light aircraft and helicopters.
many applied examples of coastal tourism This is the only publication of its type
development. The book is a good combina- available.
tion of theory and practice in planning for
tourism in sensitive environmental and Park management
cultural areas. The book is designed for
coastal tourism, but has general utility in
the environmental assessment of tourism.
Environmental protection and sustainable A substantial amount, and possibly a
operations majority, of the world’s ecotourism occurs
in national parks and other forms of pro-
Virtually none of the Earth’s surface goes tected areas. This cultural institution now
without some form of human use. The contains the best pieces of wild nature that
issue is not one of use, it is one of type and still exist on Earth. This high ecological
amount of use. Ecotourism is inherently value, the cultural heritage connections
protective because the ecotourists want to within society, the sense of increasing
see the environment sensitively managed scarcity, and the increasing demand for use
so that it is available to provide experi- makes parks and protected areas key areas
ences with nature. for ecotourism.
The Australian national government, Many parks contain very large-scale
private ecotourism operators and research tourism activities, and have considerable
groups are the best sources of environ- expertise in the field. It behoves those out-
mentally positive operational guidelines side park management to become familiar
and procedures for ecotourism. The with the legal, policy and political
Commonwealth Department of Tourism structure surrounding park management in
(1995) of Australia produced a useful set of their area. It behoves those within park
guidelines aimed at minimizing the use of management to become familiar with the
energy, water and supplies in ecotourism needs, constraints and operations of the
projects. Boele (1996) outlined in detail private ecotourism operators who work
energy efficiency measures in tourism. The locally. Tourism operations can become a
Tourism Council of Australia (TCA and source of major conflict in park manage-
CRC Tourism, 1998) published a guide to ment. However, properly designed and sen-
sitively handled tourism park relationships
624 P.F.J. Eagles
can become a major, positive force in parks made on governments, and if tourism infor-
and in local communities. mation flows are to be maintained they
must be cultivated, just as one would water
Summary and fertilize a garden.
Ecotourism is a complicated and sophisti- The private sector often collects expen-
cated enterprise. Good management requires sive and proprietary data on tourism.
a flow of useful and accurate information These are used for their own business
from many fields. It is critical that man- interests, naturally enough. However, the
agers put themselves into a position so that private sector is often negligent in not mak-
they get the information they require when ing such data available to others in the
it is most needed. It is necessary that the industry when they are no longer of direct
managers sufficiently understand the utility to the collecting company. Such rich
sources and methodologies used to collect datasets should be made available to uni-
the information, so its accuracy and utility versity researchers, to park agencies and to
can be properly evaluated. the general tourism industry at the earliest
feasible date.
Managers must ensure that they get all
information, not just that which is positive. Ecotourists require high levels of infor-
It is easy to develop a system where the mation. Much of the information required
sources for a manager provide only good for competent planning and management
news, leaving out the difficult bits. This may can also be useful in the design and deliv-
be easy on the psyche, but only for a short ery of interpretive services to ecotourists.
period. If a problem is developing with a Those operations with higher levels of suit-
local community, with a staff person or with able information stand a much better
the cash flow, the manager must become chance of making more suitable decisions
aware at the earliest possible opportunity. in environmental, cultural, social, eco-
nomic and business areas of operation. The
It behoves the government tourism and use of information is dependent on the
statistical agencies to provide a continu- education and abilities of the managers
ous, relevant and accurate flow of data on who are making decisions. There is no sub-
tourism. Whenever possible, the data stitute for a well-educated planning and
should be interpreted so that the widest management staff.
range of users can see their utility (CTC,
1995, 1997; DEAT, 1996). It is important for Acknowledgements
the government and private users of such
data to demand their collection, and then Special thanks to Stephanie Yuill, David
to support the collection agencies politi- Weaver and Anne Ross for many insightful
cally. There are a large number of demands comments on an earlier draft of this chapter.
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Chapter 40
Education and Training
N. Lipscombe and R. Thwaites
School of Environmental and Information Science, Charles Sturt University, Albury,
New South Wales, Australia
Introduction into the industry of their training/educa-
tion, the benefit of such an approach lies
This chapter discusses formal education in having the questions/concerns/issues
and training programmes developed to ser- exposed for future discussion and debate.
vice the ecotourism industry. It will
endeavour to differentiate ecotourism from The ‘Greening’ of Tourism
other forms of tourism as a base on which
to justify the need for and the rapid devel- Recent decades have seen a growing aware-
opment of formal education programmes. ness of environmental issues and interest in
Particular reference is made to Australia, as natural and cultural heritage conservation
Australia was the first country to develop by the world’s communities. This has had
specific ecotourism degree programmes. flow-on and growth effects in the tourism
The authors also refer to their own experi- industry with commercial operators, world-
ences in developing and teaching in wide, finding it economically viable to offer
Australia’s first ecotourism degree pro- tour experiences which focus on the natural
gramme. The chapter is structured under and cultural values of an area and/or which
five key issues now facing educational are provided in a natural setting (Buckley
institutions, graduates and the ecotourism and Pannell, 1990). In addition to the trend
industry. Since ecotourism education is toward the use of natural areas, the growing
still a relatively new phenomenon, the emphasis on ecologically sustainable prac-
chapter seeks to raise questions that need tices with respect to activities and develop-
addressing, rather than provide definitive ments is also evident.
answers to specific issues. As such, the dis-
cussion leads to the identification of issues The concept of ecotourism, which has
that have arisen during the short history of evolved at the same time, has a number of
ecotourism education in Australia that per- principles which set it apart from other
tain to educational sectors elsewhere. For types of tourism, which in turn, create
the authors, and for all the educators who different educational challenges when
have a vested interest in delivering indus- compared with mainstream tourism pro-
try relevant education and seeing graduates grammes. These principles include:
© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 627
(ed. D.B. Weaver)
628 N. Lipscombe and R. Thwaites
• Natural area focus: ecotourism relies on reported a rise of 45% in the number of
the use of natural areas in general, pro- international visitors visiting indigenous
tected areas, and/or places with special sites and attractions in one year from 1995
biological, ecological or cultural inter- to 1996 (ONT, 1998). Recent research
est. undertaken by the Australian state of
Queensland’s Tourist and Travel Corpora-
• Education and interpretation: eco- tion (1998) showed the importance of eco-
tourism should include components of tourism to this region (which encompasses
education and interpretation of natural the Great Barrier Reef and World Heritage
and cultural aspects of a place. Visitors listed rainforest). The study of 780 tourists
should learn about and develop a revealed that 27.6% of respondents could
respect for the culture of the places they be defined as ‘definite’ ecotourists, and
visit, and develop an understanding of another 29% as ‘probable’ ecotourists. The
nature and natural processes of that survey showed further that over half of the
place and, through this process, for respondents had an underlying disposition
other places and conservation in gen- towards nature and learning as part of their
eral. vacation, but only about a quarter actually
demonstrate this in planning and undertak-
• Ecologically sustainable management: ing vacations. On the other hand, Blamey
ecotourism is managed to avoid or mini- (1995a, b) and Blamey and Hatch (1998)
mize negative impacts and to confer found little evidence to support the claim
benefits on host communities and envi- that ecotourism in Australia is growing at a
ronments, for present and future genera- rate greater than that of inbound tourism as
tions. a whole. They found, however, that partici-
pation in certain activities such as white-
• Contribution to conservation: eco- water rafting, outback safari tours and
tourism must benefit conservation; the visits to Aboriginal sites have grown faster
benefit can be a net benefit: changed than visitor arrivals. While they do not dis-
community norms through education pute that the ecotourism sector is growing,
and, consequently, changed political is it growing faster than inbound tourism
and social priorities. Ecotourism must as a whole?
be low impact, or at least well managed.
It appears evident that ecotourism is
• Benefits to local communities: eco- providing increasing opportunities for
tourism should generate economic, cul- employment, regardless of whether it is
tural and social benefits for local people. growing at the same pace or faster than
This may be in the form of increased tourism in general. Further, trend studies
employment and entrepreneurial oppor- and forecasts (TFC, 1999) suggest it will
tunities or, equally, it may be by way of continue to provide employment opportu-
strengthening specific cultural traits or nities into the future. However, as identi-
values. At the very least, ecotourism fied in Box 40.1, a number of questions
should have net benefits on local social arise about the nature of the employment
and economic development. provided, which further raises issues relat-
ing to the type of ecotourism education and
• Cultural content: ecotourism recognizes training required.
that it is possible to identify and apply
management approaches that reduce the Cotterill (1996) estimated that Australia
stresses on communities and maximize had some 600 ecotourism operators
the flow-on of benefits to them. employing 6500 full-time, part-time and
casual employees or around 4500 full-time
National and international figures suggest equivalent employees (about 1% of total
that ecotourism is one of the fastest grow- tourism employment). He offered a conser-
ing tourism sectors (Reingold, 1993 cited in vative estimate of the industry payroll to
Blamey, 1995; Wight, 1996), although some be AU$115 million, with turnover about
people question this status (Blamey, 1995a,
b; Blamey and Hatch, 1998). In Australia,
for example, the Office of National Tourism
Education and Training 629
Box 40.1. Industry sector and employment growth.
Is the perceived growth in ecotourism resulting in increasing employment opportunities?
Is ecotourism really growing, or is there just increased recognition of the place of certain nature-based
operations within the overall market?
Is there a growing demand for qualified employees?
What jobs are available, and what skills, experience and training are employers looking for in applicants
to fill these jobs?
What are the needs of the ecotourism industry of prospective employees?
Does the ecotourism industry offer a ‘spectrum’ of opportunities, seeking employees with a range of
skills and experience?
Is there a growing demand for graduates in ecotourism?
Do ecotourism operators need to employ university graduates?
Where do university and TAFE-trained graduates fit into an ecotourism job ‘spectrum’?
AU$250 million. His profile of the eco- of Tourism, Small Business and Industry,
tourism industry suggested that the average 1997, p. 30) was more specific, referring
operator employs about ten staff, or six directly to undergraduate and postgraduate
full-time equivalents, but that most opera- degree courses which include ecotourism
tors have only four or fewer employees. components but which are also productive
McKercher (1998) described the nature- and active research programmes aimed at
based tourism sector as typified by busi- the delivery of quality ecotourism prod-
nesses which are ucts. It states
run by owner-operators who have few or no Ecotourism operators and their employees
full-time staff other than family members. require specialised training in areas such as
Most have no formal business or tourism ecology, environmental education,
training. Many of the businesses are environmental and resource management,
marginal, and many owners are forced to communication and business skills. Training
seek a second income to keep them should be competency based, tailored to the
operational. Too many operators say they are particular requirements of the industry
in the tourism game as a ‘lifestyle’ choice. and provided in a culturally appropriate
Distressingly, the drop-out rate of failed manner.
businesses is extremely high.
Such outcomes, clearly, are desirable not
(McKercher, 1998, p. 2) (see also just in Queensland and the rest of
Chapter 36) Australia, but in other ecotourism destina-
tions as well.
Why an Ecotourism Education?
In developing a bachelor of applied sci-
The need for formal education programmes ence degree in ecotourism, Charles Sturt
was recognized in the Australian National University, located in southern New South
Ecotourism Strategy (Allcock et al., 1994, Wales, consulted with various industry and
p. 41) as a means of ensuring that high government agency representatives on
quality industry standards are met. The course structure and content. A range of
strategy called for the development of knowledge, skills and attitude require-
‘environmental education modules to ments were identified which would need
encourage the adoption of best practice to be developed in students to ensure that
in ecotourism (industry, conservation on graduation they could contribute to the
groups, tertiary education institutions)’. The development of the ecotourism industry
Queensland Ecotourism Plan (Department (N. Lipscombe, unpublished). These are
summarized in Box 40.2.
630 N. Lipscombe and R. Thwaites
Box 40.2. Educational requirements identified by Charles Sturt University, industry and government
representatives.
Knowledge
Contemporary philosophy and ethics towards ecotourism
Basic ecological and geomorphological principles pertaining to Australia
Australian wildlife and vegetation dynamics and interrelationships
Environmental impact occurrence and management relating to ecotourism
Ecologically sustainable development and environmental management principles
Cultural heritage and cultural heritage management principles
Business management theory
Ecotourism business practices
Communication and interpretation theory relating to natural and cultural heritage
Leadership theory
Skills
Ability to apply philosophical and ethical practice in ecotourism management
Skills in communicating the dynamics, interrelationships and management of natural and cultural
heritage
Skills in business management and ecotourism business practices
Skills in the application of leadership theory
Skills in recognizing, evaluating and resolving tourism-related environmental, social and cultural
impacts
Ability to implement ecologically sustainable development principles pertaining to ecotourism
Attitudes
An appreciation of ecologically sustainable development principles
An appreciation of ethical business practice
An awareness of the importance of environment and heritage management to the ecotourism industry
An appreciation of ethical ecotourism operations
The encouragement of an ethical profile of ecotourism to the public through environmentally
responsible ecotourism operations
For the full potential of ecotourism to be experiences and lead to more sustainable
reached it is vital that there is a highly environmental practices; to apply the prin-
skilled workforce with the capacity to mar- ciples on which ecotourism is based.
ket, interpret and deliver ecologically, cul-
turally, socially and financially sustainable Extent and Nature of Ecotourism
products (A. Crabtree, unpublished). A Education
credible tourism industry is dependent on
training and education that provides these Tertiary and post-secondary educational
specialized skills, especially at the tourist/ institutions in Australia and in other parts
operator interface: the guide. At this of the developed world are currently in a
level there needs to be particular emphasis state of change as federal and state govern-
on training that includes a significant pro- ment policies move education towards ‘fee
portion of environmental and cultural for service’ arrangements. As education
content, combined with training in inter- budgets are diminished, institutions are
pretation (see Chapter 35). At the ‘operator’ subject to organizational and financial con-
level there needs to be a balance of this straints which, while limiting their ability
against business management, accounting in the short term to respond to changing
and marketing components. At all levels, industry training needs, has forced the
training should aim to enhance visitors’
Education and Training 631
identification of niche markets which, on these are offered at universities, including
the basis of predicted growth, can expect Bachelor Applied Science (Ecotourism),
high student demand. Bachelor of Science (Ecotourism), Bachelor
of Technology (Ecotourism), and Graduate
It was on the basis of an expected Certificate (Ecotourism). The other three
increasing market in ecotourism employ- include an Introduction to Ecotourism
ment opportunities that universities and Certificate, the Ecotourism Planning and
post-secondary colleges (Colleges of Tech- Management Training Program, and a
nical and Further Education (TAFE) in Certificate in Ecotourism Operations. A fur-
Australia, Community Colleges in the ther nine courses have a strong emphasis
USA) have in recent times developed on ecotourism, sustainable or environmen-
courses designed to provide qualified and tal tourism, including two at universities
trained graduates to fill positions within (Bachelor Applied Science (Environmental
the ecotourism sector. In the years leading Management and Tourism), and Graduate
up to the development of the first eco- Certificate (Natural and Cultural Heritage
tourism course in Australia, tourism Interpretation)). Seven are offered outside
researchers were beginning to recognize universities (certificates in tour guiding,
the need for combining tourism manage- environmental and cultural tourism, and
ment with recreation or environmental short courses in eco-awareness and ecolog-
studies (Bowden, 1991; Richins et al., ically sustainable diving).
1995). Bowden (1991) stressed that all peo-
ple involved in the travel and tourism Twenty-four of the 75 courses focus
industry, including educators, needed to specifically on interpretation and guiding
respond to the growing market demand for in the natural and cultural environment.
environmentally friendly tourism. Bowden Many of these are training programmes tar-
also speculated that ethical practices geting specific groups, such as Discovery
within the industry would only be adopted Rangers, and Aboriginal communities,
if all people in the industry received some offering courses from 1 day only to 1 full
environmental education. year. Five of the listed courses are univer-
sity based, offering Bachelor, Grad. Dip.
Before 1994, there were very few and Masters degrees in outdoor education,
courses being presented offering students Masters of social and environmental educa-
information specifically related to eco- tion, and Masters of tourism interpretation.
tourism. Today there are a large number of A further 13 courses seem to be focused in
courses offered at different levels, dealing the area of general tourism, with no strong
with ecotourism, cultural tourism, and emphasis on ecotourism or interpretation
interpretation of natural and cultural and guiding in the natural or cultural envi-
heritage. In the Ecotourism Education ronment, while 21 of the listed courses
Directory compiled by the Australian seemed to only indirectly relate to tourism
government (CDOT, 1996), a total of 75 and ecotourism. These include university
ecotourism courses are listed. Twenty-eight degrees in environmental science and envi-
of these are university courses, ranging ronmental management, nature conserva-
from graduate certificates offered part-time tion, protected area management, coastal
over 1 year, to Bachelor degrees of 3 years’ resource management, recreation planning
full-time study. Honours degrees, graduate and management, and environmental edu-
diplomas and Masters degrees are also cation. The non-university courses covered
listed. As well as these, postgraduate areas such as resource management, land-
research degrees are listed at ten different care, conservation, landscape management
universities. The 47 ecotourism courses and reef biology.
listed which are not university based are
very diverse, ranging from 1-day seminars While 17 of the courses listed focus
to 1-year full-time TAFE certificates. specifically on ecotourism, environmental
or sustainable tourism, and 24 on interpre-
Of the 75 courses listed, eight include tation and guiding in the natural and
ecotourism in the course name. Five of
632 N. Lipscombe and R. Thwaites
cultural environment, 34 (almost half) study poses a dilemma for the professional
seem to have little specific reference to eco- body and the industry. This dilemma stems
tourism, relating to tourism more generally from an unclear understanding of the
or environmental management. Other exist- nature of the education acquired by the
ing courses in areas such as tourism, diversity of graduates from the different
tourism marketing, tourism and hospitality, courses and institutions. In relation to the
and tourism management are not listed in issue of ecotourism education, Box 40.3
this directory of ecotourism courses. How- shows the issues that need to be addressed.
ever, in recent years, ecotourism, environ-
mental tourism, nature-based tourism and The University Sector
sustainable tourism have become more
commonly available minor or major study In general, the degree courses offered by
options for students undertaking tradi- the 36 Australian universities are studied
tional tourism, hospitality and marketing full-time and normally take 3 years to com-
degrees. plete by full-time mode and 6 years by
part-time mode (depending on the amount
Since the publication of the Ecotourism of credit awarded for previous tertiary or
Education Directory in 1996 (CDOT, 1996) post-secondary study). Provision is made
the number of courses which are either for part-time, including evening study, and
fully or fractionally devoted to ecotourism some universities have well-established
study in the post-secondary and tertiary systems of external studies in the same
sectors appears to have grown rapidly. courses as those offered full-time. Courses
Hence, it would be difficult to determine aim to develop knowledge, skills and atti-
with any accuracy the number of students tudes through subjects that incorporate the-
involved and the number of graduates who oretical, conceptual and practical elements.
have found their way into the industry.
What is evident is that courses in the eco- All courses are internally developed,
tourism, nature-based tourism and sustain- assessed and reviewed. However, because
able tourism fields range from 1-day the system in place requires an assessment
intensive workshops and seminars to 3 of the need and demand for the course ini-
years of full-time study with the full range tially, as well as the development of up to
giving certification. What is also evident is 24 subjects, the course development
that ecotourism subjects are becoming a process can take in excess of 1 year before
commonly available option as elective or being offered for study. Universities, there-
minor streams for a variety of environmen- fore, find it difficult to react quickly to
tal/tourism courses. changes in vocational markets. In order to
be able to react more quickly to changes in
While the number of students undertak- the market, universities, in recent years,
ing ecotourism or related studies across have made a number of changes. These
Australia has increased rapidly since 1994, include:
the fact that courses are so differentiated in
terms of depth, breadth and duration of
Box 40.3. Ecotourism education.
Are tourism operators aware that university training exists in ecotourism, and are they aware of the skills
which graduates might possess?
Are tourism operators aware of the different skills that TAFE and university trained graduates might
possess, and the different ways in which these skills could be put to use?
How can a stronger link be made between educational institutions and the industry to ensure that they
are providing the education and training needed, that the industry has access to a steady supply of
quality graduates, and that graduates are aware of the opportunities existing in the marketplace for
them?
Education and Training 633
• allowing students to study individual courses (pre-employment courses, certifi-
subjects at a set fee without being cates, advanced certificates and associate
enrolled in a course; diplomas from 6 weeks’ to 2 years’ dura-
tion) which provide access, through articu-
• developing niche market minors (four lation, into a university programme.
subjects) as an option for students
enrolled in established degrees; The perception and knowledge that the
industry has regarding the diversity of edu-
• providing industry training workshops; cation and training opportunities available,
• offering summer schools to niche mar- and its suitability for meeting employment
requirements, need to be discussed by
kets; and addressing certain questions (Box 40.4).
• providing non-accredited short courses
Current ecotourism training is actually
to industry and professional groups. characterized by both top-heavy and entry-
level courses. Career paths have not been
The TAFE Sector developed in this industry and the number
of management-level jobs is restricted,
TAFE colleges in Australia (similar in pur- unless you start your own business. At the
pose and function to US community col- other extreme, entry-level training is fre-
leges) are a significant provider of industry quently deemed inappropriate given that
training. Delivered through a network of the industry demands a great deal of
some 215 major colleges (91 metropolitan sophistication and wealth of experience
and 124 non-metropolitan colleges) initial from both guides and operators. Respond-
skills in vocational and preparatory ents to a recent survey of ecotourism grad-
courses reach in excess of 1 million stu- uates (R. Thwaites, unpublished) on
dents each year (Noordhoorn, 1990, p. 27). training needs suggested that lifetime ex-
Most of the courses are aimed at providing periences and practical skills were often
vocational education. TAFE has been and considered more important than formal
is the most accessible tertiary provider, education or qualifications. Ecotourism
both in geographical and educational employers are often far more concerned
terms. In addition, it has strong links with about appropriate licences and industry-
the labour market and is directly affected based skills to ensure ‘duty of care’, and
by changes in labour market conditions. As workplace health and safety requirements
far as leisure/recreation/tourism is con- and practical experience, than any evi-
cerned, TAFE has been primarily a dence of environmental or cultural content
provider of programmes and courses to the knowledge or interpretation skills picked
public. More recently, however, courses to up through a formal training course (no
train personnel in outdoor tour guiding, matter how ecotourism specific). Multi-
resource and environmental management, skilling is a necessity, not a luxury for
and outdoor education have emerged in employment in the ecotourism industry;
response to a demand from the tourism and most operators are small businesses and
ecotourism industry. Tourism training and multiple-functions and cross-industry com-
education, and related courses, largely petencies are the norm. A guide may need
consist of single-entry post-secondary
Box 40.4. Diversity of education opportunities.
Are university graduates competing for the same jobs with graduates from 6-week short courses and
TAFE certificate courses?
What are employers looking for, in terms of formal education and training, for ecotourism positions?
In the eyes of ecotourism operators and employers is there a difference between university and TAFE
qualifications?
Which certification carries with it a competitive advantage in terms of employment?
634 N. Lipscombe and R. Thwaites
to hold appropriate activity-specific skills, such links is deemed to be of primary
qualifications or licences (e.g. language importance. In this context an implicit goal
skills, coxswain’s certificate, bus driver’s is to enhance the relevance of the educa-
licence, swift water rescue) as well as the tion provided to the needs of the business
more routine skills of a guide. An owner- community.
operator will have to juggle business-
related functions and skills (marketing, Educational institutions are quick to
accounting, etc.) with the operational adopt mechanisms to involve employers
aspects of running an ecotour. and professional associations in course
design and delivery. However, this practice
Because of the rather eclectic range of clearly continues to be an issue for those in
skills that ecotourism employment demands, the industry who have ‘achieved’ in their
the student choosing an appropriate stand- business development without tertiary
alone training course is in a difficult, if not qualifications and who regard business
impossible position because not all stand- experience as being more relevant than a
alone courses provide all the skills and tertiary education. In relation to the con-
knowledge required by employers. Oppor- tent of tertiary courses, educational institu-
tunities, however, do exist for upskilling tions could certainly be doing more to
and continued development. A range of make students aware of the requirements of
alternative training providers (e.g. adult the industry to which they are aiming
education organizations, continuing educa- beyond those attributes provided by their
tion programmes at university, private course. In addition, educational institu-
providers, non-profit organizations and tions could often do more to provide the
others) offer a variety of programmes that support to facilitate work experience pro-
supply content on specific knowledge grammes and give more emphasis to the
areas, environments or cultural groups. development of business management and
Industry-based qualifications are also avail- personal communication skills. At the
able. Training not geared specifically to industry level, tertiary educational institu-
ecotourism, but to a number of related tions are well placed (and is a growing
fields (outdoor education, parks and wild- expectation) to be offering seminars, train-
life management, etc.) can be adapted to ing workshops, consulting services, short
specific needs. Potential students and courses, conference involvement, facilita-
trainees are well advised to do careful tion, committee involvement, ongoing liai-
research and to approach training pro- son and industry-specific research: all
viders directly to ensure that the education mechanisms for fostering links and
and training offered serves, or can be involvement with the industry. While
adapted to serve, their particular needs. opportunities in regard to these activities
There is, however, now a burgeoning num- are yet to be fully realized, there is a need
ber of more relevant courses and education also for closer links to be driven by the
packages that offer both entry-level training industry.
and upskilling and are good examples of
‘training designed by industry for the Formal education and training for tour
industry’ (Haase, 1995, p. 163). guides and tour operators is still relatively
new to institutional programmes. While
The Industry/Academia Link the tourism industry has well-established
education and training programmes and
Within Australia, as in other parts of the awards for the management and hospital-
world, the need to establish closer links ity/travel consultant sectors, tour guide
between ‘business’ and ‘academia’ is well and tour operator standards remain out-
recognized. The Business/Higher Educa- dated with a focus on service-related func-
tion Round Table established in 1990, has tions. Tour guide standards have recently
several goals of which the establishment of undergone a much needed review (EAA,
1998) reflecting the dramatic changes that
have occurred in the tourism industry in
Education and Training 635
the last decade, with the market becoming in forums that combine educators and busi-
increasingly sophisticated, increasingly ness operators, is the need for both groups
knowledgeable on environmental and cul- to be realistic about their expectations of
tural issues and demanding more authentic new graduates. While students do mature
experiences. during a 2- or 3-year period in an educa-
tion/training institution, and while field-
The Ecotourism Association of Australia, work/placements provide some experiential
while encouraging educational institutions learning, it should not be expected that the
to develop programmes of study to service graduate who emerges from a course is a
the ecotourism industry (by being repre- fully fledged professional. As in any profes-
sented on course accreditation boards), sion, the industry must recognize that the
have instituted an industry accreditation experiences gathered during early years of
programme (NEAP) in an endeavour to employment, complementing previous edu-
increase the service delivery standards (see cation and training, are a necessary aspect of
Chapter 37). The programme ‘is designed professional development for graduates. As
to provide a range of benefits for eco- Prosser (1990, p. 5) points out, ‘the potential
tourism businesses, potential ecotourism for misunderstanding on both sides there-
clients, natural areas where ecotourism fore, contributes to the importance of devel-
operations occur, natural area managers oping effective mechanisms for liaison
and local communities where ecotourism between the parties. It also illustrates the
could or does occur’ (EAA, 1996, p. 3). The importance of institutions tracking the desti-
‘self-assessed’ programme is comprehen- nation and career path of graduates to pro-
sive in identifying the accreditation criteria vide performance indicators’.
and bringing industry closer to its profes-
sional association. However, it places very Similarly, there has long existed a per-
little emphasis on the need for operators ceived schism between academic learning
and/or guides to have attained a recom- (regardless of the level) and the learning
mended level of education and training, that is gained by actually performing the
and does not differentiate in any way the multiple tasks required of any position
value of the numerous levels of education within the workplace. In response to
and training available. A clear and pur- expressed concerns regarding the lack of
poseful link between education and indus- correspondence between theory and prac-
try, and between education/industry and tice, educators have devised models of, and
the professional/industry association methods to provide, experiential learning.
would seem therefore, to be a mutually Definitions and explanations of what com-
beneficial issue to discuss. Box 40.5 shows prises experiential learning are diverse but
the questions which could form the basis they appear to have in common a concern
of such discussion. that students are actively involved and are
able to apply relevant learning to seek
An important issue not addressed to date
Box 40.5. Education/industry/professional association links.
How can educational and training institutions make employers more aware of the benefits of employing
graduates?
How can educational/training institutions establish and develop flexible and responsive training systems
that involves the industry, the professional association?
Do educators and employers need to develop a relationship which enables a more detailed
understanding of each other’s functional attributes and requirements?
Are ‘continuing education’ courses an essential part of career development?
How can courses better reflect industry requirements?
Should the professional body be doing more to bridge the gap between educators and the industry?
If the industry and the professional association is serious about ecotourism accreditation (NEAP), is there a
need to include the levels of education and training (qualifications) desirable for operators and guides?
636 N. Lipscombe and R. Thwaites
flexible solutions to immediate practical experience of graduates from Charles Sturt
problems. Relevant objectives of experien- University might suggest that for a small
tial learning may include: developing an number of jobs, and employers, it may be
understanding of the interactive nature of useful, but for a large group of employers,
the relationship between theoretical con- and greater number of jobs, it has little
cepts and practice; consideration of the meaning or importance, or may even elicit
perceptions and professional assumptions negative responses. A further question for
of an occupational group; flexibility in discussion therefore could be: What does it
responding to situations; and awareness of mean to the industry to have graduates
the demands of professional practice (Weil trained specifically in ‘ecotourism’?
and McGill, 1990). From an industry and
institution’s perspective, this is best gained Conclusion
by being actively involved in the industry
through industry placements during the Some of the issues raised in this chapter
training course. The understanding of the have arisen from responses to question-
theoretical and practical relationship in naires and discussions with students and
course development and employment graduates of the Bachelor Applied Science
preparation for both educational institu- degree in Ecotourism at Charles Sturt
tions and the industry forms the basis of University, Australia, a world pioneer in
another issue from which further questions this sphere. The first intake of students into
could be posed (Box 40.6). this 3-year course began in 1995, and in
early 1999, all past and present students
Now that there are education and train- were surveyed to gauge the progress of the
ing institutions providing ecotourism- course, and the expectations and experi-
specific courses with ‘ecotourism’ as part ences of the students. While this course
of the certification, for some institutions was developed with the assistance of
there is a growing concern for qualification industry and government representatives
flexibility and portability. Because gradu- and offers a diverse range of theoretical
ates do not always end up in the industry and practical subjects, the survey raised
for which their qualification is aimed, are some interesting questions about the
institutions providing a disservice to grad- course, and the suitability of such a qualifi-
uates by including ecotourism in the name cation in the ecotourism marketplace.
of the qualification? While there has been a Students identified one of their strongest
great deal of debate among academics and likes of the course as its practical orienta-
certain sectors of the industry over the use tion, and the opportunities provided to
of the term ‘ecotourism’ and its role in gain industry experience. However, they
describing and marketing certain types of also described unmet expectations related
tourism activities, is it a useful ‘marketing’ to a similar range of practical issues associ-
tool for graduates to have ‘ecotourism’ as a
part of the title of their qualification? The
Box 40.6. Graduate employment.
What are the expectations of graduates in relation to the course they have studied and its ability to
prepare them for a role in the industry?
What role should industry be playing in the training and education of those preparing to enter the
industry? (Work experience during study and ongoing professional development after employment?)
How can this role be further facilitated?
Is it possible to develop career paths for graduates?
How can the relationship between theory and practice be better understood: a closer working
relationship between educational institutions and the industry?
Education and Training 637
ated with the connection between the uni- to react to the notion of rapid growth in
versity, the industry and the professional this sector of the tourism industry often
association. A perception that a university without any real understanding of the
education was not valued by the industry, nature of the industry and its capacity and
that its relevance was questioned by the desire to absorb graduates from the
industry, and the difficulty graduates face plethora of courses now available. This
meeting job selection criteria based on chapter has presented a number of issues
TAFE (non-university training institutions) and many more questions about education
training curricula, were real issues for and training which seriously need to be
graduates. These individuals also cited the addressed if educational programmes are to
lack of awareness within the industry of remain viable and the industry credible.
university courses, and of the skills pos- We have not endeavoured to resolve the
sessed by university graduates. The experi- issues or provide the answers to the ques-
ence of university graduates seeking tions. Rather, by expressing what are very
employment in a competitive market, real concerns for educational providers, the
therefore, raises questions about the role of professional association and the industry,
education in the ecotourism industry, and we hope that in some future education-spe-
the relationship between education institu- cific forum the process of discussion,
tions and the industry. debate and resolution will take place.
Educational institutions have been quick
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Chapter 41
Areas and Needs in Ecotourism Research
D.A. Fennell
Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation,
Brock University, St Catharines, Ontario, Canada
Research Needs: Beyond the Basics nize or develop a body of knowledge. While
some may argue that the research that cur-
In 1997 I had the opportunity to attend a rently exists is consistent with the progres-
large international ecotourism conference, sion of the tourism field in general, others,
which attracted many researchers, govern- as I do, suggest the need for less descriptive
mental representatives, and industry exec- research using many of the same old meth-
utives from around the world. Knowing ods, principles and ideas. Are we becoming
that this would probably be the only major stale? Perhaps. Do we need to broaden our
tourism meeting that I might be attending horizons in order to generate some new per-
over the course of the year, I had high spectives? Yes. Let me briefly outline some
expectations. However, as the conference observations regarding the state of eco-
progressed, I felt more and more jaded by tourism research before venturing into a
the fact that the conference did not seem to discussion of potential areas of research,
living up to its billing as ecotourism’s ‘way which is the topic of the next section.
to the future’. Sessions were not well
attended nor were they well conceived, 1. Ecotourism has a shortage of sound
and unfortunately, as the conference wore empirical data. This sentiment is mirrored
on, my patience wore out. Yes, I was by Lindberg et al. (1996), who suggest that
treated to a good display of slides on new ‘little quantitative analysis of ecotourism’s
and old ecotourism projects, trips, and success in achieving conservation and
developments from around the world. development objectives has been reported’
Missing, however, was any hint of theory (p. 544). A good example of new research
building or development, empiricism, or that makes a significant empirical contribu-
new conceptualizations that should form tion to the field is the work of Sirakaya and
the basis of a conference and the evolution McLellan (1998) on tour operator compli-
of a field of study. ance with ecotourism principles. Another
is Bookbinder et al. (1998), whose empiri-
The field of ecotourism has a good cal research near Royal Chitwan National
excuse for this lack of academic rigour: Park in Nepal established that the eco-
infancy. Having been around for only 15 nomic benefits of ecotourism are not as
years or so is reason enough to warrant a great as the community assumed.
period of grace to enable the field to orga-
© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 639
(ed. D.B. Weaver)
640 D.A. Fennell
2. Closely linked to the first point is the other disciplines, by testing the work of
sense that the field would greatly benefit others.
from research methods and analyses that
are more sophisticated in nature (e.g. con- In general, based on the points set out
firmatory factor analyses on, for example, above (the need to build theory, empiri-
tourism impact scales). In particular there cism and conceptual frameworks in eco-
is a dearth of experimental (pre- and post- tourism research), the suggestions that
test analyses), quasi experimental, and follow may help to stimulate more discus-
comparative research in the literature. sion on research methods and techniques.
Consequently, most of the research to date While some theories happen to be older,
is exploratory and descriptive. the feeling is that rather than simply ignore
3. Researchers are quick to note in their these perspectives, we need to, in the
studies that ecotourism is the fastest grow- words of Einstein, ‘think in a radically old
ing sector of the largest industry in the way’.
world; we see this time and time again in
the literature. Possibly as a result of its rel- Areas of Research to Explore
ative importance as an income earner, eco-
tourism research has been given a high This section concentrates on specific areas
priority for funding in some countries. Not of research, principally from outside the
so in other countries, however, where the realm of tourism studies. The reader will
sector continues to be misunderstood and note the absence of a discussion on eco-
misrepresented by both government and tourism definitions. While it is true that a
industry (perhaps because they are either universally accepted definition does not
unaware or unmoved by the supposed exist, there is some consensus on the prin-
growth of ecotourism). In the latter case, ciples that ought to be included in a defini-
researchers must continue to demonstrate tion of ecotourism. These include, but are
the need for funding in order to carry out not limited to, the fact that it is a part of a
ecotourism research. This demands better broader nature-based or natural resource-
linkages with government and industry, based tourism; it contributes to conserva-
and the employment of solid research tion or preservation of natural areas; it
methodologies in securing these monies, as provides benefits to local people; it facili-
well as in demonstrating the alleged tates learning; it should be sustainable and
growth rates of ecotourism. ethically based, and it should be effectively
4. Until recently there has been what managed. Not coincidentally, many of the
might be termed an ‘insularity’ in the focus theoretical perspectives outlined below
of ecotourism research which, if continued, either directly or indirectly relate to some
will do very little to further the field. As of the principles set forth in a comprehen-
such, strong growth within the field will be sive definition of ecotourism, especially
achieved by diversifying the theoretical sustainability, education and responsibility
repertoire that researchers have conven- (see Chapter 1). In doing so, they, in my
tionally relied upon (as suggested earlier). opinion, relate to many of the most impor-
Because a strong theoretical foundation is tant underlying issues confronting the eco-
virtually non-existent in ecotourism research, tourism industry. As such, the discussion
researchers will be forced to draw upon on ethics, values, attitudes, impacts and
other fields. The long-established disci- carrying capacity, for example, have not
plines of psychology, sociology, anthropol- only social and economic implications, but
ogy, economics, ecology and geography also ecological ones. Finally, while many
will provide answers to some of eco- case studies have been included in the
tourism’s most pressing questions, as they chapter, constraints on length preclude in-
have been doing for tourism in general. In depth analysis of any one area.
exploring these, researchers may gain
recognition both within the field and in
Areas and Needs in Ecotourism Research 641
Social traps resource allocation within society. He
underscores the philosophy of Hobbes in
The social trap theory posits that the suggesting that a person’s basic drives are
choices open to an individual depend on built on self-interest, egotism and competi-
the system of which one is a part. If these tion. People in an open-market system are
choices are unacceptable or limited, they ruled by competition, and these aggressive
may require the individual to act on deci- tendencies are thought by some to be bio-
sions that are self-defeating for the person logically driven (see Ardrey, 1970).
or for society as a whole (Platt, 1973). Similarly, Dawkins’ (1976) selfish gene the-
Individual behaviours (i.e. resource con- ory posits that social behaviours are a func-
sumption) are rewarding in the short run tion of biological selection. Selfishness is
(to the individual), but lead to negative thought to be necessary and basic to one’s
outcomes for the collective – the commons survival. Conversely, universal love and
– in the long run (Edney, 1980) (see also welfare of the group ‘are concepts which
Hardin’s (1968) tragedy of the commons). simply do not make sense’ (p. 2). The influ-
For example, a chronic problem in the ence of competition and selfishness are so
commercial fishing industry is the deple- invasive, according to Dawkins, that asso-
tion of fish stocks. While fishermen often ciations of mutual benefit within the
understand the importance of viable popu- community are often unstable because
lations, their immediate need is to sustain stakeholders continually strive to obtain
themselves economically year after year, more out of the association than they put
despite the dwindling supply of fish. The in. Sharing and openness are concepts that
same holds true with tourism in that the have been described as critical to the suc-
structure of the industry often does not cess of community development. One won-
work to the advantage of the individual ders, however, whether ecotourism can be
worker, especially in developing world used as a vehicle to secure social and eco-
economies due to multinational domina- nomic equity within a community, as many
tion of resources (airlines, hotels, food, authors are wont to illustrate (Sproule,
etc.). In cases where local people have no 1996). Is, therefore, the desire to secure
other employment alternatives, they must economic well-being too strong for the
submit to the policies and procedures of individual ecotourism operator, or is the
those who control the industry. Much like philosophy and spirit of ecotourism per-
the case of overfishing, ecotour operators suasive enough to counter individuality?
must often compete for a share of a finite
natural-resource base. Too many operators As much of the social psychological lit-
accommodating too many tourists can erature has demonstrated, there are setting
become somewhat self-defeating. (The and situational factors that strongly influ-
Galapagos Islands is a good example of the ence the behaviour of individuals, which
social trap phenomenon, whereby the deci- may in part explain tendencies that some
sions by policy makers to periodically individuals have towards competition and
increase visitation undermine initial attempts greed, beyond the biological perspective.
to control the impacts of tourism in this
sensitive region. The lure of tourists and Values
associated tourist spending is too powerful.)
According to Platt, morality and greed are One of the very timely conclusions of the
not the central problem in this phenom- work of Edney is the realization that the
enon, but rather the arrangement in time of examination of values should prove to be a
costs and rewards of those involved. more fruitful way of exploring conflict that
exists within human systems. The rationale
While self-enhancement and greed are for this is that effective decision making
not central to Platt’s social trap theory, can only occur if we understand the under-
Edney (1980) explores a number of theories lying principles – equity, freedom of
which may be used to examine problems of
642 D.A. Fennell
choice, competition – that help shape the Tourism researchers have only recently
fabric of the system in question. Madrigal begun to investigate the role of values and,
(1995) suggests that because of the link to a as outlined by Madrigal (1995), most of this
person’s cognitive structure, values may be research has related to segmenting the
instrumental in predicting human behav- travel market. Madrigal and Kahle (1994)
iour. As defined by Schwartz (cited in used the LOV to establish a value-system
Oishi et al., 1998), values are ‘desirable, segmentation of tourists visiting Scandin-
transitional goals, varying in importance, avia. They examined whether vacation
that serve as guiding principles in people’s activity importance ratings differed across
lives’ (p. 1177). segments comprising tourists who were
grouped on the basis of their selection of
Although Oishi et al. (1998) illustrate personal values. However, Madrigal’s
that the study of values has been overshad- (1995) more recent work, also using the
owed throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and LOV scale, demonstrates the importance of
part of the 1990s by attitudes, attributions, values in exploring personality type and
social cognition and group processes, a few travel style. In addition, while tourism
pioneering studies have emerged. One of researchers have developed tourist typolo-
the first was based on the work of Mitchell gies, these have generally not been hinged
(1983), who undertook a comprehensive upon a values-based philosophy. As such,
study of values in American society. His given the importance of values as a poten-
research culminated in the development of tial for understanding human nature, it is
the values and lifestyles typology (VALS), worthwhile to consider the merits of the
which comprises four main groups, subdi- VALS, LOV and SVS typologies in explain-
vided into nine lifestyles, each outlining a ing and predicting the behaviour of eco-
unique way of life within American society tourism stakeholders.
on the basis of values, beliefs and drives. A
second typology that was developed to Machiavellianism
examine people’s values is the list of val-
ues (LOV) scale, initiated by Kahle (1983). The work of Machiavelli spawned a social-
The nine values included in this scale are personality theory that examines how peo-
self-respect, security, warm relationships ple are manipulated, and the tactics which
with others, sense of accomplishment, self- are employed by those who are influential
fulfilment, sense of belonging, being well versus those who are not. Christie and Geis
respected, fun and enjoyment in life, and (1970) developed a Machiavellianism scale
excitement. Kahle feels that this scale, for the purpose of differentiating people on
while being more parsimonious than the basis of power, influence and control.
VALS, also has the advantage of having In general, the scale is organized around
greater predictive utility. Finally, Schwartz the following three substantive areas: tac-
(1994) developed a scale of values (SVS) on tics, views of human nature and morality;
the basis of ten value types: power, and contrast the High Mach (those who are
achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self- self-interested and who feel the end justi-
direction, universalism, benevolence, tradi- fies the means) against the Low Mach
tion, conformity, and security. These (those who promote common good).
values are organized in a circular structure
with individuals pursuing adjacent values Tactics
(e.g. power and achievement) over opposite High Mach: ‘A white lie is often a good thing’
or conflicting values (e.g. power and benev- Low Mach: ‘If something is morally right,
olence). For example, individuals who are compromise is out of the question’
high on universalism are also high on Views of Human Nature
benevolence and self-direction. They tend High Mach: ‘Most people don’t really know
to pursue goals related to equality and pro- what’s best for them’
tection of the natural world.
Areas and Needs in Ecotourism Research 643
Low Mach: ‘Barnum was wrong when he they’re going to go. So why shouldn’t I get
said a sucker is born every minute’ the commission for the trip’ (Masterton,
Morality 1992, p. 18).
High Mach: ‘Deceit in conduct of war is
praiseworthy and honourable’ One of the most significant problems
Low Mach: ‘It is better to be humble and facing the ecotourism industry is the prac-
honest than important and dishonest’ tice of eco-opportunism: tourism companies
using the ecotourism label to sell their vari-
People fall along a continuum of stan- ous products; products that may not actu-
dards of behaviour based on their ally be ecotourism (however defined). The
responses to the scale. High Machs have notion that people will quite naturally take
relative standards of conduct (‘Never tell care of themselves before the needs of others,
anyone the real reason you did something, and manipulate them to meet their own
unless it’s useful to do so’), while Low ends, is indeed a very intriguing element of
Machs are said to have absolute standards the tourism operator–tourist relationship
(‘Honesty is always the best policy’). In which certainly merits further consideration.
addition, High Machs flourish under the In addition, the general theory of marketing
following conditions: (i) when interaction ethics proposed by Hunt and Vitell (1986)
is face-to-face; (ii) when rules and guide- may have utility in providing further guid-
lines are minimal; and (iii) when emotional ance in the analysis of decision making in
arousal is high, contributing to poor task marketing situations involving ethical issues.
performance for Low Machs. In essence,
the High Mach demonstrates a cool detach- Ethics
ment, which enables them to keep an emo-
tional distance from other people and An area of research that has recently (since
situations. the late 1980s) started to attract some atten-
tion in tourism and ecotourism studies is
In related research, Hegarty and Sims ethics (see Wheeler (1994) for an overview
(1979) found that High Machs behaved sig- of the emergence of ethics in tourism and
nificantly less ethically than Low Machs, hospitality). While some of this work is
while Singhapakdi and Vitell (1990) empirically based (see Hall, 1989; Whitney,
reported that High Mach marketers tended 1989; Wheeler, 1992), most is descriptive.
to be more reluctant to punish unethical Codes of ethics, in particular, have been a
behaviour. In another study by these focus of tourism researchers, along with
authors (Vitell and Singhapakdi, 1991), it their use in attempting to curtail sociologi-
was concluded that ‘Since Machiavellians cal and ecological impacts. Tourism
tend to value their personal interests but researchers may benefit from the general,
not their clients’ interests, the implication empirically based literature on codes of
for management is to make the self-interest ethics in business and marketing where, for
of these individuals intertwined with the example, Singhapakdi and Vitell (1990)
clients’ interests’ (p. 67). This statement is and Laczniak and Murphy (1985) write that
certainly illuminated in the following enforcement is a key component of the
example related to the environmental employment of a code of ethics within an
ethics of tour operators. Masterton (1992) organization. What seems to be most
found that almost all tour operators inter- important about the viability of the code is
viewed agreed that the abuse of the planet that top level executives must be seen to
is a bad thing, in theory. In practice, how- support the document in order for others to
ever, most operators did not want to dis- follow suit (see also Brooks, 1989). While
cuss their environmental responsibilities, some of these issues have been addressed
and one went so far as to say the following: in the tourism literature (see Blangy and
‘I have to make a living, and if people want Nielson, 1993), they have remained largely
to go to polluted, or overcrowded, or dis- untested.
gustingly commercial tourist traps, then
644 D.A. Fennell
The concept of organizational culture tourism firms from an organizational per-
(OC) is one that is strongly linked to the spective becomes increasingly more impor-
development of codes of ethics, in business tant as the sector matures and prospers into
and tourism. OC is defined by Denison the 21st century. As such, the sector may
(1996, p. 6) as: demand further exploration in the future in
the same way that the general business lit-
the deep structure of organizations, which is erature has attempted to do. However,
rooted in the values, beliefs, and assumptions while the principles inherent within
held by organizational members. Meaning is codes of ethics and corporate values may
established through socialization to a variety be easily conceived, researchers have
of identity groups that converge in the warned that they may be quite difficult to
workplace. Interaction reproduces a symbolic measure and study in organizations (Payne,
world that gives culture both great stability 1980).
and a certain precarious and fragile nature
rooted in the dependence of the system on In related work, Fennell and Malloy
individual cognition and action. (1999) undertook a study to analyse a num-
ber of different tourism operators (eco-
Codes of ethics, therefore, may be the tacit, tourism, adventure, fishing, cruise line and
outward expression of the organizational golf) to determine ethical differences
culture of a firm. The work of Schein among these groups. They used the multi-
(1985) stands out as prominent in this area, dimensional ethics scale (MES) first devel-
through his creation of the peeled onion oped by Reidenbach and Robin (1988,
conceptualization of OC. Malloy and 1990), which employs the use of an eight-
Fennell (1998) use this multi-layered item scale based on the philosophies
model to identify the basis of OC in eco- of justice, deontology and relativism.
tourism businesses. The model and its Respondents (in this case tour operators)
application to ecotourism is explained as were asked to respond to three tourism sce-
follows: narios – economic, social and ecological
ones – using the scale. The authors found
Artifacts (layer 1) encompass the physical that ecotourism operators were in fact more
characteristics of the organization, such as its ethical than the other operators included in
reward and punishment structure, the the study, on the basis of the responses to
advertisements and brochures it produces, the scenarios. In addition, ecotourism oper-
the tours it promotes, and the codes of ethics ators were found to: (i) use a corporate
it stipulates to employees and to clientele. code of ethics more often than other
The second layer, behaviors, consists of the tourism operators; (ii) have higher levels of
actual behaviors that can be observed by education; and (iii) have smaller organiza-
employees, clientele, and the public at large tional sizes than other operators. All three
… The third layer includes the organization’s of these measures have been found to relate
values. These values can be internalized by to higher ethical standards in business
employees in a strong clan-like culture. Or practice. The MES is just one ethics scale
they may be less strongly held … The core of that has been used in the business and
the model – basic assumptions – consists of marketing literature. Other scales which
the very basic ontological realities of the hold potential in future ecotourism
organization. This core describes the research include the ethical behavior scale,
metavalues (i.e., unquestioned tacit beliefs) which Fraedrich (1993) used in gauging the
that have come about as a result of the ability ethical behaviour of retail managers. This
of these concepts to traditionally assist in the scale, like the MES, uses a number of moral
resolution of organizational dilemmas. philosophy perspectives – rule and act util-
itarianism, rule and act deontology, and
(Malloy and Fennell, p. 48) egoism – to examine business ethics.
Finally, the defining issues test developed
Malloy and Fennell argue that the need by Rest (1979) has been used to measure
to address the ethical conduct of eco-
Areas and Needs in Ecotourism Research 645
moral reasoning of various stakeholders one’s condition (or a group or society) that
(usually in a business context), and may is viewed to be advantageous, and such
therefore lend itself nicely to examining benefits may be categorized as social, psy-
the moral stances of operators, local peo- chological, spiritual, emotional, physiolog-
ple, government officials and tourists. ical and environmental. Driver and his
colleagues set out to identify a series of
All of the above-mentioned scales are human needs that could be gratified by par-
designed to test moral viewpoints on the ticipation in leisure pursuits. Through a
basis of theoretical perspectives. While number of adjustments, these authors
these scales are some of the best in terms developed the recreation experience prefer-
of the generation of empirical data, ence (REP) scales. As of the early 1990s,
Fennell (2000a) has suggested that the over 40 REP scales had been developed to
tourism industry could benefit from the measure the benefits of leisure experiences.
creation of centres of applied ethics, in the One of the key features of the REP, over
same way centres of business ethics and other leisure scales, is its focus on outdoor
environmental ethics have benefited those recreation environments, hence its applica-
fields. These tourism centres would be bility to ecotourism. This can be seen in
responsible for the collection of both the following examples of REP scales and
empirical and descriptive data, and pro- the preference domains into which the
vide guidance to operators, for example, scales are grouped.
on the day-to-day issues related to their
operations. Tourist input would also be • Enjoy nature: scenery; general nature
encouraged in terms of the evaluation of experience
the ethical behaviour of ecotour operators
(see Appendix). Precedents for this type of • Share similar values: be with friends; be
tourist involvement have already been set with people having similar values
by the national accreditation programmes
of Australia and the Canadian Tourism • Outdoor learning: general learning;
Commission. In both cases tourists are exploration; learn about nature
encouraged to provide feedback on ecotour
operators. Surveys, such as the example in • Escape physical stressors: Tranquility/
the Appendix, could easily be employed solitude; privacy; escape crowds; escape
as a means by which to gather information noise
on both good (ethical) and bad (unethical)
operators, and in doing so address the • Achievement: seeking excitement; social
‘responsibility’ principle found in so many recognition; skill development
definitions of ecotourism. Furthermore,
such information, along with the afore- • Risk reduction: risk moderation; risk
mentioned scales could be used to further prevention.
classify operations on the basis of their
ethical and organizational behaviour and, Many of these domains have been dis-
in doing so, provide a clear perspective on cussed in the ecotourism literature, and
the mission and intent of so-called eco- especially those related to the enjoyment
tourism businesses. of nature and outdoor learning, which cor-
respond to the ecotourism literature on
Benefits different types of ecotourists (see Laarman
and Durst, 1987; Lindberg, 1991).
Research on the benefits of participation in Furthermore, there is evidence to support
leisure activities has attracted the attention the fact that some dedicated ecotourists
of a number of leisure researchers over the and adventure tourists appear to prefer the
past decade. Benefit, as defined by Driver company of like-minded or similarly
et al. (1991), refers to any improvement in skilled individuals in their experiences
(‘Share similar values’). For example,
Ewert (1985) found that beginner climbers
were more extrinsically motivated to par-
ticipate in mountain climbing activity,
whereas experienced climbers did so for
intrinsic reasons.
646 D.A. Fennell
Other domains of the REP, i.e. A. I like to explore a strange city or section
‘Achievement/stimulation’ and ‘Risk of town by myself, even if it means getting
reduction’, may also provide a theoretical lost.
basis from which to analyse the differ- B. I prefer a guide when I am in a place I
ences that exist between adventure don’t know well.
tourists and ecotourists. Although there is
a strong intuitive sense that ecotourists are A. I would like to take up the sport of
different from adventure tourists in terms water-skiing.
of motivation and benefits sought (see B. I would not like to take up water-skiing.
Dyess, 1997), there is really only anecdotal
evidence explaining how they differ. A. I prefer the surface of the water to the
While the literature on adventure pursuits depths.
focuses on risk, skill and competence, B. I would like to go scuba-diving.
Fennell (2000b) suggests that natural
resource-based tourists, such as adventure Research on benefits, therefore, in the man-
tourists and ecotourists, may be differenti- ner outlined above, would help further our
ated on the basis of consumptive values, understanding of different educational ben-
impact, focus of learning and reliance on efits that appeal to ecotourists and other
technical skills. types of tourists.
Finally, the ‘Seeking excitement’ expe- Attitudes
rience preference may help to further
differentiate adventure tourists and eco- The development of a more progressive
tourists. Zuckerman’s (1979) sensation environmentalism in the 1970s led to the
seeking scale (SSS) has been employed to belief that global ecological problems
identify a personality trait defined as a derive from a dominant social paradigm
‘need for varied, novel, and complex sen- (DSP) that influences the way we do busi-
sations and experiences and the willing- ness, develop policy, and approach science
ness to take physical and social risks for and technology. Dunlap and Van Liere
the sake of such experience’ (p. 10). While (1978) suggested that a new environmental
the scale has recently been applied to value was taking hold in society that
groups such as international travellers opposed the largely anthropocentric ways
(Fontaine, 1994), it can be argued that a of the DSP. This new environmental para-
modified form of the SSS may be appropri- digm (NEP), an ecocentric way of thinking,
ate for individuals currently engaging in a was described as being more supportive of
number of types of adventure and eco- a holistic, integrative view of humanity,
tourism holidaying (both nationally and and is one that places humanity into the
internationally). This would allow for an context of nature and not above nature.
assessment of whether the type of excur- Dunlap and Van Liere developed a NEP
sion they actually experienced is consis- scale, consisting of 12 items, designed to
tent with their need for sensation. For gauge how accepting the public was of the
example, results of the SSS might indicate NEP (Table 41.1). Their initial study found
whether an individual is more suited that the scale was reliable, valid and unidi-
toward an adventure holiday, an eco- mensional; however, subsequent research
tourism-based holiday, or a cultural holi- determined that the scale is in fact multi-
day, or a combination of the three. Further dimensional (see Albrecht et al., 1982;
analysis of individual responses to ques- Geller and Lasley, 1985). Geller and Lasley
tionnaires would then allow researchers to (1985), for example, in their study of farmers
determine what the above categories are and urbanites confirmed a three-factor
perceived to be by holiday travellers. Form model on the basis of nine of the 12 items
V of the SSS contains 40 questions in a from the original scale. The three dimen-
paired comparison format. Examples of sions included ‘Balance of nature’ (items 1,
some of these comparisons are as follows:
Areas and Needs in Ecotourism Research 647
Table 41.1. The new environmental paradigm scale.
1. The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset
2. When humans interfere with nature it often produces disastrous consequences
3. Humans must live in harmony with nature to survive
4. Mankind is severely abusing the environment
5. We are approaching the number of people the Earth can support
6. The Earth is like a spaceship with only limited room and resources
7. There are limits to growth beyond which our industrialized society cannot expand
8. To maintain a healthy economy we will have to develop a ‘steady-state’ economy where industrial
growth is controlled
9. Mankind was created to rule over nature
10. Humans have the right to modify the natural environment to suit their needs
11. Plants and animals exist primarily to be used by humans
12. Humans need not adapt to their natural environment because they can remake it to suit their needs
2, 3, 4), ‘Limits to growth’ (items 6, 7, 8), ted birdwatchers were among the most
and ‘Man over nature’ (items 9, 10). knowledgeable of a number of animal-ori-
ented groups.
While historically the NEP has been
subject to some debate, researchers have Attitude research will help to further
shown renewed interest in the scale. In a differentiate between ecotourists and non-
study of visitors to Biscayne Bay National ecotourists, and soft and hard path eco-
Park, USA, Jurowski et al. (1995) found tourists. In regard to the continuum of
that it was the younger visitors to the park ecotourists, the results of attitude-based
that maintained more ecocentric attitudes. analyses may be used for the purpose of
This group favoured allocating park structuring different programmes and expe-
resources to protecting the park environ- riences for these disparate groups. The
ment, while the older and more anthro- assumption to be made is that different
pocentric clientele, in contrast, favoured types of ecotourists want different types of
efforts to develop the park environment. experiences.
The authors concluded by suggesting that
park managers may wish to include alter- Impacts
native management practices for the two
groups. In related research on attitudes, Mayur (1996) wrote that environmentalists
Jackson (1986) found evidence that indi- often focus too strongly on the symptoms
viduals who prefer what may be termed of environmental deterioration, rather than
appreciative outdoor pursuits (e.g. hiking) on their underlying causes. He likened this
maintain stronger pro-environmental atti- to administering cough medicine to a
tudes than those who are more consump- tuberculosis patient. While the cough may
tive in their outdoor recreational pursuits abate, the untended disease may yet kill.
(e.g. hunting and trail biking). Also, the This is certainly also true of the tourism
work of Kellert (1985) suggests the exis- industry, which by many accounts is one of
tence of a typology of attitudes toward ani- the worst representations of unfettered cap-
mals and the natural environment. These italism. Our predisposition as tourism
range from positive attitudes (e.g. ecologis- researchers is to focus on the impacts of
tic and naturalistic), to negative attitudes the sector, and this has left us with little
where there is a primary concern for the means by which to mitigate and control
material value of animals, the control of such impacts. This is most emphatically
animals, or the avoidance of animals. He stated by Meadows et al. (1972, p. xi):
developed a number of scales to measure
the attitude types, and found that commit-
648 D.A. Fennell
It is the predicament of mankind that man Carrying capacity and norms
can perceive the problematique yet despite A closely related concept to impacts is car-
rying capacity. Since the mid-1960s,
his considerable knowledge and skills, he researchers in outdoor recreation have
looked closely at issues related to numbers
does not understand the origins, significance of participants in outdoor settings and their
effects on the natural world (see Lucas,
and interrelationships of its many 1964; Wagar, 1964). An assumption was
made that by controlling numbers to these
components and is thus unable to devise settings, many of the effects would simply
disappear. (Carrying capacity can be
effective responses. This failure occurs in defined as the amount of use a particular
area can absorb over time before there is an
large part because we continue to examine unacceptable impact to either other users
or the resource base.) In one of the earliest
single items in the problematique without studies on the concept, Wagar (1964, p. i)
wrote that:
understanding that the whole is more than
The study … was initiated with view that the
the sum of the parts, and that change in one carrying capacity of recreation lands could be
determined primarily in terms of ecology and
element means change in the others. the deterioration of the areas. However, it
soon became obvious that the resource-
Some researchers (see Dowling, 1993; oriented point of view must be augmented by
McKercher, 1993) cite a fundamental lack consideration of human values.
of sound models and data to aid in the con-
tinuing struggle to overcome the impact From this study and others, researchers
dilemma (impacts are often identified but have learned not only that biological envi-
not controlled). Now, at the turn of the cen- ronments are dynamic in reference to car-
tury, it is painfully apparent that there is rying capacity, but so too are human
still an abundance of unresolved issues values, needs, benefits, expectations and
that confront the tourism industry, some levels of satisfaction. The setting of specific
which may prevail despite our best reme- numerical limits in outdoor settings, there-
dial efforts. The recent development of fore, is often not the best course of action
tourism impact scales may help in our in controlling the effects of outdoor recre-
attempts to better understand the pressure ational use. As such, according to Lindberg
that tourism exerts on various regions. The et al. (1997), the focus has shifted away
35-item tourism impact scale developed by from ‘How many is too many?’ to one of
Ap and Crompton (1998), for example ‘What are the desired conditions?’. In
(based on a number of domains, including response to the shortcomings of carrying
society and culture, economics, crowding capacity, a number of preformed planning
and congestion, and environment) is an and management frameworks have been
example of such a measure. A predecessor developed with the purpose of balancing
to this scale is the tourism impact attitude biological and social components of out-
scale which Lankford (1994) developed door recreation settings, experience, and
and implemented in Oregon and use. These include the recreation opportu-
Washington, USA, for the purpose of gaug- nity spectrum (ROS), limits of acceptable
ing attitudes and perceptions toward change (LAC), visitor impact management
tourism and rural development. (VIM) and the visitor activity management
process (VAMP). All are USA-developed
Impacts will continue to play a signifi- except VAMP, which was developed for
cant role in determining what is/is not Parks Canada (an excellent overview of
acceptable in terms of appropriate and
responsible tourism development. This
holds true for the tourism industry as a
whole but also ecotourism where the
impact scales, as discussed above, may be
utilized to examine the perceptions of
developers, local inhabitants, and tourists.
In particular, ecotourists may be contrasted
against other types of tourists in order to
gain an understanding of the pressure that
each exerts in different environments of a
destination.
Areas and Needs in Ecotourism Research 649
these models can be found in Payne and will probably differ between the two
Graham, 1993). In general, these models groups (see Roggenbuck et al., 1991;
have been virtually untouched by tourism Shelby and Vaske, 1991; Heywood, 1996).
researchers. Exceptions include the work
of Butler and Waldbrook (1991) who Animal–human interactions
adapted the ROS into a tourism opportu-
nity spectrum model, and Harroun (1994), By nature, ecotourism is an activity that
who discussed VIM and LAC as models involves an interaction between people
appropriate for analysing ecological and nature (plants and animals). At times
impacts in developing countries. In addi- this interaction can be antagonistic. For
tion, Dowling (1993) developed his own example, Burger et al. (1995) reported that
tourism-specific model, the environmen- different bird species have different levels
tally based tourism planning framework, of tolerance, and are not consistent in their
which links tourism development and responses to ecotourists. In this study the
environmental conservation. researchers found that birds have distinct
behavioural patterns at different times of
The value of ROS, LAC, VAMP and the year (breeding, migration, feeding and
other preformed planning and management so on). In general the authors felt that man-
models is that they lend an element of agers need to consider the use of separate
sophistication to the management of peo- management techniques for different
ple in protected areas, such as national species in various settings. It was suggested
parks. As such, there is merit in using that the following needed to be considered
these models or re-fitting or creating new in understanding human–bird interactions:
models, as Dowling, and Butler and
Waldbrook have done, in order to better 1. Response distance. The distance
plan and manage the tourism industry. A between the bird and the intruder at which
constraint to their use is the fact that both the bird makes some visible or measurable
expertise and resources are needed to response.
implement these models, and given their 2. Flushing distance. The distance at
comprehensiveness, the models may have which the bird actually leaves the site
the potential of intimidating individuals where it is nesting or feeding.
and/or agencies lacking social and ecologi- 3. Approach distance. The distance to
cal planning backgrounds. which one can approach a bird, head-on,
without disturbing it.
Finally, and briefly, a strong theme in 4. Tolerance distance. The distance to
outdoor recreation research over the past which one can approach a bird without
few years is the adoption of encounter disturbing it, but in reference to passing by
norms or crowding norms as a means by the bird tangentially.
which to objectively and systematically
determine levels of use in outdoor settings. Blane and Jackson (1994) further acknowl-
As outlined by Lewis et al. (1996), edge the importance of strict environmen-
encounter norms (there is a difference tal monitoring and management in order to
between personal norms and group norms) safeguard the ecotourism industry and
are viewed as ‘visitors’ individual or wildlife. On the basis of some 370 observa-
shared beliefs about appropriate use levels tions of ecotourism boat–whale interac-
and social situations’ (p. 144). Acceptable tions, they discovered a series of different
levels of other users and user groups may whale behaviour patterns. These included
therefore differ within and between groups. avoidance behaviour (increasing their
For example, canoeists may feel more speed and surfacing less often), interac-
crowded, even though they encounter tions between whales and boats (investigat-
fewer other parties during the day, than ing the boats), pre-disturbance behaviour
white-water rafters. The assumption is that (in 75% of cases, whales resumed their pre-
canoeists want a much different experience
from rafters, and expectations of the setting
650 D.A. Fennell
disturbance behaviour), location (whales parks and protected areas is tourists, not
reacted differently in different settings), bears. Park management has recognized the
and boat variables (boat type, speed, range importance of the social sciences in manag-
and angle of approach). While other ing natural areas over the past 15 years, but
research supports the fact that killer there is still a great deal of work required.
whales do not seem to be affected by regu- This includes obtaining an understanding
lated boat traffic (see Obee, 1998), there of the spatial and temporal movement of
does appear to be the need to further docu- tourists (and different tourism groups), and
ment animal–human interactions among the pressure that they exert on different
different species, and in different settings. regions of a destination, as stated earlier.
It is the environment and the level and
type of use which may determine the Consequently, there is a moral issue at
response patterns of animals like whales. hand which ought to be considered in
deciding what qualifies as acceptable
Another area of research on human– human–wildlife interactions. As eco-
wildlife encounters that has potential tourism continues to expand in how it is
relates to the concept of habituation. This interpreted and practised, ecotourism pol-
doctrine, which has long been a topic of icy makers and leaders will be forced to
interest for psychologists, involves learning take a closer look at current definitions of
how not to respond to a stimulus. When an the term. Activities such as fishing qualify
individual is exposed to some type of stim- as ecotourism under some broad defini-
ulus, there is often an immediate and vig- tions of ecotourism (see Holland et al.,
orous response. However, after repeated 1998). However, Fennell (2001) argues that
and sustained exposure to the stimulus, such pursuits, which intentionally harm
responses typically lessen and may disap- and physically and emotionally stress ani-
pear altogether. Habituation may provide mals or resources, are more anthropocen-
the needed explanation as to why animals tric in nature and lie outside the realm of
in zoos remain indifferent to the overtures acceptable ecotourism practice.
of visitors on a day-to-day basis, and also
explain the lethargy demonstrated by a Conclusion
pride of lions at the arrival of several vehi-
cles. The extent to which ecotourism There is a myriad of research theories,
affects these species, in various settings, techniques and approaches that have been
should also be further explored in an developed in the social and natural sci-
attempt to ameliorate any negative effects. ences which, if pursued, will add value to
Variables such as frequency of interaction, ecotourism investigations. The intriguing
numbers of tourists, time, spatial patterns thing about the field of ecotourism is that it
and sensitivities with respect to predator bridges the gap between these social and
and prey relationships could be considered natural science realms. While this is excit-
in the decisions of whether to include a ing, it also presents itself as a challenge to
species on an ecotourism itinerary or not. find common ground and to bring meaning
and direction to this new field of study.
As a final note, funding bodies, at least While advocates of ecotourism argue that it
in Canada, have consistently shown a pref- is a more responsible form of tourism, the
erence for financing the work of biologists theories and philosophies stated above
and other natural scientists in natural areas may be used to empirically demonstrate
over social research. Perhaps in our efforts whether a particular ‘ecotourism’ product
to understand and manage ecosystems we or activity can be considered responsible
have spent too much time and money (whatever ‘responsible’ means). It should
radio-collaring bears and snakes, when we further be noted that some of the points
ought to be radio-collaring tourists. The made in this paper are open to debate, and
oft-quoted adage that ‘bear management is have been raised to stimulate much-needed
90% people management’ should be taken
seriously. It means that the real problem in
Areas and Needs in Ecotourism Research 651
discussion on where ecotourism research the ecotourism industry and find common-
perhaps should go in the future. Hopefully alities between applied and theoretical
researchers will continue to address many research, using natural and social inves-
of the most pressing issues that confront tigative means.
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654 D.A. Fennell
Appendix: Evaluation of Ecotour Operator Ethics
This evaluation form includes many of the most frequently cited aspects and concerns
related to an ecotour experience. Please rate your ecotour operator’s ethical behaviour on
how well they satisfied each of the criteria below, from a ‘Superior’, ‘Adequate’ or
‘Inferior’ perspective.
Operator: Tour dates:
Tour description:
Evaluation criteria Operator’s ethical
behaviour
Superior Adequate Inferior N/A
General ethics:
Respect shown to animals
Respect shown to plants
Operator’s treatment of financial matters
related to the tour
Respect shown to local people
Operator following a code of ethics
Respect shown to ecotourists
Local people:
Operator employing local/indigenous
people as guides or front-line personnel
Operator efforts to employ local/
indigenous people in middle or upper
management positions
Local people were in control of the
decision making in relation to ecotourism
in their community
Local people owned and ran the ecotour
operation
Environmental education:
The interpretation of the natural world
Areas and Needs in Ecotourism Research 655
Evaluation criteria Operator’s ethical
behaviour
Superior Adequate Inferior N/A
Knowledge of plant and animal life
Level of pre-trip information provided to
the client
Level of on-site information provided
to the client
Operator/guide had formal education in
ecotourism or ecotourism-related fields
Operator professionalism:
Operator/guide was accredited or certified
Knowledge of land use and park policies
Knowledge of the site or region itself
(e.g. location, history, weather)
A low guide-to-participant ratio
Language proficiency of guides
Degree of safety of the experience
Understanding of the importance of
minimizing tourism impacts
Contribution to conservation:
Monetary (e.g. park fees, support of local
nature groups)
Physical (e.g. removal of garbage, tree
planting)
Accommodation and transportation:
Reliance on ‘green’ hotels
Use of hotels that are locally owned
Use of hotels that are built with local
materials
Use of hotels that have a low carrying
capacity
Use of vans/buses that use cleaner
petroleum
Over reliance of vehicles at ecotour sites
Glossary
(Bold terms within definitions are listed elsewhere as glossary main entries)
ACE tourism: a hybrid form of tourism that combines Adventure, Cultural and Ecotourism; recog-
nizes that many tourism products, such as trekking, combine a variety of experiences, attrac-
tions and motivations, and therefore cannot be neatly placed within a single category.
Accreditation: a quality control mechanism that formally recognizes businesses or products that
meet nominated industry standards, usually associated with sectoral best practice; the National
Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP) of Australia is a world leader in ecotourism accredi-
tation, but most countries are far behind, indicating the relative immaturity of this sector over-
all.
Adaptancy platform: a view of tourism popular during the 1980s which put forward options such as
sustainable tourism and ecotourism that were perceived to be more benign and appropriate
than mass tourism for most kinds of destinations; it was a logical continuation of the caution-
ary platform, and adhered to a similar set of ideological assumptions about tourism and devel-
opment.
Adventure tourism: usually a form of nature-based tourism that incorporates an element of risk,
higher levels of physical exertion, and the need for specialized skills; often hybridizes with eco-
tourism and other forms of tourism, as in ACE tourism.
Advocacy platform: a capitalist perspective, dominant prior to the 1970s, in which tourism is per-
ceived as a great benefit for virtually any kind of community; more tourism equates with more
benefits, and hence mass tourism is the best possible scenario.
Alternative tourism: tourism that is deliberately fostered as a more appropriate small-scale, commu-
nity-controlled option to mass tourism in environmentally or socio-culturally sensitive destina-
tions; ecotourism was originally conceived as an environmentally based form of alternative
tourism during the era of the adaptancy platform.
Auditing: a process that a business undergoes to identify and confirm benchmarks, provide accredi-
tation with reliability and validity, and measure and verify best practice; to be credible, audit-
ing must be carried out by a third party, though businesses can and should conduct their own
internal audits as a prelude to the latter.
Benchmarking: a quality control mechanism in which the performance of an operation in specified
areas is evaluated through comparison with similar operations, and usually those that adhere to
sector best practice; the implication is that the sector constantly improves as businesses strive
to meet and exceed existing best practice standards.
Best practice: a set of operational standards that are considered to be the most effective and efficient
within a sector with respect to certain desired outcomes, such as environmental sustainability
and effective interpretation in the case of ecotourism; accreditation of businesses and products
657
658 Glossary
is usually based on adherence to best practice standards, which are commonly recognized
through awards.
Buffer zone: an area, usually surrounding a high order protected area, that acts as a cushion between
the latter and external spaces that are unprotected; buffer zones usually have the status of a low
order multi-use protected area, and often provide accommodations and other services and facili-
ties for ecotourists.
Carrying capacity: the amount of tourism-related activity that a site or destination can sustainably
accommodate; often measured in terms of visitor numbers or visitor-nights over a given period
of time, or by the number of available accommodation units; management techniques such as
site hardening can be employed to raise a site’s carrying capacity.
Cautionary platform: a left-leaning ‘anti-tourism’ perspective that emerged in the late 1960s as a
reaction to the perceived excesses of unrestricted mass tourism, especially within the Third
World.
Code of ethics: a list of recommended practices intended to effect environmentally and/or socio-cul-
turally sustainable behaviour and outcomes within the targeted group, such as the International
Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO); often criticized for being vague, voluntary and
based on a system of self-regulation, codes of ethics are considered to be a weak type of quality
control mechanism.
Constant capital rule: an outcome of sustainable development, wherein one generation leaves the
same amount of ‘capital’ to the next generation that it inherited from the previous generation;
there is considerable disagreement about the extent to which man-made and semi-natural capi-
tal can and should be substituted for natural capital.
Consumptive tourism: commonly refers to hunting and fishing, which extract or ‘consume’ resources
from the natural environment; the term is contentious, since it can be argued that all forms of
tourism have both a consumptive and non-consumptive element; the common tendency to
equate consumptive with unsustainable is also unwarranted.
Demonstration effect: process whereby local people, through direct exposure to tourists, begin to
imitate their behaviour, often resulting in the modification or shunning of their own culture;
usually associated with mass tourism, though the intrusion of ecotourists into the host commu-
nity may induce a similar effect.
Dominant social paradigm: a view of man’s technological and scientific supremacy that has domi-
nated Western society for the past 300 years, and is commonly regarded as the underlying cause
of many contemporary environmental and social problems, including unsustainable mass
tourism; accordingly, is now being challenged by the new environmental paradigm.
Ecolodge: a specialized form of accommodation that caters specifically to ecotourists; usually a
small, upmarket facility located in or near a protected area or wilderness setting; ecolodges are
a high profile form of ecotourism accommodation, but account for only a small proportion of all
ecotourist visitor-nights.
Ecoresort complex: a hybrid form of accommodation/attraction that incorporates features of a con-
ventional resort and an ecolodge; that is, these are responses to changing market trends that
tend to be large, managed in an environmentally sustainable way, and designed to provide a
variety of recreational opportunities, including ecotourism.
Ecotourism: a form of tourism that is increasingly understood to be: (i) based primarily on nature-
based attractions; (ii) learning-centred; and (iii) conducted in a way that makes every reasonable
attempt to be environmentally, socio-culturally and economically sustainable.
Ecotourism opportunity spectrum (ECOS): a model, incorporating elements of the recreational
opportunity spectrum (ROS) and the tourism opportunity spectrum (TOS), that identifies the
viability of potential ecotourism sites by assessing these against various criteria, and rating them
on a scale ranging from an eco-specialist to an eco-generalist orientation.
Ecotourism organization: a membership-based, non-government organization that is focused on the
promotion and enhancement of ecotourism within a particular jurisdiction; these occur at a
global (The International Ecotourism Society), national (e.g. Ecotourism Association of
Australia) and sub-national scale.
Endemism: the degree to which the flora and fauna of a place occur naturally only in that place; a
high level of endemism is associated with isolated locations such as islands and rainforest val-
leys; the implication for ecotourism is that those wishing to see these species in their natural
environment can only do so by visiting the place where these endemic species are found.
Glossary 659
Hard ecotourism: ecotourism that tends toward longer, specialized trips by small groups within a
wilderness or semi-wilderness setting mediated by minimal services; also called active, deep or
eco-specialist ecotourism, this constitutes only a very small portion of the total ecotourism sec-
tor.
Host community: a group of people in a small-scale destination, usually permanent residents, who
are thought to have a common interest and bond in maintaining a high quality of life for them-
selves; support by the host or local community is now widely considered crucial for tourism or
ecotourism in particular to be successful, and this is often achieved through community control
and involvement in tourism.
Iconic attraction: an attraction that symbolizes and dominates a destination; iconic ecotourism
attractions include the Great Barrier Reef of Australia and Kruger National Park of South Africa.
Indigenous people: a term that is open to some interpretation, but generally referring to the original
inhabitants of an area; they often form a dominant and increasingly assertive population group
in peripheral and relatively undisturbed areas, and hence are growing in importance as a stake-
holder in the ecotourism sector.
Input–output (IO) analysis: a class of statistical techniques that are used to calculate the economic
impacts of tourism within a destination; several empirical studies have focused on ecotourism.
Interpretation: in ecotourism, the process whereby the significance and meanings of natural and
associated cultural phenomena are revealed to visitors, usually with the intent of providing a
satisfying learning experience while at the same time inducing and encouraging more sustain-
able behaviour among those experiencing this interpretation.
Inter-sectoral realm: other sectors, especially agriculture, fishing, forestry, and various conventional
forms of tourism, that use the same resource base as ecotourism; the relationship between these
sectors and ecotourism can range from conflicting to complementary; the inter-sectoral realm is
part of the broader external environment surrounding ecotourism, which also includes govern-
ment.
IUCN classification system: a system put forward by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) that
divides protected areas into seven basic categories, according to the types of human interven-
tion that are permitted in each; this system eliminates the confusion arising from each jurisdic-
tion establishing its own protocol, and as a result has become the international standard for
protected area classification.
Knowledge-based platform: a tourism perspective appearing in the early 1990s that attempted to
transcend the ideological biases of earlier platforms by emphasizing the importance of applying
sound scientific techniques to obtain knowledge about tourism; attempted to divorce the associ-
ation between scale and value judgements about tourism.
Limits of acceptable change (LAC): a land management philosophy that identifies specific indicators
of environmental quality and tourism impacts, and defines thresholds within which the conser-
vation goals of a protected area are met.
Marine protected area (MPA): an area of sea or ocean that has been designated as a protected area;
the global MPA system is regarded as being in an incipient state of development compared with
the terrestrial system.
Market segmentation: the division of a larger consumer market into smaller, homogeneous groups on
the basis of geographical, socio-demographic, psychographic and/or behavioural characteristics,
in order to better effect target marketing and management strategies; ecotourists are commonly
segmented into hard ecotourism and soft ecotourism sub-groups.
Mass tourism: large-scale tourism, typically associated with 3S (sea, sand, sun) resorts and character-
istics such as transnational ownership, high leakage effects, seasonality, and package tours; eco-
tourism can conceivably be a form of mass tourism under the logic of the knowledge-based
platform, whereas previously the two were considered mutually exclusive.
Multiplier effect: the amount of ongoing indirect and induced economic activity that is generated
within a destination as a result of direct tourist expenditures; ecotourism is commonly assumed
to generate a high multiplier effect because of the involvement of local communities.
National park: often used synonymously with protected area, and used by various jurisdictions as a
formal designation to describe a range of protected area arrangements; the term is most effec-
tively employed, however, as the name for an IUCN category II protected area, that is, a highly
protected space that is managed to accommodate a sustainable level of visitation; this is the
most important type of protected area from an ecotourism perspective.
660 Glossary
Nature-based tourism: any form of tourism that relies primarily on the natural environment for its
attractions and/or settings; incorporates ecotourism as well as substantial portions of adventure
tourism and 3S tourism, neither of which are necessarily sustainable or learning-centred.
New environmental paradigm (NEP): a biocentric or ecocentric way of thinking that advocates a
holistic, integrative view of humanity, and places people within and not above nature; this
view, also called the green paradigm, is challenging the dominant social paradigm that places
man above nature; ecotourism can be seen as one manifestation of the NEP.
Non-government organization (NGO): an association or body that is not tied to a government, and
usually operates in relation to a specific sector; membership-based ecotourism organizations,
for example, focus on ecotourism, while environmental NGOs such as Conservation
International are also involved in this sector as an adjunct to their broader conservation man-
date.
Plan: a document that articulates the planning process through which a given policy is implemented;
a few countries, such as Australia, have well-articulated and well-supported ecotourism plans,
as do some sub-national jurisdictions such as the states of Australia.
Policy: a course of action, usually by government, that provides the broad guidelines for shaping the
development of a particular sector or sectors in a way deemed desirable; some countries such as
Australia have a focused ecotourism policy, though in most cases ecotourism is indirectly
affected by broader government policies.
Protected area: a designated portion of land or water (i.e. marine protected areas) to which regula-
tions and restrictions have been applied, thereby affording a given degree of protection against
on-site activities that threaten the environmental integrity of the area; protected areas are usu-
ally described as being either public or private, and are most commonly categorized according
the IUCN classification system.
Qualitative paradigm: a theoretical and methodological framework for research in ecotourism and
other areas that builds a complex and holistic knowledge base through the analysis of words;
sometimes said to derive detailed information about a small sample of subjects.
Quantitative paradigm: a theoretical and methodological framework for research in ecotourism and
other areas that measures phenomena with numbers, and analyses these with appropriate statis-
tical techniques to derive predictive generalizations; sometimes said to derive limited informa-
tion about a large number of informants.
Rainforest: a closed canopy, layered forest that results in tropical, subtropical or humid temperate
environments from high levels of precipitation; these are considered one of the most attractive
settings for ecotourism, although deforestation and degradation are steadily reducing the
amount and quality of the world’s rainforests.
Restoration ecotourism: ecotourism that focuses on the rehabilitation or reconstruction of degraded
environments; provides an incentive for such efforts, and offers opportunities for volunteer par-
ticipation.
Safari tourism: refers to a wildlife-viewing expedition, usually undertaken by small groups in the
savannah regions of sub-Saharan Africa by way of four-wheel drive or other motorized trans-
port; in the past, also referred to as a hunting expedition.
Savannah: an area of subtropical open woodland, shrubs and grass; as an ecotourism venue, these
occur mainly in southern and eastern Africa, where the presence of numerous big game animals
has attracted a thriving safari tourism sector in countries such as Kenya and South Africa.
Site hardening: the implementation of site modifications, such as the paving of a hiking trail or the
construction of a sewage treatment system, that increase the carrying capacity of that site to
receive visitors.
Soft ecotourism: ecotourism that tends toward shorter, multi-purpose trips within well-serviced
areas frequented by large numbers of soft ecotourists; also called passive, shallow, popular or
eco-generalist ecotourism, this accounts for most ecotourism activity.
Sustainability indicators: variables that provide information about the extent to which a particular
destination is environmentally, socio-culturally and/or economically sustainable; the identifica-
tion of appropriate indicators and their critical thresholds is a major challenge for operationaliz-
ing the concept of sustainable tourism, and ecotourism specifically.
Sustainable development: development carried out in such a way as to meet the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs; an elusive and
complex concept popularized in 1987 by the Brundtland Report, and since used as an
Glossary 661
underlying principle and objective within many sectors, including tourism and ecotourism; the
constant capital rule is an example of the underlying complexity of this concept.
Sustainable tourism: as a direct follow-up to the concept of sustainable development, sustainable
tourism is tourism that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs; more commonly perceived as tourism that
does not negatively impact the environment, economy, culture and society of a particular desti-
nation; ecotourism is a form of sustainable tourism.
3S tourism: sea, sand and sun tourism, usually equated with mass tourism in a coastal resort setting;
ecotourism complements 3S tourism in destinations such as Costa Rica, Kenya and Australia,
and overlaps with 3S tourism in activities such as scuba-diving.
Tour operator: a critical intermediary in the tourism system that is responsible for the design, organi-
zation, packaging, marketing and operation of vacation and other tours at the outbound,
inbound or local level; these are becoming increasingly important as ecotourism becomes larger
and more formalized.
Trekking: a form of ACE tourism that incorporates elements of long-distance walking and exposure
to local cultures and the natural environment; commonly associated with the Himalayas and
northern Thailand.
Whale-watching: a specialized form of marine-based ecotourism that also includes other cetaceans
such as dolphins.
Wilderness: a subjective concept, but generally regarded in Western culture as a relatively extensive
area of mainly undisturbed natural environment; considered to be an important venue for hard
ecotourism.
Zoning: a management technique, commonly used within protected areas, whereby certain areas are
designated to accommodate specific kinds of tourism and other activity; in part, these designa-
tions are based on inherent carrying capacity, though once designated, measures such as site
hardening may be implemented to raise the area’s carrying capacity.
Index
Abruzzo National Park 160 tourism 123–125
ACE tourism 75, 115 see also Annapurna Conservation Area
see also Trekking Project; Balicasag; Bhutan; Himalayas;
Adventure tourism 74–75, 110 Indonesia; Mongolia; Thailand; Turkey
Australia 139, 140–144, 198, 199–200, 319,
see also The Adventure Travel Society 439–440, 465–467, 510, 569, 605, 606,
The Adventure Travel Society 109 607, 623, 628–629
business planning for ecotourism 566–568
see also Adventure tourism domestic ecotourists 40, 41–42, 43, 48, 53,
Africa 89–93, 258–261 54, 55
education and training 629–637
ecotourism plans 475
tourism 89–92 TAFE 631–632, 633–634
see also Cameroon; The Gambia; Kenya; university 631, 632–633
inbound ecotourists 39, 44, 46–47, 49, 51
Madagascar; Namibia; Parc National des National Ecotourism Accreditation Program
Volcans; Safari corridor; South Africa; 143, 467, 553, 560, 584–586, 588–589, 635
Tanzania; Uganda; Zambia; Zimbabwe National Ecotourism Program 142
Alaska 109 National Ecotourism Strategy 6, 143, 144,
see also Glacier National Park, Katmai 465, 466–467, 583, 629
National Park national park visitors 292
Alice Springs Desert Park 254 quality practices in ecotourism 579, 582,
Alpine National Park (Australia) 296 583, 584–586, 587, 588–589, 590–591
Alps 161–162 tour guides 559–560, 634–635
Alternative tourism 18, 25–26, 77–80 tour operators 536, 559
see also Ecotourism (hard ecotourism) see also Alice Springs Desert Park; Alpine
Amazon basin 180–183 National Park; Dorrigo National Park;
Amboseli National Park 100, 261 Ecotourism Association of Australia;
Andes 183, 207–210 Heron Island; Indigenous people
Angling 17, 81, 108, 112, 113–114, 435, 470, (Aborigines); Kakadu National Park;
471 Queensland Ecotourism Plan
see also Consumptive tourism Austria 162
Annapurna Conservation Area Project 130, 215
Antarctica 219–233, 388 Balicasag 277
Antarctic Treaty System 225–226, 231 Belize 179, 278, 306, 364, 369–370, 371–372,
shipborne tourism 226, 227, 228, 231–232,
598 401, 492, 515, 542, 598
Arctic 219–233 see also Community Baboon Sanctuary;
see also Indigenous people (Inuit; Sami)
Argentina 183, 208–209 Mundo Maya; Rio Bravo Conservation
see also Patagonia; Puerto Piramide and Management Area
Asia 123–136, 468
mountain ecotourism 207
663
664 Index
Bhutan 130, 469 Council of Europe 167–168
Bolivia 516 Cuba 176
Bonaire 271–272, 513, 517
Brazil 68, 180–182, 183, 471–472 Daniel’s Head (Bermuda) 529–530, 531–534
Death Valley 119
ecotourism plan 472, 473 Deserts 119, 251–256, 262
see also Amazon basin
Buffalo Commons 319 ecotourism 254–256
protected areas 253–255
Cameroon 329–330 Dominica 175, 516–517
see also Korup National Park Dorrigo National Park 372
CAMPFIRE 102, 318 Eco-Escuela (Guatemala) 501
Canada 46, 50, 107–108, 110–120, 589, 618 Ecotourism
domestic ecotourists 41–42, 45, 47, 48, 52, accommodation 48–51, 381, 525–534,
54, 613, 617 543–544, 565, 615
ecotourism plans 469, 470 accreditation 560, 580, 582–587, 619–620
national park visitors 292 activities 27, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 381–382
see also Arctic; Indigenous people (British
birdwatching 107–108, 244, 443–444
Columbia; Haida; Inuit); Manitoba; hiking 43, 48, 379–380, 382–383, 647
Mingan Island Cetacean Study; Ontario; sea kayaking 274–275, 387
Saskatchewan
Caribbean 173–177, 186–187, 317, 514 see also SeaCanoe
tourism 173 snorkelling/scuba-diving 40, 43, 76,
see also Bonaire; Dominica; Islands; Maho
Bay 243–244, 268, 269–272
Central America 177–180, 186–187, 441, underwater observation 275–277
601–602 whale watching 25, 184, 268,
ecotourism plans 469
see also Belize; Guatemala; Indigenous 273–274, 386, 649–650
people (Zapotecs); Mundo Maya see also Kaikoura Whale Watch
Chile 183, 208–209, 210 auditing 580, 581, 589–592
China 127–128 benchmarking 559, 580, 581–582
Chumbe Island Coral Park Project 279 best practice 580, 581, 587–589
Churchill (Manitoba) 116, 321 certification 494, 560
Coasts 235–247, 338–339 codes of conduct and guidelines 405, 421,
financing of ecotourism 240–241 559, 581, 643–644
growth of ecotourism 238 convergence with mass tourism 77–80
impacts of ecotourism definitions 5–6, 7, 24–25, 29, 109, 112, 146,
planning of ecotourism 244–245 156–157, 327, 413, 467, 472, 612–613
Colombia 208, 308–309 demand 38–40
Community Baboon Sanctuary 306, 516 economic impacts 363–375, 389, 538, 598,
Conservation 23–24 622
Conservation International 109, 482, 501, 516 cost–benefit analysis 14
Consumptive tourism 80–82 employment 363–364, 401–402, 515
see also Angling; Hunting input–output analysis 371–375
Coral Cay Conservation 277–278 money flows 366–369, 514
Coral Reef Alliance 280 educational outcomes 8–10, 554, 556, 558
Coral reefs 236, 272, 384 environmental impacts 31, 379–390, 598,
see also Chumbe Island Coral Park Project; 622–624
Coral Cay Conservation; Coral Reef accommodation 381
Alliance management 387–389
Costa Rica 177–178, 374, 402–403, 509, 512, soil impacts 382
516 transport 380–381, 615–616
private protected areas 305, 307, 308, 309, vegetation impacts 382–383
310 wildlife impacts 383–386, 649–650
see also Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, external environments 464–465, 497–506
Tortuguero National Park funding 69–70, 86, 241
growth 39, 565, 628
Index 665
hard ecotourism 28, 288–292, 294, 453, Ecotourism opportunity spectrum (ECOS)
571–572 452–453
information sources 611–624 see also Recreation opportunity spectrum;
interpretation 8–10, 56, 200, 549–561, 614 Tourism opportunity spectrum
principles 554–556 The Ecotourism Society 109, 479, 482, 487–491,
monitoring 424–425, 428–429 492–493, 494, 495
organizations 453–454, 479–496, 540–541,
Ecotourism Society of Kenya 483, 494
543 Ecotourism Society of Saskatchewan 485, 488,
form and structure 487–491
formation 485–487, 488–490 494
funding 491–493 Ecotourists 37–60, 568–574, 616–617
international 480–482
national 481, 482–484 accommodation preferences 48–51
roles 493–495 age 41, 43
sub-national 481, 484–485 club membership 57–59
see also The Ecotourism Society destinations 46–47
education 40, 41
origins 5, 24, 441 expenditures 45–46
other sectors 497–506 gender 41, 43, 56–57, 570–571
household characteristics 41
coalitions with ecotourism 499–503 income 40
planning 403, 421, 451–460, 463–476 motivations 52, 53, 552, 572, 573
plans 463, 465–476 occupation 40, 42
principles 11, 27, 335, 379, 419–421, 549, origins 46–48
publications read 57–58
565, 627–628, 640 satisfaction 53, 54, 457–458, 525, 551–552,
policy 112, 463–476
quality processes 579–593 557–558, 572–573, 613–614
trip characteristics 43–46
see also Ecotourism (accreditation; trip purpose 51–53
benchmarking; certification; codes values 56–57
of conduct and guidelines) Ecuador 542
see also Galapagos Islands; Napo region
research methodologies 597–608 Education and Training 67, 404–405, 487, 495,
destinations researched 604, 605
613–614, 627–637
research needs 403–404, 455, 538–539, Environmental movement 412, 646–647
558, 601, 606–608, 639–651 Europe 155–169
size 39, 66–67, 569 ecotourism plans and policies 474–475
socio-cultural impacts 395–407, 552–553, mountain ecotourism 206–207
protected areas 158–160, 440
599, 620–622, 648 rural tourism 160–161, 440–441
acculturation 404 tourism 156, 161, 162
demonstration effect 404 see also Finland; Indigenous people (Sami);
loss of access to land 402–404
Spain; UK
soft ecotourism 28, 77–79, 288–292, 294, European Commission 166–167
442, 443, 453, 557, 571–572 Everglades National Park 119–120
values and ethics 641–645, 649–650 Fiji 147–148, 438–439, 468, 482–483, 511
Ecotourism Association of Australia 143, 487, see also Fiji Ecotourism Association
494, 559 Fiji Ecotourism Association 483, 489, 494
Ecotourism businesses 406, 455, 464, 494–495, Finland 165, 572
521, 565–576, 579–580, 629 see also Indigenous people (Sami)
business planning 536, 537–538, 566–576, Florida 109, 471
588, 592, 618–619 see also Everglades National Park
ecolodges 516, 526–534, 543–544, 615
marketing 567–568, 575, 589, 616–618 Galapagos Islands 237, 240, 242, 246–247, 295,
product-market nexus 574–575 384, 512, 513, 515, 641
tour guides 549–561, 614–615
tour operators 389, 535–545, 550–551, 567 The Gambia 102–103
travel agents 553, 567
see also Ecotourism (accommodation;
accreditation; auditing; benchmarking;
certification; codes of conduct and
guidelines)
666 Index
German Federal Ministry for Economic planning of ecotourism 244–245
Cooperation and Development 483, 484 transportation 239–240
see also Caribbean; South Pacific
Glacier National Park 372
Gower Peninsula 335–338, 339, 340 Japan Ecotourism Society 490, 494
Grasslands 118–119, 256–258
Kaikoura Whale Watch 273–274, 280, 349, 353
ecotourism 256–258 Kakadu National Park 261
see also Buffalo Commons Katmai National Park 116
Great Smoky Mountains National Park 118 Kazakhstan 133
Great Texas Coastal Birding Trail 118 Kenya 93, 94–100, 101, 258–261, 318, 329–332,
Guatemala 179–180, 306
see also Eco-Escuela; Mundo Maya 335, 512, 621
Guyana 472–474 protected areas 97–100, 260, 330–331,
Hato Pinero (Venezuela) 305 333–334, 511
Hawaii 109 tourism 90–92, 94–95, 330, 334
see also Amboseli National Park;
see also Hawaii Ecotourism Association
Hawaii Ecotourism Association 490, 494 Ecotourism Society of Kenya; Kenya
Heron Island (Australia) 30–31 Wildlife Service; Maasai Mara National
Himalayas 130, 207, 213, 214 Reserve
Honduras 179 Kenya Wildlife Service 482
Komodo National Park 246, 247
see also Mundo Maya Korup National Park 329, 332, 333, 334, 335
Hunting 81, 96, 98, 108, 115, 256, 316–317, 385, Kruger National Park 99, 260
Kyrgyzstan 133
435, 647
Leslie Street Spit (Toronto) 322
India 130–131 Limits of acceptable change (LAC) 340–341,
Indicators 411–416, 420
Indigenous people 197, 253, 345–355, 399, 542 388–389
Living Prairie Museum (Winnipeg) 257
Aborigines 144, 347, 399, 400, 542 Local communities 12–13, 14, 395–407, 419,
Arctic 225
British Columbia 213–214 425, 541–543, 552–553, 620–621
Haida 349, 350
Inuit 347 Maasai Mara National Reserve 100, 261, 330,
land claims 346 332–334
Karen 348
Kuna Indians 243 Madagascar 516
Maasai 332 Madre de Dios region (Peru) 369
Maori 146, 273–274, 349, 350, 351, 353, 542 Maho Bay (USVI) 530–531
Moken 352 Malaysia 129
motivations for adopting ecotourism Mana Pools Lodge 368
Manitoba 470
348–350
Sami 353 see also Churchill; Living Prairie Museum
significance of land 346–348 Marine environments 265–280
Zapotecs 215
see also Local communities see also Coral reefs; Ecotourism (activities);
Indonesia 129 Protected areas (marine protected areas)
see also Indonesian Ecotourism Network;
Mass tourism 18, 24, 25–26, 77–80, 176, 267,
Komodo National Park 297, 299, 512, 516
Indonesian Ecotourism Network 483, 492
The International Ecotourism Society see The ‘greening’ trend 79, 627
see also Ecotourism (soft ecotourism); 3S
Ecotourism Society
Iran 132–133 tourism
Islands 235–247 Mexico 173, 176–177, 441–442
financing of ecotourism 240–241 see also Indigenous people (Zapotecs);
growth of ecotourism 238 Mundo Maya; Yucatan Peninsula
impacts of ecotourism
Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie 257
Index 667
Milford Sound Underwater Observatory 275 Peru 182–183, 210, 215
Mingan Island Cetacean Study 116 see also Madre de Dios region
Modified spaces and ecotourism 8, 315–325
Point Pelee National Park 118
agricultural lands 316–319, 434–435, 437, Polar environments 219–233
442–443
impact of tourism on soil 229–230
artificial reefs 323 management of tourism 231–233
devastated landscapes 324 see also Antarctica; Arctic; Indigenous
rationale for ecotourism 315–316
service corridors 323–324 people (Inuit; Sami)
urban and peri-urban areas 319–323 Portugal 162–163
Protected areas 8, 48, 116, 158, 287–300, 389,
cemeteries 320
golf courses 320–321 402, 435, 515, 553, 569, 623–624
high-rise and other structure 322 carrying capacity 292–295, 648
landfill and waste disposal sites community relations 299–300
compatibility with ecotourism 288–292
321–322 configurations 296–297
parks 320 marine protected areas 277–279, 288
sewage lagoons and stormwater private protected areas 303–312, 506
control ponds 321 competition with public protected
zoos and botanical gardens 322–323 areas 310–311
Mongolia 257
Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve 311, 513 conflicts of interest 309–310
Mountains 205–218 profitability 307–308
management of tourism 211–215 reasons for establishment 304–305
seasonality 213 privatization 299
see also Alps; Himalayas see also Abruzzo National Park; Alice
Mundo Maya 180 Springs Desert Park; Alpine National
Park; Amboseli National Park;
Namibia 255, 491 Annapurna Conservation Area Project;
Napo region (Ecuador) 369 Chumbe Island Coral Park Project;
Nature-based tourism 6, 7–8, 26–27, 66, 73–74, Community Baboon Sanctuary; Dorrigo
National Park; Everglades National Park;
109 Glacier National Park; Gower Peninsula;
The Nature Conservancy (TNC) 482, 506 Great Smoky Mountains National Park;
NEAT tourism 76 Kakadu National Park; Katmai National
New Zealand 139, 144–146, 274, 468 Park; Komodo National Park; Korup
National Park; Kruger National Park;
see also Indigenous people (Maori); Living Prairie Museum; Midewin
Kaikoura Whale Watch; Milford Sound National Tallgrass Prairie; Monteverde
Underwater Observatory; Tiritiri Cloud Forest Reserve; Parc National des
Matangi Island Volcans; Point Pelee National Park;
Redberry Pelican Project; Rio Bravo
Non-consumptive tourism 80–82 Conservation and Management Area;
Tortuguero National Park; Yellowstone
Oceania 139–151 National Park; Yosemite National Park
see also Australia; New Zealand; South Public policy and ecotourism 502–503, 509–518
Pacific dependency 514–515
fiscal policy and incentives 515–517
Ontario 111, 505 infrastructure 512–513
see also Leslie Street Spit; Point Pelee politics and administration 509–511
National Park security 511–512
Puerto Piramide 273
Panama 179
Pantanal 183 Queensland Ecotourism Plan 467–468, 629
Papua New Guinea 150, 402, 405
Parc National des Volcans 294, 511 Rainforests 193–203
Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) 398–399 artificial rainforests 202
PATA 134
Patagonia 184–185, 208–210
668 Index
Rainforests continued Tanzania 101, 260–261, 506, 512, 621
attitudes toward 197–198 see also Chumbe Island Coral Park Project
interpretation 200–202
tourism 198–203 Texas 109, 118, 323
types 195–196 Thailand 128, 468–469, 510
Recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS) see also Indigenous people (Karen; Moken)
339–340, 388 Tibet 127
Tiritiri Matangi Island (New Zealand) 31–32
Redberry Pelican Project 485 Tortuguero National Park 517
Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area Tourism 63–65, 363–365, 411
Tourism opportunity spectrum (TOS) 340
306 Tourism platforms 77–78
Rural development and ecotourism 160–161, Trekking 75–76
Tundra 116–117, 221–222, 223
433–444 Turkey 132, 165
3S (sea, sand, sun) tourism 76–77, 176 Uganda 512
see also Mass tourism UK 158, 164, 317
Safari corridor 258–261, 475 domestic ecotourists 40, 41–42, 43, 49, 52,
Samoa 147, 468 55, 58
Saskatchewan 112, 317, 318, 484–485, 486
tour operators 536
protected areas 297, 298 see also Gower Peninsula
see also Ecotourism Society of United Nations 70, 135
see also United Nations Development
Saskatchewan
Savannah 119, 258–261 Program
United Nations Development Program (UNDP)
ecotourism 258–261
Scandinavia 164–165 480
SeaCanoe 266–267, 274–275 USA 107–109, 113–120, 316, 319, 323, 515
Seaprobe Atlantis 276
Siberia 126 desert ecotourism 254–255
Solomon Islands 147, 150, 241, 480–481 domestic ecotourists 37, 39, 40, 41–42, 43,
South Africa 68, 89–100, 318, 475, 618
44–45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 56–57,
private protected areas 100, 310 613, 617
protected areas 97–100 grassland ecotourism 257
tourism 94–96 interpreter training 560
see also Kruger National Park national park visitors 291–292
South America 180–185, 186–187 tour operators 536, 543
ecotourism plans 469 wilderness areas 328, 329
mountain ecotourism 207–209 see also Florida; Midewin National Tallgrass
see also Andes; Argentina; Bolivia; Brazil; Prairie; Yellowstone National Park
Chile; Colombia; Ecuador; Guyana; Hato Vietnam 468
Pinero; Peru
South Carolina 109 Wilderness 221, 327–341
South Pacific 139–140, 147–150, 468, 514 World Tourism Organization 134–135, 480
see also Fiji; Hawaii; Islands; Papua New
Guinea; Solomon Islands; South Yellowstone National Park 119, 287, 506
Pentecost Yosemite National Park 119
South Pentecost 399 Yucatan Peninsula 513
Spain 441 Yukon 111
Subarctic 117 Yunnan 127–128
Sustainable development 6, 10–17, 412, 416,
417 Zambia 101–102
constant capital perspective 15–17 Zimbabwe 102, 260
see also Sustainable tourism
Sustainable tourism 12, 16, 69, 80, 156–157, 416 see also CAMPFIRE; Mana Pools Lodge
certification 71
indicators 416–429
planning 413
principles 12–13, 623
see also Sustainable development
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